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Naturty Nov. i8, 1875]

INDEX

Aach, the River, Dr. Knop on the Origin of, 116

Abbe (Dr. E. ), Paper on ^Iicroscope, 262

Abbott (C. C. ), Supposed occurrence of Flint Scalping-knives
in New Jersey, 36S ; Supposed Marriage Emblem of American
Indian Origin, 436 ; Haematite Indian Axes from West Vir-
ginia, 478

Abel (F. A.. F.R.S.), Gun-cotton Water-shells, 314

Abercromby (Hon. R.), On Oscillations of Barometers, 80;
Barometric Fluctuations, 159 ; High Waves v?ith a North-
west Wind, 514

Abney (Capt. ), On Actinism in Electric Light, 438

Academic Fran^aise, Election at, 53, 135

Acclimatation Society of Paris, 35 ; Bulletin of, 98, 199

Acids and Bases in a INIixture of Salts, Dr. J. H. Gladstone, 464

Acoustic Phenomenon, by Andrew French, 46

Acquisition and Instinct : D. A. Spalding, 507 ; G. J. Romanes,
553

Actinism in Electric Light, by Capt. Abney, 438

Adams (A. Leith), Discovery of Remains of Cervus megaceros in
Ireland, 435

Adams ( W. G., F. R. S. ), Arctic Manual, 81 j on_Polariscopes, 99

Adelaide Botanic Garden, 253

Adhesion, Stefan's Researches on, 88

Adulteration, Dr. Normandy's Work on, 65

Advancement of Science, Science Commission [Report on the,
285, 305. 361, 389

Africa : Bibliography of the Zoology of, 378 ; 1 Expedition to
Sahara, 135 ; the Italian Expedition to, 153 ; Map of North,
96 ; Nach den Victoriaf alien des Zambesi, by E. von Mohr,
231 ; South, Drummond's Large Game of, 182 ; Tropical,
Exploration of, by M. Brazza and M. Marche, 388 ; Tropical,
Number of Botanical Species described in Oliver's Flora of,
4; Exploring Expeditions, 446, 562; the North-west of. Ex-
pedition to, 483 ; Stanley's Exploration of, 540

Agassiz (Prof. Alex.) and the Anderson School of Natural His-
tory, 77, 154

Agricultural and Scientific Congress at Palermo, 319

Agri-Horticultural Society of Madras, Report, 280

Airy (Sir G. B., F.R.S.) and the Spectacle Makers, 53 ; Re-
port of, on Greenwich Observatory, 108 ; at the Mansion
House, 194

Alg?e : in Arctic Seas, 55, 166 ; H. C. Sorby on the Colouring
Matters of, 38 ; Prof. Leidy on, 100

AUgemeine Schweizerische Gesellschaft, 118

Algeria, Alpha Plant in, 196

Allen (A. H.) on a Method of efferting Solution of Difficultly
Soluble Substances, 463 ; Report on Potash and Phosphoric
Acid, 438

AUman (Dr., F.R.S.) on the CUiate Infusoria, 136, 155, 175;
On Double Decomposition, 140 ; Notes from the Challenger,
555

Alphaud's Arboretum et Fleuriste de la Ville de Paris, 25

Alpha Plant in Algeria, 196

Amazons, Bibliography of the Zoology of the, 408

Amber, Discovery of, near Memel, 54

America : Collection Illustrating Aborigines of, 279 ; Congress
on Archaeology, &c. of, at Nancy, 319 ; Geology in, by Prof.
N. S. Shaler, 5 ; Microscopical Societies, 77 ; Bibliography of
the Zoology of, 381, 407, 408 ; North, Glaciation of, 299 ;
American Academy, Proceedings of, 220 ; American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science— Detroit Meeting, 153,
424. 443 ; American Geological Surveys, 265 ; American Indian
Numerals, 106 ; American Indian Weapons, O. T. Mason,
107 ; Col. A. Lane Fox, 125 ; American Journal of Science
and Arts, 17, 58, 96, 97, 157, 302, 448, 467, 565 {See Phila-
delphia)

Amphioxus, E, R. Lankester, F.R.S., on, 175, 242
Amsterdam, Horticultural Exhibition at, 261
Anales del Museo Publico de Buenos Ayres, vol. ii., 145
Anatomy : Prof. Cleland's Address on, at British Association,

413 ; New German Journals of, 115 ; of the Skin, Dr. Martyn

on, 417
Anatomy and Physiology at the British Association, 442 ; the

Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 138, 219,. 546
Ancient Monuments and Sir J. Lubbock, 154
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Bibliography of the Zoology

of, 381
Anderson School of Natural History, Classes at, 154
Anderson (T.), Temperature of Body in Mountain Climbing,

186
Andrews (Dr., F.R.S.), Magneto-Electric Machines, 90, 130,

1 70; Properties of Matter, 300, 321
Aniline, Action of Nitrobenzole on, 284
"Animal Physiology," Newton's, 474
"Annali di Chimica applicata alia Medicina," 98, 221, 360,

488
Antarctic Seas, Exploration of, 241

Antelopes and their Allies, Prof. A. H. Garrod's Lecture on, 68
Anthropological Institute, 19, 40, 59, 98, 140, 199
Anthropological School in Paris, 502
" Anthropologic, Bulletin de la Societc," 78
Anthropology, Dr. RoUeston's Address at British Association,

382 ; School of, in Paris, 95 ; Sociology and Nationality, D.

Mackintosh on, 443 {See Ethnology)
Antilles, Bibliography of the Zoology of the, 409
Antinori (Count), Expedition to Africa, 153
Ants and Bees, by Josiah Emery, 25
Appalachians, Southern, Geology of, 196
Apparatus, Loan Exhibition of Scientific, 32, 218, 562
Apparatus and Methods for Increase of Knowledge at Interna-
tional Exhibition, Philadelphia, U.S., 34
Aquarium at Rothesay, Ii6

Aquariums, Marine, " Belgique Horticole" on, 116
Arabia, Bibliography of the Zoology of, 379
Arago, Celebration of the Birth of, at Estagel, 484
Aral and Caspian, Major Wood on the, 313, 320
Aral, Lake, Evaporation from, 51
" Arapaly Fiumei Obolben," by Stahlberger, 43
Arboretum et Fleuriste de la Ville de Paris, par A. Alphaud, 25
Archaeological Association, the British, Meeting at Evesham,

3I9> 358 ; the Cambrian, Annual Meeting, 358
Archaeology and Anthropology, Dr. RoUeston, F.R.S., on, 386
Archaeology of Islands off California, 195
" Archiv fiir Mikroikopische Anatomic," 457 ; Vol. xi., 331
" Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles," 138, 221, 448
Arctic Regions : English Expedition, 13, 6r, 81, 95, 103, 117,

153, 387, 563 ; Some Results of the Polaris Expedition, 49 ;

Swedish Expedition to Novaya Zemlya, 53, 502, 556 ; the

Pandora, WJ, 134, 153, 174; Discovery of the Journal of

Barents, 483 ; Lieut. Weyprecht on Arctic Exploration, 539,

563; Marine Vegetation, 55, 166 ; Sledge Travelling, Admiral

M'Clintock on, 134
Argand, " Geometrical Representation of Imaginary Quantities,"

Edited by Houel, 32
Argelander, the late Professor, 436
Argentine Observatory, Annual Report of, 292
Argentine Republic, Bibliography of the Zoology of, 408
Ascidians, M. Giard on the Embryogeny of the, 424
Asia, Central, Proposed Gazetteer of, 299
Asia Minor, Earthquake in, 116 ; Map of, 241
Asiatic Society of Bengal, Journal of, 299 ; Proceedings of 53
Asteroids, Prof. D. Kirkwood on the Distribution of, 444

INDEX

[Nature, Nov. i8, 1875

Astronomical Column, 7, 26, 48, 67, 87, 113, 126, 147, 167, 188,
213, 232, 256, 272, 292, 312, 330, 367, 397, 435, 455, 476, 496,

534, 554

Astronomical Instruments, Two Ancient, 140

Astronomical School at Montsouris, 502

Astronomical Society, Royal, 140

Astronomische Gesellschaff, Meeting of, at Leyden, 298, 386

Astronomy of the Babylonians, by A. H, Sayce, 489 ; Cometary,
27; Observation of Inter-Mercurial Planets, 115; Observa-
tion of Small Planets, 53 ; Proposed Museum of, Physical,

' 97 ; School of, at Montsouris, 298

Athabasca-Mackenzie Region, Abbe E.Tetitot on the Geography
of, 319

Atlantic Islands, Bibliography of the Zoology of, 375

Atlantic, Weather on the, by Capt. W, W. Kiddle, R.N., 311

Atlases, Faunthorpe's Elementary, 85

"Atlas Meteorologique,'' Progress of, 241

Atmosphere, influence of Pressure of, on Human Life, 472

Atmospheric Currents, Hildebrandsson on, 123

Atmospheric Pressure and Velocity of Wind, 98, 118

Attraction and Repulsion caused by the Radiation of Heat, 6,
125

Audubon, his Library, 153

Aurora Australis, 397

Australia : Aborigines, Life of a Frenchman with, 242 ;' Biblio-
graphy of the Zoology of, 410 ; J. Forrest's Journey in, 174 ;
E. Giles's Exploration of, 135, 194; Mr. Lewis's Exploration
of, 135 ; Vegetation of, 33 ; Geological Exploration of, 115 ;
Western, Interior of, by Warburton, 46, 77

Australian and North American Vermin-hooks, 554

Axes, Haematite, from West Virginia, Dr. C. C. Abbott, 478

Azimuthal Condensing Apparatus for Lighthouses, T. Steven-
son, 333

Babbage's Analytical Engine, 437

Babylonians, The Astronomy of the, by A. H. Sayce, 489

Backhouse (T. W. ), A Lunar Rainbowr ? 397

Baeyer (Prof.), appointed Professor at Munich, 135

Baines (Thomas), Death of, 154

Baird's "Annual Record of Science and Industry for 1874," 310

Baker (J. G.), " Elementary Botanical Geography," 532

Balfour (Dr. I. Bayley) on the Flora and Geology of the Masca-

rene Islands, 441
Balfour (F. M.), on the Development of Vertebrates, 242
Balfour (Dr. T. A. G.) on Dioncea musctpula, 154
Balfour (Prof.), Rare Plants from Scotland, 442
Ballooning, 13, 52, 153, 298
Bamboo as a Paper Material, 565
Bancroft's " Races of the Pacific States," 529
Barff (F. S.), "Elementary Chemistry," 185
Barker (Prof, G. F. ) on the Broken Lines of Metallic Spectra,

445
Barnard (Prof. W. S.), The Development of the Opossum, 445
Barometric Fluctuations, 78, 80, 159
Barrett (Prof. W. F.), Heat and the Molecular Structure of

Steel Wires and Rods, 374
Barrington (R. M.), Scarcity of Birds, 213, 241
Barents, Discovery of the Journal of, 483
Basset (G. L.), Prizes in Mining, 460
Bastie (De la). Hardened Glass, 125, 135
Bauerman, on Electric Conductivity of Carbon, 99
Bazin (M.), Apparatus for Raising Wrecks, 446
Beaumont (Elie de), his Scientific Library, 35 ; Life of, by M.

J. Bertrand, 219
Bedfordshire Natural History Society, 34
Bees, Ants and, Josiah Emery, 25
Bees, Manuals of, 395

Beke Testimonial Fund, Application of, 55 '
Belgian Society of Dredging and Marine Exploration, 115
"Belgique Horticole," 116, 547
Belgium : Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences, 566 ; Exhibition

of Sanitary and other Apparatus, 1 75 ; Tide Gauges on the

Escault, 484
Bell (Lowthian) on Mines and Iron Works in the United

States, 29
Bellavitis's " Calcul des Equipollences," 32
Belomancy and Rhabdomancy, 443

Bengal : Journal of Asiatic Society of, 299 ; Scalping in, 496
Bennett (A. W.), Darwin's Insectivorous Plants, 206, 228; De-
hiscence of the Capsules of Collomia, 514

Bennett (A. W.) and Dyer (W. T.), Translation of " Sachs'
Botany," 62

Bentley and Trimen's " Medicinal Plants," 527

Beothucs of Newfoundland, 99

Berlin, German Chemical Society, 19, 60, 120, 179, 284, 303,
324

Bert (Paul), Experiments on the Influence of the Pressure of the
Atmosphere on Human Life, 472 ; and French Aeronautical
Society, 53 ; Prize for Discoveries on the Effects of Oxygen,
526, 562

Bertrand (M. J.), Life of Elie de Beaumont, 219

Besque (M. le). Death of, 153

Bessels (Dr.) on Results of the Polaris Arctic Expedition, 49

Bezold (Von) on Thunderstorms, 127

Bidie (Geo., M.B.), Report on the Neilgherry Loranthaceous
Parasitical Plants Destructive to Exotic Trees, 453

Biela's Comet, 67

Binary Stars, 26, 48, 126, 292, 312, 313, 435

Biological Department of the British Museum, 74

Biology, Huxley and Martin's Elementary, 530

Birds : Destruction of Flowers by, 7, 26 ; of Europe, Biblio-
graphy of, 376 ; of Greece, 193 ; of Paradise, in Europe, by
Dr. A. B. Meyer, 434; "Bird Preservers and Game Pre-
servers," by Capt. Morant, 395 ; Prof. E. S. Morse on the
Bones of Embryo, 443 ; Scarcity of, 213, 241, 272, 534; "Birds
and Seasons of New England," by Wilson Flagg, 2H

Birmingham Free Libraries, Report of, 220

Bishop's (Mr.) Observatory at Twickenham, Removal of, 526

" Black Saturday," Eclipse of 1598, 167

Blackbirds : and Cats, 330 ; Domestic Economy of, 272 ; Scarcity
of, 272

Blake (C. Carter), "Zoology for Students," 553

Blanford (H. F.), Solar Heat and Sunspots, 147, 188

Blue Gum Tree, its Cultivation in London, 445

Boa, Large, at Reptile House, Jardin des Plantes, Paris, 54

Body Temperature during Mountain Climbing, 132, 165, i86

Boiling Lake in Dominica, 173

Boisbaudran (M. L. de), Discovery of Gallium, 459

Boletin de la Academia Nacional de Ciencias exactas en la
Universitad de Cordova, 488

Bonavia (E. ), Natural History of the Wolf of Northern India, 67

Bone-cave in Creswell Crags, 222

Bone-formation, Strelzow and Stieda on, 457

Bonn Observatory, appointment of Prof. Schbnfeld, 297

Bonney (T. G.), "Cambridgeshire Geology," 45

Booth (Mr.), his Museum at Brighton, 542

Boreau (M.), Death of, 502

Botany : American Papers on, "427 ; Cryptogamic, School of, in
United States, 33 ; Journal of, 283, 528 ; of Kerguelen's
Island, 35 ; Phenogamic School of at Cambridge, U.S., 33 ;
Rev. Mr. Lowe's Collection of Madeira Plants, 34 ; Prof.
Sachs' History of, 54, 107 ; Prof. Sachs' Text-book of Botany,
62 ; in Victoria, Baron Miiller's Report on, 33 ; Botanical
Column, 48, 88, 196, 253, 302, 565 ; Botanical Exchange Club,
Report of, 503 ; Garden, Adelaide, 253 ; Gardens, Calcutta,
Report of, 541 ; Geography, Baker's Elementary Lessons in,
532 ; Society of France, 502

Eowditch, Dr. H. P., U.S.), on the Nerves Fibres in the Spinal
Cord, 460

Bradley (Prof.), Geology of Southern Appalachians, 196

Brady (Sir A,), his Collection of Remains of Elephants, &c.
from the Thames Valley, 427

Brady (H. B.) on New Micro-photographs, 417

Braham (P.), Crystallisation of Metals by Electricity, 463
Brain, Dr. Thudichum on the Chemical Constitution of the, 471
Brazil : Bibliography of the Zoology of, 408 ; Geological Survey
of, 14, 196 ; Collection of Skulls, 75 ; Production of Silk in,

527
Braune (W. and W. His), Zeitschrift fiir Anatomic und Ent-

wickelungsgeschichte, 115
Brighton : Aquarium, Sea Lions at, 502, 526, 542 ; Mr. Booth's

Museum at, 542 ; Social Science Congress, 541, 542
Briot and Bouquet's "Theory of Elliptic Functions," 32
Bristol : British Association Meeting (See British Association) ;
Geology of, 350 ; Guide to, 329 ; Naturalists' Society, Pro-
ceedings of, 323 ; and Portsmouth, Sanitary Condition of, 396,
435 ; Proposed University College for, 426
British Archaeological Association, Meetings of, 262, 319, 358
British Association, Bristol Meeting, 95 ; Preliminary Arrange-
ments, 115 ; Officers and General Arrangements, 279, 335,

Nature, Nov. i8, 1875]

INDEX

370, 403 ; Excursions, 335 ; Sir John Hawkshaw's Tresi-
dential Address, 336 ; Balance-sheet for 1874-5 J 372 ;
Microscopical soirh, 371 ; Report of Committee on Specific
Volumes, 372 ; Report on Dredging on Coast of Durham
and Yorkshire, 372; Report on Zoological Station at
Naples, 372 ; Report on Intestinal Secretion, 372 ; Grants
for Scientific Purposes, 403 ; Report on Mathematical
Tables, 404 ; Report on Hyperelliptic P'unctions, 404 ;
Report on Mathematical Printing, 404 ; Report on Tides,
404 ; Report on Wave-numbers, 404 ; Report on Ohm's
Law, 404 ; Report on Specific Volumes of Liquids, 404 ;
Report of the Sewage Committee, 404; Report on the
Protection of Indigenous Animals, 404 ; Report on Sub-
wealden Exploration, 404, 461 ; Report on Luminous
Meteors, by Mr. James Glaisher, 437 ; Report on British
Rainfall, by Mr. G. J. Symonds, 437 ; Committee for esti-
mating the cost of Mr. Babbage's Analytical Engine, 437 ;
Committee on Gold Assays, 438 ; Report of the Committee
on Potash and Phosphoric Acid, 438 ; Report of Com-
mittee on the Thermal Conductivities of Rocks, 438 ;
Report of Committee on Erratic Blocks, by Rev. H. W.
Crosskey, 462 ; Meeting at Glasgow in 1876, 240
Section A {Mathematical and Physical Science). — Opening
Address by the President, Prof. Balfour Stewart, 346, 372 ;
Rev. S. J. Perry's paper on the Transit of Venus, 373 ;
Prof. Osborne Reynolds' paper on the Refraction of Sound
by the Atmosphere, 373 ; Prof. Stokes and Dr. Hopkin-
son's paper on the Optical Properties of a Titano-Cilicic
Glass, 373 ; Mr. J. A. Fleming's paper on the Decompo-
sition of an Electrolyte by Magneto-electric Induction,
374 ; Dr. Moffat's paper on Sun-spots, Atmospheric Ozone,
&c., 374; Sir \Vm. Thomson's paper on the effects of
Stress upon the Magnetism of Soft Iron, 374 ; Prof. W. F.
Barrett's paper on the effects of Heat on the Molecular
Structure of Steel Wires and Rods, 374 ; Dr. J. Janssen's
paper on the Eclipse of April 1875, 404 ; Dr. J. Janssen's
paper on the Transit of Venus Expedition to Japan, 405 ;
Dr. J. Janssen's Magnetic Observations in Siam and Ben-
gal, 405 ; Dr. J. Janssen's Observations on Mirage at Sea,
405 ; Prof. Hennessy on the Influence on Climate of the
substitution of Water for Land in Africa, 405 ; Prof,
Osborne Reynolds on the Force caused by the communi-
cation of Heat between a Surface and Gas, 405 ; Capt. H.
Toynbee on the Physical Geography of the Atlantic Dol-
drums, 405 ; Mr. Froude on Stream Lines, 406 ; Mr. H. A.
Rowland on Magnetising Function of Iron, &c., 406 ; Capt.
Abney on the Increase of Actinism due to Difference of
Motive Power in the Electiic Light, 438; Prof Frederick
Guthrie on the Measurement of Wave-motion, 462
Section B (Chemical Science). — Opening Address by A. G.
Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S., President, 438; Prof. Cayley
on the Analytical Forms called Trees, with appli-
cation to the theory of Chemical Combinations, 463 ;
Mr. P. Braham on Crystallisation of Metals by Elec-
tricity, 463 ; Mr. Gatehouse on Silver Nitrate, 463 ;
Mr. A. II. Allen on a method of effecting the Solution of
Difficultly- Soluble Substances, 463 ; Mr. J. C. Melliss on
Utilisation of Sewage, 463 ; Prof. Debus on the Chemical
Theory of Gunpowder, 464 ; Prof. Thorpe on a new com-
pound of Fluorine and Phosphorus, 464 ; Mr. B. J. Fairlie
on New Solvents for Gold, Silver, Platinum, &c., 464 ;
Dr. J. H. Gladstone on the Relation of the Acids and Bases
in a Mixture of Salts to the Original Manner of Com-
bination, 464 ; Dr. J. H. Gladstone on the Copper-zinc
Couple, 464 ; the President on an Apparatus for Esti-
mating Carbon Bisulphide in Coal Gas, 465; Prof. A.
Oppenheim on Oxuvitic Acid, 465 ; Mr. C, T. Kingzett on
the Oxidation of Essential Oils, 465.
Section C ( Geology, d^v. ) — Opening Address by the President,
Dr. Thomas Wright, F.R.S.E., 350 ; J. M'Murtrie on the
Mountain Limestone at Luckington, 406 ; Mr. Stoddart on
Auriferous Limestone at Walton, 406 ; Prof. Hughes on the
Classification of the Sedimentary Rocks, 406 ; Prof. Hebert
on Undulations in the Chalk of North France, 407 ; Mr.
Sanders on Fossil Bones from the Rhoetic beds of Aust
Cliff, 407 ; Papers and Discussion on the Glacial Period,
407 ; Prof. A. H. Green on the Millstone Grit of Derby-
shire and Yorkshire, 407
Section D {Biology).— O^^mrvg Address by Dr. P. L. Sclater,
F.R.S., President, 374, 407

Department of Anthropology. — Address by Dr. G. Rolleston,
F.R.S., 382 ; Col. Lane Fox and Dr. G. Rolleston on Ex-
cavations in Cissbury Camp, 418 ; Miss A. W. Buckland
on Rhabdomancy and Belomancy, 443 ; Mr. John Evans on
Symbols for Archceological Maps, 443 ; Mr. Hyde Clarke
on Prehistoric Names of Weapons, 443 ; Mr. Hyde Clarke
on Prehistoric Culture in India and Africa, 443 ; Dr. Phene
on the Prehistoric Inhabitants of the Mendip Hills, 443 ;
Mr. D. Mackmtosh on Anthropology, Sociology, and Na-
tionality, 443 ; Sir Walter Elliot on the Original Locality
of the Population of India, 465 ; Mr. Bertram Hartshorne
on the Weddas of Ceylon, 465 ; Dr. Leitner on his Travels
in Central Asia, 465 ; Prof. Rolleston on the Applicability
of Historical Evidence to Ethnological Inquiries, 466 ; Prof.
Rawlinson on the Ethnography of the Cimbri, 466 ; Mr.
W. S. Vaux on the Origin of the Maori Race, 466 ; Rev.
W. Gill on the Origin of the South Sea Islanders, 466
Department of Anatomy and Physiology. — Address by Prof.
Cleland, F.R.S., 413; H. B. Brady on New Micro-
photographs, 417 ; Dr. Martyn on the Anatomy of the
Skin, 417 ; Dr. M'Kendrick and Prof. Dewar on Chinoline
and Pyridine Bases, 417; W. J. Cooper on Physiological
Effects of Drinking- Waters, 442 j T. G. P. Ilallett on the
Conservation of Forces, 442
Department of Zoology and Botany, — Prof. Newton on Orni-
thological Investigation, 412 ; Dr. C. T. Hudson on the
Rotifera, 413; P. P. Carpenter on the Chitonidce, 413;
Dr. Hector on Moa Bones in New Zealand, 441 ; Dr. Car-
penter on Comatula, 441 ; Dr. I. Bayley Balfour on the
Flora and Geology of the Mascarene Islands, 441 ; Prof.
Williamson on Fossil Seeds in Coal, 442 ; Prof. Balfour on
Rare Plants from Scotland, 442
Section E {Geography). — Address by Lieutenant-General R.
Strachey, F.K.S., President, 419

British India ; Bibliography of the Zoology of, 380 ; Dr. J. D.
Hooker's Flora of, 3

British Medical Association, 175, 280, 298

British Museum : Biological Department of the, 74 ; Salaries at,
135, 146; Thames Valley Remains at, 427

British Rainfall, Report on by J. A. Symonds, 437

Broca (M.), Lectures on Craniology, 96

Bromide of Silver, Sensitiveness of, 446

Broun (John A.), Trevandrum Magnetic Observations, 163, 186

Brown (Dr. J. Croumbie), " Reboisement en France," 15

Brush's "Determinative Mineralogy," C. A. Burghardt, 183

Brussels : Academic Royale, History, &c., of, 175 ; International
Congress of Physicians at, 461 ; International Medical Con-
gress, 502

Buchan and Mitchell on Influence of Weather on Mortality, 280,
281

Buckland (A. W.), Rhabdomancy and Belomancy, 443

Buckton (G. B.), Memoir on the Aphides, 387

Buenos Ayres, " Anales del Museo Publico," 145

'• Bulletin de I'Academie Royale des Sciences de Belgique," 138,
566

" Bulletin de la Societe d'Acclimatation de Pari<:," 98, 199, 547,

567
" Bulletin de la Societe d' Anthropologic de Paris," 78, 428, 567
" Bulletin de la Societe Impcriale de Naturalistes de Moscow,"

359
Bunsen's Ice- calorimeter and Radiation of the Sun, 189
Burbury (S. H.), Equilibrium of Temperature in a Vertical

Column of Gas, 107
Burghardt (C. A.), Brush's " Determinative Mineralogy," 183
Burmah, Siam and Cochin, Bibliography of the Zoology of, 380
Burmeister (Dr.), "'Anales del Museo Publico, "145
Burton (Capt), Exploration of Iceland, 319; on the Italian

African Expedition, 153 ; " Ultima Thuie," 509
Butterflies of North America : Wm. H. Edwards on, 300 ; Dr.

Weismann on the Dimorphism of, 127 ; the Dark Argus, by

J. Hodgkin, jun., 187

" Ciesar's Camp," Wimbledon, Demolition of, 298

Calculus of Probabilities, A. Meyer on, 359

Calcutta Botanical Gardens, Report of, S41 ; Zoological

Gardens at, 53.
California, Academy of Sciences, 568 ; Exploring Party in,

262 ; Prehistoric Remains on Islands off, 195 ; Silkworms'

eggs from, 54
Callard's "Antiquity of Man," 196

VI

INDEX

{Nature, Nov, l8, 1 875

Cambrian Arcboeological Association, Annual Meeting, 358

Cambridge : Caius College Scientific Society, 96 ; Natural
Science at, 54 ; Natural Science Lectures at, 526 ; Opening
of Newnham Hall, 542 ; Philosophical Society, 40, 60 ; Prof.
Willis's Collections of Models, 14, 153 ; Relations of Uni-
versity and Colleges, 14 ; Scholarships at St. John's College,
174; University Extension Scheme, 34, 116; University
Local Examinations, Sir W. Vernon Harcourt's Address, 117

Cambridge, U.S. : Report of Peabody Museum, 195 ; Report of
Museum of Comparative Zoology, 77

"Cambridgeshire Geology," by T. G. Bonney, 45

Camels and Llamas, Prof. A. H. Garrod's Lecture on, 92

Cameron (Maj. Gen.), appointed Director of the Ordnance
Survey, 388

Canada : G. M. Dawson's Report on Geology of, 504 : Fourth
Report on the Meteorology, &c., of, 299; Unusual Cold in,
299; Geological Survey of 1 843, 161

Cancer, Dr. Creighton on the ^itiology of, 471

Candeze (Dr. E.) on the Elateridte, 359

Candolle (A. de) on Diverse Effects of the same Temperature on
the same Species in different Climates, 302

Carbon Bisulphide in Coal Gas, A. G. Vernon Harcourt on, 465

Carbon, Electric Conductivity of, 99

Cardiograph Trace, Prof. A. H. Garrod, 275

Carius (Prof), the Death of, 14

Carlisle, Jenkinson's Guides to, 211

Carnivorous Plants, Darwin on, by A. W. Bennett, 206, 228

Carpenter (P. P.), Chitanidae, 413

Carpenter (Dr. W. B., F.R.S.) on Comatula, 441 ; Ocean Circu-
lation, 454, 533 ; Ocean Temperature, 174

Carus and Gerstaecker's " Ilandbuch der Zoologie," 247

Cascarilla Bark and Tobacco Smoke, 48

Caspian and Aral, Major Wood on the Separatioi of, 313

Cassiopese /u and Vicinity, 534

Cassowaries, P. L. Sclater, F.R.S., 516

Castracane (Count) on Diatomacece, 302

Cat, Hereditary Affection for a Dog, 212

Cats and Blackbirds, 330

Catholic University in Paris, proposed, 262

Caverns and Cavern Life of the Ohio Valley, by Prof. Slialer, 55

Caves, Irish, Exploration by G. S. Boulger, 212

Cayley (Prof.) on the Analytical Forms called Trees, 463 ; on
Mathematical Tables, 404

Celoria (Dr.), Eclipse of 1239, 167

Central Asia: Dr. Leitner's Travels in, 466 ; Proposed Gazetteer
of, 299

Cereals, Fertilisation of, by A. S. Wilson, 270

Cervtis megaceros. Discovery of Remains of, in Ireland, 435

Ceylon, B. Hartshorne on the Weddas of, 465

Chaldeans, Astronomy of the, 489

Challenger: Notes from the, 315, 555; Progress of, 14, 53, 153,

173

Chambers (Dr. T. King), Manual of Diet, 64

Chambeyron (M. L. ) on Geography of New California, 299

Channel Tunnel, 562 ; Prof Hebert on, 407

Chappe (Abbe), the Site of his Observatory in 1769, 459

Charcoal Vacua, Professors Tait and Dewar, 217

Charcoal-zinc Battery, Prof. Bunsen, 398

Chart of the World, M. Malte Brun's, 299

Charierhouse School of Science, 219

Chasles' "Aper9u Historique," 32

Chatiti (M. J.) on Interior Leaf Glands, 424

Chavanne (Dr.), Paper on I'olar Ice, 241

" Chemical Analysis," Normandy's Commercial Handbook of,

65

Chemical Industry, HofTmann's Report on the Progress of, by
A. Oppenheim, 365

Chemical Society, 38, 79, 119, 158; Journal of, 16, 197, 467,
528

"Chemistry," Barff's Elementary, 185; School of, at Cam-
bridge, U.S., 33

Ches?, II. M. Taylor on the Relative Value of the Pieces at,
527

Chester Society of Natural Science, Annual Report, 320

Chimpanzee at the Zoological Gardens, 242

China, Bibliography of the Zoology of, 380

Chinoline and Pyridine Bases, 417

Chitonidse, P. P. Carpenter on, 413

Chloral as a Preservative of Anatomical Objects, 484

Chlorophyll and Fungi, 15

Choa, Settlement at, 279

Chrondrolite, E. G. Dana on, 448

Chronometers : at Greenwich Observatory, 108 ; Prizes for, 525

Ciliate Infusoria, Dr. Allman, F.R.S., on the, 136, 155, 175

Cimbrl, Prof Rawlinson on the Ethnography of, 466

Cinci mati Society of Natural History, Bequest to, 359

Cirrus Clouds, Observation of, 173

Cissbury Camp, Excavations in, 418

City of Health, Dr. B. W. Richardson, F.R.S., 523, 542

Clackmannan, Drummond's Flora of, 503

Clark (J. W.), Insectivorous Plants, 528; Sea-elephants from
Kerguelen's Land, at Berlin, 366 ; on Sea-lions and Seals, 8 ;
Sea-lions, 212

Clark's Experiments on the Expansive Power of Vegetable
Tissue, 88

Clarke (Hyde) on the Origin of the Magyar and Fin Lan-
guages, 465

Clarke (Col. A. Ro5s), appointment to Directorship of the
Ordnance Survey, 300

Cleland (Prof, F.R S.), Address on Anatomy, 413

Cleland's Animal Physiology, Note on, 15

Clermont-sur-Lanquet, Landslip at, 220

Clifton (Charles), Legacy to Owens College, 117

Climate, Influence of Water on, by Prof Ilennessy, 405

" Clinnate and Time," by James Crol!, 121, 141, 167, 329

Clinical Laboratories attached to the Paris Hospital-, 477

Cloud, Remarkable Formation of, at the Isle of Skye, Thos.
Stevenson, 487

Coal, Prof Williamson on Fossil Seed in, 442

Cobbold (Dr. Spencer), Parasites of Elephants, 541

Coffee Cultivation in Dominica, 173 ; in Queensland, 426 ; Dr.
Hooker, F.R.S , on the Cultivation of, 445

Coggia's Comet, 436

Colding on Atmospheric Currents, 198, 221

Collinson (Admiral) on Arctic Geography, 104

Collodion Films, M. Gripon on, 424

Collomb (M. Edouard), Obituary Notice of, 95

Collomia grandijiura, Dehiscence of, 494, 514

Colomite, Dr. Blake on, 568

Colonial Museum in I^ondon, 298

Colours of Heated Metals, by A. S. Herschel, 475

Comatula, Dr. Carpenter on, 441

Comet : Coggia's, 436 ; D' Arrest's, 168, 257 ; Encke's, 292,
436; a Third in 1813 (?), 256; the Great^, cf 1819, 331;
the Great, of 1843, 257, 272 ; 1874, 272 ; Peters' Elliptic,
48; of 1533, 88 ; 1826, Transit of, 535

Cometary Astronomy, 27

Commissions : on Scientific Instruction, Final Sitting, 219; on
Vivisection, 562

Common Sole, Note on, 7

Compressibility of Gases, Mendeleef and Kirpetschoff on, 502

Coniptes Rendus, Expense of, 76, 95

Comte's Philosophy, by Prof. W. S. Jevons, 491

Condensation from Expansion of Moist Air, 424

Conder (Lieut.), Palestine Exploring Party, 280

Congo Snake at the Manchester Aquarium, 69

Consanguinity : Lewis H. Morgan on Systems of, 86, 311 ; Sir
John Lubbock, 124

Conservation of Forces, T. G. P. Hallett on, 442

Contagion, Dr. Sanderson's Report on the Pathology of, 471

Cooking, Elementary Instruction in, 461

Cooper (W, J.), Physiological Effects of Drinking- Waters, 442

Cope (Prof, E. D.) on Descent exhibited by Tertiary Mam-
malia, 444

Copper-zinc Couple, Dr. J. H. Gladstone on, 464

Coral, Growth of, and Volcanic Action, S. J. Whitmee, 291

Corfield (Prof) on Sewage, 404

Cork Mattresses and Inundations, 280

Cornu (M.), Lecture on Velocity of Light, 13, 59

Cornwall and Devon, Miners' Association, 219

Cornwall and Scilly, Meteorolo^^y of, by W. P. Dymond, 250

Cortambert (M. E ), Geograjihical Distribation of celebrated
Persons in France, 502

Cosmic Dust, supposed Streams of, J. W. N. Lefroy, 329

Co vslips and Primroses, 7, 34, 87, 108

Craniology : M. Broca's Lectures on, 96 ; Dr. RoUeston's Ad-
dress at British Association, 382

Creighton (Dr.) on the /Etiology of Cancer, 471

Cripps (H. Harrison) on a Continuous Self-registering Thermo-
meter, 37

Nature, Nov. i8, 1875]

INDEX

Vll

Croatia. Geology of, 118

Croce-Spinelli and Sivtl, Subscription for P'atnilies of, 195 ;

Monument to, 195
Crocodiles, Prof. Huxley on, 13, 38
Croll (James), "Climate artd Time," 121, 141,1167, 329;

Oceanic Circulation, 447, 454, 494
Crookes (W., F. R.S.), Attraction and Repulsion caused by the

Radiation of Heat, 6, 58, 125 ; Electric News, 196, 262
Cross (Right Hon. R. A.) on Education, 482
Crosskey (Rev. H. W. ), Report on Erratic Blocks, 462
Cryptogamic Society of Scotland, Annual Conference, 461
Crystallisation of Metals by Electricity, P. Braham, 463
Cucata Valley, U.S.A., Earthquake, 134, 175, 194
Curas>ows, Mr. Sclater's Monograph on, 319
Cyclometers, Among the, and some other Paradoxers, 558
Cyclones, Theories of, by J. J. Murphy, 187

Dailly (M. ), Lectures on Human Races, 96

Daily Ne^us Article on the Valjrous, 461

Dall (W. H.), Tides, Currents, &c., of Eastern Aleutian Region,

34 ; Arctic Marine Vegetation, 166 j Report on Meteorology

of the Northern Pacific, 262
Dalmatia, Ancient Remains in, 140
Dana (E. G.) on Chrondrolite, 448
Dana (Prof. J. D.) on Contemporaneity of Man and Mastodon,

96 ; Volcanic Action and the Growth of Coral, 291
Danube, Dr. Knop's paper on the, 1 16
Dardistan, Dr. Leitner's Travels in, 466
Dar Fur, Dr. Nachtigal's paper on, 241
Dark Argus Butterfly, J. Hodgkin, jun., 187
Darlington, Railway Jubilee at, 483
D' Arrest (Prof.), his Death, 173
D' Arrest's Comet, 168, 257, 368
Darwin (Chas., F.R.S.), elected member of Vienna Academy,

95 ; "Insectivorous Plants," 206, 228
Darwin and Prof. Dana on Volcanic Action and the Growth of

Coral, S. J. Whitmee, 291
Darwinism, List of Works upon, 460
Dawkins (Prof Boyd, F.R.S.), his Geological Explorations in

Australia, 115; Return to England, 562
Dawson (Principal) on Eozoon, 7^
Dawson (G. M.), Geology of North America, 242 ; Report on

Geology of Canada, 504
Debus (Prof.) on the Chemical Theory of Gunpowder, 464
Dechen and Wichelaus on Aniline, 284
Decomposition, Double, Dr. Allman on, 140
Deer Tribe, Prof. A. H. Garrod's Lecture on, 27
Degeneracy of Man, by S.J. Whitmee, 47
Dehiscence of the Capsules of Collomia, 494, 514
De la Rue's Method of Photographing the Sun, 274 ; Tables

for Re:^uction of Solar Observations, 397
De Ricci's (J. H., F.R.G.S.) "Fiji," 5
Descent exhibited by Tertiary Mammalia, 444
Deshayes (Prof), Death of, 135
Devon and Cornwall Miners' Association, 219
Devon and Exeter Albert Memorial Museum, Report of, 97
Dewar and Tait (Profs.), Charcoal Vacua, 217
Diagometer, Prof. Palmieri's, 427
Diaphanometer, the, 438
Diatomaccrc : Count Castracane on, 302 ; J. T. Moller's process

of preparing, 1 74
Diatoms, W. W. Wood, 514
Diet, Dr. Chambers' Manual of, 64
Dimorphism of Butterflies, 127
Dionaa Aliiscipula, Dr. Balfour on, 154
Distant (W. L.), Migration of Species, 86
Dog : Hereditary Affection of a Cat for, 212 ; Egyptian, 562 ;

Sense of Reason and Humour in, G. J. Romanes, 66
Dohrn ( Dr. ), Liaugural Address at the Zoological Station at Naples,

II; on the Origin of the Vertebrata and the principle of

Succession of Functions, 479
Doldrums, Capt. Toynbee on Physical Geography of the, 405
Dominica, Boiling Lake in, 173 ; Coffee-growing in, 173
Double Stars, 147, 213, 330, 387, 476, 477, 496, 535, 554, 555
Drake (Pro).), Ins Statue of Humboldt for Philadelphia, 96
Dredging and Marine Exploration, Belgian Society for, 115
Dresden Zoological Gardens, 434, 482
Drew's "Jummoo and Kashmir," 550

Drinking- Waters, W. J. Cooper on Physiological Effects of, 442
Drosera, Prof. E. Morren on, 504

Druce (G. C. ) on Saxifra^a Tridactylites, 54

Drummond's " Flora of Clackmannan, 503

Drummond's "Large Game of South Africa," 182

Dubernard (Abbe), paper on the Lyssous of Lin-tze-Kiang, 319

Dublin College of Science, Exhibitions at, 483 ; Museum, 218

Dublin, Proposed Museum of Science at, 218

Dumas (M.j, Remedy against Phylloxera, 54; and Academic

Fran^aise, 135
Dunedin, New Zealand, Museum at, 117
Daner (Dr.) on Binary Stars, 312

Dupont and De laGrye's "Indigenous and Foreign Wo ads," 512
Dyer (Prof. Thiselton) appointed Assistant- Director at Ke.v,

152, 262
Dyer (W. T.) and Bennett (A. W.), Translation of "Sachs'

Botany," 62
Dymond (W. P.), " Meteorology "of West Cornwall and Scilly,"

250
Dynamite, Precautions to be followed in the use of, 388

Earth, Prof. Mohr on the Internal Heat of the, 545

Earthquakes: Asia Minor, 116; Barceloni, 134; Cucata, 134,
175, 194; France, 542; Loyalty Islands, 116; South Ameri-
can, W. G. Palgrave, 167 ; Spezzia, 76

Eastbourne, Roper's Flora of^ 290

East India. Islands, Bibliography of the Zoology of the, 381

Eaton (Rev. E. A.), Natural History of Kerguelen's Island, 35, 75

Eclipse, Solar : April 1875, Dr. J. Janssen on, 404 ; Expedition
to Camorta, 1 15 ; Expedition to Siam, 172 ; " Black Saturday,"
167 ; the " Mirk Monday," 1652, 147 ; of 1239, 167 ; of 1876,
8 ; of 1886, 113 ; of Sept. 28-29, 367 ; of 1927, 213, 252

Edinburgh Botanical Society, 154

E(iinburgh Observatory, Visitation of, 108

Education in France, 77

Edwards (Wm. H.), "Butterflies of North America," 3C0

Eggs, II. C. Sorby on the Colouring Matter in, 38

Egypt : Metrical System in, 279 ; Dr. Birch's paper on Dogs
of, 562 ; Geographical Society, Inaugural Meeting, 133

Elateridre, Dr. E. Candeze on the, 359

Electrical Exhibition in Paris, 502, 540

Electrical Resistance Thermometer and Pyrometer, by Dr. C,
W. Siemens, F.R.S., 235

Electricity, by J. T. Sprague, 144

El ctrolyte-s, J. A. Fleming on the Decomposition of, 374

Elephants: Mr. Flower's Lecture on, 114; Remains of, at
British Museum, 427 ; Prof. Sirodot on, 424

Ellery's Monthly Record, 196

Elliot (Sir W.) on the Original Localities of the present Popu-
lation of India, 465

Eliis (A. J.), TranslaUon of Ilelmholtz's Work on Tone, 449;
"Tone" and "Overtone," 475

Elvire Dorothea, Arctic Voyage of the, 460

Embrj'ology of Birds, Prof. E. S. Grote on, 443

Encke's Comet, 292, 436

" Encyclopaedia Britannica," 308

Endowed Schools Commission, Exhibition Competition, 152

Energy : Rev. O. Fisher's Remarks on Volcanic, 79 ; D. D.
Heath's " Elementary Exposition of the Doctrine of," 65

Entomological Society, 59, 179, 244

Entomology of Kerguelen's Island, 36

Eozoon, Principal Dawson on, 79

Equilibrium in Gases : J. J. Murphy, 26 ; R. C. Nichol^ 67 ;
S. H. Burbury, 107

Erebus ^■nA Terror, Zoology of, 261, 289, 312

Erics-son (J.), Thermal Energy and Solar Radiation, 517

P-rratic Blocks, Rev. H. W. Crosskey's Report on, 462

Escault, Tide Gauges on the, in Belgium, 484

Eskimo, Mr. C. R. Markham on the Greenland, 104

Essex Institu'e (U.S.), Bulletin of, 323

Ethnical Periods and the Arts of Subsistence, 444

E'hnology, Arctic, 103

Eucalyptus globuhis, its Cultivation in London, 445

Europe, Bibliography of the Zoology of, 375

Eusarcus scorpioms, a new Fossil Crustacean, 447

Everett (Prof.), System of Units, 223

Evesham, British Archaeological Asi;ociation at, 319

Exeter Albert Memorial Museum, Report of, 97

Fairley (B.J. ), New Solvents for Gold, Silver, Platinum, &c.,

464 ; Potassium Dichromate in Batteries, 464
Faun^horpe (Rev. J. P. ), Elementary Atlases, 85

Vlll

INDEX

INattrc, Nov. l8, 1875

" Faults and the Fissures of the Earth," by G. H. Kinahan, 146

Fawcett (Prof.), Address at Birmingham, 540

Faye on the Law of Storms, 400, 457, 497, 535

Fayrer (J., M.D.), " The Royal Tiger of Bengal," 474 ; Snakes

iti Ireland, 495
Feet, the R6le of, in the Struggle for Existence, 7, 34
Feilden {Capt. R. A.), his Observations in Palaeontology and

Ornithology, 32
Felspar, Mr. Rutley on Structure of, 119
Fertilisation of Cereals, A. S. Wilson on, 270
Fertilisation of Flowers, 50, 190,444
Ferula alliacea, 302

Field Clubs, a Plea for, by Dr. Page, 97

Fiji, our New Province in the South Seas, by J. H. de Ricci, 5
Fisher (Rev. O. ) on Mallet's Theory of Volcanic Energy, 79,

222 ; Sources of Volcanic Energy, 434
Fisheries, Irish, Report for 1874, 392
Fishes, Prof. Newberry on some new Fossil, 444
Fiske's "Cosmic Philosophy," D. A. Spalding, 267
Flagg (Wilson), " Birds and Seasons of New England," 211
Fleming (J. A.), the Decomposition of an Electrolyte by

Magneto-Electric Induction, 374
Fleuriais (M.), Report on Transit Expedition to Pekin, 32
Flint Scalping-knives in New Jersey, \>y Chas. C. Abbott, 368
Floods in France, 258, 261, 299 ; Texas, 483
" Flora of Clackmannan," Drummond's, 503
Flora of Eastbourne, 290 ; Liverpool, 262
Flower (Prof. F.R.S.) on Elephants, 114 ; Monograph on the

Musk Deer, 461
Flowers, Destruction of, by Birds, 108 ;'H. George Fordham, 7 ;

R. A. Pryor, 26
Flowers, Fertilisation of i^See Flowers)

Flowers, the Sleep of: G. S. Boulger, 513 ; M. C.i^Royer, 484
Fluorine and Phosphorus, a new Compound of, 464
Fluviatile and Maritime Exhibition in Paris, 298
Fly, The House, a Query, 126, 167,1397
Fontenay, M. Janssen's Observatory at, 279, 459
Fonvielle (W. de). Balloon Ascent, 298 ; Icicles observed in
Balloon Ascent, 219 ; the " Ville de Calais" Balloon Ascent,
13 ; Ballooning and Science, 52
Forbes (D., F.R.S.), Report on Iron and Steel Industries, 461
Fordham (H. George), Destruction of Flowers by Birds, 7, 108 ;

Primroses and Cowslips, 7, 87, 108
Forel (Dr.) on the Temperature of the jBody during Mountain

Climbing, 132, 165 ; on the Seiches of Lake Geneva, 134
Forestry, Du Pont and De la Grye on, 512
Forests of Denmark, Statistics of, 484
Forrest (John), Journey across Western Australia, 174
" Fortschritte des Darwinismus," Spengel's, 460
Fossil Crustacean, a New, 447
Fossil Fishes, Prof. Newberry on some New, 444
Fossils, Prof. Hall's (U.S.) Collection of, 299
Foster (Prof. G. C.) on Prof. Everett's System of Units, 223
Fox (Col. Lane), American Indian Weapons, 125 ; Excavations

in Cissbury Camp, Worthing, 418
Fraas (Dr. Oscar), his arrival at Beyrut, 116
France : Education in, 77, 117 ; Utilising Rivets of, '96 ; Meteoro-
logy in, 154 ; Large Map of, 174 ; Storms in, 219, 564 ; Floods
■ in, 258,261, 299; Reforms in Public Intruction, 388; Geogra-
phical Distribution of celebrated Persons in, 502 ; Aeronautical
Society, 53 ; Annual Scientific Congress, 318 ; Association for
the Advancement of Science, 77, 219 ; Meeting at Nantes, 298,
318, 358, 387, 423 ; Geographical Society— Bulletin of, 134,
299, 319, 502, 541 ; Distribution of Prizes, 241 ; Library, 261 ;
Institute, 526, 562 ; Meteorological Atlas, 483 ; Meteorolo-
gical Regions, 502; National University, changes in, 241 ;
Recent Mathematical Publications, 32 ; Transit Expedition to
New Caledonia, 53
Franklin Institute, Journal of, 77, 221, 323
Franklin (Lady), Obituary Notice of, 240
Franklin (Sir John), his Monument, 280
" P'reiburg Naturforschende Gesellschaft, " 221
French (Andrew), Acoustic Phenomena, 46
Frog, Impregnation of the, 457
Froude, on Stream Lines, 406
Fusion-point and Thermometry, Dr. Mills on, 99

Gaboon Expedition, The French, 562
Galabin (Dr.) on Cardiographic Tracings, 275
Galapagos, Bibliography of the Zoology of, 409

Galle (Prof.) on the Sun's Parallax, 113

Gallium, discovery of, 459, 481

Galvano-Pyreon, Mr. Yeates', 35

Galvanometer, Mr. Pirie on, 60

"..Game Preservers and Bird Preservers," by Capt. Moratit, 395

Garonne, Inundation of the River, 241

Garrod iViol. A. H.), Antelopes and their Allies, 68; Camels
and Llamas, 92 ; the Cardiograph Trace, 275 ; the Deer
Tribe, 27

Gases : Equilibrium in, 26, 67, 107 ; Mendeleef and Kirpetschoff
on the Compressibility of, 502

Gasteropoda of Canada, by Prof. Nicolson, 223

Gatehouse (Mr.) on Silver Nitrate, 463

" Gazetta Chimica Italiana," 78, 98, 221, 323, 428

Gegenbaur (Carl), his "jMorphologisches Jahrbuch," 115

Geikie (Prof. A., F.R.S.), American Geological Surveys, 265 ;
Life of Sir Roderick I. Murchison, I. 21 ; Obituary Notice of
Sir William Edward Logan, 161 ; Memoir (with Portrait) of
Sir Charles Lyell, 325

Geneva : Congress of French Geological Society at, 426 ; Hail
and Thunderstorm at, 219 ; Dr. Forel on the Seiches of the
Lake of, 134 ; Society of Arts, Prizes of, 525

Geodesical Congress at Paris, 501

Geographical Congress at Paris, 14,95, Ii7> ^54> "74) 219, 240,
257, 261, 278, 293, 316, 358

"Geographical Magazine," 117, Il8, 198, 299, 303, 527

Geographical Society, Royal : Report of, 76 ; papers presented
to the Arctic Expedition, 103; Seyyid of Zanzibar at, 174

Geographical Society in Cairo, 133 ; of France, 96, 562 ; of
Rome, Banquet to Dr. Nachtigal, 75 ; in Roumania, 54

Geographical Zoology, Dr. Sclater's Address on, 374

Geography, Progress of, 134

Geology : Geologists' Association, 18, 77, 220, 243, 484 ; Geo-
logical Fault in Scotland, Exploration of, 93, 146 ; Geological
Magazine, 546, 565 ; Geological Society, 18, 38, 79, 119, 158,
222, 242, 263 ; Geological Society of France, Congress at
Geneva, 426 ; Geological Society of Manchester, Transac-
tions of, 37 ; Geological Surveys of America, Prof. A. Geikie,
F.R.S. ,265; Geological Survey of U.S., 97, 299, 359; Geo-
logische Reichsanstalt, 468 ; Geology in America, Prof. N. S.
Shaler, 5; "Geology of Cambridgeshire, " by T. G. Bonney,
45 ; Geology of Canada, G. M. Dawson's Report on, 504 ;
"Geology of London and the Neighbourhood," by Wm.
Whittaker, 452 ; Geology of North America, by G. M. Daw-
son, 242 ; Geology of River Liddell, Dumfriesshire, 60

Germain (M. A.) on a Common Meridian, 241

Germany : " German Abyssinian Company," 279 ; German
Arctic Society, 241 ; German Chemical Society, Berlin, 19,
60, 120, 179, 284, 303, 324; German Scientific and Medical
Association, 318, 460 ; German Seewarte at Hamburg, 525 ;
the Baths of, 175; Meeting of Ornithologists at Brunswick,
116; Science in, 88, 115, 127, 152, 168, 189, 213, 316, 331,

457, 557

Gerstaecker and Carus's " Handbuch der Zoologie," 247

Girard (M.) on the Embryogeny of the Ascidians, 424

Gibraltar, Ornithology of the Straits of, 364

Gilbert (G. K.), Geological Report (U.S.), 299

Gilchrist Lectures on Physical Geography, 542

Giles (E.), Exploration of AustraUa, 135, 194

Gill (Rev. W.) on the Origin of the South S.a Islanders, 466

Gillman (Hy.), President of Hopkins University, U.S., 457

Giraud (M. Jules), paper on the Coast of France, 541

Glacial Period, papers and Discussion on, 407 .

Glaciation of North America, 299

Glacier and other Ice, J. J. Murphy, 167

Glaciers, Motion of, 316

Gladstone (Dr. J. H., F.R.S.), Acids and Bases in a Mixture of
Salts, 464; on the Copper-zinc Couple, 464; Discovery of
New Compound, 96

Glaisher (J), Report on Luminous Meteors, 437

Glasgow : British Association Meeting at, in 1876, 240; Geolo-
gical Society of, 60 ; Proceedings of the Natural History
Society of, 547 ; Science Lecture Association, Programme,
542 ; tjniversity of, Promotion of Experimental Investigation
at, 33

Glass, Electric Conductivity of, by W. Whitehouse, 139 ; Hard-
ened, 87, 117, 125, 135

" Globigerina Ooze," 174

Gloucester Philosophical Society, 96

Gold Assays, W. C. Roberts' Report on, 437

'V, Nov. 18, 1875]

INDEX

IX

Gold Coast Colony, at Philadelphia in 1876, 563

Gold, Silver, Platinum, &c., B. J. Fairley on Solvents for, 464

Goldfinch, Colour in, 7

Gordon (J. E. II.), Anomalous Behaviour of Selenium, 187

Gorillas in Europe, 482

Gotte(Dr.), Work on Morphology, 152, 213

Gottingen Royal Society of Sciences, 222, 468, 488

Gould (Dr.), Report of Argentine Observatory, 292

Government Researches in Pathology and Medicine, 470

Granitoid Rocks of Lake District, 263

Gratz, Meeting of German Scientific and Medical" Association
at, 318, 460

Gray (Dr. J. E.), J. Saunders' List of his Works, 195

Great Salt Lake, Former Level of, 299

Greece, Birds of, 193

Green (Commander F. M.), Longitudinal Observations, 134

Green (Prof. A. H.) on the Millstone Grit of Derbyshire and
Yorkshire, 407

Green (W. L.), " VeUiges of the Mo'ten Globe," 85

Green (W. S.), Source of Volcanic Energy, 396, 455

Greenland : Admiral Irminger on the Arctic Current round,
104 ; C. R. Markham on the Eskimo of, 104 ; Zoology of,
382 ; Dr. Rink on the Interior of, 241 ; Sea Fishery, 15

Greenwich Observatory, Visitation of, 108

Gresham Lectures, 34, 261

Gripon (M.) on Collodion Films, 424

Grote (Prof. A. R.) on the Distribution of North American In-
sects, 443

Grouse, Preservation of, 395

Gun-cotton Water-shells, 314

Gundersen (Capt.), Discovery of the Journal of Barents, 483

Gunpowder, Prof Debus on the Chemical Theory of, 464

Giinther (Dr. A., F.R.S.), the Gigantic Land Tortoises of the
Mascarene and Galapagos Islands, 238, 239, 296

Guthrie (Prof. F.) on the Measurement of Wave Motion, 462

Gymnoblastic Hydroid, Gigantic, 555

Gyrostat Problem, 455

Hackney (W.) on Steel Rail Ingots, 433

Hoematite Indian Axes from West Virginia, 478

Halifax Geologists' Field Club, 219

Ilall (Prof.), his Collection of Fossils, 299

Ilallett (T. G. P.) on the Conservation of Foices, 442

" Handbuch der Zoologie," Carus and Gerstaecker's, 247

Ilann (Dr.), Relation between Atmospheric Pressure and Velocity

ofWind, 98, 118
Ilarcourt (A. G. Vernon, F.R.S.), Address in Chemical Science

at British Association, 438 ; on an Apparatus for estimating

Carbon Bisulphide in Coal-gis, 465
Hardened Glass, 87, 117, 125, 135

Hares and Rabbits, G. J. Romanes on Pugnacity of, 476
Harting (J. E.), " Our Summer Migrants," 249 ; " Rambles in

Search of Shells," 493
Hartismere's (Lord) Vivisection Bill, 21
Hartshome (B. ), Weddas of Ceylon, 465
llartt (Prof C. F.), Geological Survey of Brazil, 14, 196
Harvard University, Summer Instruction in Geology, 1875, 6
Harser (Dr.), Translation of Stoecker's Baths of Wildungen, 175
Hat, Poisoning by a, 116

Haughton (Prof. S., F.R.S.), Strength of Lion and Tiger, 495
Havana Cigars, Materials of, 563

Ilawkshaw (Sir J., F.R.S.), Address at British Association, 336
Hay Crop of 1875, C. M. Ingleby, 272
Hay, Showers of, 279, 298

Hayden (Dr. F. V.), Catalogue of the Publications of the Geolo-
gical Survey of the U.S., 359 ; Report of the U.S. Geological

Survey, 97, 262
Hazel, Flowering of the, by Hermann Miiller, 26
Heallli, a City of. Dr. B. W. Richardson, F.R.S., 523, 542
Heat, the Attraction and Repulsion caused by the Radiation of :

W. Crookes on, 58, 125; Prof. Osborne Reynolds on, 6, 405
Heat of the Earth, Prof. Mohr on the, 545
Heath (D. D.), " Doctrine of Energy," 65
Hebert (Prof), Undulations in the Chalk of North France, 407
Hector (Dr.) on the Moa Bones of New Zealand, 441
Heis (Prof), the Zodiacal Light, 435
Hekla, Capt. Burton on, 511
Helmholtz's "Sensations of Tone," 449, 475
Hennessy (Prof.), Influence of Water on Climate, AOt,
Henwood (W. J., F.R.S.), Obituary Notice, 293, 312

Herschel (A. S.), Colours of Heated Metals, 475
Herpetology of Europe, Bibliography of, 377
Herring Fisheries of Scotland, Tliomson's Diagram of, 14
Hicks (Henry) on Cambrian and other Rocks, 222
Hijjhland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, 33, 153
Highlands and Lowlands, the Line between, 93
Hildebrandsson on Upper Atmospheric Currents, 123 ; Observa-
tions of Cirrus Clouds, 1 73
Hilgard (J. E.), President of American Association, 153
Hinde (G. J.), Tabulate Coral, 223
Hinrichs (Dr. G.), Rainfall Observation of Iowa, 483 ; Iowa

Weather Review, 564 ; •' Principles of Chemistry," 288
His on Morphological Causation, 328
His (W. and W. Braune), Zeitschrift fiir Anatomic and Ent-

wickelungsgeschichte, 1 1 5
Hissar, Scientific Expedition to, 96, 388
Histology, Rutherford's Practical, 433
Hitzig (Prof. E.) at Zurich, 135
Hodgkin (J,, jun), the Dark Argus Butterfly, 187
Hoffmann (Dr. ) on Inland Water Vegetation, 262
Hoffmann's " Niederlandisches Archiv fiir Zoologie," 280
Hoffmeyer (Capt.), his Synoptic Meteorological Charts, 115^ the

Causes of the Cold Weather in May 1874, 547
Hofmann's Report on the Progress of Chemical Industry, 365
Holden (Edw. S. ) on the Observation of the Corona and red

prominences of the Sun, 399
" PloUand's Fragmentary Papers," by W. Stanley Jevons, 181
Hooker (Dr., F.R.S.) and the Paris Academy, 53 ; " Flora of

British India," 3 ; Report on Kew Gardens for 1874, 445
Hopkins University, U.S., 456
Hopkinson (Dr.) and Prof. Stokes on the Optical Properties of

a Titano-Cilicic Glass, 373
Horizontal Photographic Telescope of Long Focus, by Prof.

Winlock, 273
Horizontal Refraction on Venus, 233
Horticultural Exhibition at Amsterdam, 261
Horticultural Society, 59, 99, 199, 263, 283
Houel, Argand's Geometrical Representation of Imaginary

Quantities, 32 ; "Theory of Quarternions," 32
Hudson (Dr. C. T.), Rotifera, 413

Hughes (Prof.), Classification of the Sedimentary Rocks, 406
Human Races, M. Dailly's Lectures on, 96
Humble- Bees sent to New Zealand, 527
Humboldt, Statue of, at Philadelphia, 96
Humming-Birds : in England, 174 ; in Paris, 135
Humming-Tops and Stopped Organ-pipes, Peculiarities of, 145
Humour and Reason in Animals, G. J. Romanes, 66
Hunter (John), "Manual of Bee-keeping," 395
Hurricane in West Indies, 542
Huxley (Prof. T. H., F.R.S.) on the Crocodilia, 38 ; on Stagono-

lepis Robertsoni, 38 ; Lectures on the Invertebrata at Edinburgh,

I3> 33» J 15 ; Notes from the Challenger, 315
Huxley and Martin's " Elementary Biology," 530
Hybridity and Absorption [See Wilson, Dr. Dan.)
Hydnophytum formicarium at Kew Museum, 196
Hydrographic Office, U.S.A., 134
" Hygeia," Richardson's {See Health, City of)
Hyrcanian Sea, Note on, by Herbert Wood, 51

Ice : a Body preserved by, 76 ; Glacier and other, J. J. Murphy,
167 ; Heat Evolved by Friction of, by A. Tylor, 39 ; Obser-
vations at Upsala on the duration of, 483

Icebergs in North Atlantic, 261

Iceland: Capt. Burton on, 510; Mr. Watts' Travels in, 117,
453 ; Volcanic Phenomena in, 75, 76, 194, 298, 446

Ichthyology of Europe, Bibliography of, 377

Ilford Marshes, Remains from, at British Museum, 427

lifracombe, the Rocks at, by Wm. S. Tuke, 312

Illinois, Amos Sawyer on Climate of, 563

Implement, Australian and N. American, O. T. Mason, 554

India : Sir W. Elliot on the Original Localities of the present
Population of, 465 ; Prince of Wales's Visit to, 261 ; Solar
Observation in, 400 ; British — Zoology of, 380 ; Dr. J. D.
Hooker's Flora of, 3 ; Trigonometrical Survey, 72

India Museum, 15, 75, 96, 192, 212

Indians (North American) : Feet of, 7 ; Marriage Emblem of,
436 ; Hscmatite Axes from W^est Virginia, 478 ; Dr. Dan.
Wilson on the Red, 563

" Indigenous and Foreign Woods," Dupont and De la Grye on,
512

INDEX

[JValun, A''ov. i8, 1875

Industrial Exhibition at Manchester, 54

Infusoria, Dr. AUman, F.R.S., on the, 136, 155, 175

Ingleby (C. M.), Hay Crop of 1875, 272

Inland Water and Vegetation of Shorelands, 262

Insectivorous Plants : J. W. Clark on, 528 ; Prof. E. Morren's

Experiments on, 503 ; Dr. Lawson Tait, 25 1
Insects: Fertilisation of Flowers by, 11. Miiller, 50, 190; of

Missouri, U.S., Riley's Report on, 195; Noxious, and Tobacco

Meal, 154; Riley on Curious Habits of, 527
Instinct and Acquisition : G. J. Romanes, .553 ; D. A. Spalding,

507
" Instinct" and " Reason," James Hutchmgs, 330
Internal Heat of the Earth, Prof. Mohr on, 545
International Astronomical Society, 298
International Congress of Physicians at Brussels, 461
International Meteorology, 493, 560
Inundations in France and Cork Mattresses, 280 ; Loss caused

by, 299 ; Prof. V. Raulin on, 426
Iowa, U.S., Rainfall Observation of, 483 ; " Weather Review, '.'

564
Ipecacuanha, Cultivation of, 446
Irby's Ornithology of the Straits of Gibraltar, 364
Ireland, Snakes in. Dr. J. Fayrer, 495
Irish Cave Exploration, G. S. Boulger, 212
Irish Fisheries, Report on for 1874, 392
Inninger (Admiral E.) on the Greenland Arctic Current, 104
Iron, Sir W, Thomson on the Effects of Stress upon the Mag-
netism of, 374
Iron and Steel Institute, 28, 358, 426, 432
Iron and Steel, U.S. Government Board for Testing, 94
Isothermals of the Solar Disc : Mayer's Method of obtaining,

497 ; New Method of obtaining, 301
Italy : Italian African Expedition, 1 53 ; Geographical Society,

135 ; Geographical Society and African Exploration, 562 ;

Scientific Association, Congress at Palermo, 387

"Jagor's Travels in the Philippines," English Translation of, 77

Jahrbuch derKais-Kon. Geologischen Reichs-Anstalt, 118, 488

" Jahrblicher fiir Wissenschaftliche Botanik," 302

James (Sir Henry), Retirement from Ordnance Survey, 300

Janssen (M.), head of French Physical Observatory, 279, 446,
459 ; the Eclipse of April 1875, 404 ; Magnetic Observa-
tions on the Gulfs of Siam and Bengal, 405 ; Mirage at Sea,
405 ; Transit of Venus Expedition to Japan, 405

Jardin des Plantes, Paris, Reptile House in, 54

Jevons (Prof. W. S., F.R.S.), "Comte's Philosophy," 491;
" Holland's Fragmentary Papers," 181

Jones (T. Rupert, F.R.S.), Arctic Manual, 81

Jourdanet (D.), "Influence de la pression de I'air sur la vie de
I'homme," 472

Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 138, 219, 546

Journal of Anthropological Society, 300

Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, 299

Journal of Botany, 283, 528

Journal of Chemical Society, 16, 467,' 528

Journal d' Hygiene, 542

Journal of Mental Science, 282

Journal de Physique Theorique et Appliquee, 37, 97, 198, 428,
566

Journal of Scottish Meteorological Society, 280

" Jummoo and Kashmir,"^F, Drew, 550

Jupiter, the Mass^of, 455

Kangaroos, Prof. Mivart on, 129

" Kashmir and Jummoo," F. Drew, 550

Keen (Dr. W. W.), Chloral as a Preservative of Anatomical

Objects, 484
Kepler's Nova Star, 1604, Prof. Winnecke on, 292
Kerguelen's Island, Natural History of, 35 ; Sea Elephants from,
f- at Berlin, by J. Willis Park, 366
Kerner (Prof. ), appointment at|^Vienna, 541
Keswick Natural History Society, Museum of, 426
Kew Gardsns : Report for 1874, 445 ; appointment of Assistant

Director, 152
Kew yi\x%eMra : Uydnophytutii formicarium at, 196; Oliver's

Official Guide to, 270
Kiddle (Capt. W. W., R.N.), Weather on Lhe Atlantic, 311
Kinahan (G. H.), Faults and the Features of the Earth, 146
King (George), Report of Botanical Gardens, Calcutta, 541

Kingsley (W. T.), Plummet for Sounding Lakes, 40 ; " Wolf "

in the Violoncello, 40
Kingston (Prof.), Magnetic and Meteorological Observations at

the Observatory, Toronto, 474
Kingzett (C. T.), the Oxidation of Essential Oils, 465
Kirkwood (Prof. D.), the Distribution of the Asteroids, 444 ;

Meteors of November 14, 85
Kirtland (U.S.), School of Natural History, 446, 484
Klein (Dr.), Report on the Contagion of Variola ovina, 471 ;

Report on the Lymphatic System and Tubercle, 471
Klinkerfues (Prof), Comet of December 1872, 67
Knop (Dr.) on the Rivers Danube and Aach, 116
Koch (Dr.) on Contemporaneity of Man and Mastodon, 96
Kongl. Vetenskaps Akademiens Fordhandlingar, 323
Krliper (Dr.) on the Birds of Greece, 193
Kuliaba and Hissar Rivers {See Hissar)

Laboulaye (M.), Report to French Assembly on Free Uni-
versities, 116
Lake District, Mr. J. Clifton Ward on Rocks of, 263
Lakes, W. T. Kingsley on a Plummet for Sounding, 40
Lancaster (M. A.) on Dryness of Spring of 1875, ^96
Landslip at Clermont-sur-Lanquet, 220
Langley (Prof. S. P.) on the Solar Surface, 443
Language, Life and Growth of, 225

Language and Race, paper on, by Rev. A. H, Sayce, 59
Lankester (E.R., F.R.S.) on Amphioxus, 175, 242; Cams and

Gerstaecker's Handbuch der Zoologie, 247
Largeau (M.), Expedition to Rhadames, 562
Lasaulx (Dr. A. von). Translation of " Mallet's Volcanic Heat

and Energy" into German, 76
Lassell, Discovery of Ariel and Umbriel, 515
"Latouche's Travels in Portugal," 135, 185
Laussedat (Capt.), Method of Photographing the Sun, 275
Laws of Storms, Faye on the, 400, 457, 497, 535
Lawson (J. A.), "Wanderings in the Interior of New Guinea,"

83 ; Dr. A. B. Meyer on, 153
Leaf Glands, M. J. Chatin on Interior, 424
Leclanche's Cell, S. A. Saunder on a New Fonn of, 564
Lecky (Mr.) on Two Ancient Astronomical Instruments, 140
Ledger (Rev. E.), appointed Gresham Professor of Astronomy^

261
Lee (R. J.), the Sliding Seat, 533

Leeds, Inauguration of the Yorkshire College of Science, 501
Leeds Naturalists' Field Club, 547
Lefort (M. T.), paper on Logarithmic Tables, 220
Lefroy (J. W. N.), Lunar Rainbow (?), 329
Leicester : Diarrhoea at, 427 ; Philosophical Society, Rep«r? of,

447 ; Town Museum, Third Report of, 447
Leidy (Prof ), 75 ; on Algje, 100
Leitner (Dr.), Travels in Central Asia, 465
Lepidoptera, Hermann Strecker's Work on, 280
L'Escluse (C. de). Prof. Morren's Biography of, 527
Leverrier (M.) and the French Meteorological Atlas, 485 ;- Ws!Si
of Jupiter, 455 ; Observations on Small Planets, 53 ; Plan for
connecting the Public Clocks of Paris, 298 ; Tables of Saium
used for Nautical Almanack, 460 ; Theory of Saturn, &c.,^ 7'5,

331. 397
Lewis's Exploration of Australia, 135

Leyden, Meeting of the Astronomische Gesellschaft at, 386
Lias, the, about Radstock, 119
Lichens, P. Magnus on, 78
Liddel, River, Geology of, 60

Liege, Memoirs of the Royal Society of, vol. iv., 359
'* Life and Growth of Language," Whitney's, 225
Light: Curious Phenomenon of, W. M'Laurin, 26; Velocity of,

Prof. Cornu on, 59
"Light and Photography," Dr. Vogel's, 105
Lighthouses, Optical Arrangement for Azimuthal Condensing

Apparatus for, T. Stevenson, 333
Lightning Conductors : Dr. R, J. Mann on, 80 ; M. de Fon-

vielle's Pamphlet on, 358 ; French Report on, 358
Lightning Figures : C. Tomlinson. 9 ; C. F. Varley, ii
Lille Academy and Colleges, M. Wallon at, 15
Lille Catholic University, Proposed School of Medicine at, 461
Linnean Society, 33, 38, 98, 139, 179; Transactions of the, 546
Lion and Tiger, Strength of. Prof. S. Ilaughton, F.R.S., 495
Liquid, Vibration of a, in a Cylindrical Vessel, Lord Rayleigh,

251
Liquids, W. J. Wilson on Electric Resistance of, 179

.YattiiY, Nov. l8, 1875]

INDEX

XI

Liverpool, Flora of, 262

Livingstone (Dr.), Memorial Tablet to, 96

Llamas and Camels, Prof. A. H. Garrod's Lecture on, 92

Lloyd (T. G. B.), Geology of New York, 263 ; Beothucs and

Stone Implements of Newfoundland, 99
Loan Exhibition of Scientific Apparatus, 32, 218
Loch Lomond, Phenomenon of Light on, W. M'Laurin, 26
Locks of Safes, New Arrangement of, 461
Locock (Sir Chas,, F.R.S.), Death of, 262
Locusts as Food, 482
Loftus (A. J.), Lunar' Phenomena, 495
Logan (Sir William Edmond), Obituary" Notice of, by Prof. A.

Geikie, 161
Logarithms, M. Prouy's Tables of, 117
"Lombardo, Reale Istituto," 198
London University, Examination of Women at, 54
London, W^hittaker's Guide to the Geology of, 452
Longman (W.), paper on Madeira, 447
Loomis (Prof) on the U.S. Weather Maps, 273 .
Loranthaceous Parasitical Plants destructive to Exotic'Trees, by

Geo. Bidie, M.B., 453
Lortet (^L) on'Fibrous Sponges, 424
Lortet and Marcet's Experiments on Temperature of Body during

Mountain Climbing, 132
Lott (Frank Edw.), Government Eclipse Expedition'to Siam,

172
Louvain, Rector of, and Catholic University in Paris, 262
Lowe (Rev. Mr.), Collection of Madeira Plants, 34
Lowlands and Highlands, the Line between, 93
Loyalty Islands, Earthquake at, 116
Lubbock (Lady), F. Miiller on Termites, 21S
Lubbock (Sir J.) and Ancient Monuments, 154 ;' and Mr. Lewis

H. Morgan's System of Consanguinity, 86, 124
Luminous Foot-prints, 564

Luminous Meteors, Report on, by J. Glaisher, 437
Lunar Phenomena, A. J, Loftus, 495
Lunar Rainbow (?) : T. W. Backhouse, 397 ; J. Allan Broun,

397 ; J- W. N. Lefroy, 329
Lyall (Wm.), Origin of the Numerals, 496
" Lydia," the Minor Planet, 8
Lyell (Sir Chas.), Memoir of (with Portrait), by Prof. A, Geikie,

325 ; Principal Dawson on, 219
Lyssous of Lin-tze-Kiang, Abbe Dubemard's paper on, 319

M'Clintock (Admiral), Lecture on Sledge Travelling, 134

M'Kendrick and Dewar on the Action of Chinoline and Pyridine
Bases, 417

Mackintosh (D.), Anthropology, Sociology, and Nationality,
443

Macleay, Expedition to New Guinea, 53, 76, 526

M'Nab (Prof. W. R.), Sachs' Text-book of Botany, 62

Madagascar : Bibliography of the Zoology of, 379 j People
of, by Rev. Joseph Mullens, D.D., 40

Madeira, Mr. \V. Longman's Article on, 447 ; Plants, Rev. Mr.
Lowe's Collection of, 34

Madras, Report of Agri-Horticultural Society of, 280

Magnetic Curves, Oxide of Iron in Making, 502

Magnetic and Meteorological Observations at the Magnetic
Observatory, Toronto, 474

Magnetic Observations in the Gulfs of Siam and Bengal, by Dr.
J. Janssen, 405 : at Trevandnim, 163, 186

Magnetising Function of Iron, &c., by H. A. Rowland, 406

Magnets, Bar, Fixing of Curves caused by, 97

Magneto- Electric Machines, by Dr. Andrews, F.R.S., 90, 130,
170

Magnus's "Elementary Mechanics," 394, 435 ; on Lichens, 78

Malav Peninsula, Bibliography of the Zoology of, 381

Mallet's Volcanic Heat and Energy, translated into German,(76 ;
Remarks on by Rev. O. Fisher, 79

Malte-Brim (M.), Chart of the World, 299

Matter, Dr, Andrews, F.R.S., on Physical Properties of, 300,
321

Man : Degeneracy of, by S. J. Whilmee, 47 ; and Mastodon in
Missouri, 96

Manatee, Foetal, Prof. Wilder on, 446 ; at the Zoological
Gardens, 294, 319

Manchester : Annual Meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute,
358; Aquarium, Rare Animal at, 69, 154, 196; Field Natu-
ralists' Society, Report of, 54 ; Geological Society, Transac-
tions of, 37; Owens College, Legacy to, 117; Science Lec-

tures, 563 ; Scientific Students' Association, 54, 567 ; Society
for Promotion of Scientific Industry, 54

Mann (Dr. R, J. ) on Lightning Conductors, 80

Mannheim Observatory, appointment of Dr. Valentiner, 298

Manning (Dr.) on Education, 482

Marcet and Lortet's Experiments on Temperature ot Body
during Mountain Climbing, 132

Marey ( Prof. ), Address on Physiology, 502

Mammals of North America, by Capt. C, N. Scammon, 55

Maritime Conference of 1874, 493

Maritime Exhibition, International, 446 ; in Paris, 298

Markham (C. R.) on the Greenland Eskimo, 104; on the Arc-
tic Highlanders, 105

Marriage Emblem of American Indian Origin, 436

" Marsden's Numismata Orientalia," 24

" Martineau's Chapters on Sound," 165

Martyn (Dr.) on the Anatomy of the Skin, 417

Mascarene Islands : Bibliography of the Zoology of, 379 ; Dr. I.
Bayley Balfour on the Flora and Geology of, 441

Mascart(M.), Condensation from Expansion of Moist Air, 424

Maskelyne (Prof. N. S., F.R.S.), Lecture Notes on Meteorites,
485, 504, 520

Mason (Otis C), American Indian Weapons, 107, 125 ; Curious
Australian and North American Implement, 554

Massachusetts, U.S.A., Survey of, 196

Masters (Dr. T. M.), 33

Mathematical Printing, W. Spottiswoode, F.R.S., on, 404;
Publications, Recent French, 32

Mathematical Society, 79, 139; Council of, 562; Proceedings
of, 5

Mathematical Tables, Prof. Cayley on, 404

Matzka (Prof. D.), Zur lehre der parallel-projection und der
Flachen," 513

Maunoir (M.) on Progress of Geography, 134

Mauritius : Exotic Timber Trees^in, 565 ; Meteorology in, by
C. Meldrum, 16

Maxwell (Prof. Clerk) on Ohm's Law, 404

Mayer (Alf, M.), New Method of obtaining Isothermals on the
Solar Disc, 301, 497

Mecham (Prof. T.), Fertilisation of Flowers, 444

Mechanics, Magnus's Elementary, 394 ; Proposed Professorship
of, at Cambridge, 14

Medical Congress at Brussels, 502

Medicine and Pathology, Government Researches in, 470

Mediterranean, Tides of the, 43

Melbourne Catalogue of Stars, 87

Meldola (R.), The new Metal, Gallium, 481 ; Solar Observa-
tion in India, 400; "Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry,"
327

Meldrum (C), Meteorology, &c., in Mauritius, 16

Mello (J. Magens) on a Bone Cave, 222

Memel, Discovery of Amber near, 54

Memorie della Societa degli Spettroscopisti Italiani, 17

Mendeleef and Kirpetschoff on the Compressibility of Gases,
502

Mendip Hills, Prehistoric Inhabitants of, 443

Mental Science Journal, 282

Merget(M.), Plants and Atmosphere, 424; on Thermo-diffusers,
424

Meridian Room, Paris, 502

Meridians, Establishment of Secondary, in U.S., 134

Merrifield (Mary P.), Arctic Marine Vegetation, 55

Metallurgy, Percy's, 209

Metal, the new. Gallium, 459

Metallic Spectra, Prof. G. F. Barker on the Broken Lines of,

445
Metals: P.Braham on the Crystallisation of, by Electricity, 463;
Colours of Heated, by A. S. Hcrschel, 475 ; U.S. Commis-
sion on, 152
Meteors, 313, 359, 426, 477
Meteorites: Lecture Notes on. Prof. N. S. Maskelyne, F.R.S.,

485, 504, 520
Meteorograph, Theorell's Printing, 488, 547
Meteorological: AtJas of France, 483J; Charts, Capt. Hoffmeyer's,
115 ; Congress at Poitiers, 502 ; Congress of Western Oceanic
France, 562 ; and Magnetic Observations at the Magnetic
Observatory, Toronto, 474 ; Office, Quarterly Weather Report,
loi ; Weather Telegrams of, 319 ; Phenomena, H. Norton,
188; Regions of France, 502; Society, 18, 80, 159; Quar-
terly Journal of, 427 ; Society of Scotland, 209 : Stations
in Germany, 525

Xll

INDEX

[Nature, Nov. l8, 1875

Meteorologists, Congress of, at Poitiers, 502
Meteorology of Austro- Hungarian Arctic Expedition, 134 ; of
Canada, Report on, 299 ; Charts of the Swedish Institute,
426; in France, 154; International, 493, 560; in Mauritius,
Letter by C. Meldruro, 16; of United Slates, 34, 76; of
West Cornwall and Scilly, by W. P. Dymond, 250
Meteors : the August, 313, 477 ; M. Leverrier's organisation for
observing, 319; of November 14, Daniel Kirkwood, 85; in
various places, 460
Metrical System ot Weights and Measures, 76 ; in Egypt, 279'
Mexico, Gulf of. Latitude and Longitude of Places in, 54
Meyer (A.), Calculus of Probabilities, 359
Meyer (Dr. A. B.) on "Lawson's New Guinea, 153; Living

Birds of Paradise, in Europe, 434
Mice and Rats, Tails of, G. J. Romanes, 515
Micro-Photographs, some New, 417 .
Microscope : Dr. Abbe's paper on, 262 ; J. Phin's Hints on the

selection and use of the, 513
Microscopical Science, Quarterly Journal of, 16'; Society, 60,

119,528; Societies in United States, 77
Migration of Species, W. L. Distant, 86
Miklucho-Maclay (Dr.), Zoological Stations abroad, 332
Mills (Dr.) on Fusion Point and.Thermometry, 99
^Millstone Grit of Derbyshire and Yorkshire, 407
"Mineralogy, Brush's Determinative," 183
Miners' Association of Cornwall and Devon, 219
Mines and Ironworks in the United States, by I. Lowthian

Bell, 29
Mines, Royal School of, 220
Mining, Mr. G. L. ]5asset's Prizes in, 460
Minor Planets, 48, 113, 127, 168, 213, 272, 313, 367, 477, 497,

435. 555
Mira Ceti, the Variable Star, 398

Mirage at Sea, Dr. J. Janssen on, 405 ; on Snowdon, 292
" Mirk Monday," the. Eclipse 1652, 147
Missouri River, Ornithology of, 241
Mitchell (Dr. A.) on Weather and Epidemics of Scarlet Fever

in London during the past Thirty-five Years, 320
" Mittheilungen," Petermann's (See Petermann)
Mivart (Prof., F.R.S.) on Kangaroos, 129
Moa Bones from New Zealand, Dr. Hector on, 441
Mouchez (Capt.), election of, at Paris Academy, 240
Moffat (Dr.), Sunspots, Ozone, Rain and Force of Wind, 374
Mohammed (Abdallah ben). Obituary Notice of, 135
Mohn (Dr.) and Norwegian Scientific Expedition, 115
Mohr (Prof.), Internal Heat of the Earth, 545
Mohr (Von E.), Nach den Victoriaf alien des Zambesi, 231
Moller (J. T.), Process of Preparing Diatomacere, 174
MoUusca, Woodward's Manual of, 494
" Molten Globe, Green's Vestiges of the," 85
" Mommsen's Jahreszeiten " on the Birds of Greece, 193
Mont Blanc, Body preserved by Ice, found near, 76
Montsouris, School of Astronomy at, 298, 502
Morant (Capt. J. F.}, " Game Preservers and Bird Preservers,"

395
Morgan (Hon. L. H.), Ethnical Periods and the Arts of Sub-
sistence, 444
Morgan (Lewis H.), Systems of Consanguinity, 86, 124, 311
Morphological Causation, His on, 328
" Morphologisches Jahrbuch," 115
Morphology at the British Association, 442 ; Dr. Gotte's Work

on, 152
Morren (Prof Ed.), Biography of C. de I'Escluse, 527; Experi-
ments on Insectivorous Plants, 503
Morse (Prof. E. S.), Bones of Embryo Birds, 443 ; Fertilisation

of Flowers, 444
Mort-Het (M. G. de). Lectures on Prehistoric Times, 96
Moscow. Bulletin de la Societe Imperiale de Naturalistes, 359
Movs (Richard J.), Properties of Selenium, 291
Mouchez (M.) and School of Astronomy at Montsouris, 298
Mouchot (M.), Application of Solar Heat, 548
Mountain Climbing, Temperature of the Bodyduring, 132, 165,186
Mueller (Baron), Report on Botany in Victoria, 33 ; Supplement

to List of Plants for Culture in Victoria, 426
Mullens (Rev. Joseph), People of Madagascar, 40
Miiller (Hermann), Fertilisation of Flowers by Insects, 50, 190;

Flowering of the Hazel, 26
Mullcr (F.) on Teimite-s hy Lady Lubbock, 218
Mulsint (M . E. ), his " Hisloire Naturelle des Oiseaux-Mouches,"
319

Mundy (D. L.), " Rotomahana and the Boiling Springs of New
Zealand," 532

Murcenopsis tridadyla at the Manchester Aquarium, 69 ; P. L.
Sclater on, 87

Murchison (Sir Roderick I.), Prof. Geikie's Life of, i, 21

Murphy (J. J.), Equilibrium in Gases, 26; Glacier and other
Ice, 167 ; on the Polar Ice Cap, 223 ; Primroses and Cows-
lips, 34 ; Scarcity of Birds, 272 ; Theories of Cyclones, 187

Muscle, F. E. Nipher on the Mechanical Work done in exhauiting
a, 271

Muscular Action, Law of, by F. E. Nipher, 47

Musk-deer, Prof. Flower's Monograph on, 461

Mythology, paper on by Mon:ure D. Conway, 59

Nachrichten von der Konigl. Gesellschaft der Wissenscha'ten,
Gottingen, 222, 488

Nachtigal (Dr. ), Banquet to, 75, 117; Description of Dar Fur,
241

Nancy, Archseological Congress at, 319

Nantes, French Association at, 219, 358, 424

Naoles Observatory, Removal of Mr. Bishop's Instruments to,
526

Naples Zoological Station, Inauguration of, 11 ; Report on,
372 ; Students at, 55

"Naturalist," The, 320

" Naturforscher, Der," 58, 77, 97, 198, 323, 359, 566

" Nautical Almanack," Use of French Tables for, 460

Nebulse, 292, 496

Neilgherry Loranthaceous Parasitical Plants Destructive to
Exotic Trees, by Geo. Bidie, M.B., 453

Neptune and Uranus, the SatelHtes of, 496

Neptunian and Uranian Systems, Newcomb on the, 515

Nerve Fibres in the Spinal Cord, Dr. Bowditch on, 460

Newberry (Prof J. S.), Some Fossil Fishes, 444

Ntw California, Physical Geography of, 299

Newcastle College of Physical Science, appointment of Mr. G.
S. Brady, 298 ; Proposed Natural History Collection for, 298 ;
Natural History Society, 298

Newcomb on the Uranian and Neptunian Systems, 515

Newfoundland, Beothuc^ and Stone Implements of, 99

New Guinea: Exploration of, 53, 76, 134; Captain Lawson's
Wanderings in, 83, 153 ; Mr. Macleay's Expedition to, 526

New Jersey : Flint Scalping-knives in, by Chas. C. Abbott, 368 ;
the Occurrence of a Stone Mask in, by Chas. C. Abbott, 49

New South Wales, Vine Culture in, 15

Newton (E. Tulley), "Introduction to Animal Physiology," 474

New York; Mercantile Library Association, 447

New Zealand : Arrival of Salmon Ova, 195 ; Bibliography of
the Zoology of, 412; Humble Bees sent to, 527; D. L.
Mundy's Boiling Springs of, 532 ; Museum at Dunedin, 117 ;
Wellington Philosophical Society, 90

Newton (Prof F.R.S. ), Ornithological Investigation, 412

Nichols (R.C.), Equilibrium of Gases, 67, 107

Nicholson (H.A.) on the Gasteropoda, 223

Nile, Prof Wanklyn on the Water of the, 541

Nipher (F. E.), Law of Muscular Action, 47 ; on the Mechanical
Work done in Exhausting a Muscle, 271 ; Optical Experi-
ment, 502

Nitrate of Silver, Mr. Gatehouse on, 463

Noad's (H.M.), Edition of Normandy's Handbook of Chemical
Analysis, 65

"Nomenclator Botanicus," Dr. L. Pfeiffer, 503

Nordenskjold's Arctic Expedition, 53, 154, 460, 556

Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists' Society, Transactions of, 221

Normandy (A.), " Commercial Handbook of Chemical Ana-
lysis," 65

North America : Bibliography of the Zoology of, 381 ; Butter-
flies of, 300 ; and Australian Vermin Hooks, 554 ; Indians,
Feet of, 7 ; Insects, Prof. A. R. Grote on the distribution of,

443
North Polar Map, Mr. Stanford's, 35

North Staffordshire Naturalists' Field Club, Annual Report, 211
Norton (H.), Meteorological Phenomena, 188
Noi-way, Government Scientific Expedition, 115
" Notizblatt des Vereins fiir Erdkunde zu Darmstadt," 428
Novaya Zemlya, Swedish Arctic Expedition to, 53, 154
Noxious Insects and Tobacco Meal, 154
Numerals : in American Indian Languages, by Dr. Trumbull,

106 ; Origin of the, 476, 496, 534

Na/iirc, AW. 18, 1875]

INDEX

xiil

*'Nuovo Giomale Botanico Italiano," 326
" Nuragghi Sardi," by Capt. Oliver, 135

Gates (Frank, F.R.G.S.), Death of, ^6

Observatories, Visitations of Greenwich and Edinburgh, 108

Ocean Circulation : W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S., 454, 533 ; James

Croll, 447, 494; Prof. G. E. Thorpe, 514
Ocean Temperature, Dr. Carpenter's paper on, 1 74
Octopus, C. Mitchell on, 15
Ogovc, The River, Exploration of, 388
Ohio, Caverns and Cavern Life of the Valley of, by Prof.

Shaler, 55
Ohm's Law, Prof. Clerk Maxwell on, 404
Oils and Textures, Prof. Palmieri's "Diagometer" for testing,

427
Oliver (Capt), "Nuragghi Sardi," 135

Oliver (T>., F.R.S.), Official Guide to the Kew Museum, 270
Opossum, Prof. \V, S. Barnard on the, 445
Oppenheim (Dr. A.), Hofmann's Report on the Progress of

Chemical Industry, 365 ; Oxyuvitic Acid, 465 ; the Wohler

Festival, 295
Optical Arrangement for Azimuthal Condensing Apparatus for

Lighthouses, T. Stevenson, 333
Optical Experiment, Prof. F. E. Nipher, 502
Orang Outang, Sense of Humour and Reason in, G. J.

Romanes, 66
Ordnance Survey, appointment of Director, 300
Organ Pipes, Peculiarities of stopped, by Hermann Smith, 145
Ornithological Investigation, Prof. Newton, F.R.S. on, 412
"Ornithological Miscellany," Rowley's, 106
Ornithologists, German, Meeting of, at Brunswick, II6
Ornithology of the Missouri River, U.S., 241 ; of the Straits of

Gibraltar, 364
Osborn (Admiral Sherard, F.R.S.), Death of, 33
" Our Summer Migrants," Harting's, 249
Ova, Development of, 317, 331
"Overtone" and "Tone," A. J. Ellis, 475
Owens College, Legacy to, 117
Owen (Prof. F.R.S.) on Prorastomus sireno'tdes, 159
Oxford University : Postmasterships at Merton College, 446 ;

Additional Buildings for, 153 ; Exhibitions and Demyships at

Magdalen College, 174 ; Honorary Degrees on Scientific Men,

95 ; Natural Science Scholarship at, 96, 262 ; Report of

Committee on Requirements of, 153
Oxidation of Essential Oils, C. T. Kingzett, 465
Oxygen, Prize to M. Paul Bert for his Discoveries on the Effects

of, 526, 562
Oxyuvitic Acid, Prof. A. Oppenheim on, 465

Pacific (Northern), Meteorology of, 262

Pacific Region, Bibliography of the Zoology of, 412

Pacific States, Bancroft on the Races of the, 529

Page (Dr.), " Plea for Field Clubs, &c.," 97

Palarolithic Implements, Discovery of, 262

Pala-ontology, Captain Feilden's observations in, 32

Palermo': Congress of Italian Scientific Associations at, 387;

Scientific and Agricultural Congress at, 319
Palestine Exploration, 262; "Exploration Fund," Annual
Meeting, 135 ; Photographs at Paris Geographical Congress,
219 ; Lieut. Conder's Exploring Party, 280 ; Attack on, 298
Palgrave (W. G.), South American Earthquake, 167
Palladium, Curious description of, 76
Palmieri (Prof.), " Diagometer " for Testing Oils and Textures,

427
Pandanex, The, 48

Pandora Arctic Expedition, 117, 134, 153, 174, 527, 539,
Panligraph, The Skew, and the Plagiograph, by J. J. Sylvester,

F.R.S., 168
Paper-material, Bamboo as a, 565
Papua, Bibliography of the Zoology of, 411
Paradoxers, Cyclometers, and some other, 558
Parasitical Plants destructive to exotic trees, 453
Paris: Academy of Sciences, 20, 76, 80, 95, 100, 115, 116, 120,
135, 140, 160, 175, 200, 220, 224, 240, 244, 264, 284, 304,
324, 360, 388, 426, 428, 448, 468, 508 ; Great Telescope, 174 \
Observatories, 115; Acclimatation Society, 35, 98, 135;
Catalogues of the National Library, 541 ; Faculty of Science,
Chair of Organic Chemistry, 359 ; French Geographical So-
ciety, 96, 154; Geographical Congress at, 14, 95, 117, 154,

174, 219, 240,257, 261, 278, 293, 298, 316; International
Maritime Exhibition, 388 ; Jardin d' Acclimatation, New Sta-
tion for Tropical Plants, 96 ; M. Leverrier's plan for connect-
ing the public clocks of, 298 ; National Library, 97 ; the
Navigation of the Seine, 96 ; Large Reflecting Telescope at,
358, 388, 538 ; Proposed Catholic University in, 262 ; Pro-
posed Electrical Exhibition, 502 ; School of Anthropology in,
95, 502 ; Scientific Work in, 503
Parry (Dr. C. C), Botanical Observations in Southern Utah,

U.S. 427
Partridge, J. Wood Mason on, 359
Pasteur (M.), Pension to, 154
Patagonia, Bibliography of the Zoology of, 408
Pathology and Medicine, Government Researches in, 470
Peabody Museum, U.S., Report of, 195
Peaches, Artificial Colouring of, 503
Pekin, Transit of Venus Expedition to, 32
Peltier (N. P. ), Life among Aborigines of Australia, 242
Penikese Island School of Zoology, 77
Percy's " Metallurgy," 209

Perry (Rev. S. J. ), paper on the Transit of Venus, 373
Personal Equation in the Tabulation of Thennograms, &c., by

J. J. Plummer, 395, 453
Perth, Meeting of the Cryptogamic Society of Scotland at, 461
Perthshire Society of Natural Science, 77
"Petermann's Mittheilungen," 96, 134, 241, 388, S41
Peters' Elliptic Comet, 48
Petitot (Abbe.E.) on the Geography of Athabasca-Mackenzie

Region, 319
Petrie (W. M. Flinders), History of the Numerals, 534
Pettigrew (A.), " Handy-Book of Bees," 395
Peyton (G.), Scalping, 496
Pezophaps solitaHtis, Specimen of, 526
Pfeiffer (Dr. L.), " Nomenclator Botanicus," 503
Pheasants, Mr. Sclater's Lecture on, 148

Phene (Dr.), Prehistoric Inhabitants of the Mendip Hills, 443
Philadelphia (U.S.), Drake's Statue of Humboldt for, 96;

Academy of Sciences, 100, 199
Philippine Archipelago, Bibliography of the Zoology of, 38 1 ;

Memoir on Birds of, 96, 195 ; Jagor's Travels in, 77
Phin (John) on the selection and use of the Microscope, 513
Phosphorus and Fluorine, Prof. Thorpe on a new compound of,

464
Photographic Telescopes, Horizontal of Long Focus, by Prof.

Wenlock, 273
Photography and the Illustrated Press, 503
" Photography and Light," Dr. Vogel's, 105
Phylloxera, M. Dumas's Remedy against, 54
Physical Geography, Gilchrist Lectures on, 542
Physical Observatory at Fontenay, 279, 466 ; at Pawlowsk, 502
Physical Properties of Matter in the Liquid and Gaseous States,

by Dr. Andrews, F.R.S., 300, IL 321
Physical Society, 19, 58, 99, 139, 179, 223
Physics, Practical, 245
Physiological Effectsof Tobacco Smoke,'48
Physiology, Newton's Animal, 474
Pirie, on Galvanometer, 60
Pixii's Magneto-Electric Machine, 90
Plagiograph aliter the Skew Pantagraph, by J. J. Sylvester, 168,

214
Planets : the Diameters of, 147 ; the Minor, 113, 127, 168, 213,

272, 313. 477, 497, 535, 555
Plant Life, Phenomena of, 88
Plants and Atmosphere, M. Merget on, 424
Plants, Insectivorous, Dr. LawKon Tail, 251
Platinum Wire, Light from, used for attracting Fishes, 388
Playfair (Dr. Lyon), Vivisection Bill, 52, 75
Pleiades, the Nebtila in the, 496

Plummer (J. J.), Personal Equation in the Tabulation of Ther-
mograms, &0., 395
Plummet for Sounding Lakes, by W. T. Kingsley, 40
Pocklington (Henry), Hardened Glass, 125 ; Yorkshire Exhibi-
tion "Guide," 87
Poggendorff's Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 37, 118, 322,

448, 56s
Pogson's Comet, 67
Poisoning by a Hat, 1 16
Poitiers, Meteorological Congress, 502
Polar Ice, Dr. Chavanne's paper on, 241
Polai'ts Arctic Expedition, some Results of, 49

XIV

INDEX

[Nature, Nov. i8, 1875

Polariscope, Revolving, W. Spottiswoode, F.R.S., and Prof.
Adamson, 99

Poljakow (M.), Journey to the Upper Volga, 134

Pollution of Rivers, E. C. Potter, 220

Polynesia, Bibliography of the Zoology of, 412

Polynesians, Supposed Degeneracy of, by S. J. Whitmee, 471

Poncelet, Prizes at the French Academy, 35

Poplars, Disease in, by W. Wilson Saunders, 59

Population of the Earth, 96

Portsmouth and Bristol, Sanitary Condition of, 396, 435

Portugal, Latouche's Travels in, 135, 185 "

Potash and Phosphoric Acid, Report on, 439

Potassium Dichromate in Batteries, B. J. Fairley on, "464

Potato Disease, 196, 214, 234, 263

Prehistoric Remains, Discovery of, 262

Prehistoric Times, M. G. de Mortil let's Lectures on, 96

Pressure of Atmosphere on Human Life, Influence of, 472

Prestoe (H.) on Boiling Lake in Dominica, 173; on Coffee-
growing in Dominica, 1 73

Price's Retort Furnace, 433

Primine and Secundine, W. T. T. Dyer on, 107

Primroses and Cowslips, 7, 34, 87, 108

Protection of Indigenous Animals, 404

Prouy (M.), Tables of Logarithms, 117

Pryor (R. A.), Destruction of Flowers by Birds, 26

Pugnacity of Rabbits and Hares, by G. J. Romanes, 476

Pyridine and Chinoline Bases, 417

Pyrometer, Electrical Resistance (See Siemens)

" Pythagorean Triangles," W. Allen Whitworth on, 320

Quarterly Journal of the Meteorological Society, No. 15, 427

Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, 16, 242, 546

Quekett Microscopical Society, 284

Queensland, Cultivation of Coffee in, 426

Queensland, Route between, and New South Wales, 135

Rabbits and Hares, G. J. Romanes on Pugnacity of, 476

Radcliffe Observatory, Meteor observed at, 426 ; Report, 219

Radiation of Heat, Prof. O. Reynolds on, 405

Radiometer, Mr. Crookes', 58

Radstock, the Lias about, 119

Railway Accidents, Statistics of, 345

Railway Jubilee at Darlington, 483

Rain, Spectroscopic /r^'Wj-/^;; of, Piazzi Smith, 231, 252

Rainbow, Lunar, 329, 397

Rainfall of Great Britain, 76, lo6 ; of France, 279; of Athens,

159; Observation of Iowa, U.S., 483
Rats and Mice, Tails of, G. J. Romanes, 515
Raulin (Prof. V.), Inundations in France, 426; on the Rainfall

at Athens, 159 ; on Rainfall of France, 279
Rawlinson (Prof), The Ethnogi-aphy of the Cimbrij 466
Ray Society, Annual Meeting at Bristol, 387
Rayleigh (Lord), Vibration of a Liquid in a Cylindrical Vessel,

251
" Reale Istituto Lombardo," 198, 221, 448, 567
Reason and Humour in Animals, G. J. Romanes, 66
" Reason" and " Instinct," James Hutchings, 330
"Reboisement en France," Dr. Croumbie Brown's, 15
Recent French Mathematical Publications, 32
Reed (Sir Chas.) on the Gresham Lectures, 34
Reflector, Large, at the Paris Observatory, 538
Refraction of Sound, Prof. O. Reynolds, on the, 373
Refractor, A Monster, 517
Reichert und Du Bois-Reymond's Archiv fiir Anatomic, Physio-

logie, &c., 303
Remusat, the Death of, 135
" Rendiconto delle Sessioni dell' accademia delle scienze dell'

Istituto di Bologna," 467
Repertorium Naturwissenschaften, 290
Reptile House in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, 54
Reye (Prof) on Rain and the Barometic Minimum, 78
Reynolds (Osborne), the Attraction and Repulsion caused by

the Radiation of Heat, 6, 125 ; on the Force caused by the

communication of Heat between a Surface and a Gas, 405 ;

on the Refraction of Sound by the Atmosphere, 373
Rhabdomancy and Belomancy, 443
Rhadames, M. Largeau's Expedition to, 562
Rhtetic Beds of Aust Cliff, Fossil Bones from, 407
Rhinoceros, two Horned, at Zoological Gardens, 220
Rhinoceroses, African, 183

Rhone, the. Canal between Marseilles and, 96

Richardson (Dr. B. W., F.R.S.), A City of Health, 523, 542

Riga Society of Naturalists, 157

Riley (C), Curious habits of Insects, 527 ; Locusts as Food, 482 ;

Report on Insects of Missouri, U.S., 195, 244
Rink (Dr.), Tiie Geography of Greenland, 103 ; on the Interior

of Greenland, 241
Rivers, the Regulations of, 258
Roberts (W. C), Report on Gold Assays, 437
Rocks at Ufracombe, by Wm. S. Tuke, 312 ; Report on Ther-
mal Conductivities of, 438
Rodwell (G. F.), Hinrich's Principles of Chemistry, 288
Rohlfs (Dr. ), Map of Travels in Africa, 96
Rolleston (Dr., F.R.S. ), Address on Craniology at Brit. Ass.,

382 ; Excavations in Cissbury Camp, Worthing, 418
Romanes (G. J.), Instinct and Acquisition, 553; Pugnacity of

Rabbits and Hares, 476 ; Sense of Humour and Reason in

Animals, 66; Tails of Rats and Mice, 515
Roper's " Flora of Eastbourne," 290
Rothesay, Aquarium at, 116
Rotifera, Dr. C. T. Hudson on, 413
" Rotomahana, and the Boiling Springs of New Zealand," D.

L. Mundy, 532
Rough Hound Fish at Stockport Aquarium, 174
Roumania, Geographical Society in, 54
Rowland (H. A.), appointment at Hopkins University, U.S.,

457 ; on the Magnetising Function of Iron, &c., 406
Rowley (G. D.), "Ornithological Miscellany," 106
Royal College of Science in Dublin, Exhibitions at, 483
Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction, &c., 219 (6"?^ Science

Commission)
Royal Institution, Annual Meeting, 15
Royal Society, 17, 37, 157; Reception, 53, 95; New Fellows

of, 115
Royer (M. Ch.) on the Cause of the Sleep of Flowers, 484
Rugby Natural History Society Report, 138
Russian Expedition to Hissar, 388
Rutherford (W., M.D.), " Practical Histology," 433
Rutley (Frank) on Structure of Felspar, 1 19

Sachs (Prof.), his History of Botany, 54, 107 ; Text-Book of

Botany, 62
Safes, New Lock for, 461
Sahara, Expedition to, 135
Salzwedel, Rock-Salt discovered near, 76
St. Andrews, Professorship of Medicine, 280
St. Louis (U. S.), Transactions of the Academy of, 359
Saint Robert (M. de), "Mathematical Memoirs," Reprint of, 32
St. Thomas Charterhouse School of Science, 219
St. Thomas, Earthquake at, 167
Salmon Ova at New Zealand, 195
Salona, the Long Wall of, 140
Salt Lake, Great, Former Level of, 299
Salt Rock, discovered near Salzwedel, 76
Sandal Vert, 49
Sanders (Mr.), Fossil Bones from the Rhaelic Beds of Aust

Cliff, 407
Sanderson (Dr.), Report on the Pathology of Contagion, 471
Sandwich Islands, Bibliography of the Zoology of, 412
Sanitary State of Bristol and Portsmouth, by W. J. Black, 396
Satellites of Uranus and Neptune, 496
Saturn, M. Leverrier's Theory and Tables of, 331, 397
Saunder (S. Q.), on a new form of Leclanche's Cell, 564 '
Saunders (J.), List of Dr. J. E. Gray's Works, 195
Saunders ( W. Wilson), Disease in Poplars, 59
Savaii, Changes of Level in, by Richard Webb, 475
Saville-Kent (W.), Congo Snake at the Manchester Aquarium,

69, 87
Sawyer (Amos), Climate of Illinois, 563
Saxifraga TridactyliUs and Carnivorous Plants, 54
Sayce (Rev. A. IL), The Astronomy of the Babylonians, 489;

on Language and Race, 59
Scalping, 368, 496

Scammon (Capt. C. N.), Marine Mammals of North America, 55
Scarlet Fever and Weather, by Dr. A. Mitchell, 520
Scheele (Dr.) on the Transposition of the Viscera, 484
Schiaparelli (Prof), Eclipse of 1239, 167
.Schjellerup's Translation of Sufi's Fixed Stars, 1 88
Schleswig Holstein, Sturgeon Fisheries of, 196
Schmidt (Dr. J.), the Zodiacal Light, 436

Nature, Nov. i8, 1875]

INDEX

XV

Schonfelcl (Prof.) appointed to Bonn Observatory, 297 ; Memoir
of Prof. Argelander, 436

School of Anthropology in Paris, 502

School of Mines (Royal), 220; Exhibitions at, 482

Schriften der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Danzig, 547

Schrotter (Prof. Von), the Death of, 14

Schumacher (P.), Exploration of Islands off California, 195

Schuster (Arthur), Science in Siam, 233

Schwabe (Hofrath Heinrich), the Death of, 13

Schweinfurth (Dr.), Inaugural Address before the Societe Khedi-
vale de Geographic, 133

Science Commission : Report on the Advancement of Science,
219, 285, 305, 429, 469 J Sixth Report of the, W. Tuckwell,
549

Science Education from below, 203

Science in Germany, 115, 127, 152, 168, 189, 213, 316, 331,
398, 457, 557

Science in Siam, Arthur Schuster, 233

Scientific and Agricultural Congress at Palermo, 319

Scientific Apparatus, Loan Exhibition of, 32, 218, 562

Scientific Bibliography, 242, 374, 407, 5or, 527

Scientific Work in Paris, 503

Scientific Worthies :— V, George Gabriel Stokes (with.
Portrait), 201 ; VI. Sir Charles Lyell (with Portrait), 325

Scilly and Cornwall, Meteorology of, by W. P. Dymond, 250

Sclater (P. L., F.R.S.j, Address on our Knowledge of Geo-
graphical Zoology before British Association, 374 ; Appendix
to List of Vertebrated Animals in the Zoological Gardens,
541 ; Cassowaries, 516 ; the India Museum, 212 ; Lecture on
the Pheasants, 147 ; Mura:no/>sis iridactyla, 87

Sclater (H. H ), Report of Natural History, 75

Scotland : Rare Plants from, by Prof. Balfour, 442 ; Survey of,
Deputation to Lord Henry Lennox, 153

Scottish Meteorological Society, 14, 219 '

•'Scottish Naturalist," 283

Scythians, Scalping among the, 496

Sea Elephants trom Kerguelen's Land, at Berlin.'lby T. Willis
Clarke, 366

Sea Lions at the Brighton Aquarium, 502, 526, 542 ; J. W.
Clarke on, 212

Sea Power, Utilisation of, 212, 253, 280

Sea-water, Colour and Gravity of, 78

Seal Fishery, Greenland, 15

Seals, J. W. Clarke's Lecture on, 8

Secchi (Father) at the Congress at Palermo, 319 ; " Le Soleil,"

Sedimentary Rocks, Prof, Hughes on the Classification of, 406
Seeley (H. G.) on the Dinosaur, 119; on a Fossil from the

Gau'.t of Folkestone, 262 ; on an Omithosaurian, 119
Seiches of the Lake of Geneva, 134
Selenium, J. E. II. Gordon, on Anomalous' Behaviour 'of, 187,

291 ; Properties of, Richard J. Moss, 291
" Sensations of Tone," Helmholtz's, 449, 475
Serpent, New Species of, 54
Sewage Liquor, J. C. Melliss, 463
Sextans, Variable (?) Star in, J. E. Gore, 26, 27
Shaler (Prof N. S.), Geology in America, 5; Caverns of the

Ohio Valley, 55.
Shearwater Expedition, Results'of,'28o
Shells, Gun Cotton Water, 314

"Shells, Rambles in Search of," by J. E. Harting, 493'
Siam: Government Eclipse Expedition to, 172, 233; Science

in, Arthur Schuster, 233
Siberia, Bibliography of the Zoology of, 377 ; University at

Tomsk, 446
Siemens (C.W., F.R.S.), Electrical Resistance Thermometer

and Pyrometer, 235
Silk, Production of, in South America, 527
Silkworms' Eggs from California, 54
" Silliman's American Journal," 17, 58, 96, 97, 157, 302
Silveira (Senhor Tradessa da^ Death of, 135
Silver Nitrate, Mr. Gatehouse on, 463
Simmonds (P.L.), Catalogue of "Waste Products," 540
Simon's Report on Medicine and Pathology, 470
Sirodot (Prof.) on I'Llephants, 424

" Sitzun^sberichte der Kgl. bbhm Ges. der Wissenschaften in
^_ Prag,'^ 567

" Sitzungsberichtedernaturwissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft Isis in

Dresden," 468
Sivel and Croce-Spinelli, 195
Skulls, King of Brazil's Collection of, 75

Skye, Remarkable Formation of Cloud at the Isle of, by Thos.

Stevenson, 487
Sleep of Flowers : G. S. Boulger, 513 ; M. Ch. Royer on the

Cause of, 484
Sliding Seat, the, 369. 533
Slieda on Bone-formation, 457
Smith (Hermann), Peculiarities of Stopped Organ Pipes,

Humming Tops, &c., 145
Smith (C. Michie), the Spectroscope and the Weather, 366
Smith (Worthington), New Discovery in connection with the

Potato Disease, 214, 234, 263 ; Medal awarded to, 240
Smithsonian Institute, and Aborigines of America, 279 ; Ex-
ploration of Islands off California, 195
Smitter's New Steering Balloon, 153
Smyrna, Earthquake at, 1 16
Smyth (Prof Piazzi), Report on Edinburgh Observatory, 108 ;

Spectroscopic Prevision of Rain, 231, 252
Smyth (Warrington W.), Ores of Iron in their Geological

Relations, 28
Snakes in Ireland, Dr. J. Fayrer, 495
" Snioland ; or, Iceland, its Jokulls and Fjalls," by William

Lord Watts, 453
Snowdon, Mirage on, H. J. Wetenhall, 292
Social Science Association, 262, 526, 541, 542, 563
Societe Khedivale de Geographic, Inaugural Meeting, 133
Soft Iron, Sir W. Thomson on the Effects of Stress on the

Magnetism of, 374
Solar Disc, New Method of obtaining Isothermals on the, 301
Solar Eclipse [See Eclipse)
Solar Heat, Industrial Application of, 548
Solar Heat and Sunspots, by H. F. Blanford, 147, 188
Solar Observation in India, by R. Meldola, 400
Solar Observations, Mr. De la Rue's Tables for Reduction of,

397
Solar Radiation and Thermal Energy, 517
Solar Surface, Prof. S. P. Langley on the, 443
Sole, the Common, Note on, 7
Solfataras in Dominica, 173
Solitaire, Specimen of the, 526

Solomon Islands, Bibliography of the Zoology of the, 41 1
Solvents, New, for Gold, Silver, &c., B. J. Fairley, 464
Sorby (H. C.) on the Colouring Matters of Alg.x, 38 ; on the

Colouring Matter in Birds' Eggs, 38
Sound : Martineau's Chapters on, 165 ; Prof O. Reynolds on

the Refraction of, 373 ; Velocity of, Herr Kundt on, 89
South America : Production of Silk in, 527 ; Earthquake, 194;

W. G. Palgrave, 167
South Kensington : India Museum at, 75, 96, 192 ; Loan

Exhibition of Scientific Apparatus at, 32, 218, 562 ; Science

Education at, 203, 245
Southport Aquarium, 116, 174

South Sea Islanders, Rev. W. Gill on the Origin of, 466
" South Seas," Wood's "Yachting Cruise to the," 434
Spalding (D.A.), Fiske's "Cosmic Philo.sophy," 267 ; Instinct

and Acquisition, 507
Specific Heat of the Solid Elements, 168
Spectroscope, the, and the Weather, 231, 252, 366
Spectroscopy in America, 174

Spengel (J. W.), " Die Fortschritte des Darwinismus," 460
Spettroscopisti Italiani, Memorie della Societa degli, 17
Spezzia, Shock of Earthquake at, 76
Spinning Top Problem, 455
Sponges, Fibrous, M. Lortet on, 424
Spotliswoode (W., F.R.S.) on Mathematical Printing, 404;

Revolving Polariscope, 99 ; Stratification in Electrical Pis-
charges, 157
Spragiie (J. T. ), Electricity, 144

Sprengel (Dr. Hermann), Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, 319
Squaring the Circle, 558

Staffordshire, North, Naturalists' Field Club, 211
Stagonolcpis Robertsoni, Prof Huxley on, 38
Stahlberger's " Az Arapaly Fiumei Obolben," 43
Stanley's African Expedition, 540
Star: The Binary, 4 Aquarii, 292; the Double, 2 1785, 213 ;

the Double, 2 2120, 147, 496, 535 ; Double, O 2387, 555 ;

Double,/ Eridani, 554; Kepler's Nova 1604, Prof. Win-

necke on, 292 ; Lalande 23726 (Corvus), 233 ; the Triple,

South 503, 232; B.A.C. 793, 127
Stars : The Melbourne Catalogue of, 87 ; Sfifi's Descrintion o

Fixed, 188 ; Variable, 7, 48, 126, 213, 272 ; Binary, 8, 26
Steam Balloon, 153

XVI

INDEX

\_Matm-e, Nov. i8, 1875

Steel and Iron, U. S. Government Board for Testing, 94

Steel Wires and Rods, Prof. W. F. Barrett on the Molecular

Structure of, 374
Stefan (Herr), Researches on Adhesion, 88
Stevenson (Thos.), Azimuthal Condensing Apparatus for Light-
houses, 333 ; Remarkable formation of Cloud at the Isle of

Skye, 487
Stewart (Prof. Balfour, F.R.S.), Trevandrum Magnetic Observa-

tions, 163, 186
Stockholm Academy, 224, 488

Stoddart (Mr.) on Auriferous Limestone at Walton, 406
Stokes (Prof., F.R.S.), Lectures at Cambridge^ 526 ;, Notice of

(with Portrait), by Prof. P. G. Tait, 201
Stokes (Prof.) and Dr. Hopkinson on the Optical Properties of

a Titano-Cilicic Glass, 373
Stone Implements : Discovery of, 262 ; from Missouri, U.S.,

195 ; of Newfoundland, 99 ; from Porto Rico, 196
Stone Mask, on the Occurrence of, in New Jersey, by Chas. C.

Abbott, 49
Stone (Dr.) on Phenomena of Taste, 179; on Wind Instru-
ments, 19
Storms, Faye on the Laws of, 400, 457, 497, 535
Strachey (Lieut. -Gen., F.R.S.), Address on Geography at

British Association, 419
Stream Lines, Mr. Froude on, 406
Strecker (Hermann), Work on Lepidoptera, 280
Strelzow on Bone-formation, 457
Sturgeon : Fisheries of Schleswig-Holstein, 196 ; at Manchester

Aquarium, 154; at Southport Aquarium, 116
Struthers (Prof.), Lectures at Aberdeen, 219
Subterranean Forest-Bed at the Surrey Docks, 359
Sub-Wealden Exploration, 95, 174, 194, 242, 261, 358, 404,

461, 542
Sufi's Description of Fixed Stars, 188

Sulphuric Acid, Dr. H. Sprengel on the Manufacture of, 319
Sumatra, R. D. M. Verbeck on the Geology of, 565
Sumbul Root, 253
Sun : Edw. S. Holden on the Observation of the Corona

and Red Prominences of the, 399; Parallax of, 113, 233;

Radiation, and Bunsen's Ice Calorimeter, 189 [,See Solar)
Sunspots, Ozone, Rain, &c., Dr. Moffat on the connection of,

374
Sunspots and Solar Heat, by H. J\ Blanford, 147, 188.
Survey of Scotland, Deputation to Lord Henry Lennox, 153
Swallow, a White, 503
Sweden, Charts of the Meteorological Institute of, 426 ; Arctic

Expedition to Novaya Zemlya {See Arctic : Nordenskjold)
Switzerland, Thunderstorms in, 447
Sylvester (J. J., P\R.S.)^on the Plagiograph aliter the Skew

Pantigraph, 168, 214
"Symons' British Rainfall, " 76, 106, 437
Systems of Consanguinity {See Consanguinity)

Tait (Dr. Lawson), Insectivorous Plants, 251

Tait (Prof. P. G. ), Notice of Prof. G. G. Stokes, F.R.S., 201

Tait and Dewar (Profs.), Charcoal Vacua, 217

Tasmania : Acclimatation of Trout in, 95 ; Proceedings of

Royal Society of, 198
Taste, Dr. Stone on Phenomena of, 179
Tate (Ralph) on the Lias about Radstock, 119
Taylor (H. M.), Relative Value of the Pieces at Chess, 527
Telegraph, the Progress of the, 30, 69, no, 149, 254
Telescope : Horizontal Photographic, of Long Focus, by Prof.

Wenlock, 273 ; Large Reflecting, at the Paris Observatory,

358
Temperature : Diverse Effects of the same, in Different Climates,

302 ; of the Human Body during Mountain Climbing, 132,

165, 186 ; M. Violle's Ascents of the Alps to Test, 527, 542
Termites, F. Miiller on, by Lady Lubbock, 218
Texas, Floods in, 483

Textures and Oils, Prof Palmieri's Diagometer for Testing, 427
Thames Valley, Remains from, at British Museum, 427
Theorell's Printing Meteorograph, 488, 547
Thermal Conductivities of Rocks, Report on, 438
Thermal Energy and Solar Radiation, J. Ericsson, 5 1 7
Thermo-diffusers, M. Merget on, 424
Thermograms, Personal Equation in the Tabulation of, 453 ;

by J. J. Plummer, 395
Thermographs of the Isothermal Lines of the Solar Disc,

Meyer's Method of obtaining, 497

Thermometer : Electrical Resistance, by Dr. C. W. Siemens,
F.R.S., 23s ; Self-Registering, 37

Thomson (Prof. Wyville), Chalenger Y.x\i&dS.\\ox\, 315, 555

Thomson (Sir W.) on the Effects of Stress on the Magnetism
of Soft Iron, 374 ; on Tides, 404

Thorpe (Prof.), Temperature of the Human Body during Moun-
tain Climbing, 165 ; a New Compound of Fluorine and Phos-
phorus, 464; Oceanic Circulation, 514

Thrushes, Scarcity of, 272

Thudichum (Dr.), the Chemical Constitution of the Brain, 471

Thunderstorms : Von Bezold on, 127 ; in France, 219, 564; in
Switzerland, 447

Tliuret (Gustave), Obituary Notice of, 95

Tidal Mills, 280

Tide Gauges on the Escault, Belgium, 484

Tides of: the Mediterranean, 43

Tides, Sir W. Thomson on, 404

Tiger of Bengal, by Dr. J. Fayrer, 474

Tiger and Lion, Strength of. Prof. S. Haughton, F.R.S., 495

Timber Trees, Exotic, in Mauritius, 565

Titano-Cilicic Glass, Prof. Stokes and Dr. Hopkinson on the
Optical Properties of, 373

Tobacco : Dr. Vohl on Carbonic Oxide in, 15; Smoke, Physio-
logical Effects of, 48 ; Meal and Noxious Insects, 154; Action
of, 417; Havana Cigars, 563

Tomlinson (C.) on Lightning Figures, 9

Tomsk (Siberia), University at, 446

"Tone" and "Overtone," A. J. Ellis, 475

Toronto, Magnetic and Meteorological Observations at, 474

Tortoises, the Gigantic Land, of the Mascarene and Galapagos
Islands, by Dr. A. Giinlher, F.R.S., 238, 259, 296

Torula, Chlorophyll and, 15

Toynbee (Capt. H.) on the Physical Geography of the Atlantic
Doldrums, 405

Transit of Comet 1826, 535

Transit of Venus, Expedition to Japan, by Dr. J. Janssen, 405 ;
Mr. Watson on, 446; of 1882, 256

Trees, Prof. Cayley on the Analytical Forms called, 463

Trevandrum, Magnetic Observations, 163, 186

Tribe (Alfred) on the Copper-zinc Couple, 464

Trigonometrical Survey of India, 72

Triple Star, South 503, 232

Tropical Plants at the Jardin d' Acclimatation, Paris, 96

Trout, 'Acclimatation in Tasmania, 95

Trumbull (Dr. J. H.), Numerals in American Indian I>an-
guages, 106

Tuckwell , (Rev. W.) on Science and Education, 298; Sixth
Report of the Science Commission, 549

Tuke (Wm. S.), Rocks at Ilfracombe, 312

Twickenham, Removal of Mr. Bishop's Observatory from, 526

Tylor (A.), Heat evolved by Friction of Ice, 39

Ucke (Dr.), Quantitative Proportion of Atmospheric Oxygen, 17

" Ultima Thule," Burton's, 509

United States : Anderson School of Natural History, Penikese
Island, 77 ; Annual Meeting of the Natural Academy of
Science, 34; Archaeology of Islands off California, 195 ; Coasts
Survey Report for 1872, 34; Geology of New York District,
263 ; Government Board for Testing Iron and Steel, 94, 152 ;
Surveys, 96, 97, 135, 231, 262, 265, 359; Hopkins University,
456 ; Ilydrographic Ofifice Time Signals, 134 ; Insects of Mis-
souri, 195 ; Meteorology of, 76 ; Microscopical Societies in,
77 ; Mines and Ironworks in, by Lowthian Bell, 29 ; Park ,
Museum, New York, 299 ; Museum of Zoology at Cambridge,
77 ; Peabody Museum, 195 ; Zoological Society of Philadel-
phia, 13s ; Schools of Science in, 33 ; Spectroscopy in, 174 ;
Stone Implements at Museum, Washington, 196 ; Walker's
Statistical Map of, 447 ; Weather Maps of, 273 {See America,
New York, Philadelphia)

" Unseen Universe," 41, 66

Upsala Observatory, Observations on the Duration of Ice, 483

Uranian and Neptunian Systems, Newcomb on the, 515

" Uranometria, an Ancient, 167

Uranus and Neptune, the Satellites of, 496

Urari, on the action of, on the Central Nervous System, by C.
Yule, 320

Ure's "Dictionary of Arts," 182

Valenliner (Dr.) appointed to Mannheim Observatory, 298
Valorous, Work of the, 461, 527 ,

iValure, A^ov. i8, 1875]

INDEX

XVU

Vanilla Plant, Disease of the, 484

Variable Stars, 7, 26, 27, 48, 126, 213, 272, 367

Variola Ovina, Dr. Klein's Report on the Contagion of, 471

Varley (C. F. ) on Lightning Figures, 1 1

Vatnajokul, Exploration of, 319, 333

Vegetation of Australia, Baron Mueller^on, 33

Velocity of Sound, Herr Kundt on, 89

Venus : Horizontal Refraction on, 233 ; Mr. Watson on the

Atmosphere of, 446 ; Occultation of, 88 ; Transit of 1882,

256 ; Rev. S. J. Perry on the Transit of, 373
Verbeck (R. D. M.), Geology of Central Sumatra, 565
Vennin Hooks, Australian and N. American, 554
Vertebrata, Dr. Dohrn on the Origin of, 479
"Vestiges of the Molten Globe," by W. L. Green, 85
Vibration of a Liquid in a Cylindrical Vessel, Lord Rayleigh, 251
Victoria : Baron von Mueller's List of Plants Eligible for Culture

in, 426 ; Botany in. Baron Mueller's Report on, 33
Victoria Institute, 120, 160
Vienna: Academy of Science, 120, 224, 303, 324, 360, 488;

Election of Mr. Charles Darwin, 95
Vienna Geological Society, 200, 468
" Ville de Calais " Balloon Ascent, 13
Vilna (Russia), New University at, 446
Vincent's "Year Book of Facts for 1874," 310
Vine Culture in New South Wales, 15

Violle (^L), Ascents of the Alps to Test Temperature, 527, 542
Violoncello, "Wolf" in, by W, T. Kingsley, 40
Virchow (Prof.), Kine of Brazil's Collection of Skulls, 75
Viscera, Dr. Scheele on the Transposition of, 484
Vivisection Bill : Lord Hartismere's, 21 ; Dr. Lyon Playfair's,

52, 75
Vivisection Commission, 173, 194, 220, 562
Vogel's " Light and Photography," 105
Vohl (Dr.) on Carbonic Oxide in Tobacco Smoke, 15
Volcanic Action and the Growth of Coral, S. J. Whitmee, 291
Volcanic Energy : Rev. O. Fisher's Remarks on, 79 ; Source of,

by W. S. Green, 396, 455
Volcanic Phenomena in Iceland, 75, 76, 194
Volga, the Upper, M. Poljakow's Journey to, 134
Voltaic Gas Lighter, Mr. Yeates, 35

Waagen (Dr.), appointment on Indian Survey, 503

Wagstaffe (W. W.), Structure of Bones, 220; the Sliding Seat

Foreshadowed, 369
Walden (Lord), Monograph on the Birds of the Philippine

Islands, 195
Wales, Prince of. Visit to India, 261
Walker (Col. J. T.), Trigonometrical Survey of India, 72
Walker (Dr. R. B.), his "Twenty-five Years' Experience in

Africa," 240
Walker's Statistical Map of the United States, 448
Wallace (A. R., F.R.S.), " Lawson's New Guinea," 83
Wanklyn (Prof.) on the Water of the Nile, 541
" Warburton's Western Interior of Australia," 46, 77
Ward (Barrington, F.L.S.), Botanical Lectures to the Sheffield

Ladies' Educational Association, 299
Ward (J. Clilton) on Rocks of the Lake District, 263
Ward (T. Ogier), Note on the Common Sole, 7
Waste Products, P. L. Simmonds on, 540
Water, its Quality in relation to Fauna, &c., 116
Water Shells, Gun Cotton, 314
Waterspouts, 459

Waterhouse (Capt. ), Sensitiveness of Bromide of Silver, 446
Watford Natural History Society, 77, 299
Watson (Mr.) at the Paris Observatory, 426 ; paper on Transit

of Venus, Obscnrations made at Peking, 446
Watts's "Dictionary of Chemistry," 327
Watts (W. L.), Travels in Iceland, 117, 319, 333 ; «' Snioland,

or Iceland, its TokuUs and Fjalls, 453 ; on Volcanic Eruption

in Iceland, 446
Wave Motion, Prof. F. Guthrie on the Measurement of, 462
Waves, High, and a North-west Wind, Ralph Abercromby,

Weapons, American Indian, 107, 125

Weather on the Atlantic, by Capt. W. W. Kiddle, R.N., in

Weather Maps of U.S., by Prof. Loomis, 273

Weather Report of Meteorological Society, loi

Weather and Scarlet Fever, by Dr. A. Mitchell, 320

Weather and the Spectroscope, by C. Michie Smith, 366

Webb (Richd.), Changes of Level in Savaii, 476

Webster (G. W.), Origin of the Numerals, 496

Weddas of Ceylon, B. Hartshorne, 465

Weismann (Dr. A.) on the Season Eimorphism of Butterflies,

127
Wellington College Natural History Society Reports, 157
Wellington, N.Z., Philosophical Society, 99
West Indies : Bibliography of the Zoology of the, 409 ;

Hurricane in, 542 ; Latitude and Longitude of Places in, 54
West Riding Naturalists' Society, 77, 320
Wetenhall (H. J.), Mirage on Snowdon, 292
Weyprecht (Lieut.) on Arctic Expeditions, 460, 539, 563
Weyr (Prof. Dr.), " Gmndziige einer Theorie der cubischen

Involutionen," ';i3
Wheatstone (Sir Chas., F.R.S.), Death of, 561
Wheeler (Lieut.), Discovery of New Species of Serpent in

Arizona, 54 ; Report of Exploration of the looth ISIeridian

in 1872, 231
Whitaker (Wm.), Guide to the Geology of London and the

Neighbourhood, 452
White (Gilbert), Unpublished Letters of, 481
Whitehouse (W.) on Electric Conductivity of Glass, 139
Whitmee (S. J.), Degeneracy of Man, 47 ; on Volcanic Action

and the Growth of Corals, 291
Whitney's "Life and Growth of Language," 225
Whitworth (W. Allen) on " Pythagorean Triangles," 320
Whitworth Scholarships, 1875, Successful Candidates, 280
Wiedmann's Galvanism, 242
Wilder (Prof), Foetal Manatee, 446 ; papers in Natural

History, 444
Wildungen, Dr. A. Stoecker on the Baths of, 1 75
Williamson (Prof.) on Fossil Seeds in Coal, 442
Willis (Prof.), Collections of Models, cScc, 14, 25, 153
Wilson (W. J.) on Electrical Resistance of Liquids, 179 .
Wilson (Dr. Dan.), Hybridity and Absorption of the Red

Indian Race, 563
Wilson's " Notes on the Fertilisation of the Cereals," 270
Wimbledon, Caesar's Camp, Demolition of, 298
Winchester and Hampshire Scientific Society, 198
Wind: Velocity of, 98, 118; North-west, and High Waves,

Ralph Abercromby, 514
Winlock (Prof. Joseph), Obituary Notice of, 173, 191 ; on the

Horizontal Photographic Telescope of Long Focus, 273
Wohler ( Prof ), Recollections of, 179; Festival, 295
Wolf of Northern India, Natural History of, E. Bonavia, 67
Wolf-fish, at Southport Aquarium, 116
"Wolf" in Violoncello, by W. T. Kingsley, 40
Wood (W. W.), Diatoms, 514
Wood (Major), Note on the Hyrcanian Sea, 51 ; the Separation

of the Aral and the Caspian, 313 ; on the Aralo-Caspian

Region, 320
Wood (C. F.), " A Yachting Cruise in the South Seas," 434
Wood-Mason (J.) on Wood Partridge, 359

Woods, Dupont and De la Grye on Indigenous and Foreign, 512
Woodward (Prof.), Apparatus for Building Model Cones and

Volcanoes, 99
Woodward (S. P.), "A Manual of the Mollusca," 494
World, M. Malte-Brun's Chart of the, 299
Wrangel (Baron Von) on the Best Means of Reaching the Pole,

104
Wrecks, M. Bazin's Apparatus for Raising, 446
Wiillerstorf-Urbair (Admiral), Meteorological Notes, 134
Wundt (Prof. W.) at Zurich, 135

Wurtz (M.), appointment of to Professorship of Science, 298
Wyman (Prof.), a Memoir of, 195
Wynnstay Colliery, Underground Fire in, 29

Year Book of Facts for 1874, 310

Yeates' Galvano-Pyreon, 35

York School Natural History, &c.. Society, Report of, 447

Yorkshire College of Science : Annual Report, 117; Evening

Lectures, 542 ; Inauguration of, 501, 509
Yorkshire Exhibition Guide, 76, 87
Yorkshire, West Riding Naturalists' Society, 77
Young (Capt.), Arctic Expedition in the Pandora^ 539
Yule (C. ), the Action of Urari on the Central Nervous System,

320

"Zeitschrift fiir Anatomic und Entwickelungsgeochichte," 115
" Zeitschrift der Oesterreichischen Gescllschaft fiir Meteorologie,"
17, 78, 98, 118, 138, 198, 221, 283, 323, 467, 488, 547, 566

XVlll

INDEX

[Nature, Nov. i8, X875

Zinc Ethylochloride, Discovery of, by Dr. Gladstone, 96

Zodiacal Light, the, 436

Zoological Gardens: Additions to, 15, 35, 55, 77, 97, 117, 136,
154, 175, 196, 220, 242, 262, 280, 300, 320, 350, 388, 427, 447,
461,484, 504, 527, 542,564; Appendix to List of Vertebrated
Animals in the, 541 ; Birth of Rhinoceros, 220 ; Chimpanzee
at, 242 ; Manatee at, 294, 319 j Lectures at, 8, 27, 68, 92, 114,
129, 148

Zoological Garden at Calcutta, 53

Zoological Nonsense, 128

" Zoological Record " for 1873, 124

Zoological Society, 38, 96, 119, 160, 195, 319

Zoological Stations Abroad, by Dr. Miklucho-Maclay, 332

Zoological Station at Naples: Inauguration, 11, 55, 372

"Zoologische Garten,' 37, 118

Zoology, Geographical, Dr. Sclater's Address on, 374

Zoology of Kerguelen's Island, 36

" Zoology for Students," C. Carter Blake, 553

Zoology of the Voyage of Erebus and Terror, 261, 289, 312

Zurich, Professorships at, 135

A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

"To ike solid ground
Of N'ature trusts the mind wJwh builds for aye."

-Wordsworth

THURSDAY, MAY 6, 1875

GEIKIE'S ''LIFE OF MURCHISON"

Life of Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart., F.R.S. etc.
Based on his fournals and Letters. With Notices of his
Scientific Contemporaries and a Sketch of the Rise and
Growth of Palccozoic Geology in Britain. By Archi-
bald Geikie, LL.D., F.R.S., Director of H.M. Geological
Survey of Scotland, and Murchison Professor of Geology
and Mineralogy in the University of Edinburgh. 2 vols.
Illustrated with Portraits and Woodcuts. (London :
John Murray, 1875.)

TO have before us "\n detail, and reflected as in a
mirror of his own notes and correspondence, the
story of the life of one who has taken a foremost place in
the ranks of science, is a matter of no little interest. We
want to know as much as we can of the kind of qualities
that go to make a successful man of science, and of the
circumstances which have enabled him to be useful to the
world. Such information may be obtained either by
categorical questions addressed to such men during life,
after the manner of Mr. Francis Galton's work lately re-
viewed in these columns * in which we have the advantage
of numbers for comparison ; or by the more detailed
story of the life of individuals, from which we can gather
for ourselves the answers to our questions, with all the
additional light thrown upon them by surrounding cir-
cumstances.

Such a story is that presented to us by Prof. Geikie of
the life of Sir Roderick Murchison, whom no one will
deny to have occupied a foremost place, and to have con-
tributed valuable and lasting materials to the sciences to
which he devoted himself. Many, indeed, and fruitful
are the teachings of such a life as this, and some of them
are well pointed out by the author in his concluding lines.

Nor is the interest of the work confined to this. Not

only was Murchison eminent in science, but he ranks

among the founders of one of its most recent branches —

Geology ; and hence, though in later years his name has

* Nature, vol. xi. p. 161.

Vol. XII.— No. 288

been more prominently connected in the public mind with
Geography, it is as a geologist alone that he will be
known to posterity ; and the study of his life is an exami-
nation of the way in which some of the chief corner-stones
of Geology were laid.

Prof. Geikie has performed his promised task in an
admirable manner. It must be remembered that he was
I asked by the subject himself to undertake the work, and
the materials out of which he was to develop it were
placed in his hands ; and under these circumstances he
must necessarily be guided partly by the probable wishes
of the subject, and partly by the nature of his material ;
and if it be a biographer's duty to *' hold a mirror up to
nature," there can be no doubt that Prof. Geikie has
admirably done so. The scenes and circumstances that
formed so large a part of the acted life may well occupy
an equally large share in the written life, however much
geologists or students of human nature might wish for
different matter.

We have no doubt that Prof. Geikie would have
preferred to write such a life as we have indicated,
and he has done his best to escape from a " narrative
devoted merely to the personal events of Sir Roderick
Murchison's life ; " but in loyalty to his friend he felt
bound, no doubt, to follow his desires rather than his
own. Those who are acquainted with Prof. Geikie's other
writings need not be told that this is written with admi-
rable perspicuity, and his candour and ingenuousness
are above all praise. There is no false colouring here ;
we see Murchison as he was ; what was good not exag-
gerated, but duly brought forward ; what was bad (and
who has not faults 1) by no means palliated, though,
where possible, accounted for. These are undoubtedly
the great merits of the work, and ought to inspire
thorough confidence where it touches on matters of con-
troversy.

The Life before us gives admirable means of perceiving
the exact relation of Sir Roderick Murchison to the
science of Geology, and the qualities and circumstances
which enabled him to stand in that relation. There are
times in the history of a Science, as in the history of a
Nation, when some definite work has to be done, and it is

NATURE

{May 6, 1875

done, as we may say, through some power of natural selec-
tion, by one whose qualities are adapted for that purpose
and for that alone, and whose greatness consists in being
exactly fitted in that respect to the time in which he lives,
and it may be in nothing besides. Before we consider
the relation which Murchison held in this way to Geology,
we may pass in review the chief incidents of his life as
detailed for us in these volumes.

Sir Roderick was descended from a sturdy Highland
stock, whose courage and perseverance he inherited, but
who contributed no further to his fortune. His father
was a surgeon, who, after making a fortune in India,
returned to his native land and bought the estate of
Tarradale, in the eastern part of the county of Ross,
where Roderick was born on Feb. 19, 1792. When the
boy was only three years old the family removed to Lath,
where the father died in 1796. Three years after,
Roderick's mother married a second time, and the boy,
at the age of seven years, was sent to the grammar
school of Durham. Here he seems to have learnt Httle
but mischief; but educational requirements were not
great in those days, and he probably knew at the end of
his six years as much as most of his contemporaries. Cer-
tainly his education here had no manner of influence,
as far as we can see, on his future career ; and the
absence of scientific culture in youth, if it did not pre-
vent him from rising to greatness and doing good work,
would most decidedly have done so had he been thrown
into other circumstances and lived in days like our own,
and it certainly confined him to the limits of a geological
worker instead of allowing him to become a geological
philosopher.

After leaving Durham, and visiting his uncle, General
Mackenzie, who persuaded him he would make a good
soldier, he was sent to the military college at Great Mar-
low. The two J ears he spent here cannot be said to have
been without use to him, for if he learnt but little from
books, he was forced to undergo the more special training
for a soldier's career, which in after life had a solidifying
effect on his character. At this time his uncle wrote of
him : " He is a charming boy, manly, sensible, generous,
warm-hearted. I think he has talents to make a figure in
any profession." At the age of fifteen he was gazetted
Ensign in the 36th Regiment, which, after picking up
some scraps of knowledge in Edinburgh, he joined in
Ireland. He had not long to wait for work, for in the
following year (1808) his regiment was ordered to the
Peninsula, and he received his "baptism of fire" at the
battle of Vimieira. We need scarcely say of any English
soldier that he behaved with bravery in battle, and forti-
tude under tr}ing circumstances : but, after a short dis-
play of these quahties, a retreat was ordered from
Corunna, and Murchison returned home, being nearly
wrecked in the transport. Though he joined his uncle
Mackenzie as aide-de-camp in the following year, he
never again succeeded in getting into active service, and
this induced him, after eight years' career, to retire from
the army.

Murchison was evidently a keen soldier, and it seems
probable that, had he found adequate scope for the
irrepressible energy of his character in this direction,
Geology would have lost his^ services. At the age of
twenty-three, on August 29, 1815, he married Miss Char-

lotte Hugonin, daughter of General Hugonin, of Nursted
House, Hampshire ; an event which had a more than
usual influence on his future career. In the first place,
her fortune, combined with his own, enabled him to devote
himself to any pursuit he might take up, without having
the distractions of bread-winning routine duties, and in
later years to keep up that state and hospitality which
made him the representative of science in the upper
circles of society. But also, and to her honour, she exer-
cised a most salutary personal influence over him, almost
imperceptible, but always in the right direction. Prof
Geikie says, " to his wife he owed his fame ;" but a
perusal of his life assures' us that this must be taken in a
very qualified sense. Such a steady attachment to science
as he showed for more than forty years argues a natural
bent that way that would sooner or later have been
developed under any circumstances ; yet at one time
certainly she was his " better half," and her influence de-
serves all admiration. It was soon after his marriage
that he retired from the army, chiefly to avoid introducing
his wife to the monotony of barrack life. What pursuit
was he to follow now ? Something it must be that, while
it would not engross too much time and effort, would
leave him plenty of scope for the satisfaction of that mus-
cular energy which was continually craving for some ade-
quate outlet. Should he become a country' parson,
trudging for miles over the wild country side to visit
some outlying houses, varying his duties occasionally by
a fox-hunt or a day's shooting ? He actually thought of
this ; but his creed, as given in his own words by his
biographer, shows that this was really an impossible
solution of the question. So he tried travel ; and for
two years roamed over Italy and examined the treasures
of art with a quickly ripening critical eye. His enthu-
siasm in this pursuit, which was quite new to him, proved
how vast was his energy, and that it only required guid-
ance into a suitable channel to accomplish valuable work.
But he found out in time that art was not his calling ;
and, tired of continental travel, he brought back his wife
to England. Then there was nothing but fox-hunting
that he could think of to employ his energies; so he spent
five of the best years of his life, from twenty-six to thirty-
one, in this important occupation, and succeeded in gain-
ing the glorious distinction of being the best rider in his
neighbourhood.

But the wild oats ^yere sown at last, and partly from
enmii, partly from meeting with Sir Humphry Davy, and
greatly from the influence of his wife, he once more
looked the question in the face— Was there no employ-
ment that would be worthy of a man of energy, that would
require and repay his enthusiasm ?

At that time (1825) Geology was in need of such a man
as he. Some few years before the Geological Society
had been started, and its principle was this : " In the
present state of geological science, facts are more
wanted than theories." Now, while the facts of most
other sciences are obtained in the closet, many of those
of geology are to be gathered in the field. Prof. Geikie
gives in this connection a pleasant outline of the state of
theoretical geology of the time, on some details of which
there may possibly be difference of opinion, but it is
certain that no sound progress could be made on account
of the backwardness of stratigraphical geology ; almost

May 6, 1875]

NATURE

the only good work as yet done in this direction being
that of Wm. Smith — a man considerably like Murchison
in character, though in a lower walk of life, and who had
mapped and arranged most of what we now call secondary
rocks. Much remained yet to be done both among these
and above them, but below them was a perfect blank.
No one had yet attempted to attack the monster " Grau-
wacke " in his fastnesses. It was not, however, to be
conquered by a tyro, and it was only after minor attempts
elsewhere that Murchison made the assault upon it from
above, while Sedgwick undermined it from below.

Murchison's life hitherto has not been such as to lead
us to expect much of him ; but a study of his biography
and a knowledge of his works prove that we must from
this time see him in a different light ; without indeed the
advantages of early training, yet earnestly doing his best
under the circumstances to advance the cause of science
in that way in which alone he could hope to do so. He
was one of those who

"rise
On stepping-stones of their dead selves
To higher things;"

and we next hear of him as a diligent student of Brande,
Buckland, Webster, and WoUaston, and very shortly fol-
lowing out, at the suggestion of others, some new lines of
inquiry, where information was wanted. The discussion
of these works we will postpone for the present, and pass
on to the sketch of his Hfe henceforth as detailed for us
so clearly by Prof. Geikie.

His first excursion was in the summer of 1825, when
he was accompanied by his wife, and made a tour of nine
weeks on the south coast, from the Isle of Wight into
Devon and Cornwall. " Driving, boating, walking, or
scrambling, the enthusiastic pair signalised their first
geological tour by a formidable amount of bodily toil."

Murchison associated himself early in his geological
career with Sedgwick, with whom he had many a happy
and profitable tour, the first of which took place in 1827,
when they went together to the Island of Arran. Mur-
chison's summers for many years now were spent in the
field, while his winters in London were given to society,
and to the work of the Secretary of the Geological Society,
which he voluntarily undertook. It was not till 1831 that
he first broke ground in " Siluria," the results of which
appeared after many delays, in 1838, iu the well-known
" Silurian System." He was not content with work in
England only, but quite as often traversed the Continent,
bringing home results, and enjoying the society of the
chiefs of geology abroad. No sooner was his first work
well off his hands than he began to contemplate an excur-
sion to Russia to trace the same rocks there, and having
been partially successful in 1840, the next year he
surveyed the whole of the Ural Mountains under the
auspices of the Emperor, and with the assistance of Count
Keyscrhng and De Verneuil, the results of which survey
appeared in 1845 i^i the magnificent work entitled " Geo-
logy of Russia and the Ural Mountains."

From this time Murchison's position in the ranks of
geologists was secure. How did he use it ? To this
there can be but one answer. He used all the influence
his position gave him for the advancement of science.
His personal energies never flagged ; no summer passed
but he did good work, which now forms part of the
common property of geologists. Each autumn saw him

enthusiastically engaged in the work of the British
Association, of which he was president in 1846, and in
which he ever continued to take a genuine interest.
During these years his devotion to the Geographical
Society increased, and, as our readers know, he was in the
end regarded as so indispensable to its prosperity, that
for the last ten years of his life he was president.

This Society was almost of his own making, for it was
a very different thing when he joined it to what it was
when he died ; and perhaps some little feehng of jealousy
may be entertained by geologists at the apparent trans-
ference of his affectionso But it should be remembered
that throughout his career Murchison was a pioneer. His
works are all masterly outlines of fresh fields ; and when by
the time that infirmities in any case would prevent him from
doing much field-work, he found a large band of geolo-
gists working at details throughout Europe. No room
was left for such preliminary investigations as his, unless
he went by proxy, so to speak, to countries far away ; and
in the end he was strictly serving Geology, by encouraging
Physical Geography ; for the former is impossible without
the foundation of the latter being laid.

As Director-General of the Geological Survey, a post
which he held from the death of Sir H. De la Beche in
1855 until his own decease in 1871, he earned the grati-
tude of geologists by the enlarged scope he persuaded
the Government to give to it, and its consequent rapid
and invaluable work ; while in this and in other ways he
was always ready and anxious to help forward any rising
worker in the field.

Into further details of his life — how honours were
poured on him from all sides, which he received with
avidity ; how he never failed to enjoy the dehghts of
society ; how he obtained a Geographical Section at the
British Association ; how he endowed a professorship of
Geology — into these we cannot enter more fully, but must
refer the reader to the book itself, where they are all
admirably set forth.

The last words of Prof. Geikie on the character of Sir
Roderick Murchison are very good. He traces the suc-
cess of his career and the value of his life to three main
sources. " Foremost we would place his vigorous energy,
his unwearied and almost reckless activity. He never
seemed to be without a definite and well-planned task."
" Afiother leading feature in his character . . . was shrewd
common sense and knowledge of the world ; " and " there
was still another characteristic which secured to Murchi-
son the esteem as well as the respect of his feUow-men —
his thorough kindliness and goodness of heart." Every
one of these features is amply illustrated in the details of
his life ; and though other features, perhaps not quite so
imitable, may strike us on its perusal, yet these stand out
in the foreground, and teach the ever-required lesson that
industry and energy are the invariable forerunners of
success. {To be continued^

THE FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA
The Flora of British India. By Dr. J. D. Hooker, C.B.,
assisted by various Botanists. Vol I. Ranunculacea;
to Sapindaceas. (London : Reeve and Co.)

THE completion of the first volume of the Flora of
India is an event of no small importance in descrip-
tive botany. That India should be almost the last of our

NATURE

{May 6, 1875

possessions whose vegetable wealth botanists have under-
taken to describe in a systematic order, is due to various
causes, not the least of which is the enormous labour of
collecting and sifting the scattered literature bearing on
this subject. The books and short papers on the botany
of various parts of India are exceedingly numerous, and
several works have been commenced never to be com-
pleted. Dr. Hooker himself, in conjunction with Dr. T,
Thomson, published some years ago the first volume of a
Flora of India based upon a more elaborate plan than
that of the work now in progress, which departs from
that of the other Colonial Floras, Hooker's " Student's
Flora of the British Islands " having served as a model.

In addition to British India proper, this work embraces
the territories of the Malayan Peninsula, Kashmir, and
Western Thibet ; but Afghanistan and Baluchistan, having
been taken up by Boissier in his " Flora Orientalis," are
not included. The total area under investigation'exceeds a
million square miles, exhibiting every variety of climate,
soil, and other conditions, and ranging from the sea- level
to an altitude of 19,000 feet, which is about the upper
limit of flowering plants. Dr. Hooker computes the total
number of species growing within this area at 12 to 14,000
which is doubtless not very] wide of the mark, judging
from the number reached up to the end of the Sapin-
dacece.

In the first place we will give a glance at the contents 0£
the present volume, which forms about a sixth part of
the whole work. Exclusive of an index of forty pages, it
extends to about ^oo pages, and includes descriptions of
2,250 species under 442 genera, belonging to forty-four
natural orders. These figures do not take in introduced
plants incidentally mentioned or fully described. Con-
trasting these numbers with those afforded by the flora of
tropical Africa up to the end of the Sapindacece, we
obtain some idea of the relative richness of the vegeta-
tion of tropical Asia, especially if we bear in mind that the
area of tropical Africa is more than six times the extent
of India. True, African vegetation is not so well known,
but future discoveries in the respective countries will pro-
bably not materially alter the proportions. The numbers
for tropical Africa, which we have added up in Oliver's
" Flora of Tropical Africa," are 945 species in 250 genera^
and forty-five natural orders. It will be seen that the num-
ber of natural orders is almost the same, one more being
represented in Africa than in India. A very large propor-
tion of the species enumerated in the volume before us
are exclusively Asiatic ; we have not made an exact calcu-
lation, but should estimate it at ninety per cent. Of the
442 genera, 164 are, so far as our present knowledge goes,
pecuhar to Asia. The greater part of the peculiar genera
are tropical, and many of these, doubtless, still remain to
be discovered in New Guinea and tropical Austraha. The
mountains of Northern India have furnished our parks
and gardens with many useful and ornamental trees, &c. ;
e.g., Cedrus Deodara zxidi Pinus excelsa; and many others
might be introduced with a view to profit or pleasure. In
most cases, where possible, Dr. Hooker gives the altitudes
at which the species are known to occur ; but of course
this part must still be imperfect. We have made a list of
those species reported as growing «(5^t/^ 10,000 feet, and it
includes nearly 250 species, or about a tenth part of the
whole number. These belong chiefly to the Ranunculacea,

Cruci/ens, and CaryophyllecE, and contain a large number
of endemic species ; the remainder being chiefly common
either to Siberia or the Alps of Southern and plains of
Northern Europe,^ including many common British plants.
We will not trouble the reader with many more figures,
but we may select a few more to give a general idea of
the vegetation up to the point reached in this volume.
Taking two or three examples of those orders consisting
mainly of herbaceous plants or climbing shrubs, we
\i?i.ve RantificnlacecE^ii^ species, or 5*2 per cent ; CrticifercE,
137 species, or about 6 per cent. ; Cnryophyllece^ 104 spe-
cies, or 4*6 per cent. ; and GeraniacecB, 165 species, or 7*3
per cent. Turning to the woody orders which characterise
the[tropical and sub-tropical regions, we have y4«^««f^(^, 190
species, or about 8*5 per cent. ; Dipterocarpecc (an almost
exclusively Asiatic family), 92 species, or about 4 per
cent.; GuttifertT 6\, TiliacecE io(), MeliacecB 83, OlacinecE
66, Celastrinece 105, and SapindacecE 70 species. Among
genera numerous in species we may mention Capparis
Garcinia, Grewia, Impatiens, and Vitis. Considerably
more than a hundred species of hnpatiens are described,
and about 75 of Vitis ; seven of the former genus ascend
above 10,000 feet, and nearly all of them are very restricted
in their geographical area. In tropical Africa there is
about the same number of species of Vitis, but only one
or two are common to both regions, the others being
endemic.

So far we have confined ourselves to an attempt to
indicate the interest of the work as a contribution to
phytogeography ; its usefulness in applied botany cannot
be over-estimated. It would not be difficult, it is true, to
point out a great many little defects and inequalities in
elaborating the materials at their disposal by the different
contributors. But those whose experience is least in this
branch of botany are aware of the difficulties encountered
at every step. In the first place, the limitation of species
must be more or less arbitrary, and it is by no means an
easy task to settle the limits, in this case especially, on
account of the large number of forms described as species
by botanists! of all nations in innumerable books and
journals. The view here taken of species is a broad one ;
hence we find that'there is an average of two synonyms
to each species, and in some instances the array of names
is something quite formidable. Of course many of these
synonyms result from individual views respecting generic
limits. As to genera, there is little deviation from Hooker
and Bentham's " Genera Plantarum," though an examina-
tion of a large number of specimens has frequently neces-
sitated a modification of the diagnoses of certain genera.
As to " polymorphous species," the forms readily distin-
guished are briefly characterised as varieties ; but it is
assumed that the extreme forms collected under one
species are united by every intermediate gradation, so
that it is not possible in practice to say to which variety
some forms should be referred. We have already men-
tioned that Hooker's " Students' Flora " has been followed
mainly in the style of arranging the matter, and this no
doubt is an improvement in some respects on the Colonial
Floras ; but the absence of keys to the species of each
genus, in our opinion, is not compensated for by the
change. In the "Students' Flora" the synonyms are
given in italics, and readily catch the eye ; but in the
" Flora of India " they are printed in the same type as the

May 6, 1875]

NATURE

descriptions, and are difficult to find, especially as one is
so unaccustomed to this method. Under each genus and
species the geographical area is given, and in most cases
pretty fully ; but most of the numerous discoveries in
tropical Australia since the publication of the " Genera
Plantarum " have been overlooked : we allude to those
already published in the "Flora Austrahensis." Other
little slips of this sort occur. For instance," there is a
species of Berberis in Abyssinia.

Dr. Hooker has contributed largely to this volume, and
the following botanists have assisted :— Dr. M. T. Masters,
Malvacece, &c. ; Mr. W. P. Hiem, Sapindaccce, &c. ;
Prof. W. T. T. Dyer, Dipterocarpcce, &c. ; Prof. Lawson,
AmpelidecE, &c. ; Mr. A. W. ^QnviQX\.^ Poly galea ; Dr.
Anderson, Guiti/erce ; and Dr. T. Thomson and Mr. M.
P. Edgeworth were also associated wiih Dr. Hooker in
the elaboration of certain orders. A comparison of the
work of the different contributors brings out the defects of
tome rather strongly, but it would obviously be unfair to
single them out, because they have not done quite so well
as the best.

This is a good solid instalment towards a portable flora
of India ; and with so numerous a staff of botanists, well
qualified for the task, we may confidently hope that the
work will proceed with tolerable rapidity. True, the first
part of this volume appeared in 1872, but we anticipate a
better rate of progress for future volumes.

OUR BOOK SHELF

Proceedings of the London Mathetnatical Society. Vol. V.
150 pp. (London: Hodgson, Gough Square, 1875.)

Former volumes of these Proceedings have embraced

the Transactions of two and even of three sessions ; this
contains the Transactions of one session only ; hence the

smallness of the volume. The longest paper in it is a
valuable geometrical memoir, by Dr. Hirst, " On the cor-
relation of two planes." When the points and right
lines of two planes are so associated that to each point in
one of the planes and to each line passing through that
point, respectively correspond, in the other plane, one line
and one pomt in that line, then a correlation is said to be
established between the two planes. The author indicates
in a note how his results are also all applicable to the
case of two homographic planes.

Prof. Cayley contributes papers on Steiner's Surface
and on certain constructions for bicircular quartics.
Lord Rayleigh has a note " On the numerical calcu-
lation of the roots of fluctuating functions." Mr.
J. W. L. Glaisher writes " On the transformation ot
continued products into continued fractions." Mr. C.
J. Monro has a note " On the inversion of Bernoulli's
theorem in probabilities." Mr. Samuel Roberts also
contributes a note " On the expression of the length of
the arc of a Cartesian by elliptic functions," and " The
parallel surfaces of developables and curves of double
curvature ; " Mr. Spottiswoode has a paper " On the
contact of quartics with other surfaces ; " and Mr. H.
M. Taylor " On inversion with special reference to the
inversion of an anchor-ring or torus." Interesting papers
of a more elementary character are contributed by Mr.
J. Griffiths " On the Cartesian equation of the circle
which cuts three given circles at given angles," and " On
a remarkable relation between the difference of two
Fagnanian arcs of an ellipse of eccentricity e, and that
of two corresponding arcs of a hyperbola of eccentricity

- i " and by Prof. Wolstcnholme " On another system of

Poristic Equations."

So far we have cited those memoirs only which treat of
pure mathematics. There are, besides, papers by Mr.
Rohrs, " On spherical and cylindric motion in viscous
fluid ; " by Mr. Routh, " On stability of a dynamical
system with two independent motions," and "On small
oscillations to any degree of approximation ;" by Prof.
Clifford, " On graphic representation of the harmonic
components of a periodic motion ; " by Prof. Crofton,
" A method of treating the kinematical question of the
most general displacement of a solid in space ; " by Mr.
Merrifield, "On the determination of the form of the
dome of uniform stress."

Here is, as usual, sufficient variety for differing tastes
dished up by the most advanced mathematicians in this
country ; other names also occur as contributories of com-
munications, though their communications do not appear
in this volume, notably those of Professors Sylvester,
H. J. S. Smith, and J. Clerk-Maxwell. Further, a com-
munication by Mr. A. J. Ellis, we are informed, took the
shape of a separate pamphlet, entitled " Algebra iden-
tified with Geometry." This pamphlet arose out of Mr.
EUis's connection with the Association for the Improve-
ment of Geometrical Teaching, and copies were kindly
presented by him to the members of the two societies.
It is procurable at the above-named publishers of the
Mathematical Society's Proceedings.

Fiji: our New Province in the South Seas. By J. H.
De Ricci, F.R.G.S. With two Maps. (London : Stan-
ford, 1875.)

Mr. De Ricci's bookhas the appearance of having been put
together hastily, to catch the mild and short-lived excite-
ment connected with the annexation of Fiji. A large pro-
portion of it consists of extracts from other works thrown
together without much attempt at systematic arrangement ;
the result is a somewhat undigested mass of facts and
figures about Fiji. Still, the book does contain a great
deal of useful and interesting information, and will give
its readers a very fair idea of the history and the physical
and social condition of our most recent annexation. The
information given may be regarded as trustworthy, as it
is taken from the works of Wilkes and Seemann, and from
various official documents. Appended are lists of the
native names of timber-trees and of the fauna ; but very
much more valuable is the long systematic list of all the
Fijian plants at present known, compiled partly from
previous writers and partly from the author's own obser-
vations. The two maps add to the value of the work —
one of the Fiji Archipelago, and the other showing the
position of the colony iji reference to America, Asia, and
Australia.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
[TAi Editor does not hold himself responsible Jor opinions expressed
by his correspondents. Neither can he uttdertake to return,
or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications. ^

Geology in America
I AM somewhat chagrined to find that I appear to you (vol. xi. p.
381) to say that the Geological Survey of Great Britain is espe-
cially to blame for the diminution of interest in geology in the
country that has done the most for its advancement. My remarks
were taken down by a reporter, and I have not seen them in print.
The point I sought to make was to the effect that in all matters
relating to geology, Massachusetts could not do better than to
follow the lead of the British Survey. The only question to be
considered was whether it was not open to criticism from an
educational point of view. On this matter I expressed no indi-
vidual opinion, but only restated doubts that I had heard ex-
pressed by more than one of your own masters in the science.
I feel that geological science owes so much to your noble
Survey, that none of its students should subject it to hasty
criticism. If it is to have its methods questioned, it should be
done by some one far better acquainted with its ways than any

NATURE

[May 6, 1875

person from another country is likely to be. It seems to me,
however, that the diminution in the number of geologists, com-
pared with the students of other sciences, if not in absolute
number, is clear on simple inspection of the field. It is true
not only of Great Britain, but of France and America as well.
Of mining engineers there is, I believe, a great plenty ; but of
men who are trained in field work, who can be trusted to unravel
a set of rocks, or who care for the science as a science, and not
as a means of winning a living, there are far too few.

A year ago I had to organise a geological survey in the State
of Kentucky. I needed three topographers and three assistant
geologists who could stand alone. I picked my topographers
from over a hundred competent applicants ; 1 should have
searched in vain for months for two of my geologists, had it not
been that the suspension of the Missouri Survey gave me trained
men. But for this I should have been driven to Germany, that
inexhaustible reservoir of trained men, for my helpers. In
our schools it is still worse : geology is taught in the air, not on
the earth. The student never gets into the field for practical
work, and the science remains for him a thing of names and
shadows. With the hope of doing something to remedy these
evils, there is to be a Summer School of Geology, intended for
teachers of geology and those who propose to make special
workers in the science, taught in connection with the work of
the Kentucky Geological Survey ; it will be, in fact, though
taught in Kentucky (or the present, the Harvaid Summer Term
in Geology, all the instructors in that department from this Uni-
versity taking a part in its work. Eight or more of the assistants
of the Kentucky Survey will also be emplojed as instructors.
Already over one hundred persons have applied for admission to
the school, but the number will be limited to thirty : this list
now includes twenty-five teachers of schools of academic grade,
and five graduates of colleges who propose to become geologists.
As the school will be placed in a camp, it will be possible, if it
succeeds, to establish it in a new region each year, so that
teachers attending for, say, three years in succession, may get
a fair notion of our rocks, and, whai is better, learn how to
do field work. I believe that the novelty of the life, the
freedom and fresh air, will make it posiible lor teachers to use
their vacation time in study without damage. I am not without
hope that in this way teachers may be trained to their work, and
beginners provided with that practical introduction to geology
which it is now so hard to obtain. N. S. Shaler

Harvard University, April i8

[We append the programme of the Summer School of Geology
referred to by Prof. Shaler, in the hope that something similar
may be inaugurated here.]

Harvard University.
Summer Instruction in Geology, 1875

In order to furnish an opportunity for teachers in natural
science and special students in Geology to become acquainted
with the methods of practical work in that science, a Summer
School of Geology will be established, .during the months of July
and August, at a camp near Cumberland Gap, in the State of
Kentucky. This place has been chosen on account of the
eminent advantages it offers for the study of a great section of
the American Pahcozoic rocks, and of the structure of the Appa-
lachian Mountains, and on account of the co-operation of the
Kentucky Geological Survey which is promised in a letter from
the Governor of that State to the I'resident of the University.
It is also a very healthy region.

The special object of this school will be to teach students to
observe, but instruction will be provided in Physical Geology,
Historical Geology and Palaeontology, Chemical Geology, and
Topographical Engineering, as far as these subjects are connected
with geological work . The instruction will be necessarily in-
complete, and will be expressly diiected to the elucidation of the
problems furnished by the area to be explored. The co-opera-
tion of six well-qualified instructors has already been secured,
and a number of other able geologists have promised their pre-
sence and their aid in teaching. Some instruction in the zoology
and botany of the neighbouring region will probably be given to
those who desire to receive it. Certificates of attendance will
be given at the end of the time. The number of students will
be limited to thirty, and men only will be accepted. No pre-
vious knowledge of the science is required, but only graduates of
colleges, teachers, or other persons who can give evidence of
maturity and some training can be admitted.

Persons wishing to join the school should at once address

J. VV. Harris, Secretary of Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass.
Before their enrolment they will be required to pay the fee of
fifty dollars for tuition, use of tents and camp equipage, and
transportation about camp. In case anyone is prevented from
joining the school by illness this fee will be remitted, provided
the notice thereof is given before June 15. They will also be
required to pay weekly in advance the estimate for subsistence
and camp servants (which is not expected to exceed three dollars
per person).

Persons joining the school from the west will report themselves
on June 24 and June 30, at the terminal station on the Lebanon
Branch of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad. Those joining
from the east will be met at a station hereafter to be designated
on the East Tennessee Railroad, on June 26 or July I. Persons
unable to join on these days should notify the chief of camp,
Mr. John R. Proctor, Lexington, Ky., who will arrange for ihtir
transportation to camp.

All students are expected to provide themselves with the fol-
lowing articles : — Two blankets, a pocket magnifying-glass, a
pocket compass ; Dana's " Manual of Geology," revised edition
(1874), and Lyell's "Principles of Geology." Suitable note-
books will be provided at cost. Students should also provide
themselves with two suits of old clothes, flannel shirts, and stout
boots. The total amount of baggage should not exceed seventy-
five pounds for each person. An effort will be made to secure a
reduction of fares on the railroads leading to the camp.

The Attraction and Repulsion caused by the Radiation
of Heat

Will you allow me to say a few words in reference to the
report of Mr. Crookes's paper which appeared in Nature, vol.
xi. p. 494. Apparently 2\Ir. Crookes does not understand the
nature of the forces which I have shown to result from the com-
munication of heat between a gas and a surface ; otherwise he
would not bring forward as conclusive against the supposition
that the phenomena which he has discovered are due to these
forces, experiments which show entirely the other way. As I
have previously explained, it follows as a direct result of the
kinetic theory of gas, that if such forces as I have supposed exist
for a certain tension of the gas surrounding the suriace, they will
not be diminished by diminishing the tension of the gas ; and
consequently no amount of pumping would destroy such forces
where they once existed. Whereas the smaller the tension of
the gas the freer the surface will be to move, and the less its
motion would be opposed by convection currents ; hence, on the
supposition that the motion is due to these forces, the only effect
of improving the vacuum would be to intensify the action. An l
this being the case, it is clear that Mr. Crookes's experiments, in
which he finds that the action still remains in the most perfect
vacuum which he has obtained, tend to support and not to upset
my conclusion that the actions are due to these forces. The fact
that Mr. Crookes finds it impossible to conceive this only shows,
as I have said, that he does not comprehend the nature of the
forces ; for it certainly presents no greater difficulty than the fact
that the velocity of sound is independent of the tension of the
gas through which it is transmitted.

Mr. Crookes still appears to think that I attribute these forces
solely to the presence of condensable vapour. It is true that the
title of my first paper might have led him into this error had be
read no further ; but both in that paper and in a letter to the
Philosophical Magazi7ze {qx November 1874 it is clearly sbowa
that this is not the case.

I am in hopes that ere long we may hear something on this'
.subject from Prof. Maxwell, who probably knows more about
the kinetic theory of gases than anyone else. If I am right, these
experiments afford a direct proof of the truth of this theory ; and'
as far as I know, this is the only direct proof that has ever been
obtained. I do not mean to say that this is the most conclusive-
proof, but the most direct, or, to quote a remark of Dr. Balfour'
Stewart, " These experiments stand in much the same relation,
to the kinetic theory of gases that Foucault's pendulum occupied
with regard to the rotation of the earth." No one can admire-
more than I do the experimental skill with which Mr. Crookes
has brought the phenomena to light ; nor can I see, should it
turn out as I maintain, that they have led to the discovery of ai
law of nature, that this will detract from their importance, eveni
if they lose somewhat in general interest from the breaking up-
of the halo of mystery with which they have hitherto been sur-»
roimded. Osborne Reynolds

Owens College, Manchester

May 6, 1875]

NATURE

The A'ok of Feet in the Struggle for Existence

May not the "set " of the feet in various races of men have
played a not unimportant part in the struggle for existence ? In
thinking over the subject the following points have occurred to
me, and perhaps some of your readers may be able t© throw
some further light on the question.

In the case of the North American Indian, for example,
except that he wears soft mocassins instead of stiff boots,
he is less in a state of nature as regards his feet than we
are. For we, and all the Teutonic tribes for countless gene-
rations, have paid little regard to our feet except as instru-
ments of unconscious progression or as pedestals on which
to stand firm. The North American Indian, on the contrary, is
obliged by his habits of life, and has been obliged for himdreds,
perhaps thousands of years, to direct his particular attention in
no small degree to the position of his feet. For in hunting it is
of the greatest importance that he shall not tread on any rotten
slick which may snap with a loud noise and alarm the game of
which he is in pursuit. On the war track it is of equal import-
ance that he shall deceive his enemies as to the number of his
party, and so each man carefully steps in the footprint of the
warrior who had preceded him. This, I should think, would
be decidedly easier if the foot were kept
pointing straight fore and aft than if it
were held obliquely. This may be more
evident from the three rough outlines I
have drawn of footprints in each posi-
tion, in which I have made the differ-
ence in the length of the btride much
the same. Indeed, the difference is
greater in the fore and aft one, and yet
the impression made by the three foot-
prints will not be so large as when
the foot is oblique. In walking in
snow-shoes, too, the feet must be held as nearly as possible
parallel, as otherwise the shoes are apt to catch in each other
and trip their wearer up. It seems quite possible that long-
continued attention to the position of the feet for many gene-
rations, together with the advantage which a parallel position of
the feet may have conferred in the struggle for existence, may
have led to its becoming a permanent characteristic of the Red
Indian ; while the advantage which the outward direction of the
feet may have given the old Saxon, by affording a firmer support
in a hand-to-hand struggle, may have led to its permanence in
the successors of those who possessed this peculiarity, and by its
means enabled them to overcome their opponents.

I cannot be quite sure about the ancient Egyptians. If I
remember rightly, the Farnese Hercules has toes pointing con-
siderably outwards, while Mercury generally has his feet more
or less parallel. This would indicate that the Greeks associated
the former position with strength and firmness, and the latter
with fleetness. As fleetness will also aid the North American
Indian in the struggle for existence, it is possible that its asso-
ciation with a parallel foot may have something to do with the
peculiar formation of his ankle-joint. This, however, leads us
to the question which I do not think has ever yet been taken up :
In what way does the possession of a certain kind of weapon and
the use of particular methods of warfare influence the conformation
of the body ? Have the descendants of the Teuton tribes toes
which point outwards because their forefathers used clubs, axes,
and targets, and have the Red Indians of the present day parallel
feet because their forefathers used arrows and keen tomahawks, and
trusted to agility rather than to brazen studs and thick bull-hide
for escape from the blows of their adversaries? X.

Destruction of Flowers by Birds
A WELL-OBSERVED case of the destruction of primrose
flowers by birds will perhaps be of interest to some of your
readers.

The flowers of two plants of primrose at a short distance from
a window have during the last lew days been almost entirely de-
stroyed ; and this having drawn attention to the subject, they have
been watched. .The result is that a number of the common
house-sparrows have been seen to peck off the flowers by cutting
them through at the base of the tube of the corolla, so as to
remove the ovarium. In some cases the flower has not been
completely detached from its stalk, a ragged hole being left
where the ovariiun originally was placed, but the flower has
never been subject [to any further _dismcmberment. The few

flowers which have been left on the plants, when chewed in the
mouth, do not seem to have any sweetness about them, and one
would thereforesuppose that they do not contain any appreciable
quantity of nectar.

The inference from these observations seems to be that the
sole object of the destruction of the flowers is to obtain the
ovaria. It is also to be observed that the primrose is not indi-
genous to this part of the country, and the only plants within
a radius of at least two miles are those cultivated in gardens.
The cowslip is, however, very abundant, but I have never
noticed any similar destruction of it. I shall, now the cowslips
are coming into flower, watch them with the object of finding
out whether they are attacked or not.

II. George Fordham

Note on the Common Sole
In looking over Mr. Buckland's last work on "British Fishes,"
I did not find any account of the power the Sole has of fixing
itself against the glass of an aquarium by means of a sucker
placed close to the mouth, on the lower side ; and as I find it is
one of the "things not generally known," I think it maybe
worth your notice, particularly as I have not remarked it at the
Brighton Aquarium. I first observed the fact at the Havre
Aquarium, where I pointed it out to many persons hitherto
unacquainted with it, but I have been disappointed at not seeing
It at Brighton during any of my visits. The only way I can
account for this difference in the habits of the same fish is that
the Brighton Soles being, during my visits, always in the light,
lay quietly at the bottom, whereas those at Havre, being almost
excluded from the light, were seen to much greater advantage,
swimming about freely and attaching themselves to the glass
when they came in contact with it, or sliding down to the ground.
The sucker of a Sole nine inches long would be about | inch by
4 inch, placed diagonally to the long diameter of the fish, and
exhibiting fine radiating lines. Though I watched other flat-fish
carefully, I never could detect any attempt in them to fix them-
selves against the glass when they struck it, and therefore I am
quite unable to explain why the Sole alone should have this
power. As I make no pretension to be an ichthyologist, it is
very probable that I may be telling a thrice-told tale. I must
therefore leave it to your judgment to decide whether it is worth
your notice in Nature. t. Ogier Ward

Eastbourne

Colour in Goldfinches

Last July I took a goldfinch's [Carduelis elegans) nest with five
young birds in it out of a tree in my garden and brought them up.
Four turned out to be properly marked specimens, but the fifth
is almost black, only having a few red feathers on its head. I
see in Bechstein's "Cage Birds" (third edition), p. 147, that
" four young ones of this variety were found in the same nest."
Now, why were not all my five specimens black, and what is
the cause of the fifth's blackness ? Can any of your readers say ?

Manley, May i Lucie Woodruffe

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN
Variable Stars.— The two following stars require
further examination, as affording signs of fluctuating
brightness, (i) Lalande 23228-9, estimated 7th magni-
tude, 179s May 8, and 5^, 1798 March 14. It is 67 in
Lament (No. 1149), and m Steinheil's Chart, one of the
series published by the Berlin Academy, it is only 8th
mag. Neither Bessel nor Santini has observed it. (2)
The star Lalande 27095, in Bootes, 7th mag., observed
179s May 25, and missed by Olbers, 1804 March 22,
during his observations of the comet of that year : it is
the star which passed the centre wire at I4h. 42m. los.
(Histoire Cdleste, p. 164), and Olbers distinctly says of it
" ist nicht mehr am Himmel zu finden." It was, how-
ever, observed by Bessel in his Zone 415, 1828 May 24, as
a 9th magnitude; it is 9-0 in the " Durchmusterung," and
is called 9-1, 1866 June 5, in the Bonn Observations,
vol. vi. The positions of these stars for 1875-0 are :—
(i) R.A. I2h. 1 8m. 45s. N.P.D. 100° 54'-9

(2) ,> . 14 45 54 „ 52 6-3

NATURE

[May 6, 1875

The Binary Star 2 2107. — This undoubted binary,
first measured by Struve in the year 1828, well merits
attention, and it may soon be possible to gain an idea of
the form of the orbit. The recent measures of Dem-
bowski and Barclay prove the angular velocity to be still
increasing, the accompanying diminution of distance
requiring pretty large telescopes to be brought into requisi-
tion for satisfactory observations. Dembowski calls aqj
principal component a 7th magnitude, bright yellow ; the
smaller one a 9th and dusky. This star is Herculis 197
(Bode), and its place for i875*o is in R.4-> i6h. 46m. 54s. ;
N.P.D., 61° 7'.

High-latitude Phenomena. — Our correspondent
" H. F. C," who writes from San Francisco, California,
with regard to a statement in the recently-published
narrative of the " German Arctic Expedition," that " the
moon shone without setting for several days " in Novem-
ber, refers to a phenomenon which must necessarily occur
in circumpolar latitudes. As an illustration : In lat. 82° N.
and long. 60° W., near which position a part of the expe-
dition about to leave our shores is expected to winter, the
moon in December next will rise on the 8th, and will not
set until the i8th, attaining her greatest altitude above the
horizon at meridian passage on the 13th. The sun during
this interval is, of course, invisible in lat. 82° N,,but there
is continuous moonlight for between nine and ten days,
and similarly for other months during the Arctic winter.

The Solar Eclipse, 1876, March 25.— This
eclipse will be a very similar one to that of March 1858,
which created so much interest in its passage across this
country : it will be annular, but in those parts of the
track of central line, where the augmentation of the
moon's geocentric semi-diameter is greatest, the eclipse,
though still annular (as in England in 1858), approaches
very near a total one. Vancouver Island is situate in
this track, which runs about centrally over it, as the fol-
lowing points will show : —

Longitude 127° 6' W.

„ 126 4
125 51
125 15

„ 122 46

Latitude, 48° 42' N.

., 49 30
„ 49 40

50 6

51 So

A direct calculation for the third of the above points, in
Vancouver Island, gives for the duration of the annulus
only 7*5 seconds, the middle at oh. 25m. 29s. local mean
time with the sun at an altitude of 44° : the apparent
semi-diameter of the moon is i"'5 less than that of the
sun. The central line subsequently traverses the Lesser
Slave Lake and Lake Athabasca, with slightly longer
duration of anntilus. The eclipse will be visible in its
partial phase in the position of the winter quarters at
which the British Arctic Expedition aims.

The Minor Planet " Lydia." — M. Leverrier's Btcl-
letin International of April 29 contained a telegraphic
notice of the discovery of a supposed new member of the
minor planet group, at the Observatory of Toulouse, by
M. Perrotin, on the same morning, which in the following
Bulletin is recognised as No. no, Lydia, detected by M.
Borrelly at Marseilles on April 19, 1870 ; the ephemeris
{Berliner Jahrbuch) being much in error. The elements
of No. no, calculated by Dr. Oppenheim of Kdnigsberg,
and brought up with perturbations to 1874 {Astron. Nach.,
No. 1,971), give a position for April 28, differing consider-
ably from that assigned by the observation at Toulouse ;
but if we apply a correction to the mean anomaly of
-1-1° 21' 57", the observed and computed longitudes agree,
and the latitudes differ only one minute, and the diurnal
motions also accord, so that there can be little doubt that
the identification of M. Perrotin's object with No. no is
correct. With the above correction the mean anomaly,
April 28*5 Greenwich mean time, is 262° 8' 27", and thus
with the other elements given by Dr. Oppenheim we have |

the following positions, which will be pretty near the true
ones. At i2h. Greenwich mean time : —

R.A. N.P.D. Log. distance,

h. m. s. „ ,

May

3

•■ 15 4 17 •

• 105 29-5 .

. 0-2498

i

2 27 .

25-8 •

7

•• 15 0 36 .

22-2 .

0-2481

9

•• 14 58 45 •

I8-^ .

II

•• „ 56 54 •

14-9 .

. 0-2476

13

•• » 55 4 ••

1 1 '3 •

15 •

•• „ 53 15 ••

7-8 .

. 0-2482

17 •

.. „ SI 28 ..

4'4 •

19

•• 14 49 42 ..

■ 105

1-2 .

• 0*2499

LECTURES AT THE ZOOLOGICAL
GARDENS*
Mr. J. W. Clarke on Sea Lions and Seals
II.
'X'HE Sea Lion that is best known is the Northern Sea
J- Bear {O. nrsina), which is almost entirely confined
to the Pribylov Islands. These islands were discovered
in 1787 by a Russian sailor of that name. The slaughter
of the animals is under the regulations of the United
States Government. There are two islands, that of St.
Paul and that of St. George, and the number of seals that
have been calculated to exist in a given year upon one of
them — namely, 1,152,000 — will give a good notion of the
multitudes of these animals to be met with at one of their
favourite haunts. There is about half that number on
St. George, making nearly 2,000,000 on the two islands.
Out of this vast number, ico,ooo are annually killed, prin-
cipally young males. In South Shetland the " take " of
fur seals was 320,000 in 1821 and 1822, and as all that
arrived were killed, the speedy extinction of the colony
was the result. The same happened in New Zealand.

A full-grown male Otaria ursina is between seven and
eight feet long, the female not being more than four feet.
The males reach their maximum size at about the sixth
year, the females at the fourth. The hairy coat consists
of an outer covering of long, flattened, coarse hair, beneath
which is a dense coating of long, fine, silky fur.

The next species is Steller's Sea Lion {O. stelleri),
named in honour of its discoverer. It is much larger than
the other species, the males being as much as sixteen feet
long. The ears are short and pointed, much broader than
those of the Fur Seal. It is found on the island of St.
Paul, extending down the coasts of Kamschatka and
California. At San Francisco it inhabits an island in the
harbour where Mr. Woodford has built a large hotel, to
which parties resort to dme and look at the Sea Lions
play. The under-fur of this species is so short as to be
useless for clothmg purposes.

There is another Otaria on the Californian coast, found
in Japan also. It was first described by Schlegel from
specimens collected by Siebold. It has been named
O. gilliespii, but it would be far better to adopt the name
since suggested by its original describer, and call it
O.japonica. It is much smaller than the species named
after Steller, and the skull presents an exceptionally large
crest.

The next species to be mentioned is the one which
extends round South America, from Peru to the River
Plate — Otaria jubata — of which a specimen is living in
the Gardens, having been obtained by its keeper, Franqois
Lecomte, from the Falkland Islands, when a mere pup.
A full-grown male may reach nine feet in length, the
females being much smaller. The fur is of no use for
sealskin, as the undercoat is very scanty. The male has
a mane, and is therefore called " Lion."

Inhabiting precisely the same localities, round Cape
Horn and the Falkland Islands, is the Fur Seal of com-
merce— Otaria falklandica. It is much smaller than the

* Continued from vol. xi. p. 514.

May 6, 1875]

NA TURE

other species, a fuU-giown male being hardly more than
four feet lonf^. It is probable that it is identical with one
of the New Zealand Fur Seals, described by Dr. Gray as
Otaria cinerea. If this should turn out to be the case, it
will have a wider range than any of the others of the
group.

There is certainly another species of Sea Lion on the
coast of New Zealand, called Hooker's Sea Bear— Otaria
hoekeri. Its only certain habitat is the Aucklands, It is
a large species, the males about six feet long, the females
proportionately smaller. Though these New Zealand
coasts and islands, together with the coasts of the main-
land of Australia, have been visited and surveyed in
every direction by English expeditions, no one has ever
thought of preserving specimens for museums, so that we
really know less about the seals of our colonies than we
do about those of foreign coasts. Thus there is certainly
a large species on the west coast of Australia, at the
group of islands called Houtman's Abrolhos, described
by Dr. Gray as Neophoca lobafa. We are almost equally
ignorant about the Sea L ons of the Cape of Good Hope.
The species from that locality living in the Gardens —
Otaiiapusilla — is a very small one with an excellent fur.
The Antarctic Sea Lion — Otaria antarctica (Gray) — is
also from the Cape. This completes the number of
species of Otarias, which may be thus tabulated : —

Otaria

Antarctica ( ^"^^"^ South Africa and the adjacent islands.

Filklinl'ca I '^'^^"^ Cape Horn and the adjacent islands.

Japonica

Stelleri

Ursina

Hooka-i

from the North Pacific.

Lobata

from Australia and New Zealand,

In some respects intermediate between the Sea Lions
and true Seals, is the Walrus, an animal with the head
flattened in front, the upper lips with long stiff whiskers,
the two enormous tusks, the short bull-like neck, and the
vast carcase. Stuffed specimens err in being too distended
and smooth, all the natural wrinkles being removed. The
hair is thin and short. The attitude resembles in the
main that of the Sea Bear, as do the limbs, the thumb
being the longest digit, and the hind feet directed forward.
There are no external ears, but a fold of skin above the
auditory opening. The eyes, destitute of lashes, are
deeply set. The tusks, developed in the female as well
as in the male, never exceed twenty-six inches in length,
including the imbedded root of six inches. The creature
is omnivorous. It is becoming very scarce in its favourite
haunts, on account of the indiscriminate way in which it
is slaughtered. Upwards of i,ooo are still taken annually
in the neighbourhood of Spitzbergen. Formerly it was
found at Bear Island and on the coast of Finmark. It is
still found on the east coast of Greenland, on the west
shore of Davis' Straits, about Pond's, Scott's, and Howe
Bays. In 1775 they resorted, to the number of over 7,000
a year, to the Magdalen Islands, at the mouth of the St.
Lawrence, and the English once had a fishery at Cape
Breton. It can be mentioned only as a straggler to our
coasts.

Every part of the animal is of value— the tusks, the
hide, and the flesh. The word Wah'iis means " Whale
Horse," Ross being the Danish for a steed. Morse is
Russian. The Greenlandcrs call it Awii/c, a name derived,
it is said, from the cry of the young animal.

Seals are in a state of far less confusion than Sea Lions,
The species are numerous, Dr. Gray recognising fourteen
species and thirteen genera. As a basis for classification,
the number of incisor teeth, together with the shape of
the hands, leads to a very natural arrangement of the
family. Following this, we find that four incisors above
and four below unite the four Seals of the Southern

Ocean with the Mediterranean Seal. The six northern
species, again, have all six incisors above, and four below,
their hands being like those of the "Bearded" and
" Common " Seals. Lastly, four incisors above and two
below separate off those very remarkable forms, the
"Bladder Seal" of the north and the mighty "Sea
Elephant " of the south, which have the further point in
common of a remarkable development of the nasal pas-
sages. The Sea Leopard — or Leopards, if there are really
two — together with the Crab-eating Seal, which ought
most probably to be united in the same genus with them,
inhabit the Antarctic Ocean. In the last-named species
the molar teeth are remarkably modified.

The fourth Antarctic Seal is that called Ommatophoca
tossi — Ross's Large-eyed Seal, known only from specimens
procured from Sir J. Ross's Antarctic Expedition. The
next species we come to is the Monk Seal {Monachus
albiventcr), which inhabits the Mediterranean and the
Island of Madeira.

Of the " Hooded Seal," or " Bladder Nose," till a few
days ago a fire male specimen was living in the Society's
Gardens. The length attained ranges between seven and
twelve feet. Though a true seal, it has the power of using
the fore-feet to walk on land to a certain degree. The
nose is broad and flat, and in the male the upper wall of
the nostril is so loose that it can be blown up at will into
a hood. The use of this curious appendage is not
known. Its habits are migratory. It is found in South
Greenland, rarely in Iceland and Norway, never now at
Spitzbergen, The nearest ally to this seal is the " Sea
Elephant," described by Anson in 1742, from Juan Fer-
nandez. It has been recorded to be thirty feet long. The
nostrils of the male are prolonged into the remarkable
appendage which has been the origin of its name, "■ Pro-
boscis Seal," the tubular proboscis being, when inflated, a
foot in length.

Round the English coast there are two species of
seals that are tolerably common, the Common Seal
{Phoca vitiilina) and the Great Grey Seal {Phoca gry-
phits). The former frequents both sides of the North
Atlantic, Spitzbergen, Greenland, and Davis' Straits.
The latter species is far rarer in this country. It is not
found in Polar waters nor in the Mediterranean Sea,
where the former exists. Further north we come to three
other seals, the Bearded Seal {P. barbatd), the Greenland
Seal {P. granlajtdtca), and the Ringed Seal (P.hispidd) ;
the two latter sometimes appear on our coasts as
stragglers.

The lecturer concluded by remarking on the necessity
for some international agreement to prevent the destruc-
tive effects of the short-sighted policy now adopted in
seal-hunting.

{JTo be continued^

ON LIGHTNING PI CURES
T^HE letter headed " Struck by Lightning," and signed
-*- " D. Pidgeon," contained in Nature, vol. xi. p. 405,
is valuable, and the more so because it is unaccompanied
by any theory. Formerly, when ramified marks appeared
on the persons of men or animals, they were always
referred to some near or distant tree, of which the marks
formed "an exact portrait." Thus, in the Times of Sep-
tember 10, 1866, is an account of a boy who had taken
refuge under a tree during a thunderstorm, having been
struck by lightning, and on his body was found " a per-
fect image of the tree, the fibres, leaves, and branches
being represented with photographic accuracy."

In a paper read by me before the British Association
at Manchester in 1861, I attempted to show that such
ramified figures are not derived from any tree whatever,
but represent the fiery hand of the hghtning itself. Very
instructive tree-like figures may be produced on sheets of
crown glass by passing over them the contents of a Ley-
den jar. For this purpose the plates (those I used were

lO

NA TURB

[May 6, 1875

four inches square) should be put into a strong sohition
of soap, and wiped dry with a duster. If a plate be then
held by the corner against the knob of a small charged
jar, and, with one knob of the discharging rod resting
against the outer coating, the other be brought up to the
knob of the jar with the glass between, the spark will
pass over the surface of the pane, turn over its edge, and
thus arrive at the knob of the rod. Nothing is visible on
the plate until it is breathed on, apd then the condensed
breath settles in the form of minute dew on those parts
of the soapy film that have not been burnt off by the
electricity, while on the lines that have been burnt off or
made chemically clean the moisture condenses in watery
lines, bringing out the trunk, branches, and minute spray
of the dendritic figure in a very perfect manner. In the
discussion that followed the reading of my paper, the
president of the section remarked that the figures ex-
hibited would pass for trees all over the world. The dis-
charge sometimes exhibits bifurcations and even trifurca-
tions. The main trunk is evidently a hollow tube, as in
the vitrified masses known as fulgurites, where lightning

Fig. I.— Breath Figure of Electric Discharge (also called Jioric FigJire,
iromRos-ro7is, "dew.")

ploughs through a sandy soil. Should the plate be too
thick, the main discharge may not pass, in which case the
plate represents spray only. Hence I infer that the spray
precedes the discharge and acts as a feeler for the line of
least resistance. Indeed, it is an old observation of
sailors, that before the ship was struck everyone on board
felt as if cobwebs were being drawn over his face.

The accompanying (Fig. i) is one of the figures produced
as above described, the separate figure being an enlarged
portion of the stem or trunk which represents the main
discharge. Other examples may be found in the "Eng-
lish Cyclopaedia " (Arts and Sciences division), article
"Breath Figures," and in the Edinburgh Neiv Philoso-
phical Journal for October 1861.

After the reading of my paper I was anxious to see
some examples that had been undoubtedly produced by
lightning of these ramified figures. I was gratified by
the receipt of a letter from Dr. Pooley, of Weston-super-
Mare, informing me that he had actually seen a tree
struck by lightning, that the inner surfaces of the de-

tached bark contained ramified figures such as I had
described, and that he had sent specimens to Dr. Fara-
day. I accordingly applied for permission to examine
them. The figures on the bark had become very faint,
but the following engraving (Fig. 2) represents their
character.

In the Lancet of July 30, 1864, Dr. D. Mackintosh
describes a case in which a straw stack was struck by
lightning and set on fire, while a man who had sought its
shelter was killed, and two boys injured. One of the
boys, aged ten, said he felt "dizzy all over;" his legs
would not carry him, and he felt pain in the lower part of
the abdomen. On taking off his clothes a pecuhar sul-
phurous singed odour was perpectible, and also several
irregular but distinct red streaks, of about a finger's
breadth, running obliquely downwards and inwards on
either side of the chest to a middle line in front of the

Fig. 2. — Three Portions of the Inner Surface of the Bark.

abdomen, whence they converged ; from this point they
diverged again till they were lost in the perineum. The
streaks were of a brighter red on the more vascular parts
of the body ; they disappeared in about four days, and
the lad recovered.

In the second case, that of a boy aged eleven, "the
figures on either hip were so exceedingly alike and so
striking, that an observer could not but be impressed
with the idea that they were formed in obedience to some
prevailing law."

In the third case, that of a man of forty-six, the dis-*
charge passed through the head, and seems to have pro-
duced instant death.

The phenomena in the case of the two boys agree very
well with those described in Mr. Pidgeon's letter.

But there are various other figures produced by light-
ning sufficiently numei.ous to have led M, Baudin, in his

May 6, 1875J

NATURE

" Treatise on Medical Geography," to apply to them the
term Keraunography (to write with thunder). Mr.
Poey, in 1861, published a small volume in which twenty-
four illustrative cases are cited. The author starts with
the popular notion that the dendritic figures referred to
are derived from some near or distant tree, and then pro-
ceeds to account for them by means of a photo-electric
action in which the surface of the animal is the sensitive
plate ; the tree, &c., the object ; and the lightning the force
that impresses it.

But in connection with our subject are other facts,
startling, it is true, but recurring from time to time in
different parts of the world, and reported by sailors and
others, who possess the invaluable art of recording their
observations without attempting to explain them. The
desire of explaining everything often amounts to a kind
of rabies, when the sane course seems to be to wait ; for
if a reasonable theory is impossible, an unreasonable one
is ridiculous. Nevertheless, some observers, if they can-
not explain a fact, deny its truth ; and yet such facts
may exist in nature, and only wait the progress of dis-
covery, when in due time they are gathered in under the
sickle of the appointed reaper. Three such facts are the
following : —

1. In September 1825, the brig // Btion Servo, an-
chored in the Bay of Armiro, was struck by lightning,
and a sailor who was sitting at the foot of the mizenmast
was killed. Marks were found on his back, extending
from the neck to the loins, including the impression of a
horse-shoe, perfectly distinct, and of the same size as the
one that was fixed to the mast.

2. In another case that occurred at Zante, the number
44 in metal was attached to the fixed rigging between the
mast and the cot of one of the sailors. The mast was
struck and the sailor killed. On his left breast was found
the number 44, well formed and perfectly identical with
that on the rigging. The sailors agreed that the number
did not exist on the body before the man was struck.

3. M. Josd Maria Dau, of Havannah, states that in
1828, in the province of Candelaria, in the island of
Cuba, a young man was struck by lightning, and on his
neck was found the image " d'un fer a cheval qui avait
etd cloud k peu de distance contre une fenetre."

Unexpected light was thrown upon such cases by Mr.
C. F. Varley (Proc. Roy. Soc, Jan. 12, 1871), in following
up an accidental observation during the working of a
Holtz electrical machine, the poles of which were fur-
nished with brass balls about an inch in diameter.
Noticing some specks on the ball of the positive pole,
Mr. Varley tried to wipe them off with a silk handker-
chief, but in vain.. He then examined the negative pole,
and discovered a minute speck corresponding to the
spots on the positive pole. This pole sometimes exhibits
aglow, and if in this state three or four bits of wax, or
even a drop or two of water, be placed on the negative
pole, corresponding non-luminous spots appear on the
positive pole. Hence it is evident that lines of force
exist between the two poles, by means of which we may
telegraph through the air from the negative to the posi-
tive pole. And in explanation of the above cases in
which the lightning-burn on the skin is of the same shape
as the object from which the discharge proceeded, all
that is necessary is that the object struck be -f to the
horse-shoe, brass number, &c., the discharge being a nega-
tive one. C. ToMLiNSON

INAUGURATION OF THE ZOOLOGICAL
STATION OF NAPLES

AFTER the first working year a formal inauguration
of this new institution took place on April 1 1. Dr.
Dohrn had invited the Italian Minister of Public Instruc-
tion, Signor Borghi, and the German Ambassador at Rome,
Herr von Kendell, to be present as representatives of

the two countries which had most assisted in completing
the new establishment, the one granting the locality,
whilst the other paid a subvention of 3 000/. towards the
expenses of the construction. Unfortunately both gen-
tlemen were at the last moment prevented from being
present, but sent two letters stating their great sympa-
thy and the sympathy of the two Governments which
they represent, for the Zoological Station.

The inauguration solemnity consisted chiefly in an
inaugural address read by Dr. Dohrn himself to an
audience of distinguished gentlemen, and a short answer
given by Signor Paureri, the well-known Professor of
Anatomy of the Naples University.

Before giving an abstract of the address, it may be
permitted to say a few words about the life and work of
the Zoological Station during the first year of its
existence.

The following naturalists have made use of its labora-
tories : — From England : Mr. Balfour, Mr. Dew Smith,
Mr. Marshall, from Cambridge ; Mr. E. Ray Lankester,
from Oxford. From Holland : Mr. Hubrecht (Leyden),
Dr. Hoek (Haag), Prof. Hoffmann (Leyden), Dr. Hoorst
(Utrecht), Prof. Van Ankum (Groningen). From Ger-
many : Prof. Waldeyer (Strassburg), Prof. Wilh, Miiller
(Jena), Dr. Korsmann (Heidelberg), Prof. Hesslohl (Con-
stanz), Prof. Greeff (Marburg:), Profs. KoUmann and Ranke
(Munich), Dr. Steiner (Halle), Prof. Oscar Schmidt
(Strassburg), Prof. Langer Lans (Freiburg), Dr. v. Thering
(Gottingen), Dr. Gotte and Dr. Lorent (Strassburg), Dr.
Vetter (Dresden), Prof. Selenka (Erlangen). From
Austria: Prof. Claus (Vienna) with two students of the
Vienna University. From Russia : Prof. Salensky (Kazan),
Dr. Rajewsky (Moscow), Dr. Bobretzky (Kievv), Dr.
Ulianin (Moskau), Dr. Rosenberg (Dorpat), Cand. Isnos-
koff (Kazan). From Italy : Dr. Cavanna (Florence), Dr.
Fanzago (Padua), Dr. Zingone (Naples).

Some of these naturalists have been working a whole
year in the Zoological Station ; some have come back a
second time ; the greater number have only stayed the
winter, especially from February till May, a period when
the Station is likely to be visited more frequently than
at any other.

If one compares the number of naturalists coming to
Naples in former years to study Marine Zoology with the
number of those who are named above, it is at once
obvious how great an effect the Zoological Station has
had on the increase. Formerly from three to five zoolo-
gists used to come during the year to Naples, often even
less, or none. From Easter 1874 till Easter 1875, there
were thirty-six naturalists, and during March and April
of this year alone there have been working contem-
poraneously in the Zoological Station eighteen zoologists.

This shows how considerable in a quantitative point of
view the increase of scientific work done at Naples has
become. It is besides obvious that the arrangements in
the Zoological Station— the great Aquarium providing
almost natural conditions of life to the animals, the daily
supply of fresh material, the facility offered by the
library for consulting the literature, and the personal
intercourse among so many scientific men, — must have
also a favourable influence on the quality of the work,
by enabling each of the naturahsts to concentrate
his energy solely on the scientific difficulties of his
pursuit, not having at all to deal with any of the tiresome,
very trying, and for a single man often almost insur-
mountable obstacles of a more practical character which
are in the way of these studies.

Besides, one must not forget that the Zoological Sta-
tion is still in its infancy, and has grown to its present
state of working order in the midst of difficulties of
every kind and character. Granted a greater expe-
rience in the line of its actions, especially a greater know-
ledge of the sea and its localities, currents, temperatures,
and other conditions affecting the life and habitat of

12

NATURE

{Mayd, 1875

the ^animals ; granted, further, an increased income to
allow a more liberal endowment of its different parts, viz.,
library, collection, laboratories, and also an increase in
its leading and scientific staff ; granted, finally, new
donations and subventions like those of the English natu-
ralists and of the German Government, and we may be
pretty sure that the Zoological Station at Naples will in
future be a quite indispensable and very powerful instru-
ment for scientific research.

At present the following Governments and Universities
have entered upon contracts with the Zoological Station
for one or two tables :— Prussia, Italy, Russia, Austria,
each for two tables ; Bavaria, Saxony, Baden, Mecklen-
burg, Holland, and the Universities of Cambridge and
Strassburg, each for one table. Negotiations have been
entered upon with Wiirtemberg and Hesse-Darmstadt.
Accommodation for twenty-four naturalists will be>eady for
next winter, and it is hoped to augment the daily arriving
quantity of marine animals for investigation by help of
a small steam launch, which will be always out on fishing
expeditions, weather permitting.

All this together shows a regularly working institution,
which, we believe, deserves the full attention of scientific
men as a new element, or, to use an expression applied
to it once by Prof. Owen, a new dynamic in science.

The following is an abstract of Dr. Dohrn's inaugural
address : —

Dr. Dohrn began by referring to the success which has
hitherto attended the Naples establishment, to the Ander-
sonian School of Natural History in America, and to the
Zoological Station which the Austrian Government pro-
poses to estabUsh at Trieste. He then proceeded to show
what may in time be expected from the institution ; in
what its duties principally consist.

The original purposes of the undertaking was to facilitate
the labours of the zoologists who come to Naples from
all parts of Europe to study the marine animals of the Bay.
For this purpose it is of course necessary to enter into
relations with the fishermen in the Bay, in order to obtain
the needed supply of fish ; but this method is so far
from satisfactory that Dr. Dohrn, as soon as the state of
funds permits, is resolved to obtain a small steamer,
properly fitted up ; with such assistance only can the
purposes of the institution be satisfactorily carried out.

Dr. Dohrn then referred to the library of the Station,
which he is exceedingly anxious to make as complete as
possible, and hopes that authors, publishers, and academies
will continue to supply the wants of the Station in this
respect. He is especially anxious to obtain systematic
works, the want of which has already made itself pain-
fully felt. The institution greatly depends upon its pecu-
niary resources, and he hopes those who are friendly to its
purpose will continue to lend it a helping hand.

The Zoological Station will continue to supply foreign
universities, laboratories, museums, and private collec-
tions with marine animals, carefully preserved according
to the directions of the person who orders them.

Besides thus endeavouring to further the work of
others, the Station has important scientific tasks of its
own. One of the chief of these is an exact determination
of the fauna of the Bay. Not only for its own sake is
this task one of the first duties of the Station, but it will
be of great assistance in facihtating the work of the
Station in other directions. It may be objected that the
smallness of the means at the disposal of the Station is
inadequate to the fulfilment of all these purposes.
While the justice of this objection is admitted, there is
at the same time no doubt that a great future is in store
for Zoological Stations ; for the principle on which they
are founded will remain, and give rise to ever new reali-
sations.

The decreasing importance which the study of zoology
holds in the medical curriculum can hardly be avoided
without inordinately lengthening the time required for

such a course, medical science itself has become so sub-
divided and specialised. Still, those who look upon the
medical profession as something more than merely a
means of livelihood, will not treat zoology with indiffer-
ence, but will perceive the important bearing it has on
the proper understanding of many medical problems.

The importance of the principles of the Development
theory on the progress of medicine are then insisted
on. In the case of transmission of a hereditary tendency
to certain forms of disease, the application of these
principles might be made to serve a most important
purpose, if thoroughly understood and carefully carried
into practice. " How important must it be to ascer-
tain the conditions of such a transmission, to discover
the symptoms which, though in the present state of our
knowledge they may escape observation, may in the
earliest years show a morbid predisposition, and thus
warn us to conduct the whole physical and moral educa-
tion of the child with reference to the hidden enemy. . . .
As soon as these truths have become a part of the intel-
lectual possessions of the people, as soon as physicians
and teachers bear them constantly in mind and act in
accordance with them, how different will education be-
come ! For in this the highest significance of the Dar-
winian theory consists, that its principles embrace the
moral as well as the physical nature of man, and that
their critical application may bring about intellectual as
well as corporal changes.

" As soon as its high practical value is established and
recognised, no doubt can be entertained that the progress
of zoology, the chief exponent of these laws, is an
essential furtherance to the advance of morals and the
reasonable adjustment of human life ; and it follows
that society— and the highest form of society, the State-
are not only entitled, but in duty bound, to afford a free
opportunity for zoological investigation, and to support it
by all the means in their power."

Zoology is now so advanced and subdivided that at the
various universities the professorships of Zoology should
be at least doubled ; no roan is able adequately to teach
all branches of it. Moreover, laboratories must be esta-
blished at the seaside, and still more, stations in various
parts of the world.

Dr. Dohrn bespoke the utmost 'toleration for the Dar-
winian theory from all classes. He hoped that the fact that
he had connected the name of the Station with the deve-
lopment and application of the Darwinian theory would
not prevent [anyone from lending it his support.

" When the fundamental principles of Darwinism are
once thoroughly understood, it becomes clear that it
is not nearly as revolutionary as some of its disciples
seem to suppose. On the contrary, it is the declared
enemy of all revolutions. It takes its stand on concrete
reality, and teaches, like Hegel, that the real is the reason-
able. It sees in all that exists the necessary result of a
long process of development, in which innumerable influ-
ences have contributed to render the present world what
it is, and not something quite different from it. But it
sees in the present world only the preseiit world ; to-
morrow it will be changed. What in to-day is the effect
of yesterday, must at the same time be the cause of to-
morrow. Thus Darwinism is at once extremely tolerant
and the prophet of a different future. If at times this
should not appear to be the case, the blame is due, not to
the theory, but to its advocates, who often seem not to
understand the doctrines they so zealously teach, since
they are enraged at an opposition which, if they under-
stood how necessary and inevitable it is, they might with
ease gradually but certainly remove."

It was shown that the Development theory is applicable
to all forms of existence and to all departments of human
life. If the law were carefully applied to history as well
as to nature, we might hope to be able to reduce the phe-
nomena of both to one great law of development, by

May 6, 1875]

NA TURE

13

means of which we should be enabled better to under-
stand both the past and the future, and to judge more
clearly of the present.

The important bearing which the work at the Naples
and similar stations had on the elucidation of this law
was then pointed out. " Every fish, every crab, every
Medusa is the result of a long process of development,
which we have to trace, and the determination of which
the Zoological Station is intended to facilitate. That is
its purpose ; it was for that end that I built it, and for
that reason I have asked you to lend your support to my
efforts."

W

THE " VILLE DE CALAIS" BALLOON
ASCENT

Paris, Afay 3.
'E made our ascent yesterday from La Villette gas-
works at 1*25 P.M., and landed safely in a field
at Creney, a small country place four miles south-east of
Troyes, which is about 100 miles south-east from Paris.
After having made observations during a little less than
six hours, our grapnel was let down at ten minutes past
seven. There were three of us in the car— M. Duruof, Mr.
Marriott, an English correspondent in Paris, and myself.
The;maximum altitude reached was about 12,000 feet.
The ascent was very gradual, and the above height was
reached only at six o'clock. No sensible effect was per-
ceived, although the temperature of the air, which on the
ground was about 50° F., was no more than 26° at this
altitude. We tried several experiments, with what suc-
cess it remains to determine on examination of the appa-
ratus. Some of the results, however, I am able to state
here.

We had suspended to the net a number of cages con-
taining small birds and guinea-pigs. The current of gas
had a decided inclination to flow in a certain direction,
and we had not ascended 6,000 feet when one of the birds
was found dead by suffocation. It was the only bird
exposed to the inhalation of the current of gas, and no
other was injured. It was proved by a careful autopsy
executed this morning by Dr. Lionville that this bird had
perished by intra-osseous haemorrhage in the cranium.
The haemorrhage had taken place on both sides, and
without any lesion appearing to the exterior.

We discovered that not less than four different banks
of clouds, were being carried over Paris and its vicinity.
Before the end of our journey the clouds had consider-
ably diminished in thickness, and the blue sky appeared.
I was able to take some thermo-solar observations with a
blackened bulb thermometer in vacuo.

As the effect on our constitutions of our 1 2,000 feet trip
was very trifling, I am of opinion that the experiment may
be scientifically conducted gradually to an immense alti-
tude, independently of previous catastrophes.

W. DE FONVIELLE

NOTES
As we announced some months ago (Dec. 24, vol. xi. p. 153),
Prof. Huxley is to undertake the duties of Prof. Wyville
Thomson's chair of Natural History in the University of Edin.
burgh during the present summer session. Prof. Huxley gave
his introductory lecture on Monday afternoon to a large au-
dience. He was accompanied by Principal Sir Alexander
Grant, Principal Tulloch, St. Andrews, and the members of the
Senatus, and was enthusiastically received. He expressed at the
outset a hope that at this time next year Prof. Thomson would
be among them again, full of health and vigour, laden with the
spoils of the many climes through which he had travelled, and
a sort of zoological Ulysses, full of wisdom for their benefit.
He then took a general view of his subject, put before the class

the considerations which resulted from the careful study of a single
animal, the Crocodile ; an animal which was worthy of atten-
tive study, as it might be said that a knowledge of its organisa-
tion was the key to the understanding of a vast number of extinct
reptiles, and the key to the organisation of birds; while it
helped them to connect the higher with the lower forms of verte-
brate life, and was, in part at any rate, the key to the history of
past life upon the globe. There might be asked respecting this
animal, as respecting every other living thing — first, what was its
structure ? second, what did it do ? third, where was it found ?
and fourth, in virtue of what chain of causation had this thing
come into being ? — this last having only been recently recognised
as one of those questions which might legitimately be put. He
then proceeded to describe the organisation of the Crocodile — it
morphology, physiology, and distribution ; and remarked that
there were few animals about the palaeontological history of
which they knew so much, as they could carry back its history
through the tertiary and secondary epochs. The answer to the last
question constituted /Etiology, or the science of the causes of the
phenomena of morphology, physiology, and distribution. Here,
as in all cases where they had to deal with causation, they left the
region of objective fact and entered that of speculation. With
their present imperfect knowledge, the only safe thing they
could do in attempting to form even a conception of the cause
of this extraordinary complex phenomenon was what a wise his-
torian would do — stick by archaeological facts. He pointed out
that palceontological facts showed that there had been a suc-
cession of forms of that animal to the present day, the oldest
being something like the Lizard.

The Instructions prepared for the use of the officers of the
Arctic Expedition in their Scientific work are now nearly com-
plete, and all the courses of instruction, comprising the use of
magnetical, astronomical, and meteorological instruments and of
spectroscopes, will be concluded next week, many officers from
both ships having taken part in them. We believe that the
present arrangement as to date of leaving, the 29th instant, may
be considered as final. We have already stated that the ex-
ploring ships are to be accompanied as far as Disco Island by the
Vahrous for the purpose of enabling them to fill up with stores
and coal at the last moment. At the suggestion of the
Council of the Royal Society, advantage will be taken of the
presence of this ship to make observations in a little explored
region, her homeward voyaj^e being employed in carrying out
such a physical and biological exploration of the southern part
of Baffin's Bay and the North Atlantic between Cape Farewell
and the British Isles as may serve to complete the work which is
being so successfully prosecuted in other seas by the Challenger.
Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, the coadjutor of Dr. Carpenter and Prof,
Wyville Thomson in the Porcupine expeditions, which first
demonstrated the feasibility and scientific importance of this
kind of exploration, has volunteered for the service, and he will
take with him as his assistant Mr. P. Herbert Carpenter, who
did good work when accompanying his father in the Porcupine^
and who will especially take charge of the physical inquiries.

M. CoRNU's lecture on the velocity of Light at the Royal
Institution to-morrow evening is looked forward to with great
interest. We believe he intends to speak in French, though his
knowledge of English renders him quite competent to make use
of that language if he chose. An account of the results attained
by M. Comu will be found in Nature, vol. xi. p. 274.

HoFRATH Heinrich Schwabe died at Dessau on April 11 ;
he reached a patriarchal age, having been born on Oct. 25,
1789, at Dessau. He retained his faculties to the last, although
he had been compelled for many years to relinquish his favourite
astronomical studies, which in 1857 had won for him the Royal
Astronomical Society's Gold Mfdal.

14

NATURE

[May 6, 1875

Chemistry in Germany and in Austria has to deplore two
severe losses. On the 15th of April died Prot. von Schrotter,
Master of the Mint in Vienna, and known best through his dis-
covery of amorphous phosphorus and his determination of the
atomic weight of phosphorus ; he died at the age of seventy- three
years. A few days later Prof. Carius died at Marburg after
a protracted illness. Although only forty-six years old, he leaves
behind him the record of very numerous researches, of which
those on the sulpho compounds, corresponding to glycerine and
its derivatives, :on the oxysulphides of phosphorus, on the action
of hypochlorous acid on hydrocarbons, and on the analyses of
organic chlorides, iodides, bromides, sulphides, and phosphides
are best known.

The Times of the 30th ult. contains a letter from its corre-
spondent with the Challenger, dated " Zamboango, Jan, 31."
The Challenger left Hong Kong on Jan. 6, and proceeded to
the middle of the China Sea, where a series of temperature
soundings was taken, the temperature at the bottom, 1,200
fathoms, being found to be 36° Fahr. This temperature is
accounted for by Capt. Chimmo's statement, that the China Sea
is cut off by a barrier, which rises to a height of between 800 and
900 fathoms below the surface of the water, from communication
with the Antarctic Ocean. Passing along the west coast of
Luzon, the Challenger entered a little enclosed sea extending from
the north point of the island of Tablas to the strait between the
north-east angle of Panay and the south-west point of Masbate.
Here another series of interesting temperature soundings was
taken, the temperature at bottom, 700 fathoms, being 517°.
The temperatures generally in this Panay Sea were to a certain
extent intermediate between those in the China Sea on the one
side and the Zebu Sea on the other, leaving it uncertain whether
the cleft in the barrier to the depth of 150 fathoms is between
Tablas and Panay or between Romplon and Sabuyan. After
visiting Zebu, near which some fine specimens of the beautiful
sponge the " Venus' Flower-basket " {Euplectella) were trawled,
the ship made for the small island of Comiguin, between Min-
danao and Bohol, to inspect the active volcano therein. This
volcano "was born on May i, 1871," and now forms an irregular
cone of 1,950 feet in height. From Comiguin the Challenger
proceeded along the west coast of Mindanao to Zamboango,
where a party of sportsmen were sent to camp out in the forest
within riding distance of the ship. On leaving Zamboango, a
run of about 2,000 miles was to be made nearly parallel with the
equator, and only a few degrees to the north of Greenwich
Island. Thence the expedition was to make one of the most
important sections, through the Caroline and Ladrone Islands to
Japan, where it was expected to arrive about the second week of
April.

The enterprise of the Scottish Meteorological Society
we have had frequent occasion to refer to, and the practical
as well as scientific Value of the work it undertakes does
it the greatest credit, especially when its narrow means is
taken into consideration. One of its latest publications is
a diagram by Mr. G. Thomson, Fishery Officer, Lybster,
Caithness, showing for the months of July, August, and Sep-
tember, 1874, the catch and quality of the herrings, and the
varying positions of the herring-ground in the district of Lybster,
as also the meteorology of the district. The diagram, which
has been revised by the secretary, Mr. Buchan, is ingeniously
constructed and quite intelligible. There are two series of con-
joined curves and tables, the first showing all details belonging
to the meteorology of each day, and the second showing the
catch and quality of fish. Underneath are a sketch of the
coast and indications of the different fishing grounds occupied.
The diagram, we believe, is intended for distribution among the
various district fishery officers in Scotland, with the view of

inducing some of them to prepare similar' diagrams for 1875 for
their own districts. With these, and the observations from
twenty sea-thermometers which were presented by the Marquis
of Twceddale, as also of the weather during the coming season,
results may be hoped for that will throw some light on the im-
portant question of the varying locaUsation of the fishings.

The Committee of the forthcoming Geographical Congress at
Paris have finished the distribution of the space allotted to the
various countries in the Pavilion de Flore for exhibition ; the geo-
graphical order has been adopted in locating the several nations.
Russia, being the most northern, has been placed first ; but
magnificent rooms have been allotted to British exhibitors on
the ground-floor. Everything has been done to ensure a splendid
display of English science and industry, and great things are
expected from the nation which, without any boasting, may be
said to have done as much as many others put together to open
the world to civilisation. The presidents of the English Com-
mittee are the Earl of Derby, Sir H. Rawlinson, and Sir Bartle
Frere. Great interest is felt by the Society and the Committee
in the Polar Expedition, and models of the two ships, of sledges,
boats, &c., would be most particularly popular and very thank-
fully received.

The Council of the Senate of Cambridge University upon
the Grace which proposed to constitute a Syndicate for the
purpose of considering what representations should be made to
the Government as to the pecuniary and other relations subsist-
ing between the University and the Colleges, are of opinion
that it should be withdrawn ; they think, however, that it is
advisable to obtain the general opinion of the University on the
following points : — i. What additional teachers or appliances
for teaching are required in the different departments of Univer-
sity study. 2. How these teachers and appliances may be best
supplied, whether by the individual Colleges or by the Univer-
sity, or partly by the one and partly by the other. 3. Whether
by any improved organisation the systems of professorial and
collegiate teaching may be made more efficient and be brought
into closer relations with each other. 4. How the teaching in
the University may be organised so as to give the greatest
encouragement to the advancement of the several branches of
learning. They therefore recommend that a Syndicate be ap-
pointed to consider these subjects. The Vice-Chancellor invites
discussion of this report on Saturday next, at 2 p.m., in the
Arts School.

A SYNDICATE has been appointed to consider what steps
(if any) should be taken for establishing a Professorship of
Mechanism and Engineering in the University of Cambridge.

The late Prof. Willis, by his will, offered to Cambridge Uni-
versity, for 1,200/., the collections of models, instruments, and
tools used by him as Jacksonian Professor. A Syndicate has
been appointed to consider the expediency of purchasing the
whole or part of the collections.

For some time past negotiations have been in progress between
Prof. Charles F. Hartt, of Cornell University, and the Govern-
ment of Brazil, in regard to a complete geological survey of that
empire. It is now stated that the preliminaries have been com-
pleted, and that Prof. Hartt has been appointed director of the
survey. His preparations for this work are ample, as he has
made no less than four successive visits to Brazil with reference
to the study of its general geology and ethnology. His salary is
said to have been fixed at $10,000 a year. It is also announced
that Prof. Caldwell, another member of the faculty of Cornell
University, has been appointed to take charge of the agricultural
branch of the survey.

In reference to a note in Dingier' s Polytech. Journal, men-
tioned in Nature, yoL xi. p. 456, there is a second paper in

May 6, 1875 J

NATURE

15

the valuable Ferial (2n'l January part) on tlie part played by
carbonic oxide gas in smoking. This treatise is by Dr. Vohl,
and refutes Dr, Krause's opinion. He says: "It is evident
from Dr. Krause's account that he is unaware of the experiments
made by Dr. H. Eulenberg and myself as far back as 1 871,
which proved the presence of carbonic oxide in tobacco smoke.
I cannot, however, agree with the idea that the physiological
effects of smoking are to be in part or wholly attributed to this
gas, as it varies greatly in the quantity in which it is present in
smoke. This quantity is never considerable, and the effects in
question must rather be ascribed to the volatile organic bases,
which form while tobacco is burning. Dr. Krause owns himself
that his analytical results are not exact, on account of the method
he used in obtaining them ; these results cannot therefore give
any idea as to the quantity of carbonic oxide generally present
in tobacco smoke, as neither the temperature nor the barome-
trical pressure was noted, nor was any account taken of oxygen
and marsh gas."

The Government has taken up the question of the protection of
seals in the Greenland seal fishery ; and a Bill has been introduced
into Parliament by the Board of Trade, authorising the issue of an
Order in Council prohibiting the capture or destruction of any
kind of seal between such dates as may be specified in such
Order, in any part of the area included between the parallels of
67° and 75° N., and the meridians of 5° E. and 17° W. Such
Order is to be made whenever it shall appear that the other
States whose subjects and vessels are engaged in the seal fishery
shall make similar regulations. The great destruction of seals
which has taken place of late years has seriously interfered with
the success of the important industry. This year many of the
vessels have returned "clean."

M. Wallon, the French Minister for Public Instruction, has
visited the Lille Academy and Colleges, and was received with a
great display of enthusiasm. He is said to contemplate many
improvements in educational establishments in large provincial
cities ; these are to be tried first in the city where he was bom,
and which he represents in the National Assembly.

The Council of the lately-established United Services College,
Westward Ho, have resolved to introduce Natural Science into
the regular school-work ; in fact, to place it on an equal footing
with Languages and Mathematics as a means of mental training.
They have appointed as master Mr. Herbert Green, F.C.S.,
M.A., of Queen's College, Oxford, who has had some years'
experience at Victoria College, Jersey. A laboratory will be at
once fitted up under his supervision, and class-rooms will be
added as required.

With regard to the statement quoted from Dr. Cleland's
book on Animal Physiology (Nature, vol. xL p. 504), " that
the presence of chlorophyll is as necessary for the production of
organic matter in organisms as the presence of protoplasm is
.necessary for growth," a correspondent points out that fungi
seem to be an exception to the rule. He has never seen it stated
that Torula, for instance, contains chlorophyll, nor has he ever
himself seen chlorophyll in Torula. It is generally agreed, he
believes, that fungi do not contain chlorophyll or starch.

Dr. John Croumbie Brown, F.L.S., author of a work on
the Hydrology of South Africa, is preparing for the press a work
which he intends to call " Reboisement en France." It will
consist of records of the replanting of the Alps, the Cevennes,
and the Pyrenees with trees, herbage, and bush, with a view to
arresting and preventing the destructive consequences and effects
of torrents, and will embody a resume of Alexandre Surell's
" Etude sur les Torrents des Hautes Alpes," with copious
extracts.

The Annual Meeting of the Royal Institution was held on
Saturday last. Sixty-four new members were elected in 1874. The
following gentlemen were unanimousl y elected as officers for the
ensuing year : — President, the Duke of Northumberland, D.C.L. ;
Treasurer, George Busk, F.R.C.S., F.R.S. ; Secretary, William
Spottiswoode, M.A., LL.D., Treas. R.S. The Vice-presidents
for the year are the Duke of Devonshire, K.G., Dr. Pole,
F.R.S., and Dr. C. W. Siemens, F.R.S.

The Iron and Steel Institute commenced its meetings yester-
day ; we hope to be able next week to give some account of the
work done.

We believe that Mr. Disraeli has promised to receive a depu-
tation on the subject of the India Museum after the Whitsuntide
holidays.

Steps are being taken to obtain the assent of the Emperor
to a proposal for holding an Imperial German Industrial Ex-
hibition in Berlin in 1878.

Mr. Stanford is about to publish Part I. of " Vestiges of
the Molten Globe," by Mr. W. L. Green, Minister of Foreign
Affairs to the King of the Sandwich Islands. The work will be
concluded in three parts, and will, we believe, contain some
curious observations as to the formation of minerals, Mr. Green
having had many opportunities of watching the process during
his twenty-five years' residence beside the Hawaiian volcanoes.

Mr. Edward B. Avkling, B.Sc. Lend., has been appointed
Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy at the London Hospital
Medical College.

Mr. J. Rand Capron has reprinted from the April number
of the Philosophical Magazine his paper " On the Comparison of
some Tubes and other spectra with the Spectrum of the
Aurora."

Vine culture in New South Wales is progressing very rapidly,
the number of acres occupied for this purpose being 3, 183 in 1873,
against 2,568 acres in 1872, and the produce 575,985 gallons
against 451,450 gallons. These figures relate only to the growth
of grapes for wine- producing purposes, but a considerable area
is devoted to the cultivation of the vine for other objects. In
Western Australia also, where"the soil and climate are eminently
favourable to the growth of the^grape, this pursuit is becoming
more general.

Much information on the functions, the form, and the habits
of the Octopus may be obtained irom a small work by Mr. C.
Mitchell, recently published by Messrs. Dean and Son. The
structure and economy of the animal are, in it, explained in a par-
ticularly lucid and interesting manner, which will lead those who
have the opportunity of seeing the Octopus in an aquarium for
the first time, to form a far better idea of the somewhat shape-
less mass presented to their view, than any amount of time spent
in simply inspecting it at a distance. Some anatomical illus-
trations which are added will also be found very useful to any
one who has the opportunity of obtaining specimens for dis-
section.

The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the
past week include two Pig-tailed Monkeys {Macacus nemestrinus)
from Java, presented by Mr. A. B. (Jordon and Miss H. E.
Humphreys ; a Patagonian Conure {Conurus patagonus) from
La Plata, presented by Mrs. Cabry ; a Ground Hombill [Buceros
abyssiiticus) from West Africa, a Concave-casqued Hombill
{Buceros bicornis) from India, received in exchange; a Hoff-
mann's Sloth {Cholopus hofftnanni) from Panama, purchased ;
two White-fronted Lemurs {Lemur albifrons), a Hairy Arma-
dillo {Dasypus villosus), and four Upland Geese {Chloephaga
magellanica), bom in the Gardens.

i6

NATURE

[May 6, 1875

METEOROLOGY, ETC., IN MAURITIUS

THE following letter from Mr, C. Meldrum, dated
" Observatory, Mauritius, April 2," to a friend in
England, gives some interesting data tending to prove a
connection between solar activity and the state of the
weather. With his new instruments we may hope soon
to have some most important results.

"Since December last the colony has been suffering from
drought, and there is very little appearance of a favourable
change. February has been the driest month since systematic
observation commenced in 1852, and the rainfall for January
and March has been far below average. If the present state of
things continue long, the island will be hard up for witer.

' ' Coincident with this drought there has been, as usual on such
occasions, a great falling off in the number and violence of
cyclones in the Indian Ocean. We copy here the log-books of
all vessels arriving in port from India, Australia, the Cape,
England, &c., so that no great storm can take place over the
greater part of the ocean without our getting more or less infor-
mation about it. Well, the hurricane season is nearly over, and
we have heard of only two storms, one on the 24th of January
away to the northward of us, and one on the 7th of March, away
to the eastward of us, and neither of them seems to have been
extensive or very violent, only two vessels having been involved
in each. The season thus bears a remarkable contrast to the
corresponding periods for 1 871, '72, and '73, and furnishes another
instance of the now oft-observed fact that when Mauritius suffers
from drought the Indian Ocean is almost free from hurricanes.
The neighbouring island of Reunion has fared as badly as
Mauritius, and the log-books furnish evidence that the drought
has prevailed over a wide area.

" The S.E. trade-wind has been blowing from S.E.to E. and
E.N.E. almost without interruption during the last three months,
and the barometer been unusually high and steady for the season,
thus showing that from some cause or other the belt of calms and
variables between the S.E. trade and the N.W. monsoon has
not advanced so far to the south as it did in the years 1871-74.

" It is only now that I am enabled to keep a continuous record
of the sun-spots, the photo-heliograph having been put up a fort-
night ago, and being at work only for a week ; but from obser-
vations made directly, as often as possible, it would appear that
there has been a great falling off in the number and magnitude
of the spots. If this is the case, then we have, as on many other
occasions, a decrease of spots, a decrease of cyclones, and a de-
crease of rain all at or about the same time.

" Our latest telegraphic news, via India, states that severe cold
prevailed throughout Europe. It would be very interesting to
know the conditions of weather for the whole habitable globe
during the last three months. Comparative meteorology — in-
cluding the sun's — can alone throw light on the nature of the
relations subsisting between weather changes and variations of
solar activity.

"Although the sun-spots decreased considerably in January and
February, yet one or two pretty large ones appeared towards the
end of February, and on the 27th of that month, between i and
7 P.M. we had (for this latitude) a remarkable magnetic storm.
I fancy next mail will bring us news of auroras and magnetic
storms having been observed in different parts of the world at
that time. We had no aurora here, but on the 25th, 26th, 27th,
and 28th there appeared, shortly after sunset, long beams of light
radiating from a point near the horizon at E. by N. (nearly
opposite the sun). This of course is easily explained without
an aurora or any fitful outburst on the sun, but I have noticed
that these radiating beams, which are sometimes very gorgeous,
and occasionally radiate from points near the poles, are much
more frequent in some years than others — which may arise from
different states of the vapour and clouds. Dr. Lyall, who took
a series of observations in Madagascar about forty-five years ago,
makes mention of them, and describes them under the name of
Aurora.

" Wc have all the instruments at work now, except the thermo-
graph, which has not arrived. I have been so much occupied
with the putting up of the instruments and removing into the
new Observatory, that I have had very little time for anything
else. I wished to send to the Royal Society some papers, but I
could not manage to get sufficient leisure to prepare them. In
a short time we shall be in train, and I hope to resume the sub-
ject of periodicities, &c."

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

The current number of the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical
Science commences with an account by Mr. Wm. Archer of a
new freshwater sarcodic organism, named by the author Chlamy-
domyxa labyrinthuloides, which is illustrated by a superb folio-
sized coloured plate, as well as an octavo one. The species is
shown to be closely allied to Labyrinthula of Cienkowski. The
matrix is enclosed in a multilaminate cellulose envelope, which
at times appears to burst and give exit to protoplasmic contents,
which emerge in an arborescent manner with hyaline prolonga-
tions, along which small fusifoi-m protoplasmic masses travel. —
Rev. M. J. Berkeley gives a short account of the Thread Bliglit
of Tea, in which he describes the fungus producing it, although
he is unable to name it because he has not had an opportunity
of examining the fructification. — Mr. P. Kidd draws attention to
the occurrence of spontaneous movement in the nucleoli of the
epithelium of the frog's mouth. — This paper is followed by an
excellent and illustrated account of the structure of the Pacinian
corpuscles, considered with reference to the homologies of the
several parts composing them, by Mr. Edward Schiifer, in which
it is shown — assuming an ordinary nerve fibre to consist of the
axis cylinder in the middle, surrounded by, first, the medullary
sheath, or white substance ; secondly, a delicate layer of proto-
plasm containing nuclei ; thirdly, the primitive sheath (of
Schwann) ; and lastly, the numerous laminae of the neurilemma,
which, however, encloses a layer of finely filamentous connective
tissue — that the coats of the Pacinian are the layers of the neuri-
lemma ; that the sheath of Schwann surrounds tlie core, this
latter being an expansion of the protoplasmic substance ; that
the medullary sheath, if not retained as such, disappears, and
that the axis-cylinder becomes the central fibre. — Mr. A. W.
Bennett gives an account of modern researches into the nature of
yeast, specially noticing those of Reess and Cienkowski. — Prof.
Lankester has a paper of special theoretical importance, on the
Invaginate Planula, or Diplobastic Phase of Paludina vivipara ;
in which, after proposing the name "blastopore" for the orifice
of invagination of those Planulae which exhibit it, he proposes a
a classification of Planulse, which helps to simplify this intricate
part of embryonic history. He divides Planulte into two groups :
Delaminate Planulas, in which there is no invagination, but a
splitting of the blastosphere to form the endo- and ecto-derm ;
and Invaginate Planulce, which may be etubolic, or have no food-
yelk ; or epibolic, possessing a "residual yelk." The Hydrozoa
and Calcareous Sponges have delaminate planula; ; Amphioxus,
Ascidians, many Mollusca, Sagitta, Echinodermata, and many
Vermes have embolic invaginate planula; ; whilst in the third
group are included many Mollusca, many Vertebrata, the Cteno-
phora, certain Vermes, and certain Arthropods. — Mr. H. C.
Sorby describes the absorption spectrum of Bonellia viridis, and
draws attention to a most striking point, namely, that there seems
to be a constant ratio between the wave-lengths of the different
bands in these spectra. — The number contains its usual excellent
quarterly chronicle, notes, &c.

Ta^ Journal of the Chemical Society (March 1875) contains
the following papers, besides a large number of abstracts from
other serials, already noticed in Nature : — The formulae of the
alums, by S. Lupton. The author briefly states the formulae
given to the alums before they were finally designated as
A' B"'2S04. 12H2O (where A stands for an alkali metal and B
for a metal of the iron group). At present some chemists use
this formula, while others double it into A2'B2"'4S04.24H20.
The cause of this variety of usage rests in the uncertainty attach,
iug to the atomicity of alumium ; this metal appears as a tetrad
when combined with chlorine, bromine and iodine, but as a triad
in its methyl and ethyl compounds. The author tried to obtain
certain bodies similar to the alums in constitution, but differing
in the number of molecules of water which they contain ; the
latter have often served to establish the formula of salts. Experi-
ments were made with iron and ammonium alum, aluminium and
potassium alum, and alumium and ammonium alum ; these
experiments are described, and the author arrives at the conclu-
sion that the doubled formula as above is the correct one, as it
seems that upon dehydration the residue R2'R2'''4S04 remains
unaffected, and exists therefore in the ordinary alums in com.
bination with 24 molecules of water. — On the colour of cupric
chloride, by Walter Noel Hartley. This salt is almost invari-
ably described as being of a green colour, but the author has
found that the salt is only green as long as there is a trace of
moisture about it ; as soon as the salt is quite dry its crystals are

May 6, 1875]

NATURE

17

transparent, brilliant, and of a beautiful pale blue tint. A strong
solution of the salt is deep green, a dilute solution blue. When
the crystals are moist, they may be considered wetted with the
dark green solution, and so their true colour is masked. — On the
purification and boiling point of methyl-hexyl carbinol, by E.
Neison. — This is followed by a note on the same subject from
the pen of Prof. C. Schorlemmer. The two gentlemen agree
pretty well with regard to the boiling point, which Mr. Neison
finds to be at iSi"-i82'' C, and Prof. Schorlemmer at lyg^'S ;
llie difference may probably rest upon the difference of thermo-
meters.— The last paper is on the oxidation of the essential oils,
by Chas. T. Kingzett.

Zeitschrift tier Ocsfn-reir/iisc/ien Geselhchaft fiit Meteorologif,
Feb. I. — Dr. Julius Ucke, of Samara, contributes an abstract of
his work, undertaken chiefly from a medical point of view, on the
quantitative proportions of atmospheric oxygen in different cli-
mates, in relation to temperature, moisture, and density of air.
The public have chosen certain localities as health-resorts long
before science pointed them out as eligible, and although we can-
not doubt that oxygen is a great healing power in these, the part
it really plays remains to be determined by physiologists and
pathologists. The present work merely opens the way to in-
quirj', and does not claim to go beyond the evidence of statistics.
Samara is a health-resort remarkable for the rarity of diseases of
respiration, but its climate is windy and not mild, and the changes
of temperature are great, both daily and seasonal. The conditions
of temperature, moisture, pressure, and wind, do not account for
i's healthiness. Two factors remain : oxygen and ozone. Oxy-
gen only concerns us at present. In order to find the relative
quantity of oxygen at any place, thermometric, barometric, and
hygrometric data are indispensable. Thirteen European and
three Indian towTis and one American station were chosen.
Data for Nice, Algiers, and Madeira were wanting. ]5earing in
mind the hygienic object of his task. Dr. Ucke takes as a measure
of the quantities of oxygen the number of inspirations of a grown
man in the course of a month of 30"42 days. In the absence of
a normal standard, the mean of the results for the seventeen
stations is used for comparison. He finds that in the whole year
most oxygen is inspired at Samara, least at Seringapatam ; that,
taking all stations, the quantities are largest in winter, least in
summer, except at Seringapatam, where spring gives the lowest
figure. Also, that generally the quantities decrease from E. to
W. These differences of course depend on the three factors, tem-
perature, density, and moisture. The first two have by far the
most considerable effect. The article is illustrated by various
tables.

The American Joufnal of Science and Arts, March. — The
principal papers in this number are : On some phenomena of
binocular vision, by Prof. J. Le Conte. The article has refer-
ence to the direction of the optic axes in .sleep. Arguing from
"double sight "in drowsiness. Prof. Le Conti concludes that
the axes diverge. — The gigantic cephalopods of the North
Atlantic, by A. E. Verrill. This is a continuation of a former
article in which he records the dimensions of specimens cap-
tured within the last few years. — The trap rocks of the Con-
necticut Valley, by G. W. Hawes. This contains many
analyses of dolerites and diabare. — On the comparison of certain
theories of .solar structure with observation, by Mr. S. P. Langley.
(See following article.)— Notes on Costa Rica Geology, by W. M.
Gabb. The area described — the district of TaK-imanca, consists
of granite rocks on which rest beds of Miocene age, the granite
being pushed up after the deposition of the Miocene. — Under the
head of Scientific Intelligence is a description of a new order of
Eocene Mammals, Tillodovtia, by Prof. O. C. Marsh. — Report
of progress of Geological Survey of Pennsylvania for 1874. —
Notes on the transit of Venus.

Memorie della Societa degli Sfcttroscopisti Ilahani, January
1875. — M''- S. P. Langley, director of the Alleghany Observa-
tory, contributes a paper on the comparison of certain theories
of the structure of sun-spots with observation. He alludes to
the so-called "crystalline " forms seen at times in the umbras of
spots, and to their lending confirmation to the views of those
who regard the photosphere as a luminous covering of incan-
descent fluid, and the .spots cooling matter in it. The author
says that they are at first .sight so confirmatory of this view that
it was only after long study he had been led to think them
assimilable to certain cloud forms in our atmosphere. A beauti-
fully executed steel engraving accompanies the paper, showing
the forms alluded to over the umbra of a spot ; and they certainly

put one in mind ot certain forms of cirrus cloud. All the
filaments of the penumbra are directed generally towards the
centre of the spot ; but while all are more or less curved, there
is no common direction of curvature. Mr. Langley also remarks
that the ends of the filaments are generally the brightest parts,
and that it is difficult to resist the impression that they turn
upwards at the extremities and appear as though lifting their
points through some obscuring medium. One of the crystalline
forms appears in great beauty on the spot. It is about 20"
long, and 10" wide, and has the appearance of a plume or of
finely carded wool : and the author asks if we are prepared to
admit the existence of a body analogous to a crystal covering
ten times the area of Europe. He also refers to sudden and
abrupt changes in the direction of the filaments, apparently
being due to the passage of one cloud stratum over another, and
he remarks this disposition elsewhere in the spot giving a
terraced appearance. He says : " It seems difficult to reconcile
the bright, sharply-defined inner edge and the regular structure
discerned in the umbra, with another view in which this umbra
is a sort of stagnant pool formed by cold vapours or clouds
which have settled there after depressing the general surface by
their weight until the penumbral slope is determined ; " and
" The theory which regards cyclonic or vertical action as a
prominent agent in determining the forms we have studied
appears to be in closer accordance with observation than the
former."— Father Secchi, in a note on the foregoing paper,
remarks that at the edge of the sun, where the spot in question
disappeared, there was seen an active prominence, and his further
remarks are to be continued in the next number.— P. Tacchini
contributes a paper on the condition of Italian and other
observatories, giving the staff at each and their salaries. We
extract the total payments to the staff and for instruments at the
following Observatories : —

Lire.

Paris 54,000 Rome

Greenwich 75,000 Padua

Pulkowa 220,000 Modena

Palermo 7,800 Turin

Naples 13,248 Bologna ..

Florence 6,700 Parma

Milan 14,802

Lire.

4,920

6,200

4,940

4,700

4,500

1,300

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

London
Royal Society, April 15. — "Researches upon the Specific
Volumes of Liquids," by T. E. Thorpe. Communicated by
Prof. Williamson, For. Sec. R.S,

I. On the Atomic Value of Phosphorus.

Hermann Kopp has shown that, as a rule, the specific volume
of an element is invariable when in combination. Exceptions
to the law occur, however, in the cases of oxygen and sulphur,
each of which bodies has two specific volumes dependent upon
the manner in which they are held in union. When contained
" within the radicle," as in acetyl, CjHjO, oxygen has the value
I2'2, but when existing " within the radicle," as in alcohol, it
has the smaller value, 7*8. Sulphur, when "within the radicle,"
has the specific volume 28*6; when "without the radicle," it
has the specific volume 22 6.

The causae of these variations may be thus stated in the lan-
guage of modern theory : — When dyad sulphur and oxygen are
united to an element by both their affinities, their specific
volumes becomes respectively 28*6 and 12-2; when they are
attached by only one combining unit, their specific volumes are
22-6 and 7-8.

Phosphorus is regarded by certain chemists as invariably a
triad ; others maintain that it is sometimes a triad, at other times
a pentad. In the trichloride it is a triad, in the oxychloride and
thiochloride it is a pentad. According to this view the two
latter compounds possess the following constitution : —
CI 01

CI— P=0 CI— PS

I I

CI ; CI

If, however, phosphorus is invariably trivalent, the oxychloride

i8

NATURE

[May 6, 1875

and thiocMoride must possess the following formulae: —
CI CI

I I

P— O— CI P— S-Cl

I I

CI CI

It is possible to decide between the two modes of represent-
ing the constitution of tkese compounds, if it be granted that the
variation in the specific volume of oxygen and sulphur is due to
the manner in which these elements are held in union. For if
the phosphorus in the oxychloride and thiochloride be quinquiva-
lent, the oxygen and sulphur must possess the greater of the two
values, since both their combining units are united to the phos-
phorus ; if, on the other hand, phosphorus be trivalent, the
oxygen and sulphur must possess the smaller of the two values.

The author has determined the specific gravity, boiling-point,
and rate of expansion of P CLj, P O Clg, and P S CI3, in order
to ascertain the specific volume of the oxygen and sulphur in the
two latter compounds, and consequently the chemical value of
the phosphorus ; and he finds that the specific volumes of the
oxygen and sulphur are almost identical with the values given
by Kopp for these elements when " without the radicle." It
would therefore appear that the oxychloride and thiochloride
must possess the constitution —

CI CI

I I

P— O— CI P— S— CI

! I

Cl CI

and that the phosphorus in these bodies is to be regarded as a
triad.

The author concludes by discussing Buff's hypothesis that the
specific volume of an element varies with its chemical value ;
and he shows that in the case of phosphorus there are no reasons
for the belief that this element has a variable specific volume.

Geological Society, April 14. — Mr. John Evans, V.P.R. S.,
president, in the chair. — Descriptions of new corals from the
Carboniferous Limestone of Scotland, by Mr. James Thomson.
In this paper the author described some forms of corals from the
carboniferous limestone of Scotland, which he regards as new
species, and as belonging to three new genera allied to Clisto-
phylhim. In the group which he names Rhodophyllutn the
calice is circular and shallow, the epitheca thin and smooth, the
septa thin and numerous, and the columellar boss dome-shaped,
slightly raised above the inner margin of the primary septa, and
clasped by subconvolute ridges. The species referred to this
genus are Rhodophyllutn Craigiamim, R. Slimonianum, R. Phil-
lipsianum, R. Argylianum, R. reticulatum, and R. ellipticum.
Aspidiophyllum has the calice generally circular, shallow ; the
septa forming thin laminse for about half their length from
within, when they become flexuous, and the columellar boss
prominent and helmet-shaped. The species are named A.
Koninckianum, A. Huxleyanum, A. cruci/orme, A. elcgans, A.
Hennedii, A. Danai, A. dendrophylluni, A. dliptkmn, A. Paget,
A. scoticum, andy^f. laxum. The third genus, Ku7-natiophylluni,
is most nearly alUed to Rhodophyllum, but has the columellar
space slightly raised above the inner margin of the primary
septa, and crowned by bending or Avavy lamellce, some of which
pass over the central space in sinuous folds. The species are
described under the names of A', conccntricutn, clavatum, Tyler-
amim, intermedium, ellipticum, Ramsayanum, Youngianum,
Harknessianum, lamellifolium, bipartitum, octolamellosum, Haimi-
anum, Edwardsianuvi, and Davidsonianum. In a specimen of
Aspidiophylltnn Huxleyanum the author noticed in the open
interseptal space a small tube, four lines long, around the inner
margin of which there was a group of oval bodies, which, from
their close proximity to the inner margin of the primary septa
and their form, he is inclined to think may be ova. — On the
probable existence of a considerable fault in the lias near Rugby,
and of a new outlier of the oolite, by Mr. J. M. Wilson. The
author called attention to what appeared to him to be a great
fault in the Lower Lias at the village of Low Morton, near
Rugby, where a sandpit is worked against the face of a steep
hill to a depth of nearly fifty feet. The sand in the valley, as
proved by wells and borings, is of great depth. Above the
sand-pit is a clay-pit, and the author stated that the clay is
bounded towards the sand by a highly inclined face of clay,
against which the sand is thrown. This face of clay can be
clearly traced for a distance of more than half a mile, running

in a south-easterly and north-westerly direction. If continued to
the south-east, it would pass close by Kilsby Tunnel, the diffi
culties met with in the construction of which may have been due
in part to a continuation of the fault ; whilst if continued to the
north-west it would coincide generally with the valley of the
Clifton Brook, the bed of which is also occupied by a great
depth of sand. The line of fault thus passes between Rugby
and Brownsover, and the author suggests that it is the cause of
the presence on the summit of the Brownsover plateau of an
extensive oolitic mass of Stonesfield -slate character. The line
of fault continued further would connect with the Atherstone
and Nuneaton fault, and agree with this in having its downthrow
on the north-east side. — On a Labyrinthodont from the Coal-
measures, by Mr. J, M. "Wilson. The fossil referred to in this
paper was from the Leinster Coal-measures, and was regarded as
probably belonging to the genus Keraterpeton of Prof Huxley,
although the outer posterior angles of the skull do not appear to
have been prolonged into cornua. — On Cruziana semiplicata, by
Mr. J. L. Tupper ; 'communicated by Mr. J. M. Wilson. In
this paper the author gave a detailed desciiption of a slab of
unknown origin, but said to have been obtained from a workman
at Bangor, containing several specimens of tlie fossil described
by Salter under the name of Cruziana semiplicata. From his
examination of the specimen the author seemed inclined to
ascribe to Cruziana an animal origin, and to regard it rather as
fossilised animal structure than as a cast of the track left by the
feet of some animal passing over the surface of the sand.

Geologists' Association, April 2. — Mr. Wm. Carruthers,
F.R.S., president, in the chair. — Remarks upon geological
boundary lines, by Horace B. Woodward, F. G. S. The author
beheves a tendency exists to overlook the broad classification of
lithological characters, and to adopt lines of a paljeontological
nature. The identity of organic remains is no absolute proof of
contemporaneity. In identifying the age of a formation the test
of superposition, as a rule, is decisive ; and the main facts of
palaeontology must first be worked out from the stratigraphical
succession of the rocks. Still the value of palaeontology cannot
be disputed, and if we cannot identify formations far separated
as synchronous when the fossils are similar, we may parallel suc-
cassive faunas. Our formations, when looked at in the large
way, must be taken to represent deposits of essentially similar
character, and characterised by a particular assemblage of fossils.
The more we learn of the history of our own strata and those
of foreign countries, the less evidence do we see of breaks in the
conformity of succession. — Notes on the probable depth of the
Gault sea ; or, an endeavour to ascertain the relative depth of
the sea during the Gault period, by comparing the representative
fossil genera with recent forms, by F. G. H. Price, F.G.S. The
author is disposed to consider that the depth of the sea in which
the Lower Gault was deposited did not exceed 100 fathoms.

Meteorological Society, April 21. — Dr. R. J. Mann,
president, in the chair. — Mr. Scott read a paper, " Notes on sea
temperature observations on the coasts of the British Islands."
He said that it mainly related to the connection between sea
temperature and the take of fish on the coasts, and he noticed
the investigations formerly carried on by the Dutch and that
now in progress under the direction of the Scottish Meteoro-
logical Society. He read a letter from Mr. F. Buckland on
the subject, which, however, proposed a scheme of action which
would entail heavy expenditure, while at present there was no
satisfactory record kept of the take of fish on any of our coasts
except those of Scotland. Mr. Scott then said that he had had
some observations of sea temperature taken at some stations in
the West of Englanc^ and on the coasts of the Irish Sea, and
had received some observations from Mr. W. Dymond and from
Mr. N. Whitley, and he submitted some monthly mean tem-
peratures from a few stations. He also stated that both the
Trinity House and the Commissioners of Irish Lights had kindly
consented to have observations taken at certain lightships,
and that instruments had been supplied for the purpose, and the
inquiry was in progress. In conclusion, he mentioned the steps
taken by the German Government to investigate the tempera-
ture, &c., of the sea on their Baltic and North Sea coasts, and
expressed a hope that our Government would undertake a
similar inquiry. — Mr. Pastorelli read a paper on the errors of
low range thermometers. He pointed out some of the diffi-
culties which instrument-makers have to encounter in graduating
thermometers from 32^-0 to — 37°'9, the freezing point of mercury,
as there is no intermediate fixed point. He believed that fairly
accurate thermometers could only be obtained by calibration. —

May 6, 1875]

NATURE

19

Mons. Louis Redier exhibited his new barograph, which was
explained to the meeting by Mr. Symons.— Mr. Scott also
exhibited Prof. Wild's pressure anemometer.

Physical Society, April 24.— W. Spottiswoode, F.R.S., in
the chair.— Mr. J. Barrett exhibited an " auxiliary air-pump ; "
it is a modification of Poggendorff's arrangement for obtaming
a Torricellian vacuum, and is allied in principle to the exhauster
used by Geissler in the preparation of vacuum tubes.— Mr.
Barrett also showed a hammer break for the instantaneous rup-
ture of the current in the primary wire of an induction coil. It
is impossible to explain it clearly without a diagram, but an up-
right swing hammer is kept constantly vibrating by the alternate
action of a spring and the magnetised core.— Dr. W. H. Stone
read a paper " On some points connected with wind instru-
ments." lie stated that discrepancies might be noted in the
behaviour of air issuing from the side orifices of wind instiu-
ments. These discrepancies deserve attention, and may be
accounted for by the laws of efflux. He showed that the stream
of air from the side hole of a clarionet was sufficient to extinguish
a candle, though the musical vibration was obviously in the
main tube. It is usual to tune such instruments by introducing a
resinous cement into the holes so as to diminish their calibre, but
after a certain point is reached the rounded surface thus obtained
ceases to produce an effect. If a short pipe of the same dia-
meter as the orifice be now inserted, auxiliary vibrations are set
up, and a definite note may be produced.. Dr. Stone was led
to inquire whether the theorem of D. Bernoulli, or the particular
part of it named after Toricelli, could be brought to bear on the
question. The vaia contracta, which in fluids reduces the eflflux
to 0-62 of the calculated amount, is also to be noticed in gases,
and the nature of the eilluent column of air is affected by three
conditions : i. The thickness of the wall in which the orifice is
made. 2. The shape of the nozzle. 3. Friction in a long pipe.
Some mathematical details were then given respecting these con-
ditions, and it was admitted that the vibration in a musical tube
must also exercise sensible influence. There are two functions in
a side orifice in an instrument ; the first is to cut off a portion of
the tube, and by this means to raise the pitch ; the second esta-
blishes a point of non-resistance in the wall of the tube, and
thus acts by influencing the longitudinal vibrations. In the organ
peculiar qualities of tone are often obtained by these side holes, as
in the " Viol di Gamba " and ' ' keraulophon " stops. In flutes,
oboes, clarionets, and other instruments, much of the tone comes
from the bell, even when the side holes are open. In instru-
ments in which the holes are long, as in the bassoon, the holes
themselves became separate vibrating tubes. This was shown by
introducing tubes of different and increasing lengths, into an
orifice in the side of an organ reed pipe. The friction at last
became so great, and the secondary wave so strong, that the
organ-pipe returned to its original pitch. A reed was also ap-
plied to a cylindrical tube, and it was shown that a shcarp-edged
orifice opened at the middle point of the tube rendered it im-
possible to produce any note until a cylindrical nozzle was intro-
duced, when the octave was sounded freely. The general results
proved that lateral holes had a double function, the pitch of the
notes emitted varying with their size, shape, and length, the
actual severing of continuity in the principal tube being a com-
paratively minor point. Dr. Stone then ii^serted three tubes vary-
ing in length from two to six inches in a cylindrical tube like that
of a clarionet, at right angles to its length, the longest being
placed at the the centre of the instrument, and the shortest at
one-eighth from the mouthpiece. The same note was produced
when each tube was used singly and when the three were em-
ployed, and Dr. Stone expressed a hope that a series of experi-
ments would render it possible to develop curves in which the
co-ordinates would be the lengths of the additional tubes and
their position in the instrument. He also considered that a new
instrument might be produced in which the side orifices acted
purely as nodal points by the assistance of fiiction and the con-
tracted vein.

Anthropological Institute, April 13.— Col. A. Lane Fox,
president, in the chair.— A paper, largely illustrated by dia-
grams, was read by Prof. Kolleston, F.R.S., "On the people
of the Long Barrow period." The author discussed at great
length the following points :—i. The evidence existing for
dividing the Long Barrow period into three epochs. In the
earliest one the dead were interred unbumt in chambers, i.e. in
graves walled with upright flags and communicating with the
exterior by a passage or gallery, or at any rate constructed so as
to admit of successive interment.'. In those chambers was

found the greatest amount of manganous discoloration. In
the second period the dead were still interred unbumt, but in
cists, i.e. in cloed stone receptacles not intended to be re-
opened, and having no gallery leading to the exterior. The
third epoch of the Long Barrow period was distinguished, to
the great regret of the craniographer, by the practice of crema-
tion, a practice which, like that of burial in cists, and with even
more probability, might be supposed to link the Long and
Broad Barrow periods together. 2. The evidence for accepting
what might be called the Ossuary theory for explaining the
appearances met with in the Long Barrows, rather than the
theory of successive interments as put forward by Prof. Nilsson,
or the theory of human sacrifices and anthropophagy as sug-
gested by the late Dr. Thumam. What inclined Prof. Rol-
leston to the Ossuary theoiy was the fact that just those
bones are found in connection most frequently which would, by
virtue of their ligamentous or muscular connections, longest
resist the dislocating effects of removal from a provisional to a
permanent burial-place. 3. The evidence as to the mode of
life prevalent in the Long Barrow period which the cranial and
other bones of the persons buried or burnt in them furnished.
Mr. Bertram F. Hartshome exhibited and described objects of
Pre-Hellenic age from Troy.

Berlin

German Chemical Society, March 22. — F. Gass and C.
Hell have observed a condensation of amylic aldehyde through
the agency of carbonate of potash resulting in the formation of
a body Q-^^\-^^0<i. — C. Hempel has found amongst the pro-
ducts of oxidation of terpin a new monobasic acid, C8H12O4,
homologous with terebinic acid. — E. Prehn found that hydro-
chloric acid transforms mesaconic into citraconic acid. — E.
Biichner, in distilling paramonobromaniline, has observed its
transformation into aniline, dlbromaniline, and tribromaniline. —
R. Fittig and R. Mayer, continuing their communications on
isomerism in the aromatic series, insist upon the transform-
ation of all three bromophenols into mixtures of resorcin and
pyrocatechin, a fact 'singularly affecting theoretical conclusions
hitherto drawn from single experiments. — A. Schrohe observed
allylene-sulphuric acid to yield not only mesitylene, but also ace-
tone, by the action of water. — W. Lessen sent a short note on the
reduction of metallic'oxides by hydroxylamine, which is thereby
transformed into N and H2O. — C. Gosslich asserts that he
has discovered a fourth isomeric bromobenzene-sulphonic acid. —
H. Limpricht recommended measures of precaution to be taken
in the determination of the solubility of salts. — D. M'Creath
described substituted guanidines obtained through the action of
anhydrides on guanidines, viz., benzoyl-triphenyl-guanidine,
diacetyl-triphenylguanidine, and dibenzoyl-diphenyl-guanidine.
— T. Jannasch has been able to transform bromomesitylene,
CaH.2Br(CH3)3, into tetramethylbenzene, a liquid isomeric with
durene. — C. Liebermann and H. Troschke have studied the action
of ammonia on alizarine. The products are compounds in which
OH is replaced by NHj, and 2OII are replaced by NH. — C.
Liebermann and F. Palm exhibited crystalline compounds of
hydrocarbons with the chloride and with the amide of picric
acid.

April 12. — O. Brenken has studied what was generally consi-
dered as the melting of terchloride of iodine, and has" found it to
consist of a dissociation into monochloride and free chlorine. — P.
Melikoffdetei mined that at 77'^ ICl., is completely decomposed
into ICl and Cij. — A. Michaelis and J. Ananoff, in treating
PCla-Cgllr, with zinc ethyl, have obtained diethyl-phenyl-phos-
phine, a liquid base, distilling at 222°, taking up 2HCI and 2CI.
i Oxide of silver, exchanging O against Cl„, produces an oxide with
j the latier body. VQ^\^{(Z^\^^ is a well-crystallised compound.
I Similar bodies have been obtained by the action of zinc methyl on
i phosphenyl-chloride. — A. Micliaelis, by treating PClaCfiHj, with
PI 1.3 and water or alcohol, obtained a yellow powder of the
formula CgH., - P= P — OH, diphusphobenzol corresponding to
adiazobenzoL— E. Benzinger, heating phosphenylic acid, CrH,
PO(OII)2 with nitric acid in sealed tubes, has obtained a crystal-
line mononitrophosphenylic acid, which with tin and hydro-
i chloric acid yields the corresponding amido-acid. — II. Lange, in
i passing toluene and PCI3 through a red- hot tube, was unable to
1 produce phosphobenzyl-chloride, but obtained stilbene only. — A.
Michaelis, who has lately expressed the constitution of phos-
phorus acid thus : HPO(OH)2, defends his view against a
paper lately published by Zimmermann. — F. Kammerer has fixed
I the melting-point of perchloride of antimony as - 6° C. — H.
Kohler and B. Aronheim. have treated icdide of isopropyl and

20

NATURE

{May 6, 1875

chloride of benzyl with sodium, thus obtaining (CHjygCH.CHj
CbH,, phenyl-isobutan.— H. Hiibner proved that benzoic acid
can liberate nitrobenzoic acid from nitrobenzoate of barium,
although the latter is the stronger acid of the two. The experi-
ment consisted in heating the solutions to 80". — H, Hiibner
and C. Rudolf have obtained an ethenyl-phenylenediamine,

^6^*N ^^-^^3' ^y treating orthonitroacetanilide with tin

and glacial acetic acid. — O. Billeter has transformed sulpho-
cyanate of phenyl into the sulphide by treatmg it with sodium-
amalgam. Lead allyl sulphydrate and chloride of cyanogen have
yielded allyl sulphocyanate to the same chemist ; it is converted
into the isomeric mustard-oil on distillation. — H. Limpricht com-
municated researches on derivatives of the three amidosulphoben-
zolic acids. — W. Weith, by heating chloride of ammonium with
methylic alcohol to 280° for ten hours, has transformed it com-
pletely into trimethylamineandtetramethylammonium-chloride.

April 26. — Researches were read by A. Burghardt, on bibro-
mobenzoic acid ; by H. Glassner, on paraiodosulphotoluene,
CgHj . CH3 . 1 . SO3H ; by T. Ebell, on nitrobenzonaphthy-
lamide, C^oHg . NOg . NH . CO . CgHg, which was found
to combine with iodide of amyl ; by F. Meinecke, on deri-
vatives of benzanilide ; by E. A. Grete, on derivatives
of metabromotoluene. — H. Hiibner defended modem che-
mistry against attacks launched against it by Prof. Kolbe,
and showed the insufficiency of the proofs hitherto furnished for
the existence of four nitrobenzoic acids, four bihydrobenzene, and
four bromobenzene-sulphonic acids. These doubtful cases of iso-
merism, which, if true, would be opposed to Kekule's benzene
theor}', were also vigorously attacked by experiments published
by A. Ladenburg, as well as by P. Griess and by E. Nolting.
The constitution of benzene derivatives, viz., CgH4Br. CHjand
CgHjBr. NOg. CH3, also formed the subject ot a communica-
tion by E. Wroblewsky. — Mr. P. Siljestrom defended his opinion
on the density of gases under diminished pressure against that
expressed by Mr. Mendelejeff. — A. Stutzer has tried the action
of nitric acid on the fibre of grasses, and not finding benzene deri-
vatives amongst the products, concludes that the fibre does not
contain aromatic bodies preformed. — Dr. Ewald described an
improved method for determining urea with hypobromite of
sodium by ordinary volumetric analysis. — V. Mering reported on
the action of digestion on sarcosine, arriving at the conclusion that
urea and uric acid are not diminished in quantity in the urine of
individuals fed with sarcosine. This is contrary to the obser-
vation published by Schultzen some years ago. — E. Fischer, in
reducing a diazo-compound, CgHg — N — N — NO3, with
bisulphite of sodium, and treating the resulting compound,
CgHs — NH - NH . SO3K, with chloride of benzoyl, obtained
the first of a new class of bodies :

CgHg -NH-N(CO. CgHg),
that is, an ammonia, NH3, in which one H is replaced by an
amido-group, NHj. He calls this class of bodies hydrazines ;
the body whose formula is given above is dibenzoylated phenyl-
hydrazine. By the action ot water and hydrochloric acid it yields
benzoic acid and a base, phenyl-hydrazine, CgHg - NH - NHg,
which forms well-defined crystalline salts with HCl, &c.

Paris
Academy of Sciences, April 26. — M, M. Fremy in the
chair. — The fellowing papers were read : — On ascents to great
heights, by M. Faye. M. Faye advocates strongly that the
Academy should forbid any balloon ascent beyond 7,cxx) metres
of elevation ; he considers that any observations that might be
made beyond that point will not be of any greater value than
those up to that limit, and will certainly not outweigh the
danger to life. He thinks that all aeronauts will respect the
Academy's decision. — On the determination of ordinary alcohol
when mixed with methylic alcohol, by M. Berthelot. — A note by
M. A. Ledieu, on thermo-dynamical machines. — A note by M.
Mares, on the results of the experiments made by the Commission
invt stigating the diseases of vines in the Herault. — A note by M.
Dumas, on the use of alkaline sulphocarbonates against {Phyl-
loxera.— A note by M. F. de Lesseps, on the methods to be
employed for the maintenance of ports. — A note by M. L.
Saltil, on the geometrical principle of correspondence of
M. Chasles.— On the curves of the order n with a multiple
point of the order n — i, by M. B. Niewenglowski. — On
the development of the perturbating function according to
the multiples of an elliptical integral, by M. H. Gylden. — On
binauricular perceptions, by M, F. P. Le Roux.— On the deter-

mination of methylic alcohol in the presence of vinic alcohol,
by MM, Alf. Riche and Ch. Bardy.— On the spiroscope, an
apparatus for the study of auscultation, of the anatomy and
physiology of the lungs, by M. Woillez. —A note by MM. G.
Hayem and A. Nachet, on a new method of counting the blood-
corpuscles. — On the wine-growing districts attacked by Phyl-
loxera in 1874, by M. Duclaux. — M. Dumas then announced to
the Academy the loss which science has sustained by the death
of M. Anton. Schrottcr, secretary to the Academy of Sciences
at Vienna. — On the precipitation of silver by protoxide of ura-
nium, by M. Isambert. — On the action of platinum and palla-
dium upon the hydrocarbons of the benzenic series, by M. J. J.
Coquillion. — A note by M. Peslin, on the law of diurnal and
annual variations in the temperature of the soil.— On the theory
of storms, by M. Couste. — A note by M. U. Gayon in reply to
M. Bechamp's paper on the spontaneous alterations ia eggs. —
On the helminthological fauna of the coasts of Brittany, by M.
A. Villot. — On a new intermediary type of worms {Polygordius?
Schneider), by M. Edm. Perrier.— On the ornamentation of
striated wood-fibres and their relation to ordinary spotted fibres
in the wood of certain species of Conifera, by M. G. de Saporta.
— On the glacier deposits of the inferior valley of the Tech, by
M. E. Trutat.— On the differences in the rising and setting of Mer-
cury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, as stated in \h!t Journal
du Ciel axid in the Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes, by M. J.
Vinot. — On a method of re-establishing the concordance of the
solar with the civil year, by M, Crampel.

BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

British.— A Manual of Diet in Health and Disease : T. King Chambers,
M.D., F.R.C.P., &c. (Smith and Elder).— The Journal of the Iron and Steel
Institute, iS74(E. and F. N. Spon).— Electricity ; its Theory, Sources, and
Applications : John T. Sprague (E. and F. N. Spon).— Researches in Che-
mical Optics : John H. Jellett, B.D. (Dublin University Press).— Journal of
Proceedings of Winchester and Hampshire Scientific and Literary Society.
Vol. i. Part iv. 1874 (Winchester, Warren and Son).— Meteorology of West
Cornwall and Scilly, 1870 t» 1874, and Observations on Sea Temperature,
1872 to 1874: W. P. Dymond, F.M.S. (Falmouth, Wm. Tregaskis).— An
Address deHvered by the President of the Meteorological Society at the
Annual Meeting, January ?o, 1875.— Journal of the Quekett Microscopical
Club (R. Hardwicke).— Perthshire Society of Natural Science. Sixth Annual
Report.— On Protoplasm : James Ross, M.D. (R. Hardwicke).— Commercial
Handbook of Chemical Analysis, bv A. Normandy ; Enlarged and to a great
extent re-written by H. M. Noad, PhD., F.R.S. (Lockwood and Co.)— Life
of .Sir Roderick Murchison, Bart., K.C.B., F.R.S. : Archibald Gcikie,
LL.D., F.R.S. (John Murray). — New Code Progressive Reader. Fifth
Standard (Wm. Collins, Sons, and Co.) — Unseen Universe (Macmillan and
Co.)— Year Book of Facts in Science and the Arts. Edited by Chas. W .
Vincent, F.R.S. C. (Ward, Lock, and Tyler).— Thirteenth Annual Report of
the Free Librarians' Committee (Birmingham, Hall and English). — Text-
Book of Botany, Morphological and Physiological. By Julius Sachs ; trans-
lated by Alfred W. Bennett, M.A., B.Sc, F.L.S., assisted by W. T.
Thiselton Dyer, M. A., B.Sc, F.LS. (Oxford, Clarendon Press).— Report
of the Permanent Committee of the First International Meteorological Con-
gress at Vienna, 1874 (H.M. Stationery Office).— Climate and Time : James
CroU (Daldy, Isbister, and Co.) — Fiji : Our New Province in the South
Seas: /. H. de Ricci, F.R G.S. (E. Stanford).— Journal of the Anthropo-
logical Society of Great Britain and Ireland, April to July 1874 (Triibner
and Co) — An Elementary Book on Heat: J. E. Gordon, B.A. (Mac-
millan and Co.)

CONTENTS Pack

Geikik's "Life of Murchison" i

The Flora of British India ; 3

Our Book Shelf : —

The London Mathematical Society c

De Ricci's •' Fiji " 5

Letters to the Editor : —

Geology in America. — Prof. N. S. Shaler 5

I'he Attraction and Repulsion caused by the Radiation of Heat. —

Prof. Osborne Reynolds 6

The Kdle of Feet in the Struggle for Existence {With Illustration) 7

Destruction of Flowers by Birds. — H. George Fordham .... 7

Note on the Common Sole. — T. Ogier Ward 7

Colour in Goldfinches. — Lucie Woodruffe 7

Our Astronomical Column : —

Variable Stars 7

The Binary Star 2 2107 8

High-latitude Phenomena 8

The Solar Eclipse, 1876, March 25 8

The Minor Planet " Lydia '' 8

Lectures at the Zoological Gardens, II 8

On Lightning Figures. By C. Tomlinson, F.R.S. (H^ith Illus-
trations) 9

Inauguration OP the Zoological Station at Naples n

The " ViLLE DE Calais" Balloon Ascent. By W. de Fonviklle . 13

Notes 13

Meteorology, Etc., IN Mauritius. By C. Meldrum 10

Scientific Serials 16

Societies and Academies 17

Books and Pamphlets Kbckived . . . , , 20

NATURE

21

THURSDAY, MAY 13, 1^75

LORD HARTISMERBS VIVISECTION BILL

THE Bill brought forward in the Upper House by
Lord Hartismere for regulating the practice of
Vivisection deserves special attention on account of its
being the first important legislative attempt to restrict the
prosecution of physiological research.

It enacts that it shall not be lawful for anyone to per-
form a vivisection except in a place which is registered in
pursuance of the proposed Act, the registration being in
such form and under the management of such persons as
the Secretary of State shall appoint. The registration
certificate is to be renewed once a year ; it may be can-
celled at any time on its being proved that any provision
of the Act has been contravened, and the place registered
may be visited at any time by any inspector of anatomy.
Complete anaesthesia is compulsory, and curare is not to
be deemed to be an anaesthetic. The Secretary of State
may grant special licenses for the performance of vivisec-
tions in which anaesthetics are not employed ; there shall
be paid in respect of every such license a sum not exceed-
ing ten pounds, and each license is to continue in force
for six months.

In the framing of this Bill there is a serious misrepre-
sentation of the true requirements of the case, The
source of error lies in the fact that it is taken for
granted that there is only a single class of physiological
workers. Such, however, is not the case ; there are two
distinct classes, and although we agree with the tenor of
the Bill as far as one class is concerned, we are certain
that it would so severely affect the other that its results
would be seriouslyjdetrimental to the prosecution of physio-
logical research in this country.

Among ourselves there are several scientific men who
devote part of their life to the study of the problems of
the vital mechanism. Some do so from the inherent
interest of the subject ; others from a desire to obtain a
further insight into pathology and disease generally. In
the course of their investigations it is now and then abso-
lutely essential for the completion of a Hne of argument,
or for the acquisition of the knowledge of the collateral
phenomena attending some previously recorded result,
that an experiment or experiments should be performed
on a living animaL Those whose mental development leads
them to conduct investigations of this character are fre-
quently peculiarly unwilling to do so in pubhc institutions.
It is their spare minute?, when they are entirely their own
masters, that they employ in their favourite study. Are
they to be compelled, against their natural dispositions
either to obtain an official license for the performance of
these experiments on their own premises, or, as an alter-
native, conduct them in some previously specially licensed
establishment which is under the control of others ? The
necessity for such a method of procedure would deter
many an excellent worker from commencing investiga-
tions which he recognises to be so much impeded by
le^al restrictions. There might as well be a tax on
astronomers directing their telescopes to any special
planet or to the moon. The public may feel certain
that students of the class to which we refer will never
go beyond the limits of the innate laws of sympathy
Vol. XII. — No. 289

present in all civilised humanity. Such do the most
valuable work in a scientific point of view ; and any legis-
lative measure which in any way affects them injuriously,
either by rendering the whole research apparently too
formidable at the outset, or by the introduction of un-
pleasant details during its prosecution, ought most stre-
nuously to be resisted. The power of turning to a prac-
tical end the results of inductive reasoning is the basis
of the British nature. Inductive research cannot be had
for money ; it is always a labour of love ; it is not fair to
put impediments in the way of it.

The class of physiologists to whom legislative restric-
tions with regard to vivisection do apply, is the teachers.
There is no doubt that those who assert that the perfor-
mance of vivisectional demonstration is unnecessary will
have the sympathy of the majority. A fact may be learned
from books or by practical demonstration. As far as
natural science goes, the extra time which has to be ex-
pended in obtaining the results practically is generally
quite made up for by the accessory details introduced,
which arc many of them omitted in written or verbal
descriptions. Observation is a far more sound basis
on which to start fresh work than the knowledge acquired
from books alone. The student should therefore, where
nothing counter indicates, have the opportunity of repeat-
ing, on his own account, the experiments he reads of. In
the case of practical physiology, however, another consi-
deration has to be introduced. Here the subjects of
experiment are sentient beings, and the question comes
to be whether the advantages of the practical verifi-
cation of fully described phenomena which involve pain
are counterbalanced by the injustice done in the produc-
tion of the pain itself. We think not, and are therefore
fully in favour of legislative restrictions on the powers
of those who wish to employ living animals for the pur-
pose of demonstration, even where anaesthetics are em-
ployed, because there is a tendency among those who are
in the habit of repeating experiments to neglect those
parts of them which are not absolutely necessary. But
any measure which in any way impedes original work, as
does the Bill before us, ought, in our opinion, to be strongly
opposed.

GEIKIE'S ''LIFE OF MURCHISON"*
II.
Life of Sir Roderick I. Miirchisofi, Bart., F.R.S. etc.
Based on his Jo7irnals and Letters. With Notices of his
Scientific Contemporaries atid a Sketch of the Rise and
Growth of Palccozoic Geology in Britain. By Archi-
bald Geikie, LL.D., F.R.S., Director of H.M. Geological
Survey of Scotland, and Murchison Professor of Geology
and Mineralogy in the University of Edinburgh. 2 vols.
Illustrated with Portraits and Woodcuts. (London :
John Murray, 1875.)

MR. MALLET, in a memoir published in the Philo-
sophical Transactions (vol. 163, p. 147), which has
attracted attention as much for the boldness of its tone
as for anything else, has laid down the dictum that no
sound progress can be made in geology unless the investi-
gator be also mathematician, chemist, and physicist.
Now, Murchison was none of these, yet he would be a

* Continued from p. y

22

NATURE

[May 13, 1875

bolder man than the writer of that memoir who should
affirm that no sound progress was made in geology by
hirp.

It is true enough, no doubt, as Prof. Geikie says, that
"he was not gifted with the philosophic spirit which
evolves broad laws and principles in science," and he
therefore contributed nothing to this branch of geology.
It is strange, in fact, that when he did express any opinion
on debated theories— and he did so frequently with
vehemence— he generally took that side which the ad-
vance of science has condemned as untenable ; so that
the only assistance he gave to theoretical geology was
that of affording the holders of any new theory the noto-
rious advantage of having some one to argue against.
He made no speculations himself, but only discussed
those of others. In fact, "he had the shrewdness to
know wherein his strength lay. Hence he seldom ven-
tured beyond the domain of fact, where his first suc-
cesses were won, and in which throughout his long life he
worked so hard and so well. In that domain he had few
equals."

But for the observation of geological facts there is no
necessity for a universal acquaintance with science, how-
ever great an advantage such an acquaintance may be ;
and this is proved by the successful labours of many a
field geologist — by the example of Wm. Smith, so often
called the Father of English Geology, who had no such
advantages, and by Murchison himself, as these pages of
Prof. Geikie abundantly show.

Yet there are qualities requisite for such work as Mur-
chison's, which are rarely so abundantly possessed as by
him ; they are, a keen perception of the really essential
features of a district, or, as Smith somewhat quaintly
expressed it, " a fine eye for a country ;" a power of corre-
lating apparently dissimilar objects ; and last, not least,
anuntiringindustry and perseverance that persist in pur-
suing an intricate subject until it is fully mastered. These
appear in all his work, and are well brought out in his
" Life."

Although the name of Murchison is now indissolubly
connected with Palasozoic rocks, he did not begin his
geological work among them, but among those easier
Secondary rocks in which the order and arrangement is
so much clearer. His first work, in 1825, was a " Geo-
logical Sketch of the North-western extremity of Sussex
and the adjoining parts of Hants and Surrey," which was
certainly up to the average geology of the time, and gave
promise of better things in the future. Indeed, when it
was thus seen that he had the ability, and intended to be
a worker in the science, he was elected to the secretaryship
of the Geological and fellowship of the Royal Society,
rather from the hope of what he would do than from
what he had done — and fortunately the hope was not dis-
appointed.

His next work was the determination of the age of the
coal-beds of Brora on the east coast of Scotland, in con-
nection with which he described those remarkable re-
mains of Secondary rocks so marvellously preserved on
both sides of Scotland, and which have lately been the
subject of such admirable and beautiful memoirs by Judd
and others.

The difficulties he found in understanding some of the
rocks he saw on this tour induced him to seek the co-

operation of Sedgwick, and thus commenced that long
and happy association of two great men, which, though
clouded for a time, cannot be said to have been entirely
broken up. We may mention here that these volumes
are enriched with portraits of some of the chief geologists
that h^ve been or are, and nothing more life-like, as far
as we know the originals, could be desired.

Another of his early works, in conjunction with Sedg-
wick, was an account of the structure of the Eastern
Alps, which raised much discussion among European
geologists, who have not finally accepted the conclusions
they contended for — as, for instance, as to the age of the
remarkable Gos^u beds which they considered to be
Tertiary— though they are now generally regarded as
Cretaceoi]s.

During all this time he had, like rnost geologists,
avoided as much as possible what he called the " inter-
minable Grawwacke." In the summer of 1831, however,
he started with his wife and " two grey nags " to make
the first attempt at unravelling the complicated features
of these slaty rocks. He determined to begin at the top
and trace the succession downwards. In this way he
made out satisfactorily that summer the limits and range
of the Ludlow rocks. Subsequent summers were devoted
to the same work, and arrangements of the Silurian rocks
of increasing accuracy were from time to time presented
to the Geological Society until his final conclusions made
their appearance in the " Silurian System."

On the controversy concerning the nomenclature of the
Palaeozoic rocks, which led to the painful estrangement
between Murchison and Sedgwick, Prof. Geikie throws
every possible light, and renders the whole matter per-
fectly clear. We cannot but think, however, that Sedg-
wick had more cause for complaint than Prof. Geikie
would seem to admit, for if Murchison had no iritentio|i
to disparage Sedgwick's work, he really, to a great extent,
ignored it in comparison with his own. The facts are these.
Murchison, in working downwards, described as l.Qwer
Silurian the rocks which formed his Caradoc and Llaji-
deilo scries, but without defining any satisfactory base
line. Sedgwick, in working upwards, described as lying
above a series of, at that time, unfossiliferous slates, a set
of rocks which he called the Bala group, or Upper Cam-
brian. Now, though both these geologists went in com-
pany over both districts, they failed to discover that these
two series were the same — in fact, they pronounced them
distinct. Hence, when it was discovered that the one
series, the Upper Cambrian, rolled over an anticlinal into
the other, the Lower Silurian, each geologist blamed the
other for the error. But in the meantime it was ascer-
tained that the fossils were identical, and hence, " zoolo-
gically speaking," two different names could not be
employed. If, as Murchison supposed, there was a total
absence of organic remains beneath these disputed rocks,
much might be said in favour of associating thein in
name with the fossiliferous Silurian rather than with the
azoic Cambrian. Yet the manner in which this was done
by Murchison, so fully explained by his biographer, leaves
little surprise at Sedgwick's indignation, but only that he
should have been so long in discovering the drift of what
was being done. For in 1842 Murchison writes him a
letter, begging the whole question by calling them Lower
Silurian, as if there could be no possible idea of calling

May 13, 1875]

NATURE

23

them Cambrian, and bidding Sedgwick, if he would retain
the latter name, to find some fossiliferous beds below.
This is followed by the complete dropping out of the
name in his " Russia ; " and when in after years a §eries
of Lower Fossiliferous beds were found, Murchison still
sought to include them under the title of Silurian. It is
astonishing that Sedgwick should for so long have failed
to perceive the drift of these changes— and when he did
at length arouse himself he found half his Cambrian
system gone, and not unnaturally felt that his friend had
" stolen a march on him." Such appears from the data
afforded by this work to be the true account of this con-
troversy. In late years, however, chiefly owing to the
labours of Mr, Hicks, much new light has been thrown
on the succession of faunas in these earliest rocks, and
it has been shown that by no means the greatest break
in life occurs at the base of the Llandeilo rocks as de-
scribed by Murchison ; and it is therefore probable that
the true limits of the two systems will have yet to be
re-adjusted under the light of the new facts.

The " Silurian System " is a masterpiece of industry,
perseverance, and comprehensiveness, and will be a clas-
sical work so long as Geology is a science ; it is undoubt-
edly Murchison's magnum opus, and it led directly to
those other researches by which he has also contributed
so much to our knowledge. Thus it was, on being told
that plants had been found in Silurian rocks in Devonshire,
that he persuaded Sedgwick to accompany him there,
when they found that the so-called Silurians were really of
Carboniferous age — but on what did they rest? on a series
of rocks with a peculiar assemblage of fossils, which gave
them great difficulty at first, but which at last they recog-
nised as a new system, the Devonian, with which they
boldly classed the Old Red Sandstone, though no com-
munity of fossils had yet been proved. This last step,
however, was fully justified, by Murchison's finding in
Russia the fishes of the one associated with the shells of
the other, and thus the Devonian system was settled on a
firm basis.

The received classification, however, of the Devonian
rocks was called in question by Prof. Jukes shortly before
his lamented death ; he assigned the greater part of them
to the Lower Carboniferous system, and Prof, Geikie con-
siders it to remain now an open question. He says :
" They who have given most attention to this part of
geology will probably most readily admit that, whether in
the way of contest or not, the question must be reopened ;
that the accepted classification is far from being satisfac-
tory, and that Jukes did a great service by boldly attack-
ing it, and bringing to bear upon it all his long experience
in the south of Ireland, which gave him an advantage
possessed at the time by hardly anyone else." Whatever
controversy, however, there may be on the classification
of particular rocks, there can be no doubt that there is a
distinct epoch of life between the Carboniferous and
Silurian, and this Murchison and Sedgwick together first
defined and established.

It was for the study of the Silurian system, too, that
Murchison was led into Russia, and here it was that he
found that large development of rocks containing a special
fauna overlying the Carboniferous, to which he gave the
name of Permian, and which formed the subject of several
subsequent researches.

We are greatly indebted to Murchison for the introduc-
tion of good names into Geology. It was he who first
proposed the use of geographical terms, so happily illus-
trated in " Silurian," which introduce no theory and no
incongruity, such as is involved in calling rocks " transi-
tion rocks," or speaking of the Old Red Sandstone as
represented by a clay. This method of nomenclature has
been widely adopted and is now almost universal, and it
has the further advantage of carrying with it information
as to the locality where the series is typically developed.

The minor works of Murchison, in the shape of papers
and addresses during the time that these " systems " were
being worked out, were numerous, and, with the exception
of his " Geology of Cheltenham," almost entirely con-
fined to those Palaeozoic rocks that had now become so
familiar to him. But he brought forward now, not only
his own researches, but those of more humble workers
also, always giving them due credit. Amongst the most
remarkable of these were the discovery of the curious
crustaceans of a new type, now known as Eurypteridae, in
the Upper Silurian rocks of Lesmahagow, by Dr. Slimon.
Another was the discovery of fossils in the ancient crystal-
line rocks of the Highlands, by Mr. Peach, which led
ultimately to the last of the valuable series of labours that
Murchison performed. In the same category as the
above must be placed the publication of " Siluria," in
which he embodied from time to time, not only his own
original researches and additions to them, but the works
of all who had laboured in that field, by which the work
became at the same time less his own, and more compre-
hensive than the " Silurian System."

Finally, in the chapter entitled "The Foundatio
Stones of Britain," Prof. Geikie gives an account
Murchison's last geological work, that of making out
the structure of the extreme north-west of Scotland,
and discovering there the oldest rocks in Britain.
Here, in 1858, he discovered three series of rocks,
each overlying the one below unconformably, and it
was in the upper of these three that Mr, Peach had found
Lower Silurian fossils. If, then, the second be the Cam-
brian, the lowest must be a series still older. To this he
gave the name of Fundamental Gneiss, but afterwards
classed it with the Laurentian system of Sir E. Logan,
which had been hitherto unrecognised in Britain. This
work, however, valuable as it is, is of a different kind to
that which made Murchison what he was — a master-
builder in Geology.

His chief work consisted in uniting vast masses of rocks
stretching over miles of country, variously characterised
lithologically, and containing numerous different suites of
fossils, into large comprehensive groups ; in grasping the
features by which many minor periods are united into
single systems ; in laying down the broad outlines in
which the complete geological picture is to be traced.
This is the work wanted at the birth of a science ; it
requires a peculiar power of mind, possessed in large
degree by Murchison, who thus deservedly takes rank
among the founders of Geology.

We leave Prof. Geikie's work with regret. Like him in
writing it, we live again in reading it, with this hero of
science ; and no one can rise from its perusal without a
deeper interest in the progress of knowledge, and espe-
cially of geology. A man of great power, thoroughly

24

NATURE

\May 13, 1875

devoted to the advancement of science, and pursuing it
with energy and discretion, is an example of which we
cannot have too many ; and the history of Murchison
shows how much valuable material may yet be lying
dormant in some who have as yet shown no devotion to
anything but pleasure and sport.

MARSDEN'S NUMISMATA ORIENTALTA
Marsden^s Numismata Orientalia. A New Edition,
Part I. "Ancient Indian Weights." By Edward
Thomas, F.R.S. (London : Trubner and Co., 1874.)

THIS is the first part of a new edition of
" Marsden's Numismata Orientalia," on an en-
larged scale, and is the reproduction of an essay
published some years ago. As it treats of the earliest
information that has come down to us of the system
of monetary weights in use amongst ancient Eastern
nations, it is considered as an appropriate introduction
to subsequent numbers, upon the coins of various Eastern
countries, to be contributed by other authors.

Mr. Thomas's essay is a work of considerable interest,
not only as regards the information contained in it re-
lating to ancient Indian weights and coins, but also for
its philological and ethnological information. The
earliest and most important authority cited is from the
Sanscrit text of the original code of Hindu law by Manu,
the exact date of which is undetermined. Although por-
tions of it are assigned by some authorities between the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries B.C., yet the body of the
compilation is more generally referred to a period about
400 B.C.

The Indian weights mentioned in the Code of
Manu were those of Central India, south of the Hima-
layas, and comprised between the rivers Indus and
Ganges. They were in use after the occupation of this
country by the Aryans, whose invasion from the north-
west is referred to a period as early as 1600 B.C. Mr.
Thomas, however, claims a still earlier origin for this
system of ancient Indian weights, and that they were
already in use before the Vedic Aryans entered India.
The old system appears to have been based on the weight
of native seeds. The principal unit was the Rati, the
seed of the wild liquorice plant. A second unit or stan-
dard of weight is stated to have been the Mdsha, a small
wild bean, which is also mentioned in the Code of Manu
as a food grain. The following tables of monetary weight
are taken from the ancient record, and include the smaller
seed-grain weights, which, in the original Sanscrit text,
are made to originate and lead up to the larger weights in
metal, together with the smaller sub-divisions of the seed-
grain unit. Their equivalent weight in Troy grains is
given by Mr. Thomas as computed from the mean of
experimental weighings of the several seeds, and as con-
firmed from the ascertained weights of less ancient
Indian coins.

Table 1.- -Minor sub-divisions of the Unit, the Rati.

Troy grain.

/Ta/'/ (seed of wild liquorice) = i'7S

Yava (barley corn husked) =^ \ Rati = 05833

G«ji'rrt-^ar^^r/«( white mustard seed) = i Java =: ^ Rati = 00972
Raja-sarsJiapa (black mustard seed) = \ Gaura = -5^ Rati = 00324
Likhya (small poppy seed) . . . = | Raja = y.V, Rati = o'oioS
/"rowtfr-??*?* (mote of sunbeam) . . = I^Likhya = yjVs Rati = 0-00135

Table W.— Multiples of the Unit, the Rati.
Silver. Troy grain .

Rati. = I 75

il/rts/2a,i'rt (small wild bean) . = 2 Rati = 3.5

Dharana Purana .... =16 Mashaka= 32 Rati = 56'o

Salamana = to Dharana = 320 Rati = 5600

Gold.

Masha = 5 Rati = 8-75

Suvarna = i6 Masha = 80 Rati = 140 o

Pala, or Nishka =4 Suvarna = 320 Rati = 56o'o

Dharana. = to Pala = 3200 Rati = 5B00 o

Copper.

Karshapara = 80 Rati = i4o'o

The fanciful introduction of the" "[very small mote
which may be discerned in a sunbeam passing through a
lattice " throws doubt on the practical use of this table ;
but there appears abundant evidence of the continued use
of seed-grain weights in India from a very early period.

The earliest record of Indian measures of capacity,
which are only incidentally mentioned in Manu, are
quoted from a Sanscrit work for which very high antiquity
is claimed. It gives the measures of (^hi, or clarified
butter, in equivalent weights of the masha and other
multiples of the rati.

As to Indian measures of length, though permanently
based upon natural units, as the digit, span, and cubit,
yet the same seed principle is applied in Manu to the
small sub-divisions of the digit. Thus, taking the cubit
as the unit, the sub-divisions are stated to have been as
follows : —

Hosta (cubit).

Vitasti (span) '= \ Hosta

Ani;ula{iX\%\X) =t'i Vitasti

Yava {very small barley com) ^= i Angula

yuka . . , = i Yava

Liksha (poppy seed) = | Yuka

Bala^ra (hair's point) =^ J Liksha

Renti = \ Balagra

Transriarenu (mote of sunbeam) = j Renu

The Hosta, or cubit, was thus \ equal to twenty-four
digits, or six palms. Mr. Thomas does not assign any
particular length to the cubit of Manu, but inferentially
defines its length from the determined length of the
Sikendari gaz, or yard, at the end of the fifteenth century,
which is rather more than thirty imperial inches. This
gaz is stated to have been equal to 41*5 digits, and the
digit is computed as being equal to 072976 inches. This
would make the ancient Indian cubit equal to above
I7"5 inches.

Mr. Thomas considers that the system of Indian weights
here described was indigenous, and he differs from Don
V. Queipo, who traces the derivation of the Indian
system of weights to primary Egyptian sources. He
prefers the " wise reserve of Boeckh," who expresses him-
self in the following terms : —

" In cases where the weights of measures of different
nations are found to be in a precise and definite ratio one
to the other — either exactly equal, or exact multiples and
parts of each other — we may fairly presume, either that
the one has borrowed from each other, or that each has
borrowed from some common source. When the ratio is
inaccurate or simply approximative, it is to be treated as
accidental and undesigned."

The more recent discovery, since the publication of
Don V. Queipo's work, of the unit of ancient Egyptian
weight, the Kat = 140 grains, equivalent in weight to the
Indian copper unit, the Karshapara, to the gold Suvarna,
and to one-fourth of the silver buvarna, tends to confirm
Don V. Queipo's hypothesis of the identity of the prac-
tical units of Egyptian and Indian weights. The Indian

May 13. 1875]

NATURE

25

cubit of 17-5 inches, divided into twenty-four digits, is also
almost identical with the ancient Egyptian natural cubit
of six palms and twenty-four digits. But it appears to be
now impossible to determine whether these Indian units
were derived from the Egyptian, or both from an earlier
common source ; although we may fairly assume that this
natural cubit was of the same length as that used by Noah
before the Deluge. Mr. Thomas's hypothesis of the
lesser Indian unit of weight and of length, and of the
scale of multiples and parts, is, however, probably cor-
rect, as being derived from natural and local sources.

OUR BOOK SHELF
Arboretum et Fleuriste de la Ville de Paris. Description
culture et usage des Arbres, Arbrisseaux et des Plantes
herbac^es et frutescentes de plein air, et de serres,
employees dans I'ornementation des Pares et Jardins.
Par A. Alphand. Folio, pp. 1 10. (Rothschild, Paris.)
Ornamental gardening, among other things that added
to the attractions of the city of pleasure, was greatly
fostered during the latter part of the reign of Napoleon
III., and does not appear likely to languish under
the Republic. The magnificent publication, " Les Pro-
menades de Paris," by the author of the book now
before us, is a costly work, known to comparatively few
people in this country. We presume that the present
volume is regarded as an appendix or supplement to the
work named, otherwise we cannot account for the publi-
cation of what is little more than a catalogue of names in
so unwieldy a form.

An enumeration of the plants grown for the embellish-
ment of the parks and gardens of Paris, in a handy
octavo form, would be welcome to almost every lover of
horticulture ; but the object of the compiler of the
" Arboretum et Fleuriste " was doubtless such as we have
indicated. It is printed on one side of the paper only,
and the matter arranged in columns, giving the names,
native countries, soil, use, height, form of leaves, colour
of flowers, &c., of the various plants. As a horticultural
catalogue the work is fairly well executed, but, like most
gardening books, it contains errors that have been copied
from book to book, though they were cleared up long ago.
In the first part of the work the author has indulged in an
attempt to introduce a reform in botanical nomenclature ;
why it was not carried through we are not told, probably
for the reason that, however desirable reformation may
be, this one would scarcely receive any support from
botanists. It consists in giving all substantive specific
names an adjectival form, and, a less justifiable act, of
changing the terminations of good Latin names. Thus,
for example, Piiius Coullerii, Hartwegii, and Fenslii,
become P. Coulterea, Hartwegea^ (S:c. Objections might
be urged against this course ; but why should we change
Benthamiana and kindred names into Benthamea ? And
Pinus inopsea for P. inops is quite inadmissible.

The information under the several headings is usually
not inaccurate, but somewhat loose. Thus, under the
genus Magtiolia, Pennsylvania is given as the native
country of M. acutninaia, Carolina of auriculahi, Vir-
ginia of glauca, and so on ; whereas these trees have a
much wider range of distribution. Again, under CraicE-
gus coccinea, we are told that the specific name indicates
scarlet flowers ; but the flowers are white, and the fruit
scarlet. But as it is not a botanical work, it is scarcely
fair to criticise it by a botanical standard, though it is
scarcely excusable to give North Africa as the native
country of Calla yEthiopica, New Zealand of Caladium
esculenium, &c. Libocedrus decurrens is referred to
Thuja gigantea, and the true J. ^igantea to T. Menziesii;
but the synonomy of these plants has long been cleared
up even in gardening books.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
[TAe Editor does not hold himself responsible Jor opinions expressed
by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return,
or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts.
No notice is taken 0/ anonymous communications.']
Prof. Willis's Mechanical Models
There is a slight error in your account of the disposition of
Prof. Willis with regard to his mechanical models in your last
impression (p. 14).

Prof. Willis did not put any price upon his models ; but by
his will, dated May 11, 1872, directed that his "mechanical
models " should be " offered to the University of Cambridge at
a price to be fixed by the valuation of some competent appraiser
to be nominated and chosen " by his executors.

In consequence, we have caused the models to be so valued,
and fixed upon the sum named (1,200/.) after due consideration
of the means of the University and the requirements of the
estate.

A Syndicate was appointed on April 29 to consider whether
the whole or a part of the collection shall be purchased. In the
event of the University decUning to purchase, the portion re-
jected will be offered for sale by public auction or private
contract. John Willis Clark

W. H. Besant
Cambridge, May 9 Executors to the late Prof. Willis

Ants and Bees

In Nature, vol. xi. p. 306, Mr. Alfred George Renshaw
refers to and criticises a paper on "Ants and Eees," lately read
by Sir John Lubbock, and assumes, or seems to assume — and
the language quoted justifies such assumption— that Sir John
advanced the idea that bees have no means of communicating
knowledge to each other.

It seems strange to me, who have been all my life familiarly
acquainted with the working of bees, that anyone should doubt
their power of communicating knowledge. The very idea there
advanced, that "if the bees had the means of communicating
knowledge, those bees would have told the others in the hive
where they could obtain a'good store of honey with a very little
trouble, and would have brought a lot back with them," I have
seen proved and illustrated hundreds of times.

liee-hunters understand this faculty in the bee perfectly well,
and turn it to a good account. Going to a field or wo«d at a
distance from tame bees, with their box of honey, they gather up
from the flowers and imprison one or more bees, and after they
have become sufficiently gorged, let them out to return to their
home with their easily-gotten load. Waiting patiently a longer
or shorter tune, according to the distance of the bee-tree, the
hunter scarcely ever fails to see the bee or bees return, accom-
panied with other bees, which are in like manner imprisoned,
till they in their turn are filled, when one or more are let out
at places distant from each other, and the direction in each case
ill which the bee flies noted, and thus, by a kind of triangulation,
the position of the bee-tree proximately ascertained.

Those who have stored honey in their houses understand very
well how important it is to prevent a single bee from discovering
its location. Such discovery is sure to be followed by a general
onslaught from the hive unless all means of access is prevented.
It is possible that our American are more intelligent than Euro-
pean bees, but hardly probable ; and I certainly shall not ask
an Englishman to admit it. Those in America who are in the
habit of playing first, second, and third fiddle to Instinct will
probably attribute this seeming intelligence to that principle.

It seems to me, and I think it may be so concluded on scien-
tific principle, that there is no difference, except in degree,
between the intelligence, or whatever it may be called, of man
and of lower animal life. If the honey-bee, the ballooning spider,
the agricultural ant, or the dog, is governed wholly by. instinct,
then it seems reasonable to infer that man is also governed by in-
sdnct. If all the actions of lower animal life are automatic, on
what principle shall we say that man's are not automatic ? If
man builds his house, and, intending to furnish it and lay in a
stock of provisions, ascertains from his neighbour where he can
get the most at the cheapest rate, does he act on any prin-
ciple different from the bees, who build their house and jointly
or separately ascertahi where the best stock of honey can be
obtained ?

In regard to selfislmess, I think the bee has the advantage of

26

NATURE

\May 13, 1875

man. In my own garden, where I have had standing always
from ten to fifty svval-ms, and over which I thought 1 was watch-
ing with almost a fatherly affection, I have learned how utterly
selfish I was in looking forward to autumn, when, by the destruc-
tion of the industrious and unselfish bees, I could lay in for my
own consumption what they had so laboriously gathered in the
summer to sustain each other through the winter. I learned,
from their unselfishness, to divide with them, always leaving
enough to sustaiti the colony till the spring Should again bring
the flowers.

I think, too, that both Sir John I.ubbock and your corre-
spondent are mistaken as to the object of beating pans, sounding
horns, and making other hideous noises in hiving bees. The
object is not, as Sir John intimates, originally to drive away evil
spirits, or to assert owna-ship, as indicated by Mr. Renshaw. It
is simply, as everyone knows who ever thumped on a pan,
sounded a horn, or yelled through a speaking trumpet on such
an occasion, to drown the voice of the queen or guides who are
to conduct the swarm to the new home which members of the
community who had been sent out, as the Israelites sent forward
Joshua and others, had found for them.

Mr. Renshaw's law is probably good, but does not apply iti
the case trying. JOSIAH EMERY

City of WilliaHlsport, Pa., U.S.

Flowering of the Hazel

It was with great interest that I read the communication from
F. D. Wetterhan, in Nature, vol. xi. p. 507. But I cannot
help expressing quite a dilferent opinion as to the bearing of
the interesting fact that proterandrous and proterogynous indi-
viduals are to be found in the same locality. From the structure
of the flowers and from insects never visiting the stigmas, I am
convinced that the hazel is a strictly anemophilous plant ; that
the red colour of its stigmas is solely an effect of chemical pro-
cesses connected with the development of the female flowers to
maturity, just in the same manner as in the female flowers of
the larch-tree and some other Conifera; ; and that likewise the
coexistence of proterandrous and proterogynous individuals in
the hazel relates solely to the influence of the wind, and not at
all to the agency of insects.

Whilst in Primula, Pulmonaria, and many other entomophilous
plants, so admirably treated of by Charles Darwin, two kinds
of individuals, viz. , long-styled and short-styled ones, have origi-
nated from the positions of the anthers and the stigmas diverging
in different individuals in opposite directions — among the anemo-
philous plants in yuglans regia * and Corylus avellana, among
the entomophilous ones in Syringa vulgaris ■\ and Veronica
spicata,X two kinds of individuals, namely, proterandrous and
proterogynous ones, have originated from the periods of develop-
ment of the anthers and stigmas diverging in different individuals
in opposite directions. The effect in the two contrivances has
been the same, cross-fertilisation not only between different
flowers, but also between different branches, having become indis-
pensable.

In dimorphous species, this cross-fertilisation, as is known, is
effected by the visiting insects touching with the same part of their
body the anthers of the long-styled and the stigmas of the short-
styled form ; and with some other part of their body the anthers
of the short-styled and the stigmas of the long-styled form. This
kind of intercrossing can apparently never be effected by the
wind ; whence long-styled and short-styled (dimorphous) species
are never to be found among anemophilous plants. But in these
the coexistence of proterandrous and proterogynous individuals
produces the same effect, the pollen-grains of the proteran-
drous individuals, of course, being transported by the wind only
to the stigmas of the proterogynous ones, and vice versd.

Ljppstadt, May I Hermann MuLler

Variable (?) Star in Sextans

The following may be of interest to the readers of your
Astronomical Column : —

About 24° north of, and a little preceding \ Hydrse (4 mag.),
is a star marked 5th mag. in Harding's large Ailas Novus Cce-
lestis (1822). This is now invisible to the naked eye, and of
about mag. 7. It is 1 9662 in I.alande's Catalogue, in which it is
rated at 44 mag. It seems difficult to understand how excellent

* Delpino, " Ulteriori osservazioni," Parte II. fasc. ii. p. 337.
t H. MuUer, " Befruchtung," &c., p. 339,
t Ibid.p. 28s.

observers like Harding and Lalande could have made a mis-
take of 2 magnitudes in the estimation of a star's brightness,
particularly as it is closely preceded by a ']\ mag. star (Lalande,
19646). So that probably this star has faded since 1822. ItS
position for the beginning of the present year is in R.A.
9h. 57m. 30*46s., and N.P.D. 98° 58' o"'42.

Punjab, India, April 3 J. E. GORE

Equilibrium in Gases

Mr, Nichols, iti Nature, vol. xi. p. 486, advances the opinion
that in a vertical column of gas at rest the temperature does not
tend, as generally believed, to become equal throughout, but that
such a column is in a state of thermal equilibrium when the tem-
perature diminishes at the rate of 1° centigrade for every 233 feet
of ascent (or 1° Fahr. for every 129 feet). This is a question of
thermo-dynamics, and I am not mathematician enough to offer
any opinion on it from the theoretical point of view, but it
seems inconsistent with well-known meteorological facts. Were
it true, there would be, as Mr. Nichols points out, a constantly
renewed tendency for the lower strata to flow upwards in con-
sequence of their higher temperature and consequent relative
expansion. Such a tendency is no doubt very common, but Mr.
Nichols's theory would require it to be universal, and it does not
appear to exist in the absence of direct solar heating. Cumulus
cloud is an infallible proof of the presence of ascending columns
of air, and according to the report of the Austrian Polar Expe-
dition in Nature, vol. xi. p. 415, cumulus is never seen in
the Arctic winter ; and I have somewhere read the same respect-
ing the Siberian winter. The true CiUse of the accumulation of
heat in the lower atmospheric strata, to which upward currents
and the formation of cumulus is due, is, I have no doubt, that
usually assigned — namely, that the atmosphere is more pervious
to the heat of the sun than to heat radiated back from the
earth ; so that, as I think Tyndall expresses it, the sun's heat is
caught as in a trap. Joseph John Murphy

Old Forge, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim,
April 30

Curious Phenomenon of Light
Rowing onLoch Lomond recently, above'Luss, there were seen
to the north-west, at an apparent distance of about 100 yards,
two bright lines of prismatic light, 60° apart and on the level of
the water. Their length seemed to equal the breadth of a rain-
bow. Their violet ends were towards each other, and were
joined by a line of didl white light, to the middle of which the
sun and the spectator were at right angles. Standing in the
boat, the colour and brilliancy were lost, and only a diffuse white
light was visible. The time was 10 A.M. The sun was hot, the
sky cloudless, the air hazy and still, and the loch a mirrot. This
apparition fled before our approach for some minutes, till dis-
pelled by a slight breeze, which rippled the water.
Luss Wm. M'Laurin

Destruction of Flowers by Birds
I enclose some] flowers of the common blackthorn, that 1
suppose to have been snipped off by birds. The bushes were
growing in the outskirts of a wood, in a very sequestered situa-
tion (near Dunstable). The upper branches appeared to have
chiefly suffered. The grass below was quite conspicuously
starred with the fallen blossoms. I can hardly think that human
intervention had anything to do with it. R. A. Pryor

Hatfield, May 5

[In the accompanying specimens the limb of the calyx (carrying
the stamens and petals) had been neatly cut away from the tube. ]

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN

ORBits OF Binary Stars.— Dr, Doberck, of Colonel
Cooper's Observatory, Markree, Co. Sligo, has published
the results of a new investigation of the elements of the
revolving double star o- Coronse Borealis, in which mea-
sures to the end of 1872 are iticiuded. The period of
revolution is increased to 843 years, which is longer than
any yet assigned to this star, Dr, Doberck's comparison
of his orbit with the measures of the late Rev, W. R.
Dawes affords another proof of the remarkable excellence
of that astronomer's observations, particularly in the last

May 13, 1875]

NATURE

27

fifteen years of the period over which they extend, when
he had the command of comparatively large telescopes ;
and a similar remark applies to the measures of Baron
Dembowski, who during upwards of twenty years has
produced work of the greatest value in this department
of astronomy. Dr. Doberck also gives us a provisional
orbit for t Ophiuchi, which Sir William Herschel in 1783
considered the closest of all his double stars ; and after
appearing single to Struve with the Dorpat refractor in
1825, was oblong in 1827, and is now an easy object.
The period assigned is 185 years, with a peri-astron pas-
sage, i820"63 ; the semi-axis, i"*ii.

The Star Lalande 19662 (Sextans),— Mr. J. E.
Gore, of Umballa, Punjab, in a letter printed in another
column, directs attention to the probable variability of
this star. It was observed by Lalande, 1798, April 10,
" Histoire Celeste," p. 330, where its magnitude is
entered 4^, as in the reduced catalogue published by the
British Association (which, by the way, as well as the
other two catalogues prepared at the instance of that body,
is unfortunately becoming scarce). It appears in Heis's
Atlas as a 67 ; but after searching through the modern
catalogues where it was likely to be included, we have
only discovered a* single meridian observation by Lamont
in his Zone 314, on 1845, April 5, when it is called 7*8.
It does not occur in Argelander's " Uranometria," nor
was it observed by D'Agelet, Bessel, or Santini. — Another
of Lalande's stars. No. 23726 in Corvus, is in all proba-
bility variable. He estimated it 'j^, 1795, May 10, and
Bessel in May 1824 called it 8 ; Heis, however, saw it as
2, fifth magnitude. What is the actual degree of bright-
ness ? The star's position for the commencement of the
present year is in R.A. I2h. 37m. 2s., and N.P.D.
103° io'-3.

The Star 61 Ge^hnorum.— The Rev. T. W. Webb
has remarked the probable variability of a small com-
panion of this star, distant about i', and not far from the
circle of declination to the south (estimated angles from
160° to 190°), and appears incHned to identify it with
Smyth's companion of the 9th magnitude, for which he
gave, i835'85, position iio°'o, distance 60'^ Smyth's esti-
mates of magnitude down to 9 may be generally relied
upon, though for smaller stars he is often wide of the
mark, according to our present standard. It is very pos-
sible that he may have caught one of the minor planets
close to 61 Geminorum ; his angle, though it has only his
lowest weight, differs considerably from recent estimations
for the faint star. Our principal object in referring to the
Rev. T. W. Webb's remarks is, however, to suggest that
61 Geminorum may be itself variable ; D'Agelet con-
sidered it 6 in October 1784. Piazzi observed it ten times
on the meridian, and estimated it 7'8 ; it is 7 in Lalande,
67 in Taylor's volume for 1834-35, 6 in the "Urano-
metria " and Heis's Catalogue, 6-5 in " Durchmusterung,"
and 6-3 in the RadclilTe Observations, 1870. The deep
yellow colour noticed by Smyth, and now stated to have
disappeared, may perhaps be considered by some readers
as an indication in the same direction,

Cometary Astronomy. — The Astron. Nach., No.
2,034, contains a fine series of observations of the faint
comet discovered by Coggia, 1874, August 19, taken at
the newly-erected observatory of Col. Tomline, Orwell
Park, Ipswich : it extends to the middle of November,
and will no doubt be of material service in the final deter-
mination of the orbit. (The position of the Orwell Park
Observatory is in long. 4m. 55 •8s. E., and lat. 52° o' 33").
Vienna observations of the same comet appear in No.
2,035 of the above-named periodical, but extend only to
October 19 : they are accompanied by positions of Win-
necke's Comet (1874, April 11) to June 17, and of the
comet detected by Borrelly (July 25) to October 19.— In
No. 2,036, Dr. Sandberg has given elements of the elliptic
comet of Tempel, 1873, II., which will be preferable to

any hithelrtb published. It will be remembered that this
comet, near the preceding aphelion passage, experienced
very heavy perturbations from the action of Jupiter,
having approached that planet in January 1870 within
035 of the earth's mean distance from the sun. In the
instantaneous ellipse at perihelion, 1867, May 23, the
period of revolution was 2,080 days : at the last passage
by the same point of the otbit, the perturbations had
increased the period to 2,179 ddys. Other elements for
1873 are: semi-axis major, 3*2889; semi-axis minor,
2-9169 ; perihehon distance, 17695 ; the period in years
is 5*965, so that we may expect to see the comet in the
spring of 1879 under similarly favourable conditions fot
observation to those of 1867 dnd 1873.— In No. 2,037 we
have definitive orbits (parabolic) for Comet 1870, IV., which
was observed for only seven days, and of Comet 1871, II.,
both by Herr Schulhof, of the Observatory at Vienna. As
the manner in which the elements are expressed may not
be readily understood by the uninitiated in such calcula-
tions, we transcribe the orbits in the form that has so far
been adopted in our catalogues. The perihelion passage
is expressed in Greenwich time, and the longitudes are
from mean equinox at commencement of the year.

Comet 1870, IV. Comet 1871, II.

Perihelion passage .., Dec, I9 87609 ... July, 27-0I925

Long, of perihelion ... 4° 8' 56" ... tfS" 3S' 44"

,, ascending node 94 44 43 ... 211 54 40

Inclination 32 43 35 ... 78 o 36

Log. perihelion distance 9-590242 ... 0-031763

Motion ... Retrograde, ... Retrograde,

LECTURES AT THE ZOOLOGICAL

GARDENS*

in.

May 6, — Mr, Garrod oil the Deer Tribe.

'TPHE Deer maybe defined as those Ruminant Artio-
-■■ dactylate animals in which deciduous horns are
developed, and the young are spotted. Some, namely
the Musk Deer {Moschns) and the Water Deer {Hydro-
potes), never have antlers ; in both these the young, how-
ever, are spotted, as they are not in any of the hollow-
horned Ruminants.

The degree of development of the antlers is closely
related to the size of the species. In the small Pudu
Deer and the Muntjacs they are simple or but slightly
branched ; whilst their branching is very considerable in
the large Reindeer and Wapiti, The typical antler seems
to consist of a main stem or beam, with a small basal,
anteriorly directed tyne, the brow antler. The apex of
the beam bifurcates, one branch being directed for-
wards, and a little external to the brow antler ; the other
starts from the inner side of the posterior surface. In
one well-marked group, the Elapliine^ the anterior of
these upper branches is inconsiderable and does not
branch, the posterior enlarging and branching in most —
becoming palmated in the Fallow Deer. The larger
species of this elaphine section, including the Wapiti,
Maral and Red Deer, possess a second brow antler;
whereas in the smaller species this is not found {e.g. the
Fallow, Formosan, Mantchurian, and Japanese Deer).
In the Mesopotamian Deer, recently discovered by Sir
Victor Brooke, which is intimately related to the Fallow,
the palmation is found in the basal portion of the antler,
including the brow antler, together with extra small
tubercles very frequently found in that region.

In the group of Deer called Rusine the bifurcation is
more equal, and when there is a further branching, the
anterior as well as the posterior branch participates in
the division. The brow antler is simple. This type of
antler is found in its most uncomplicated condition in
the Sambur of India, and the closely allied species
Rusa equinus, swinhoii, &c. of the Malay region and

* Continued from p. 9.

28

NATURE

[3fajy 13, 1875

Formosa, as well as in the smaller Axis, Prince Alfred's
and Hog Deer. In the Siamese Deer, named by Mr.
Blyth after Mr. Schomburgb, the brow antler is long,
whilst each of the two branches of the short beam agam
divides in a very regular manner, the ultimate tynes bemg
of nearly equal length. In Duvaucel's Deer, frotn India,
the beam is longer than in the last-named species, and
the branching is very similar, except that the posterior
bifurcation is less developed than the anterior. This
reduction is carried to an extreme in Eld's Deer, from
Eastern India, where the anterior division of the antler is
very large and curved forward, whilst the posterior is
represented by a minute tyne. The gradation between
these three forms was demonstrated by Mr. Blyth. In
the Reindeer the general conformation of the beam very
closely resembles that of Eld's Deer, but with this rusine
peculiarity, the strangely palmated brow antler is double,
as only elsewhere occurs in the elaphine type. In the
American Roes a similar conformation obtains, the brow
antler being small in the Virginian Deer and almost
absent in the Mule Deer, which latter species m the
branching of the beam very closely agrees with both
Duvaucel's and Schomburgh's Deer.

The South American Guazupucu {Blastocerics palu-
dosus), which differs considerably from the Mazame, a
species generally supposed to belong to the same genus,
has the anterior bifurcated tyne. This may be the modi-
fied brow antler, as may be the similar branch in the
Chinese Elaphure discovered by the P^re A. David, both
these species having a simple, or comparatively simple,
posterior beam, and no gland on the outer side of the
metatarsus. r , t^ , , ,

The interpretation of the affinities of the Roebuck by
means of its horns is not easy. In that species there are
three small tynes, the anterior being situated higher up than
is usually the case with brow antlers, and the two posterior
much like those of the Hog Deer. In the last-named
species, however, the brow antler is not low, and it is not
difficult to imagine it being carried a little further up. On
this assumption the Roebuck is the only European repre-
sentative of the rusine type. , ^ ,

The simple nature of the antlers in the Brockets of
South America and the pecuUar Muntjacs of the Indian
region, in which the horns are attached on the top
of elongated pedestals, makes it impossible to decide,
from them alone, the forms to which they are nearest
allied. ^

As far as the hornless Musk and Water Deer are con-
cerned, Sir V. Brooke has shown in how many points
they differ from one another ; whilst Prof. Flower, at a
recent meeting of the Society, has demonstrated to a cer-
tainty that the former of them is not at all related to the
Chevrotains, which they so closely resemble in size and
general contour, and with which they have generally been
associated.

The horns of the Elk do not agree with any of the
above-described forms. The fan-shaped palmation into
which they spread is based on a radiating framework, and
no specialised brow antler is to be seen.

With reference to the geographical distribution of the
Deer, none are to be found in the Australian or Ethiopian
region, the Barbary Deer being the only member of the
group found in Africa at all, and that north of the Sahara.
The Elk is found both in North America and Northern
Europe, as is the Reindeer. The larger Elaphines are
represented in North America by the Wapiti, and by
several closely-allied species distributed throughout the
Palaearctic region as defined by Mr, Sclater to include
Europe, North-west Africa, and Asia with the exception
of India and the Chinese Empire. The smaller Elaphines
abound in Japan, China, and Formosa. The true Rusas
are most numerous in India and the Indo-Malay Archi-
pelago, the most recently discovered species, named by
Mr. Sclater Rusa alfredi, having been obtained by the

Duke of Edinburgh from the Philippines, whilst R. Swin-
hoH is from Formosa.

Mr. Swinhoe's new Water Deer abounds at and near
Shanghai, whilst the equally peculiar Elaphure probably
has its home in South-west Mantchuria, though it exists
in large numbers in a semi-domesticated state in the
Imperial Park at Pekin, together with commoner
species. The Musk Deer comes from India and the
country north of it, and the Muntjacs are found in India
and China, as well as the intermediate regions. The
Cervida; are also represented in North America by the
Virginian, Mexican, and Mule Deer ; the Guazus,
Guemuls, and Brockets replacing them in the southern
continent.

{To be continued^

THE IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE
'X*HIS Association may now be fairly considered as
-*• having become an established institution in the
country, and is to be congratulated on the success it has
achieved in its attempt to introduce something like scien-
tific method into the important industries with which it
is connected. It is undoubtedly doing excellent work,
and if it adheres steadily to its purpose, and goes on as it
has begun, it will help greatly in enabling our iron and
steel manufactures to keep pace with the rapid progress
which is being made on the Continent and in America.

As we have already intimated, the Institute held its
annual general meeting in London on Wednesday,
Thursday, and Friday, the 5th, 6th, and 7th inst. The
Report which was read was very encouraging ; the nuih-
ber of members is now 832, and the financial statement is
highly satisfactory.

The Bessemer Medal for 1875 has been awarded to Dr.
Siemens, F.R.S., in recognition of the valuable services
he has rendered to the iron and steel trades by his im-
portant inventions and investigations. Besides a number
of foreign gentlemen, Dr. Percy, of the School of Mines,
was elected an honorary member. The next provincial
meeting is to be held in Manchester early in September.

Mr, Lowthian Bell, after a short address, resigned the
chair, to which Mr. William Menelaus was elected. The
address of Mr. Menelaus was mainly concerned with recent
improvements in the manufacture of steel. Mr. Menelaus
has evidently correct notions as to the method by which
the industries with which he is connected are to be made
the most of. " As an iron maker," he said, " my mission
has been to bring into profitable use the valuable inven-
tions of Bessemer, Siemens, and others, and to apply the
scientific research of men like Mr. Bell to the improve-
ment of old and new processes."

On the evening of Wednesday Mr. Warrington W.
Smyth delivered a valuable lecture on " The Ores of Iron
considered in their Geological Relations." Mr. Smyth
directed attention to the oxides as met with by them-
selves, or combined with water or carbonic acid, and
which formed the great bulk of the material employed in
iron making. First in order of the ores thus limited was
magnetite. This mineral, with 72"4i percent. when pure,
was the fine rich ore which had been worked with great
success for centuries in several of the Scandinavian mines.
In Italy fine examples of magnetite were also found, as
well as in several widely-separated places in North
America. Magnetite only occurred in a few localities in
Great Britain, amongst which the vicinity of Penryn, in
Cornwall, and Hey Tor, near Bovey, in Devon, were
mentioned. The next species noticed by the lecturer was
haematite. This ore, so little recognised thirty years
ago, was now too well known to {require to be enlarged
on. He next described the curious ores named bauxite
and wochenite, in which alumina takes the place of
the sesquioxide of iron, turgite, gothide, limonite, chaly-
bite, the last-named often mixed with other ores on

May 13, 1875J

NATURE

29

a large scale. The most important deposit of this last-
named ore was contained in the range of veins occu-
pying a length of some thirty miles in Somerset and North
Devon, from the Raleigh's Cross westward to near Ilfra-
combe. Proceeding next to show the relationship be-
tween the oxides, the lecturer exhibited a specimen
of ore having the appearance of chalybite or spathic
ore, being covered with the large rhombohedral crystals
characteristic of that species, but which the presence
of the brown streak and of water and the percentage
of iron proved to have been turned into brown ore.
A fragment from the lodes of the Deerpark in Exmoor,
next shown, had also lost its carbonic acid, had acquired
oxygen and water, and actually become a dififerent
substance. It had been argued that the change com-
menced with the formation of the more hydrated species,
and passed through successive stages to those with
the least amount of water ; but on that point evi-
dence was as yet defective. The brown ores were un-
doubtedly (for the process might be watched in the
workings) formed by another series of changes from
pyrites through the sulphate of iron. The crystals of
brown ore, in the form of pyrites, were among the best
known pseudomorphs, and there were localities which
invited the inference that this action had taken place
on an important scale. Mr. Smyth, in concluding,
said he would not, in the present brief sketch, venture
upon the N'exed question of the original deposition of the
great northern masses of haematite, although strong
aiguments for their having been chalybite might be
adduced from the occurrence of limestone fossils turned
into red ore. He brought under notice another change
of condition among the oxides of iron. It was a signifi-
cant fact that magnetite was characteristic of the older
formations— of those bodies of rock which had during the
longest period of time been exposed to the influences
which bring about metamorphosis and change of sub-
stance. In the Pcrran lode Small portions of magnetite
had been formed among the brown ores near the surface.
In some of the Cornish copper lodes specimens of mag-
netic ore had occurred which looked very much as if they
had been carbonates, and amongst the beautiful red ores
•of Siegen small grains of magnetite appeared to testify to
a partial change, while there appeared to be sufficient
grounds for believing that, in many cases at least, this
last change in the degree of oxidation might be produced
by the ordinary action of natural causes.

One of the most interesting papers from a scientific
standpoint was that read on Thursday by Sir J. G. N.
Alleyne, Bart., " On the estimation of small quantities of
Phosphorus in Iron and Steel by Spectrum Analysis."
This paper forcibly shows the valuable practical results
which may follow from lines of pure scientific research.
We shall return to this paper in a future number.

Mr. Lowthian Bell then read a long account of his visit
to mines and ironworks in the United States. He began
by saying that in the year 1871, one half of the iron pro-
duced in England was exported to foreign countries, and
one-fourth of this half was despatched to the United
States, in all about 750,000 tons. In the year 1874, how-
ever, the States only took 130,000 tons, and it was stated
that during the three years the producing power of that
country had risen from two-and-a-half miUions to four
millions of tons. Mr. Bell entered into considerable
details on the subject of methods of transport in the
United States. The railway system has grown into
dimensions far exceeding those in England, the land of
its birth. At the end of 1873 the United States had
70,651 miles of road, against only 16,082 miles in England.
He calculates that 46,000 acres of timber fall annually
to provide fuel for the charcoal furnaces. Less than 200
acres of a four-feet seam of coal, in the county of Durham,
would produce the same weight of coke as is obtained
from 46,000 acres of American forest, Coal is more

abundant in the United States than in any other part of
the world, and all kinds are found. In some places
natural gas is used for puddling, re-heating, &c. Of pit-
coal itself there are 192,000 square miles, as compared
with 8,000 square miles in the United Kingdom ; and
Mr. Bell thinks it may be doubted where there is
any similar area in the world in which a larger pro-
portion of the surface is occupied by coal-bearing
strata. From the position which the beds of anthra-
cite coal occupy, it would appear as if, after their
original formation, an enormous amount of lateral com-
pression had been experienced by the districts in which
they lie. This force has raised the strata into a succes-
sion of waves, as it were, the slopes of which vary from
an angle of 20 to 45 degrees, and occasionally descending
to a depth of 200 to 250 fathoms or more. In some cases
this compressive power has been so great as to have
forced one ridge back over its neighbour, to such an
extent as to convert what is the floor of the seam in one
place into the roof at another, and, from a similar cause,
the quantity of coal which has accumulated at the anti-
clinal axes of some of these coal undulations is so great
as to afford a face of forty to sixty feet, or even more,
in thickness. In some cases denudation has carried
off not only the sandstones and shales, but a portion
of the! coal itself; the bared edge of the seam is
found immediately under the alluvial matter of the sur-
face. He stated that there is a vast extent of carboni-
ferous or mountain limestone in America, frequently
very near the pig-iron works. Near Baltimore the
shells of oysters, which are found in great abundance
at Chesapeake Bay, are used. They contain 95 per
cent, of carbonate of lime, and are a very inexpen-
sive substitute tor lime itself. The United States
contains abundant quantities of iron ore of all kinds
except the spathose ore, which is very scarce even in
Europe. The ironstone of the liassic and oolitic seams,
which furnish about one-third of the pig-iron made in the
United Kingdom, seems to be entirely wanting in the
States. Mr. Bell described the magnetic iron ore of
Lake Champlain, its peculiarities, mode of deposition,
&c., its abundance, and its freedom from deleterious in-
gredients ; he remarked that the contents of the mines
are chiefly obtained by open quarry work. The ore yields
something hke 67 per cent, in the Iron Mountain deposit.
Mr. Bell, in treating of the blast-furnaces, referred first
to the establishments which have been founded for pro-
moting scientific training and education, and he spoke
very highly of the earnestness and devotion which charac-
terises those engaged in the mining and metallurgical
industries of the States.

At Friday's meeting Mr. Bell read a paper on " The
Sum of Heat utilised in smelting Cleveland Ironstone."

Other papers read on Friday were : " A brief account
of an Underground Fire in the Wynnstay Colliery,
Ruabon, and the measures adopted to extinguish it and
to re-enter the workings," by Mr. G. Thomson. The fire
became so unmanageable as to necessitate the sealing up
of the shafts, after which explosions of gas took place,
and the shafts were resealed, and so remained for a period
in all of nearly five months. Preparations were then
made for re-entering the mines, and this was successfully
accomplished, and, after subsequent difficulties of a varied
character had been overcome, the colliery resumed opera-
tions after a cessation of about seven months, and were
now in full work again. The means used to effect the
object, and a detailed explanation of all the operations,
together with statistics of the temperature, the pressure,
and the composition of the gases in the different shafts
from time to time, were given in the paper.

On "The Manufacture of Bessemer Steel in Belgium,"
by M. Julien Deby, C.E., Brussels, and on " The Howard
Boiler," by Mr. David Joy, of Barrow-in-Furness.

Altogether the meeting has been a satisfactory one.

30

NA rURE

{May 13. 1875

THE PROGRESS OF THE TELEGRAPH*

WE now continue our description of Wheats tone's
electrical " Jacquard."
The rapid sequence of currents passed into the line-
wire by the " Transmitter " are automatically recorded
at the distant station by means of an apparatus called the
" Receiver," or printer, which marks upon a continuous
paper ribbon, as it passes through the instrument, the
"dot" and "dash" code of the Morse alphabet, corre-
sponding to the holes in the perforated Jacquard ribbon,
as rapidly as the sequence of currents can be passed into
the line. Two forms of this receiving instrument may be
noticed : one shown in Fig. 22, in which the " dot " and

" dash " code is represented by dots upon the paper ribbon
upon either side of a central line, the lower line of dots
being read as "dashes" and the upper line as "dots."
The paper ribbon, mechanically advanced forward through
the machine in a continuous manner, is passed under a
shallow dish containing ink or other marking fluid. Two
fine small holes are made through the bottom of this
reservoir, in a position to correspond with the dots to be
printed upon the ribbon as it passes underneath the
reservoir. By reason of capillary attraction, the ink is
prevented from passing through these apertures. Two
electro-magnets, one on either side of the ink-reservoir,
actuate two needles, which are adjusted so as to be
depressed by the action of the current, and, dipping into
the reservoir, pass into the holes, and carry a small dot

Fig. 22. — Wheatstone':

of ink through on to the paper ribbon ; thus the mark is
printed as a " dot " or " dash," according as the respective
needle is depressed without any friction or mechanical
resistance beyond that of the needle dipping into the ink
held in the capillary tubes. The electro-magnet coils
are so arranged that only the respective needles are acted

upon by the currents as they flow from the positive or
negative poles of the battery. The " dot " printing is
shown at Fig. 23.

In the other form of '• Printer " the Morse code is printed
in "dot" and " dash " characters, the groups and sequence
of groups forming fthe letters and words exactly corre-

N

N

V

o ooo\
000 I

i

W H EATS T.a N. £.

Fig. 23. — Perforated Jacquard ribbon and printing by the

_automatic_systein.

sponding with the dot and dash perforations in the Jac-
quard ribbon. Y'\g. 24 is the automatic printing upon
this system from the perforated ribbon shown at Fig. 20.
Capillary attraction is here again made use of, only in a

different manner. A small inking disc of metal mounted
upon a delicately poised axle capable of a slight
angular oscillation in a lateral direction, according as it is
influenced by the to-and-fro motion of a permanent mag-

R E S S

THE TEL EG RA P H

Fig. 24. — An " electric loom," or automatic telegraph printed message from the perforated paper ribbon (Fig.20.)

netic armature when acted upon by the alternate currents
passed into the line from the " Transmitter," is made to
rotate rapidly by the same mechanical means that ad-

* Continued from vol. xi. p. 512,;'

vances the paper ribbon. This little rotating inker \z
placed close to the surface of the paper ribbon, so that on
receiving a lateral motion in one direction its edge is
pressed against the paper and removed from it by an

May 13. 1875J

NATURE

opposite motion, while in its neutral position it is free
from contact. Thus contact with the paper will produce
marks, either dot or dash, according as the inking con-
tact is either momentary or of a sensible duration ; the j
contrary movement producing the spacing between the
printed marks. Now, as the currents from the Jacquard 1
ribbon (Fig. 20) are passed at equal intervals and in !
alternate directions, the spacings between the signals will {
be automatically regular ; the " dash " being the effect {
of the retention of the magnetic armature acting on the !
inking disc for double the time of the " dot "jby reason of j
the grouping of the perforations to form the " dash," giving j
a longer duration without a reversal of the current being
passed into the circuit. The arrangement for supplying
ink to the little revolving inking disc is simple and effec-
tive. A metal wheel, having its edge cut into a V shape,
is kept revolving in a dish of ink, and by capillary attrac-
tion this V groove is kept constantly filled with ink,
and thus the periphery of the little inking disc which
revolves in this groove of ink is without any rubbing
friction kept constantly supplied with the proper amount
of ink to continuously record the rapid motion of the

armature as the currents flow from the transmitter into
the wire. It is by these very simple means that Wheat-
stone has produced his high-speed printer, at once an
accurate recorder and a telegraphic necessity in these
days of special press-transmissions to the chief com-
mercial centres of the United Kingdom.

In order to realise the great value of the automatic
high-speed system upon extended lines of telegraphic
transmissions, it is only necessary to compare the speed
of the Morse apparatus on lines of a given length with
that of the automatic electric Jacquard weaver. With an
apparatus combining such celerity of transmission and
recordmg powers, it becomes necessary to adopt a special
system for the despatch and receipt of intelligence ; to
economise manual labour, and utiUse the capacity of the
wire to the greatest extent. Messages are therefore passed
into the machine for transmission along the wire in groups ;
that is to say, on a circuit of 300 miles in length, twelve
messages will be perforated upon a continuous ribbon and
sent through the "transmitter" at the same time, and
vice versa. Employing a wire of a capacity known as
No. 8 Birmingham wire gauge over this distance, four

Fig. 25— Alexander Bam's. Automatic Chemical Printing Telegraph

distinct groups consisting of twelve messages of thirty
words each can be forwarded, and three similar groups
received, in an hour ; equivalent to eighty-four messages
of thirty words each, and with the average of five letters
to a word, a total of 12,600 letters, or an average of 210
letters per minute, equivalent to forty-two words per
minute, with all the necessary formahties and acknow-
ledgments in addition. Such a speed may be maintained
in moderately fine weather, and requires a staff of five
clerks at both the receiving and transmitting stations ;
namely, two for perforating the messages on to the paper
ribbon, two for writing or translating, and one for the
working of the apparatus in sending acknowledgments
and signals for repetitions, &c. When dealing with
parliamentary and newspaper despatches, a much higher
speed can be obtained, first because there is no neces-
sity for grouping the messages, and secondly because, as
a rule, the transmissions are only in one direction,
either as wholly received or forwarded messages, which
circumstances greatly reduce the initial delay in the
transmission. With a No. 4 wire gauge between Aber-
deen and London, forty words may be reached, and with

a No. 6 wire between Edinburgh and London fifty words,
between Newcastle-upon-Tyne and London sixty words,
and between Glasgow and Liverpool 120 words maybe
recorded. The shorter the length of the line, the greater
the speed obtained. A very rapid form of a chemical
automatic printing telegraph has been designed in America,
based upon Alexander Bain's chemical automatic printer,
1846. This American chemical automatic machine has
sent and printed, under favourable conditions, intelligence
between Washington and New York, a distance of 282
miles, at a speed of 1,050 words or about 5,250 letters
per minute, at which rate the apparatus required ten per-
forators, thirteen copyists, and two instrument- operators
to keep the circuit supplied and the transmissions trans-
cribed for general circulation. How far such a speed can
be profitably employed for telegraphic purposes remains
to be developed. It is quite possible to transmit intelli-
gence beyond a profitable speed, for, irrespective of the
difficulty of always commanding a sufficient amount of
intelligence to keep the apparatus fully employed, the vast
staff of manipulators necessary to ensure the preparation
of the Jacquard ribbon, and translation of the symbolic

32

NATURE

[May 13, 1875

code into language, must always form a very important
element in the commercial value of all high-speed arrange-
ments, when the speed is beyond that of the public
requirements of the circuit,

Alexander Bain's chemical printing telegraph, invented
in 1846, of which this American automatic machine is
only a modernised adaptation, is shown at Fig. 25. It
combined methods of arranging, transmitting, and re-
ceiving electrical telegraph communications, in which
mechanically- composed communications were trans-
mitted through electric circuits, and received by che-
mically prepared surfaces, both apparatus being kept
in motion by mechanical means, without the aid of
magnets. The apparatus consisted of a frame con-
taining a driving power by which a rotatory motion
was imparted to the metal drum B, placed in connection
with the earth by means of the contact springs E E. The
paper strip P p, chemically prepared by being immersed
in a solution of sulphuric acid and prussiate of potass to
receive the sequence of currents transmitted through the
wire from the " transmitter," is wound upon the drum A,
and is drawn forward over the revolving earth contact B
at a uniform speed by reason of the pressure of the break
roller M, which may, whenever the paper is not required
to advance, be withdrawn by the lever H working on the
centre R, and kept in position either way by the action of
the spring roller w. An insulated metallic style D, in
connection with the line wire /", and furnished with the
necessary screw adjustments a, b, c, is arranged to press
uniformly upon the chemically-prepared paper as it passes
over the earth drum B. The style D can also be removed
from pressing contact with the paper ribbon when re-
quired, as indicated by the dotted outline. When there-
fore the style D is passing over the surface of the prepared
paper, and electric currents are passed through the line
wire/ from the distant station, the electric circuit will be
completed through the paper ribbon P, and the metallic
drum B, with the earth E, and in the passage of the current,
the iron in the chemical solution is decomposed and a dark
blue mark becomes visible upon the paper corresponding
in length to the duration of the current ; so that if the
Jacquard ribbon at the distant station is perforated into
the necessary length of holes to represent the sequences
of dots and dashes in the Morse code, to form letters and
words, the chemical decomposition from the style D
will be an accurate replica of the distant message in the
"dot" and "dash" symbols. It was thus that in 1846
Alexander Bain, the clever and ingenious Edinburgh
watchmaker, originated a system of electric automatic
chemical Jacquard printing, which even at the present day
is scarcely understood, and which in all probability is left
to American skill to develop. Its extreme simplicity
and wonderful chemical sensibility speak volumes in its
favour, provided, as has been already observed, such
extreme velocities can be profitably worked in this small
planet of ours.

{To be continued.)

RECENT TRENCH MATHEMATICAL
PUBLICATIONS

MCHASLES is reprinting a new edition of his cele-
• brated work, " Apergu Historique : " the first part
has been already issued. The learned geometer has made
no alteration in the book, which was written many years
ago and long before he had been led to assert frivolous
claims in favour of Pascal, and no allusion is made to the
Newton forgeries. The whole work will cost no more
than 20J., only one-fourth of the selling price of the old
edition, which has for some time been very scarce.

There has been in France a revival of interest in the
subject of imaginary quantities. Thus, a translation by
Laisant of Bellavitis's "Calcul des Equipollences " has

been published lately. It is regarded by Bellavitis him-
self as a system of quaternions in one plane, and thus is
somewhat analogous to the efforts made in England to
popularise the great Hamilton's theories. But it is only
a partial effort, as Bellavitis's results do not admit of
being generalised so as to apply to solid geometry.

M. Hoiiel, whose name is connected with the publica-
tion of a series of useful tables, will very likely be more
successful in this respect, as he is preparing a " Theory
of Quaternions."

The same mathematician has edited a reprint of a work
on the " Geometrical Representation of Imaginary Quan-
tities," orieinally published in 1806 by Argand. One of
his objects appears to have been to defend the rights of
his illustrious countryman. But they are not so disregarded
in England as the author seems to suppose.

The third and concluding part of the new edition
of Briot and Bouquet's " Theory of Elliptic Functions "
has appeared. It is quite a new book, though professing
to be a second edition of the small octavo volume which
became rapidly so popular amongst mathematicians.

M. Paul de Saint Robert has published a third and
concluding volume of his interesting " Memoirs," several
of which were published in English in the Philosophical
Magazine. Amongst these valuable papers, which are
here reprinted, we must not neglect to notice the " New
formulae for determining the altitude from barometric
observations." These formulae embody the results of the
observations taken by Mr. James Glaisher in some of his
aeronautical ascents. M. Saint Robert in this way im-
proves the well-known Laplace's formulas, which were
based only on the Ramont's observations taken in the
Pyrenean ranges ; and takes into account the carefully
observed facts which had been neglected in England.

NOTES

The Committee on the Loan Exhibition of Scientific Appa-
ratus met in the Science Schools at the South Kensington
Museum yesterday. It has been deteimined to postpone the
exhibition till March 1876, and from the strength of the Committee
appointed and the interest taken in the scheme by scientific
societies, we may expect the collection to be unique.

It will be of interest to geologists to know that Capt. Feil-
den, R.A., the naturalist of the senior ship of the Arctic Ex-
pedition, in addition to making the observations on the birds of
Northern Europe, Malta, India, China, and North America,
which will be found scattered through the pages of the " Zoolo-
gist" and quoted by Prof. Newton and Messrs. Sharpe and
Dresser in various works, has given much attention to the
palseonto'ogy of many of these countries, especially to the Mio-
cenes of Malta and the Faroe islands, and the Mastodon beds of
South Carolina. By permission of Prof. Ramsay, V.P.R.S.,
the Director- General of H.M. Geological Survey, Capt. Feilden
has also recently been shown the method employed in carrying
out geological field-work by that Survey, by one of its staff, Mr.
De Ranee.

The French Academy of Sciences, at its sitting on Monday
last, received the report of M. Fleuriais, the head of the Transit
of Venus Expedition to Pekin. The observations were very satis-
factory indeed, the four contacts having been photographed with
com.plete success. The weather was very boisterous all the day
long, but at the four important moments the observers were
favoured by a total absence of clouds. They succeeded in
executing a map of Pekin, in spite of the obstacles placed in
their way by the natives. The dimensions are 8,000 metres by
7,000, and the length of the walls is 33 kilometres. The instru-
ments set up by the missionaries last century are in perfect

May 13, 1875]

NA TURE

33

order. The instruments sent by the Academy to China are to
remain there, and perhaps a permanent observatory may be
established.

Prof. James Dewar, in resigning his post of Chemist to
the Highland Agricultural Society, on his appointment to the
Jacksonian Chair, Cambridge, has told that Society some whole-
some truths, which we hope they will take to heart. Mr. Dewar
writes :—" After what has occurred, it will hardly be necessary
for me to say anything about what might have been had the
chemical department been rearranged in the way I naturally
anticipated after the death of Dr. Anderson. You are aware I
intended prosecuting investigations in vegetable physiology, had
the proper means been placed at my disposal ; and the desire to
do so was the main reason of my leaving the University. As it
seems, however, the opinion of a portion of the Society that an
agricultural chemist (so-called by the uninitiated, because his
business is chemical analyses and the manipulating of the farming
interests) rather than a scientific chemist would be best qualified
to discharge the duties of the office of chemist, I have considered
it my duty to accept the Cambridge Professorship as the best
meansof getting out of a false position. I still trust, however,
the Society will ultimately see that this office of chemist will
never be properly filled except by one thoroughly trained in
scientific research, and this, the making him a real agricultural
chemist, will depend on the means placed at his disposal for
applying his scientific knowledge to agriculture."

Wk are glad to see that the University of Glasgow is doing
what it can to promote experimental investigation among its
students ; for this purpose the following two prizes are offered : —
I. In Natural Philosophy, the Cleland Gold Medal, for the
best " Experimental Determination of Magnetic Moments in
Absolute Measure." AU students of the Natural Philosophy
Class in Session 1874-75, or Session 1875-76, may be com-
petitors. 2. The Watt Prizes of 10/. for the best " Numerical,
Graphic, and Experimental Illustrations of Fourier's Solutions
of Problems in Thermal Conduction." Cooling of a cylinder
to be worked out numerically in one or more cases : cooling of a
globe may be illustrated experimentally in one or more cases. All
matriculated students of the University in Session 1875-76, who
have finished, or who on the ist day of May, 1876, shall finish
a regular course of Languages and Philosophy, may be com-
petitors. Two or more competitors for the prize may work
together and give in a joint essay ; and two prizes will.be given
in case of sufficient merit. The Physical Laboratory of the Uni-
versity will afford the requisite experimental means for candidates
for the Watt and Cleknd Prizes. When will Oxford and
Cambridge follow such a good example ?

It is with great regret that we record the death, in his fifty-
fourth year, of Admiral Sherard Osborn, C.B., F.R.S., which
took place suddenly on Thursday night last. Admiral Osborn's
name is well known in connection with Arctic exploration,
and he was to have read a paper last Monday on the Arctic
Expedition before the Royal Geographical Society. He was
born April 25, 1822, entered the navy in 1837, and served in
the East Indies and in China. He obtained his commission as
lieutenant in 1846, and three years later .was selected as a
volunteer for the Arctic Expedition, under Capt. H. T. Austen,
sent in search of Sir John Franklin, being appointed to com-
mand the Pioneer. He afterwards served with distinction
during the Russian war, in China, and in Mexico. In 1864
Capt. Osbom was appointed to the command of the turret-ship
Royal Sovereign, and was afterwards for several years managing
director of the Great Indian Peninsular Railway at Bombay.
Admiral Osborn naturally took a keen interest in the Arctic
Expedition which is so soon to leave our shores.

The following naturalists have been elected foreign members
of the Linnean Society of London, viz. : Alexander Agassiz,

H. E. Baillon, Ferdinand Cohn, M.D., A. de Quatrefages, and
F. Parlatore.

Dr. G. J. Allman, F.R.S., has been elected Examiner in
.Zoology, and Dr. M. T. Masters, F.R.S., Examiner in Botany
to the University of London.

An outline of the lectures on the Invertebrata being delivered
at Edinburgh University by Prof. Huxley is being published
in the Medical Times and Gazette ; the first instalment appeared
in last Saturday's number.

Our readers are familiar with the name of the Penikese
School of Zoology in the United States, and last week we gave
the programme of a similar institution for the practical study of
Geology. The faculty of Harvard College aie, we beheve,
arranging for similar schools for other branches of scientific in-
struction, and have announced three separate courses, besides
the one on Geology : — One of Chemistry, under Prof. J. P. Cook,
to be held at Cambridge. The second is a course in Phenogamic
Botany, to be given in the Botanical Laboratory at Cambridge,
by Prof. Goodalc. The Botanical Garden and Herbarium will
furnish material for instruction in Structural and Systematic
Botany. All necessary appliances, including disiccling and
compound microscopes, will be furnished by the instructor. The
third course is that of Cryptogamic Botany, under Prof. W. G.
Farlow. This course will be held at some point on the sea-
shore, possibly Provincetown or other suitable locality, and in
this respect will correspond to the plan of the summer school of
zoology at Penikese. Twelve lectures will be devoted to the
Algce and six to the Fungi. A laboratory will be established, and
excursions will be made throughout the course by the students
in company with Prof. Farlow.

From Baron Mueller, Government Botanist of Victoria,
Australia, we have received his last report of the progress and
condition of botany in that colony. From a scientific point of
view, and equally in regard to the advance of applied botany, it
contains many interesting particulars. The learned writer, who
has done so much to promote the development of the vegeable
resources of Australia, laments the withdrawal of the working
votes of his department, and his removal from the directorship of
the Botanic Garden, as he is thereby deprived of the means of
conducting his researches. We glean the following notes from
this report. The vegetation (exclusive of some of the lower
cryptogams) of the whole of Australia is estimated at 11,000
species. The number of grasses is about 250 species. Nume-
rous experiments have been made to ascertain the quality and
practical working of various fibres, oils, tars, acetic acid, gums,
resins, starch, potash, paper materials, dyes, &c., obtained from
native and introduced plants, a complete hst of which is appended
to the report. In some experiments on rabbits with the tubers
of Burchardia umbellata and Anguillaria australis, it was ascer-
tained that although belonging to a doubtful family, they con-
tain no noxious principle. In the search for jalap in the tubeis
of indigenous terrestrial orchids, the common Microtis porri folia
gave the best and highly satisfactory results. In drying, the
roots of this species evolve a slight violet odour, and ten grains
of the dry powder produces one ounce of good pale mucilage,
free from bitterness. The tubers of Thelymitra aristata, although
still richer in mucilage, are slightly bitter and of a brownish
tinge. Very much has been effected in the distribution of the
seeds of the gum trees {Eucalyptus), of which there are 140 species
in Australia, and intcsting the qualities of the numerous products
of these valuable trees. In a trip to the forest regions of the
Upper Yarra last year, Baron Mueller measured some trcCi of
Eucalyptus amygdalina, var. regnans, which were approximately
400 feet in height. The magnificent grass Festuca, dives was
found in the same region growing to a height of 1 7 feet on the

34

NATURE

{May 13, 1875

borders of rivulets. For educational purposes in the colonial
schools, 100 sets of native plants have been dried and mounted,
each set containing fifty species. Since the publication of the
last report about fifty new genera have been added to the flora
of Australia, including many of great interest in phyto-geo-
graphy. Thus the genera Corynocarpus and Carmichaelia, pre-
viously only known from New Zealand, have been discovered in
Australia. A species of Ilex (holly) has also been found, and an
elm belonging to the section MicropteUa. About fifteen of the
genera are absolutely new to science.

The excellent collection of Madeira plants formed by the late
Rev. Mr. Lowe, who, with Mrs. Lowe, was lost last year in the
wreck of the Liberia, was deposited in the Herbarium at Kew some
months since, and is, we understand, to be divided between the
British Museum and the establishment named, the latter taking
the uniques. It is fortunate that so valuable a collection has
become public property, as it contains the types of the lamented
gentleman's new species, and specimens of many things that are
now exceedingly rare in the islands. In private hands it might
have been neglected, and certainly would have been inaccessible
to most botanists.

In the appendix to the United States Coast Survey Report
for 1872, now in the press, is a report by Mr. W. H. Dall on the
tides, currents, and meteorology of the Eastern Aleutian region
and the North-east Pacific, accompanied by explanatory dia-
grams. Mr. Ball's observations on the oceanic currents, which
are here tabulated and discussed up to the date of the report,
are of special interest as being the first series undertaken with a
direct view to the solution of the problems in question, and
result in the proof of the existence of a reflexed northerly arm of
the great easterly North Pacific current, denominated by him the
Alaska current, which had previously been surmised from iso-
lated observations and theoretical considerations. Mr. Dall has
been enabled to determine the rate and dimensions of several
portions of this current, and maximum, minimum, and mean
annual temperature. The existence of definite oceanic currents
in the eastern half of Behring Sea is shown to be very doubtful.
Some important generalisations on the relations of the Pacific
and Behring Sea tides to each other are made, and the peculiari-
ties of the compound tides of this region are graphically indicated
by diagrams in a new method, original with the author, and pos-
sessing some interest for those studying these problems. The
report is accompanied by numerous hydrographic memoranda
and table* of meteorological, current, and tidal observations.

The figure to the letter in last week's Nature (p. 7), signed
X, "On the role of feet in the struggle for existence," does not
quite illustrate the author's meaning. He intended to draw the
same footprint in both cases, but in the case shown in the cut
on the left, each footprint should be advanced straight forward in
the line of the previous one, while in the other it should be
advanced obliquely, leaving a large part of the outline of the
previous one clearly marked.

A MEETING was held on Monday last in the theatre of the
Royal Institution, Mr. A. J. Mundella, M.P., in the chair, for
the purpose of considering the best mode of extending to London
the benefits of the Cambridge Univer.ity Extension Scheme, at
which the following gentlemen, among others, were present : —
Sir J. Lubbock, Bart., M.P., Dr. L. PJayfair, M.P., Dr. W. B.
Carpenter, F.R.S., Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S., Sir H. Cole,
C.B., Mr. S. Morley, M.P., Prof. Fawcett, M.P., Mr. T.
Hughes, Q.C., Hon. G. Brodrick, Rev. W. Rogers, Mr. H. C.
Sorby, F.R.S., and Mr. Jas. Stuart. After Mr. Stuart and
Mr. Sorby had explained the object of the meeting, the follow-
ing resolution was carried :— " That this meeting, having heard
Mr. Stuart's statement, considers it desirable to introduce into
London the Cambridge University Extension Scheme." A pro- :

visional committee was app jilted to cirry out the obje:ti o( th
meeting, consisting of Mr. S. Morley, Mr. Mundella, Mr. Jas.
Stuart, Rev. W. Rogers, Mr. T. Hughes, Mr. R. N. Phillips,
Dr. Carpenter, Mr. W. L. Birkbeck, Mr. H. C. Sorby, and Mr.
G. M. Norris.

The regular annual meeting of the U.S. National Academy
of Science took place at the Smithsonian Institution in Washing-
ton on the 20th of April, and continued three days. The
attendance was about the same as usual, there being some
twenty-five members present out of the seventy-five. Numerous
papers of much scientific interest were brought forward. In
accordance with the rules of the Academy, five new members
were elected. These are : Prof. R. E. Rogers, Professor of
Chemistry of the University of Pennsylvania ; Prof. Asaph
Hall, one of the astronomers at the Washington Observatory ;
Prof. Alpheus Hyatt, curator of the Natural History Society of
Boston ; Prof. Joseph Le Conte, of the University of California ;
and Mr. Lewis H. Morgan, of Rochester. All these gentlemen
are eminent in their respective branches of science, and constitute
a valuable addition to the membership of the Academy, which
now embraces about eighty individuals, selected from the repre-
sentative men of science throughout the United States. The
only loss which the Academy has experienced by death during
the year is, as stated by the president, that of Prof. Jeffries
Wyman.

Sir Charles Reed, as a member of the Gresham Com-
iiiittee, writes to the Times, giving the arrangements which have
been made for the future conduct of the Gresham Lectures.
The lectures are not in future to be delivered in the Latin
tongue. The times of deHvery are to be fixed, not by the
lecturers, but by the Committee. The lecturers are required to
deliver their own lectures, and the nomination of a substitute is
allowed only in case of illness. The appointment of the lecturer
is for one year, securing to the Committee an opportunity of
annual revision. It will be seen that the Committee have taken
a step in the right direction, and we hope that it is only the
first step to a radical reform.

A scientific Society has been formed in Bedford, under the
title of the Bedfordshire Natural History Society and Field Club.

In reference to Mr. Fordham's letter in last week's NATURE,
in which he states that in his part of the country the cowslip is
very abundant but the primrose is not found, Mr. J. J. Murphy
asks, what part of the country Mr. Fordham means ? The oppo-
site is true at Dunmurry, Co. Antrim, where there is plenty of
primroses, but few if any cowslips.

We are glad to see that at the great International Exhibition
to be opened at Philadelphia next year, a Department {VII. ) is
to be devoted to "Apparatus and Methods for the Increase and
Diffusion of Knowledge." The following are the groups into
which the department is divided : — Educational apparatus and
methods. Typographic aids to the preservation and dissemination
of knowledge, books, periodicals, newspapers. Charts, maps, and
graphic representations. Telegraphic instruments and methods.
Instruments of precision, and apparatus of physical research,
experiment, and illustration. Meteorological instruments and
apparatus. Mechanical calculation — indicating and registering
apparatus, other than meteorological. Weights, weighing, and
meteorological apparatus — measures and coins. Chronometric
apparatus — time-keepers of all kinds, watches, clocks, «S:c.
Musical instruments and acoustic apparatus. Under Department
X. also there are two groups which might be classed along
with these :— Education : illustration of the various systems and
accessories of education, from the infant school to the Univer-
sity, including special schools of science and art, libraries, &c.
Institutions, Societies, and Organisations having for their object

May 13, 1875J

NATURE

35

the rromotion of Science : illustratiohs of the tije, progress, and
results of the various organisations for the promotion of science ;
models, drawings, descriptions, and statistics.

Mr. Stanford has just published a Nortl; Polar map,
lior in most respects to anything we have seen. It
embraces a circle of forty degrees from the pole, thus including
the whole of England. It exhibits faithfully all the circumpolar
lands hitherto discovered, and in bold red letters shows the
points reached by all the most important discoverers, with the
date of discovery, from Sebastian Cabot down to Payer and
Weyprecht ; even the spot where it is hoped that II. M.S. Dis-
Cmery will winter is indicated. By means of dark and light blue,
the usual limits of the ice and open water are clearly shown,
and the whole execution of the map reflects the greatest credit
on Mr. Stanford's establishment.

We have seen an ingenious scientific apparatus which
entirely obviates the use of matches or tapers, and does away
with the attendant danger in lighting gas. It consists of a
small bichromate of potash battery, the zinc plate of which
is so arranged that by the pressure of the finger it can be
immersed in the exciting fluid and put the battery in action.
Rising from the top of the battel y is a light brass stem, like a
taper-holder, but in the form of a swan's neck, terminating in a
little bell, whhin which the two "poles" of the battery are
united by a spiral of platinum wire ; this wire, when the battery
is put in action by the immersion of the zinc plate, becomes
white hot, and will instantly ignite the gas if held over the open
burner. The name v/hich the maker, Mr. Horatio Yeates, has
given to this happy contrivance is the " Galvano-Pyreon, Of
Voltaic Gas-lighter."

M. Elie de Beaumont left a library containing a number of
valuable scientific books, which his, nephew and heir has pre-
sented to the Geological Survey of France, of which his uncle
was Director. The grant includes more than 2,000 volumes
relating to geology, and 600 maps.

We formerly mentioned that the widow of the late General
Poncelct founded a few years ago a prize to be awarded by the
Institute. It was a handsome sum of money to be given every two
or three years to the author of the best essay on Mechanics. Last
week Madame Poncelet sent to the Academy a large number of
copies of the CEirures Completes of her husband, which were
completed only last month, with the request that each successful
competitor for the Poncelet Prize should be presented with a copy.
But as the stock would be exhausted in the course of five or six
centuries, the careful widow has created a special accumulating
fund providing for a new edition in the year 2600 a.d.

The Paris Acclimatisation Society held its anniversary meeting
on the 6th of May, under the presidency of M. Drouyn de Lh lys.
M. Pichot gave a long and interesting address on acclimatisation
in Egypt under the Pharaohs. Many prizes were awarded for
practical results obtained in the way of introducing new kinds
of animals into France. One of these was given by M. Joseph
Comely, for having succeeded in the multiplication of the
kangaroos left in a state of liberty.

The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during
the past week include a Guinea Baboon {Cyttocephahts sphinx)
from West Africa, presented by Mr. Lionel Hart; a Yellow-
shouldered Amazon {Chry softs ochroptera) from South America,
presented by Miss M. Sutherland; a Molucca Deer {Cervus
moluccmsis), a Pampas Deer (Cervus campestris), bom in the
Gardens ; two Chinese Jay-Thrushes (Garrnlax chinensis) from
China, purchased ; a Patas Monkey (Cctropilhecus ruber) from
West Africa; a Hairy Tree Porcupine {Cercolabes rupestris), a
Rock Cavy {Cerodott rupestris) from Brazil, deposited.

NATURAL HISTORY OF KERGUELEN'S
ISLAND *

TT is difficult, owmg to the mexactness of the charts, to
inform you of the pot'tions of the Astronomical Stations
in whose neighbourhood 1 have been able to work in this
island. The German station is in Betsy Cove, the American
at Molloy Point, Royal Sound. The English stations also
are in this Sound, the second being situated about three miles
N. by W. of Swain's Ilaulover. The fir-st English station is
between these last two on the main land, six or seven miles
N.W. of Three Island Harbour, in what will be called Obser-
vatory Bay. Two days before the Transit ot Venus a party
under Lieut. Goodridge, R.N., was detached from the first
English station to observe the transit from a position which he
selected near the base of Thumb Peak. I have not yet been able
to visit Betsy Cove.

Observatory Bay is one of the minor inlets of a peninsula com-
prised between two narrow arms of the sea. One ot these runs
up from the Si-und, along the western flank of the hills adjacent
to Mount Crozier, several miles, and terminates at a distance of
three or four hours to the north of us, and about four miles from
the inlet near Vulcan Cove. The other arm, opening nine or
ten miles away to the southward, proceeds in a north-easterly
direction to within three or four miles of the former, and no
great distance from Foundry Branch.

Besides the inlets of the sea, numerous freshwater lakes pre-
sent obstacles to inland travelling. Some in this neighbourhood
are two or three miles in length, but in general they are not
more than a mile long. Tliey are usually shallow, and appear to
be uninhabited by fish. The bogs and streams in this vicinity
are not impassable, but can be traversed with ease if ordinary
caie be taken.

The most salient features of the landscape are the basaltic
hills, with irregular terraces of rock on their sides, and broken
cliffs at their summits. In lieu of grass, their slopes are clothed
with banks and boulder-like clumps of Azorella selago, excepting
where rich damp loam affords a soil suitable for the Accena and
the Pringlea. Here and there a fern (Lomaria) and grass {Fes-
iuca) grow in the interspaces of the other plants.

The climate of Royal Sound is far warmer and drier than we
were led to expect it would be. In November the weather was
very pleasant ; since then it has deteriorated, though the snow
has not again covered the ground as it did when we first arrived.
Probably the previous accounts of its meteorology were based
upon observations taken in pans of the island where bad weather
prevails ; or it may be that the condition of the country in winter
has been presumed to be constant throughout the year. In one
respect we were rightly informed ; for usually when there is no
bieeze there is a gale. A calm day is an exceptional event. Me-
teorological observations are being taken in Observatory Bay on
board the Vola£;e and by the sappers on shore.

Corresponding with the unlooked-for superiority in climate, a
difference is noticeable in the vegetation of this part of the
island. Some plants which occur at both extremities of the
country display in Royal Sound marks of luxuriance. For
instance, Pringha antiicorbutica, which is elsewhere apetalous,
here in sheltered places frequently develops petals ; some flowers
in the same inflorescence possessing one petal only, others having
tv/o, three, or four. And the petals are not always of a pale
greenish colour, but occasion dly are tinged with purple. Again,
Lomaria a/piiia, which is mentioned in the flora as rare in the
neighbourhood of Christmas Harbour, is excessively common
and very finely grown here. There are also more species of
flowering plants and of the higher orders of Cryptogamia here
than were found by the Antarctic Expedition at the north of the
island. But there are fewer species of mosses, lichens, and
algre. Their paucity, in comparison with those of the other
district, is probably due to the nature of the rucks on land, and
to the seclusion of the bay from the open sea. The additions to
the flora are for the most part Falkland Islands species.

In speaking of the climate, it may be mentioned that the plants
of Kerguclen's Island are not {as was supposed) in flower
throughout the year ; but probably some of them do not cease
flowering until late in the winter. When we first arrived m
Royal bound the ground was covered with snow, and scarcely

* " First Report of the Naturalist attached to the Transit of Venus Ex-
pedition to Kerguclen's Island, December 1874" By the Rev. E. A. Eaton.
Communicated by the President. A letter to the Secretary of the Re yal
Society, dated Royal Sound, Kerguclen's Island, 31st December, 1874.
Read April 8.

30

NATURE

[May 13, 1875

anything had begun to come out. The Pringlea was far advanced
in bud, barely commencing to blossom. The Accena was just
beginning to burst into leaf. About the first week in November
yestuca Cookii came out, and a few days later Azorella sela^o.
The young fronds of the ferns were just about to unroll. In the
third week of the same month Montiafontana and Acczna affinis
were in flower in a sheltered spot, and LepUnella plumosa was
first found in blossom. Gahum antarcticuin appeared about the
same date. A week later. Ranunculus Jtydrophilus and a
Festuca {purpurascens ?) were out, and Lycopodium clavatuni was
sprouting. By the middle of the month Jriodia and Lyallia
kerguelensis and also Ranunculus crassipes were in flower ; the
Fringlea was everywhere past flowering (excepting upon the
mountains), and Aira anlarctica began to thoot forth its panicles.
Before the end of the month a Carex came out ; but Bulllarda
and other plants delayed still.

A few species of Mammals have been introduced into the
island. Mice (evidently il/«j musculus, L.) are common along
the coast, and have been found by us in various places. The
rabbits, transported by order of the Admiralty from the convict
settlement in Table Bay, have been landed bjr H.M.S. Volage in
Koyal Sound. They share with the birds holes of the petrels,
and are (it is almost superfluous to mention) propagating freely.
Their favourite food is the Actcna ; but they occasionally eat
Fringlea leaves and gnaw away the green surface of Azorella.
In the Crozettes, whose climate and flora are said to resemble
those of this island, rabbits have become extremely abundant,
and so rank and coarse that the sealers will not eat them.
Goats are increasing in numbers on the leeward side of the main
land.

Whales and porpoises occasionally enler the Sound. Old
skulls of the latter, wanting the lower jaw, are cast up here and
there on the beaches.

Up to the present time I have captured only two species of
seals — a female sea leopard and two males of a Platyrhine Sea).
The other kinds frequent the more open parts of the coast and
islands.

Tweaty-two species of birds, at the fewest, perhaps twenty-
three, frequent Royal Sound, viz., a Chionis, a Cormorant, a
Teal, a Tern, a Gull, a Skua, eleven (periiaps twelve) Petrels,
two Albatrosses, and three (perhaps four) Penguins. Of these, I
have procured eggs of the first six ; also of six Petrels, one Alba-
tross, and two Penguins. The Thalassidroina are preparing for
laying.

Fish are rather scarce in Observatory Bay. Only three
species have hitherto occurred to us, two of which are common
under stones at low water. The remains of a Rata have also
been picked up on one of the islands by an of&cer of the Volage,
but hardly sufficient is lefc to enable the species to be determined.
It is allied to R. clavata and R. radiata.

The entomology of the island is very interesting. Most of the
larger insects seem to be incapable of flight. I have found re-
presentatives of the orders Lepidoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera,
and Colembola.

The Lepidoptera comprise a species of the Noctuina (as I
suppose) and one of the Tineina. Of the first I have not yet
reared the imago ; the larva is a moss eater and subterranean :
the adult is probably as large as an A^roiis of medium size. The
species of Tineina is probably one of the Gelechida, judging from
the form of the palpi. Its larva feeds on young shoots of Festuca:^
and sometimes spins a silken cocoon for the pupa. The imago,
of which the sexes are alike, has acute and very abbreviated
wings, and the posterior pair extremely minute. In repose the
antennae are widely separated, and almost divaricate. When the
sun shines the adult is active, and, if alarmed, jumps to a distance
of two or three inches at a time. During its passage through the
air the wings are vibrated.

The Diptera. are represented by species of the Tipulidaj and
Muscidse. There are three of the former family. One of them
is a small species of the Cecidomyidse, which is abundant in
mossy places, and presents no marked peculiarity. Another
seems to be a degraded member of the Tipulidas. The antennas
have six joints, the palpi two ; the wings are ligulate and very
minute. It possesses halteres, and the female has the ovipositor
enclosed in an exposed sheath. Although it is unable to fly, it
lives upon rocks in the sea, which are covered at high water,
and there it deposits its eggs in tufts of Enteromorpha. The
third species has full-sized w ngs : it was caught in the house.
The indigenous Muscidae are very sluggish in their movements,
and are incapable of flight. Four species are common about
here. One of them is ab.i.rdant on Fringlea, crawling over the

leaves. When it is approached it feigns to be dead, and, tucking
up its legs, drops dov/n into the axils of the leaves ; or, if it
happens to be upon a plane surface, one need only look at it
closely, and it throws itself promptly upon its back and remains
motionless until the threatened danger is over, when it gra-
dually ventures to move its limbs and struggle to regain its
footing. Its wings are represented by minute gem mules, and it
possesses halteres. The ovipositor is extended, its apical joint
alone being retracted. The penis is porrected beneath the abdo-
men, where it fits into a notch at the apex of the penultimate
segment. The larva feeds on decaying vegetable matter.
Another species occurs on dead birds and animals, as well as
beneath stones near the highest tide-mark. It is completely
destitute of even the vestiges of wings and halteres. The sexual
organs are concealed. It and the preceding species are rather
smooth. A third species, slightly hairy, is common among tide
refuse and on the adjacent rocks, which are coated with stunted
Enteromorpha, on which plant, inter alia, the larva feeds. It has
very small triangular rudiments of wings, slightly emarginate
near the apex of the costa, and possesses halteres. The sexual
organs are not exposed. The fourth species occurs amongst
grass growing along the shore, and also in Shag rookeries. Its
Imear and very narrow wings are almost as long as the abdomen.
It can jump, but cannot fly. The sexual organs are retracted.

A Fulex is parasitic upon Ilalidroma, and one (possibly the
same species) on Diomedea fuliginosa.

Coleoptera are not uncommon. The larger species seem to
have their elytra soldered together. There is a small species of
the Brachyelytra.

Several species of Nirmiidce have been obtained.

Two Fodurce (one black, the other white) are plcntifuL

There appear to be few species of Spiders, though individuals
are numerous. Penguins and some of the other birds are in-
fested with Ticks. The remaining Arachnida are related to
Cribates.

The Crustacea, Annelida, MoUusca, and Echinodermata in
this part of the island have probably been collected by the Chal-
lenger more extensively than I have been able to do ; therefore I
need not particularise further about them than to state that
Entomostraca abound in the lakes ; an earthworm is common,
and a land-snail is very plentiful amongst the rocks on the hills.
This last appears to appreciate comparative heat, for specimens
obtained in an exposed place during the frosty weather were
assembled together for warmth, under the drip of an icicle.

In Observatory Bay Coelenterata are not numerous. One or
two species of Actiniidx on the rocks and Macrocystis roots,
and an Ilyanthid in mud, are the only Actinozoa I have met
with. The Hydrozoa similarly have afforded only three species —
a Corynid, a Campanularian, and a So'tularella.

There are several Sponges.

With the exception of Limosella aquatica, and perhaps Agrostis
antarctica, I have obtained all the flowering plants and ferns given
in the " Flora Antarctica " as indigenous to the island. Besides
these. Ranunculus hydrophilus and another species, a Carex, a
Festuca (probably F. purpurascens, but I have no work contain-
ing descriptions of the flowering plants), Folypodium vulgare, a
fern aUied to Folypodium, and Cystopteris fragilis have occurred
to me. There is also a plant which appears to belong to the
Juncaceae. Lycopodium clavatutn and L. selago are common
about here. None of the Mosses, Hepaticas, or Lichens have
been .worked out as yet; but amongst them are one or two
species of Cladonia, and some examples of Lecanora paleacea.
Fungi are represented by Agaricus (Fsalliota) arvensis, Coprinus
atramentarius, and a peculiar parasite on Azorella, which grows
out from the rosettes in the form of a clear jelly, which becomes
changed into a firm yellowish substance of indefinite form.
There are also some Sphceriacei on grass and dead stems of
plants. At present few additions have been made to the mariae
flora. The larger Algoe in Royal Sound are usually not cast
upon the shore by the waves, and I have almost been entirely
dependent upon grapples thrown from the rocks for specimens of
the more delicate forms. Folysiphonia Sulivana and Rhyti-
phloia Gomardii are amongst the novelties. A large number of
zoological and botanical specimens have been lost through my
inability to attend to them in time without assistance. This has
principally affected the number of duplicates ; but in one instance
it has led to the loss of a species — one of the Petrels, which was
the commonest bird about here when we first arrived. Fortu-
nately it is a well-known species.

The 1st of March is announced as the approximate date of our
sailing from Kerguelen's Island. Five weeks later I hope to

May 13, 1875]

NATURE

37

arrive at the Cape and to forward to you such of the specimens
collected as require only ordinary care in their transmission.
The more fragile things are likely to reach you in better condi-
tion if I keep them until my return to England, than they would
if they were sent with the others.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Journal de Physique theorique d appliqnee, Feb. 1875.— This
number contains several papers reprinted from other serials, and
the follo\ving original ones :— On the spectra of yttrium, erbium,
didymium. and lanthanum, by Prof. R. Thalen. On account of
the difficulty to obtain the compounds of these metals in a pure
state, considerable doubt has hitherto existed, whether certain
lines that always appeared in the spectra of yttrium and ertium
and in those of didymium and lanthanum belonged to the first
or second metal in the pair ; the state of these questions in 1S68
was, that there were twelve lines which alvvays appeared when
yttrium or erbium were examined, and sixteen lines in the case
of didjrmium and lanthanum. Prof. Thalen succeeded in ob-
taining sufficient quantities of compounds of each of the metals,
from M. Cleve, Professor of Chemistry at the Upsala University,
and these were of undoubted purity. He was thus enabled to
study their spectra most accurately, and the following table
shows the number of lines found in former and in the recent
researches : —

Metal. Number of lines.

Yttrium . . .
Erbium . . .
Didymium
Lanthanum

70)

49 f

+ 12 uncertain

16

I 106

83

209

It was found that the twelve uncertain lines that always appeared
with yttrium or erbium belong to yttrium only ; in the same way
the sixteen uncertain ones in the second case belong only to the
lanthanum spectrum. Prof. Thalen gives a detailed map of the
spectra in question. — Researches on the induction sparks and
electro-magnets ; their application to electro-chronographs, by
M. Marcel Deprez. — On analogies in the evolution of gases from
their over-saturated solutions, and the decomposition of certain
explosive substances, by M. D. Gemez. — On the preservation of
energy in electric currents, by M. E. Bouty. — On the transfor-
mation of static into dynamic electricity, by M. E. Bichat.

Dcr Zoologische Garten. — In the January number, the first
article is a description of the new Zoological Gardens at Frank-
fort, by the director. Dr. Max Schmidt, illustrated by a coloured
plan. J. von Fischer gives an account of the habits of Ilerpestes
galera as observed in confinement. E. Buck figures and describes
an apparatus for producing currents in the water of aquaria ; it
may be worked either by a miniature steam-engine or by clock-
work. H. Schacht gives minute details of the breeding habits
of the common swallow (Hirundonistica) ; and A. B. Meyer and
K. von Rosenberg both write upon the newly discovered Bird
of Paradise {Diphyllodus Gulielmi III., Van Muschenbroek) from
Ternate. — In the February number is printed a paper read by Dr.
Hermann Miiller before the Provincial Soc'ety of Westphalia, on
the stingless Brazilian Honey-bees of the genus Melipona, and
the possibility of their acclimatisation in Europe. Dr. J. J.
Rein remarks on the distribution of some of the mammals of
Japan ; and C. Geitel writes on the feeding of small birds in
winter in the neighbourhood of human habitations.

Poggendorff' s Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 1875, No. 2,
contain the following papers : — On the galvanic conducting
capacity of melted salts, by F. Braun. The author experi-
mented with twelve different salts, and tabulates his results ;
the salts were nitrates of potash, soda and silver, carbonates of
potash and soda, sulphate of soda, chlorides of potassium,
sodium, strontium, zinc and lead, and iodide of potassium. — On
a compilation of facts which prove a decrease of volume as a
consequence of chemical action in solid bodies, by W. Miiller. —
On the electric conducting capacity of the chlorides of the al-
kalies and alkaline earths as well as of nitric acid in aqueous
solutions, by F. Kohlrausch and O. Grotrian. This is the last
part of the author's interesting communications, and treats of
the liquids examined, of the resistances observed, of the con-
ducting capacities in their relation to that of mercury, and of
their dependence on temperature; further, of their proportion
to the percentage of concentration of liquids, of the co-efll-
cients ot temperature, and of the conducting capacity of dilute
solutions.— On the theory of galvanometers, by H. Weber. —

A reply to Baron Eotvos' remarks on a part of the astronomical
undulation-theory by Ed. Ketteler.— Some remarks upon Helm-
holtz's work on Sound, " Die Lehre von denTonempfindungen,"
by Emil v. Quanten ; these remarks relate principally to what
Helmholtz says on vowels. — A reply to Ilerr C. Heumann re-
garding his claim of priority in observing the action of nitrate
of silver upon sulphide of copper, by R, Schneider.— On the
construction of lightning conductors, by Dr. W . A. Nippoldt.
Some remarks by Dr. G. Baumgartner, on Prof. E. Edlund's
paper on the nature of electricity. — Description of a very simple
apparatus to photograph spectra, by Hermann W. Vogel ; this
apparatus can even be applied to an ordinary pocket spectroscope
of the smallest dimensions.— On the phenomena of interference
visible on mirrors covered with dust or a fine layer of grease, by
Prof. M. Sekulic. — Researches on apparent adhesion, by J. Ste-
fan.—On the conducting capacity of the halogen compounds of
lead, by E. Wiedemann.

Transactions of the Manchester Geological Society, Part viii. vol.
xiii,, 1874-75. — Nearly the whole of this part is occupied by an
elaborate illustrated paper on " Hrematite Deposits," by Mr. J.
D. Kendall. There is a short paper by Mr. A. W. Waters on
" Tertiary Coals," in reference to specimens of carbonised peat
he found in Northern Italy under rather peculiar circumstances.
Part ix. is occupied with the discussion on Mr. Kendall's paper
on Hrematife deposits, and with a long paper on basalt and its
eflects, by Mr. G. C. Greenwell, F.G.S.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

London

Royal Society, April 29.— " On a Continuous Self-Regis-
tering Thermometer," by H. Harrison Cripps. Communicated
by Prof. Stokes, Sec. R.S.

The instrument is divided into two portions : — First, the ther-
mometer, which marks the degrees ; secondly, the clockwork,
which indicates the hours and minutes. The thermometer is first
described. The form in which it was originally made, and which
perhaps serves best for illustrating the principle, was the follow -
mg : — A glass bulb, rather more than an inch in diameter, ends in
a glass tube 12 inches long, having a bore of | inch. This tube is
coiled round the bulb in such a manner as to form a complete
circle four inches in diameter, the bulb being in the centre of
this circle. Fixed to opposite poles of the bulb, exactly at right
angles to the encircling tube, are two needle-pointed pivots.
These pivots work in minute metal depressions fixed to the sides
of two parallel uprights. It will be seen from this arrangement
that the bulb with its glass tube will rotate freely between the
uprights, and the pivots will be the centre of a circle, the cir-
cumference of which is formed by the glass tube. The bulb is
filled with spirit in such quantity that at 60° Fahrenheit the
spirit will fill not only the bulb, but about 4 inches of the tube.
Mercury is then passed into the tube till it comes into contact
with the spirit, and in such quantity as to fill up about three inches
of the remaining portion of the tube. The spirit is now heated
to 1 20°, and as it expands forces the column of mercury in front
of it till the mercury comes within \ inch of the end of the tube.
The tube is then hermetically sealed, enclosing a small quantity of
air. If the thermometer be now arranged with its needle-points
between the uprights, it will be observed that, as the spirit con-
tracts on cooling, it draws the column of mercury with it. This
immediately alters the centre of gravity, and the bulb and tube
begin to revolve in a direction opposite to that of the receding
mercury. On again applying heat, and the mercury passing
forwards, the bulb regains its original position. By this simple
arrangement, the two forces, heat and gravity, acting in contrary
directions, generate a beautifully steady rotatory movement.
The method by which this movement is made serviceable for
moving the register will now be described. A grooved wheel,
two inches in diameter, is fixed to one of the central pivots,
therefore revolving with the bulb. Directly above, and at a
distance of seven inches from this wheel, is fixed between
needle-points another wheel of exactly similar size. Around
and between these two wheels passes a minute endless chain.
To the chain is fixed a tiny pencil, which will be carried
backwards and forwards between the wheels in a perpendicular
line. This constitutes the register worked by the thermometer.
Tha clockwork portion of the machine is so arranged that it
causes a vertical cylinder, four inches diameter and five inches in
length, to revolve once in twenty-four hours. Round this cylin-
der is fixed a piece of paper twelve inches long, five inches wide.

38

NATURE

[May 13, 1875

On the paper in the direction of its greatest length are ruled 100
lines, -^0 inch apart, each indicating 1° Fahrenheit. Across the
paper, at right angles to these lines, are ruled twenty-four lines in
dark ink, indicating the hours ; between these three others, more
lightly marked, for the quarters. The cylinder is so placed that
as it revolves the surface of the paper is y\ of an inch away from
the point of the pencil register moving at right angles to its sur-
face. A small striker is connected with the clockwork in such a
manner that every five minutes (or oftener if required) it gives
the pencil a gentle tap, thus striking its point against the paper.
By this means all friction of the moving pencil against the paper
is avoided, and the index is marked by a series of dots.

" Sonie particulars of the Transit of Venus across the Sun,
1874, Dec. 9, observed on the Himalaya Mountains, Mussoorie,
at Mary Villa."— Note II., with appendix, by J. B. N. Hen-
nessey, F.R.A.S.

Linnean Society, May 6.— Dr. G.J, Allman, F. R. S., president,
in the chair. — The following papers were read : — On the anatomy
of two parasitic forms of TetrarhynchidcB, by Mr. F. H. Welch.
— Notes on the Lepidoptera of the family Zyganida, with
descriptions of new genera and species, by Mr. A. G. Butler,
F.L.S. The main object of the paper was to rescue this section
of Lepidoptera from the confusion into which it had been
brought by the creation of new species and genera on insufhcient
grounds, by Mr. J. Walker. Some very curious instances of
mimetism were mentioned between parallel series of species of
hornet-moths and of Hymenoptera. — On the characteristic
colouring matters of the red groups of Algae, by Mr. H. C. Sorby,
F. R. S. In this paper the author gave an account of some of
the leading characters of the various remarkable blue, purple,
and red substances soluble in water characteristic of red Algse.
The compound nature of the solutions obtained from the plants
may be proved by the varying decomposing action of heat on
the different colouring matters. He also showed that though
Oscillatorice and Rhodosporea: yield closely -related colouring
substances, the specific differences serve to separate these two
groups of Algse quite as much as their general structure. Con-
necting links do indeed occur, and the further study of this
question will probably yield interesting results. Specimens
illustrating these facts were exhibited. A discussion followed,
in which the President, Prof. Dyer, Mr. A. W. Bennett, and
others took part.

Chemical Society, May 6.— Dr. Odling, F.R.S., vice-pre-
sident, in the chair. — Prof. N. S. Maskelyne read a paper on
Andrewsite and Chalcosiderite, the former of which is a new
mineral from Cornwall named after Prof. Andrews. There were
also papers entitled " An examination of methods for effecting
the quantitative separation of iron, sesquioxide, alumina, and
phosphoric acid," by Dr. W. Flight ; and "On sodium ethyl-
thiosulphate," by Mr. W. Ramsay. — Mr. J. Williams, in his
communication "On a milligrade thermometric scale," proposes
to substitute the freezing and bo ling points of mercury for those
of water, and to divide the scale into a thousand parts. — Mr.
C. Griffin exhibited and described some new gas furnaces which
are very economical and of great power.

Zoological Society, May 4. — Mr. E. W^. H. Ho!dsworth
in the chair. — Mr. Sclater exhibited and made remarks on a
skin of a chick of a Cassowary {Casuatius picticollts), received
from Dr. George Bennett, of Sydney, New South Wales.
The bird had been obtained alive from the natives in
Milne Bay, New Guinea, by , Mr. Godfrey Goodman, Staff
Surgeon, R.N., when in the Basilisk in 1873. — Prof. Newton
exhibited and made remarks on a series of tracings of some
hitherto, unpublished drawings discovered in the Library of
Utrecht, representing the Dodo and other extinct birds of
Mauritius. Prof. Newton also exhibited and made re-
marks on two specimens of Ross's Arctic Gull, Rhodostethia
rossi, one of the rarest of Arctic birds. — Mr. H. C. Sorby,
F.R.S., read a paper on the colouring matter of the shells of
birds- eggs as studied by the spectrum method, in which he
showed that all their different tints are due to a variable
mixture of seven well-marked colouring matters. Hitherto the
greater part of these had not been found elsewhere. The
principal red colouring-matter was connected with the hamo-
globin of blood, and the two blue colouring matters were
probably related to bile pigments ; but in both cases it was only
a chemical and physical relationship, and the individual sub-
stances were quite distinct, and it seemed as though they were
special secretions. There appeared to be no simple connection

between the production of these various egg-pigments and the
general organisation of the birds, unless it were in the case of
the Tinamous, in the shells of the eggs of many species of which
occurs an orange-red substance not met with in any other eggs,
unless it were in those of some species of Cassowary. — Mr. A.
IT. Garrod read a note on the hyoid bone of the Elephant, as
observed in two specimens of the Indian Elephant which he had
lately dissected, and showed that the position of the bone in siiu
had been mis-stated by former authorities. — A second paper by
Mr. Garrod contained remaiks on the relationship of two
pigeons, lanthcenas leiicolccma and Erythrcenas piilcherrima,
which he lately had an opportunity of examining. —A communi-
cation was read from Mr. G. E. Dobson on the bats belonging
to the genus Scotophilue, in which he gave the description of a
new genus and species allied thereto. The specimen in question
had been obtained in the Bellary Hills, India, by the Hon. J.
Dormer, by whom it had been presented to the British Museum.
It was proposed to name it Scotozous dormer i. — A communica-
tion was read from Lieut. W. Vincent Legge, R. A., giving
particulars of the breeding of certain Grallatores and Natatores
on the south-eastern coast of Ceylon, together with notes on the
nestling plumages of the same.

Geological Society, April 28.— Mr. John Evans, V.P.R.S.,
president, in the chair. — The following communications were
read : — " On Stagonolepis Rohertsoni, and on the evolution of the
Crocodilia," by Prof. T. H. Huxley, Sec. R.S. jAfter referring
to his paper read before the Society in 1858, the author stated
that he had since obtained, through the Rev. Dr. Gordon of
Birnie, and Mr. Grant of Lossiemouth, further materials, which
served at once to confirm the opinion then expressed by him,
and to complete our knowledge of Stagonolepis. The remains
hitherto procured consist of the dermal scutes, vertebrae of the
cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and caudal regions, ribs, part
of the skull and the teeth, the scapula, coracoid and interclavicle,
the humerus, and probably the radius, the ilium, ischium and
pubis, the femur, and probably the tibia, and two metacarpal or
metatarsal bones. The remains procured confirm the determina-
tions given by the author in his former paper, except that the
mandible with long curved teeth therein, superstitiously referred
to Stagonolepis, proves not to belong to that animal. From the
extant evidence it appears that in outward form Stagonolepis
resembled one of the existing Caimans of intertropical America,
except that it possessed a long narrow skull, like that of a Gavial.
The dermal scutes formed a dorsal and ventral armour, but the
dorsal shield did not contain more than two, nor the ventral
shield more than eight longitudinal series of scutes. The posterior
nares were situated far forward, as in lizards, neither the palatine
nor the pterygoid bones uniting to prolong the nasal passage
backwards, and give rise to secondary posterior nares, as in
existing crocodiles. The teeth referred to Stagonolepis have
short, swollen, obtusely pointed crowns, like the back teeth of
some existing crocodiles ; they sometimes present signs of wear.
The scapula resembles that of recent crocodiles ; the coracoid is
short and rounded like that of the Ornithoscelida and of some
lizards, such as Hatttria. The humerus is more Lacertian than
in existing crocodiles. The acetabular end of the ischium re-
sembles that of a lizard, and the rest of the bone is shorter dorso-
ventrally and longer antero-posieriorly than in liviny; crocodiles,
thus resembling that of Bdodoji. The latter reptile, from the
Upper Ktuper of Wiirtemberg, is the nearest ally of Stagono-
lepis; both are members of the same natural group, and this
must be referred to the order Crocodilia, which was described
as differing from other Reptilia as follows : — The transverse pro-
cesses of most cervical and thoracic vertebrae are divided into
more or less distinct capitular and tubercular portions, and the
proximal ends of the corresponding ribs are correspondingly
divided j the dorsal ends of the subvertebral caudal bones are
not united ; the quadrate bone is fixed to the side of the skull ;
the pterygoids send forward median processes which separate the
palatines and reach the vomer ; there is an interclavicle, but no
clavicles ; the ventral edge of the acetabular portion of the ilium
is entire or but slightly excavated; the ischia are not much
prolonged backwards, and the pubes are directed forwards
and inwards ; the femur has no inner trochanter, and the
astragalus is not a depressed concavo-convex bone with an
ascending process. There are at least two longitudinal rows of
dorsal dermal scutes. The Crocodilia are divided by the author
into three sub-orders : —

I. Parasuchia, with no bony plates of the pterygoid or pala-
tine bones to prolong the nasal passages ; the Eustachian pas-

May 13, 1875]

NATURE

39

sages enclosed by bone ; the centra of the vertebrae amphicoelian ;
the coracoid short and rounded ; the ala of the ilium high, and
its acetabular margin entire ; and the ischium short dorso-ven-
trally and elongated longitudinally, with iis acetabular portion
resembling that of a lizard. Genera: Stagonolepis, Belodon.

2. Mesosuchia, with bony plates of the palatine bones pro-
longing the nasal passages, and giving rise to secondary posterior
nares ; a middle Eustachian canal included between the basi-
occipital and basisphenoid, and the lateral canals represented
only by grooves ; vertebral centra amphicoelian ; coracoid elon-
gated ; ala of the ilium lower than in the preceding, higher than
in the next sub-order, its acetabular margin nearly straight ;
ischium more elongated dorso-ventrally than in the preceding
group, with its acetabular margin deeply notched. Genera :
Steneosaurus, Pelat^osaunis, Tdcosaiirus, Teleidosattrus, Metrio-
rhyncus {Goniopholis ?, Pholidosaurus ?).

3. Eusuchia, with both pterygoid and palatine bones giving off
plates which prolong the nasal passages ; vertebral centra mostly
procoelous ; coracoid elongated ; ala of the ilium very low in
front, its acetabular margin deeply notched ; ischium elongated
dorso-ventrally, with its articular margin deeply excavated.
Genera : Thoracosaunis, Holops, and recent forms.

The Mesosuchia are intermediate in character between the
other two groups ; the Parasuchia, where they differ from the
Mesosuchia, approach the Ornithoscelida and Lacertilia, espe-
cially such as Hatteria and Ilyperodapedon, with amphiccelous
vertebral centra. The Eusuchia, on the other hand, are the
Crocodilia which depart most widely from the Ornithoscelida
and Lacertilia, and are the most Crocodilian of crocodiles.
After indicating at some length the succession of modifications
in the above three groups, the author remarked that if there is
any solid ground for the doctrine of evolution, the Eusuchia
ought to be developed from the Mesosuchia, and these from the
Parasuchia, and showed that geological evidence proved that the
three groups made their appearance in order of time, in accord-
ance with this view. Thus, in the Trias there are the genera Belo-
don and Stagonolepis of the sub-order Parasuchia. In the Upper
lias we have Steneosaurits {Mystriosaurus) and Felagosaurus, the
first represented also in all Mesozoic formations up to the Kim-
meridge Clay; in the Fuller's Earth Tcleosaurus and lelddo-
saurns occur ; in the Kelloway Rock Metriorhynchus, also met
with in the Oxford Clay and Kimmeridge Clay ; in the Wealden,
Goniotholis, Macror/iytichus, Pholidosaurus, and unnamed Teleo-
saurians ; and in the Upper Chalk, Hyposaurtis ; all belonging
to the Mesosuchia. In the Upper Chalk, again, the Eusuchia
make their appearance, represented by the genera Thoracosaurus,
Holops, and Gavialis (?). How far back the Parasuchia extend
in time is not known, but they are not found in any formation
subsequent to the Upper Trias. The author described a frag-
ment of a skull of a Wealden crocodile, in which the posterior
nares are smaller and situated further back than in Metriorhyii-
chus or Steneosaurus. Of the nearest allies of the Crocodilia,
the Lacertilia and Ornithoscelida, the former may be traced back
from the present day to the Permian epoch, and the latter from
the later Cretaceous to the Triassic epoch. The author discussed
the question whether these types exhibit any evidence of a similar
form of evolution to that of the Crocodilia. The cranial struc-
ture of the Permian Lacertilia is almost unknown, and the only
important deviation from the type of the existing Lacertilia in
the skeleton is that their vertebras are amphicoelous, not procoj-
lous. With this exception there is no evidence that the Lacer-
tilian type of structure has undergone any important change
from later Palreozoic times to the present day ; and this change
seems to have occurred earlier in the Lacertilia than in the cro-
codiles, as a sacral vertebra of a lizard from the Purbecks has
the centrum concave in front and convex behind. "With regard
to the Ornithoscelida, the author noticed that the researches of
American palaeontologists proved the existence of those reptiles
in abundance in quite the latter part of the Cretaceous epoch.
lie had himself indicated the existence of varied forms of Dino-
sauria in theTiias. He confirmed his former opinion that Zaii-
clodon from the Upper Keuper of Wlirtemberg is a Dinosaur,
and probably identical with Peratosaurus (von Meyer), in which
case its afhnity to Megalosaurus is exceedingly close. He cor-
rected a statement in a former paper with regard to the ilium of
the Thecodontosaurians, which he had turned the wrong way,
and stated that when regarded in its proper position this ilium
is much more Lacertilian than that of Megalosaurus. From this
and other evidence of detail he inferred that the Triassic Theco-
dontosauria were devoid of some of the most marked peculiari-
ties of the later Ornithoscelida, while the most ornithic pf the

latter belong to the second half of the Mesozoic period. The
oldest cro odiles oiffi r less than the recent ones from the Lacer-
tilia, and the oldest Ornithoscelida also approach a less difTt-ren-
tiated Lacertilian form, the two groups seeming to crnvtrge
towards the common form of a lizard with Ci'ocodilian verreSrcc.
Celiosaurus is also a reptile with a vertebral systcfn like that of
the Thecodontosauria and Crocodilia, but with more Lacertilian
limbs, and Steuopelyx may be in the same case. It may there-
fore be convenient hereafter to separate the Thecodontosauria,
Celiosaurus and perhaps Steuopelyx as a group, " Suchospon.
dylia," distinct from both the Ornithoscelida and the Crocodilia
(or " Sauroscelida ").

" On the remains of a fossil forest in the Coal-measures at
Wadsley, near Sheffield," by H. C. Sorby, F. R.S., Pres. R.M.S.
In this paper the author described the occurrence of a number
of stumps of Sigillarice in position and with Stigmarian roots
attached to them in the Coal-measure Sandstone in the grounds
of the South Yorkshire Lunatic Asylum.—" On Favistella stellata
and Favistella caltcina, with notes on the affinities of Favistella
and allied genera," by Mr. H. Alleyne Nicholson, F.R.S.E.

Mr. A. Tylor brought an apparatus for determining the heat
evolved by the friction of ice upon ice, with a view to explain
an important element in glacier motion. The apparatus, con-
sisting of plates of ice eight inches square, placed in a wooden
chuck three inches deep, was enclosed in a double sheet-iron
case containing ice and salt, and kept at 32° F. One block of
ice was rotated, and the other pressed against it. Four pounds
of ice were reduced to water at the rate of i|:lb. in an hour, in
consequence of the motion, that is by the heat evolved by friction
of ice upon ice, the pressure being 2 lbs. on the square inch.
Ice evaporates at 32°, and the same quantity of ice was reduced,
when still, at about the rate of ^ lb. in an hour at 32° F. Air
at a higher temperature found its way into the case, and pro-
moted melting. When this experiment was tried in a room at
54° F. with the same apparatus without any outer case, the fric-
tion of the ice in motion, at the above pressure, increased the
production of water 3I times above the rate observed when the
ice was still and exposed to a temperature of 54° F. The amount
of heat evolved was nearly as much as in oak moving upon oak
well lubricated, and the coefficient of friction was between OT
and 0'2. Glacier motion is impossible without a continual
supply of water to lubricate the bottom. No doubt the action of
denudation by glaciers produces heat to a small extent. The
water obtained by melting the surface of the glacier by the sun's
heat in the glacial period could not be sufficient alone. The
position of deep lakes in all parts of the world in immediate
connection with mountains, and never in places away from
mountains, shows that lakes are integral parts of mountains ;
and, in fact, lakes are deepest exactly where the glaciers, once
covering the mountains, were in a position to act as lake exca-
vators. There can be no doubt ;nat all deep lakes in the world,
including those in Central Africa, below the Equator, are purely
of glacial origin, and that the cold in the glacial period was
nearly equally intense in the southern and northern hemispheres.
The surface-ice would move much faster than the bottom ice,
and the side-ice than the surface- ice, and therefore fractures
would be continually occurring through all parts. The water
produced by this great friction of ice upon ice would fail
through the fissures to the bottom. He had pointed out that a
glacier moved twice as fast when it was eight times as thick, and
the influence of weight on motion must be considered a most
important element. The present temperature of a thin glacier
was found by Agassiz, from observation, to be one-third of
a degree below freezing ; but Mr. Tylor assumed that in such a
lake-glacier as he had drawn, and supposed to exist in the glacial
period, the temperature might be assumed to be very much
below freezing, the greater cold arising from immense evapo-
ration and other causes, lie therefore concluded that the water
produced by friction of ice upon ice falling to the bottom of the
lake glacier through fissures would rapidly freeze, and thus
expanding one tenth, would impel the glacier (shod or armed
with blocks of stone and sand at the bottom) up a gradient of
I in 20, excavating the Swiss and other lakes thirty or forty
miles long, and i,2(X3 feet deep, in this manner. Mr. Tylor
calculated that with half the work per annum of mean lake-
excavation the lake of Zurich could be excavated in 15,000
years. Prof. Ramsay had pointed uut, from geological evi-
dence, that such lakes have been excavated by ice, but he dd
not indicate how this was mechanically possible (see Quarterly
Journal, 1862). Mr. Tylor referred again to his experiment
when the pressure was only 2 lbs. on the inch. In a large glaciei

40

NATURE

\_May 13, 1875

such as that described by Dr. Hooker in the Himalayan range,
where the mean gradient of the surface was 40° to 50° and the
actual fall was 14,000 feet in five or six miles, Dr. Hooker
found great lakes attendant upon the mountains. Supposing the
ice was a mile thick, the pressure would be half a ton on the
inch, in the Himalayas at least, and the production of water by
friction of ice upon ice enormous. Friction is dependent upon
pressure and distance moved, and independent of velocity of
motion.

Anthropological Institute, April 27. — Col. A.' Lane-Fox,
president, in the chair. — Mr. Francis Galton, F.R.S., contributed
a note on the height and weight of boys aged fourteen, in town
and country schools. The principal results showed the compara-
tive heights and weights of those boys who were fourteen on
their last birthday, in two groups of public schools, the one
group of country schools and the other of town schools. It
appeared that boys of fourteen in the country group were about
I \ inches taller and 7 lbs. heavier than those in the town group,
and that the difference of height was due in about equal degrees
to retardation and to total suppression of growth ; and that the
distribution of heights in both cases conformed well to the results
of the " Law of Error."— Rev. Joseph Mullens, D.D., read a
paper on the origin and progress of the people of Madagascar.
The Malagasy appeared to be a single race. No tribe is to be
found secluded in any corner or in the hill districts different from
the people of the plains or open provinces such as is met with in
India, in Sumatra, and in Borneo ; nor is any portion of the people
specially degraded. The Malagasy are divided into fV.rcc^ t ibes —
the Betsimisarakas, the Sacalavas, and the Hova>;. the latter
largely predominating in numbers and influence. With regard
to the origin of the people, the author rejected the theory of
Crawfurd and others, who argued for their African descent.
Their language and tribal customs suggested a very different
origin. There could hardly be any doubt that the Malay entered
largely into the composition of the grammar and vocabulary,
and continued researches into the Malay and Malagasy languages
gave more and more evidence of their resemblances. The con-
clusion was that the Malagasy are' a Malay people, following
Malay customs, some of them possessing Malay eyes, hair, and
features, and speaking a Malay tongue at the present time.
They were an intelligent people, orderly, were well governed,
and were daily improving, and the author of the paper could see
the promise of a great and useful future for them.— Mr. J. J.
Monteiro read a paper on the Quissama tribe of Angola, which
he had written with the object of correcting some erroneous
statements concerning them that had been formerly brought
before the Institute,

Cambridge

Philosophical Society, March 8. — The following com-
munications were made by Mr. W. T. Kingsley :— (i) On the
cause of the "wolf" ia the violoncello; (2) A description of
the instruments used in sounding some of the lakes in the
Snowdon district, and an account of the results obtained. Mr.
Kingsley said that the " wolf" occurs somewhere about the low
E or E flat, and was attributed to the finger-board having the
same pitch, so that the finger-board becomes as it were a portion
of the string stopped down on it and vibrates with it : if this is
the true cause, the "wolf" cannot be got rid of, but may be
placed at such a pitch between E and E flat as to occur on a
note rarely used ; also by thickening the neck of the finger-
board, the extent of discursion in the vibration may be made
less. — The Master of St, Catharine's College remarked that a
different explanation of the phenomenon was given by M. Savart,
which was to this effect. The old Italian makers constructed
the violoncello of such dimensions that the mass of air included
within the instrument resonates to a note making 85*33 vibra-
tions in a second, a number which then represented the lowest
r on the C string, but which now, owing to the rise of pitch
since the beginning of the eighteenth century, nearly represents
the note E immediately below it. Savart's theory was that notes
half a tone above or below this E will cause beats between the
vibrations of the string and those of the mass of included air.
It seemed quite possible that the mass of air contained in the
instrument should be capable of controlling the vibrations of the
whole instrument, but not that the vibrations of the finger-
board alone (as Mr. Kingsley suggested) could do this. For the
sound, technically called the "wolf," is an actual check to the
whole vibration of the violoncello, producing not merely beats,
but a baying sound, destitute of the freedom of vibration which

characterises other notes. But a' great objection to the above
explanation is this experiment. On an Italian instrument, the
upper D on the fourth or lowest string is the imperfect note.
But when the same note is elicited from the third string, the
note is perfectly resonant. This peculiar effect seems then to
depend upon the point of the finger-board which is pressed. It
is also well known that the " wolf" can be modified by an alte-
ration of the position of the sound-post. As an explanation,
we may conceive that the whole framework of the violoncello
vibrates like a stretched string, producing its fundamental, with
a series of overtones, and that a nodal line passes through the
point of the finger-board, pressure upon which produces the
"wolf," and that thus, all vibrations being destroyed except those
which have a node at the point of pressvfre, this peculiar tone is
elicited. — Mr. Kingsley then gave a description of the plummet,
registering apparatus, and protractors used by him in sounding
several of the deep lakes in the Snowdon district last June. The
plummet is a modification of the deep-sea plummet now gene-
rally used, the principal alteration being in the application of a
heavy gouge to aid in bringing up specimens of the bottom.
The recording apparatus is a modification of the paying-out appa-
ratus used for laying deep-sea telegraph cables. The protractors
are diagonal telescopes mounted on bars revolving on vertical
axes, and having fiducial edges radiating from the centres of the
axes. One protractor is placed at each extremity of the base
on a horizontal table, on which is strained a sheet of draw-
ing paper ; the telescopes are first coUimated with each
other, and then a line is drawn by the fiducial edges on
each sheet of paper ; the boat with the sounding apparatus is
followed by the two observers at the protractors, and when a
signal is given, a line is ruled and numbered by each observer ;
finally, the two papers are placed so as to have the lines of coUi-
mation in coincidence and the centres at the scale distances
apart ; then by looking through the papers and pricking the
intersections of the corresponding lines, the positions of the boat
are laid down on two maps. In practice this is all done easily,
and no particular skill is needed in the observers with the pro-
tractors. The results obtained showed that the bottoms of these
lakes are comparatively flat, the greatest depths being reached
at a short distance from the shore on the cross section, and
occurring also nearer to the upper end of the lake than to the
lower : the forms of the bottoms correspond in a remarkable
manner with the set that would be given to glaciers descending
into the hollows in which the lakes lie ; and Mr, Kingsley
believed them to have been formed by the action of glaciers
during the extreme cold or penultimate glacier epoch ; because
in one case, that of Llyn Cawlyd, the Jake lies almost on a
watershed, where no glacier could now form, but which was a
depression forming a lateral outflow from the great glacier that
at one time filled the whole hollow between tne Glydyns and
Carnedds ; during the last glacier epoch most of these hollows
were again filled with ice to a great height, but these last glaciers
were comparatively small. Mr. Kingsley especially (iui. it upon
the difficulty of disentangling the scattered mor.unc from the
dril't, and also of distinguishing between the striations belonging
to the two cold epochs.

CONTENTS Page

Lord Hartismere's Vivisection Bill 21

Geikih's " Life of Murchison," II 21

Marsden's Numismata Orientalia 24

Our booK Shelf : —

The Paris Arboretum 25

Letters to the Editor : —

Prof. Willis's Mechanical Models.— John Willis Clark ; W. H.

Besant 25

Ants and Bees. — Josiah Emerv 25

Flowering of the Hazel. — Dr. Hermann Muller 26

Variable (?) Star in Sextans. — J. E. Gore a6

Equilibrium in Gases. — Joseph John Murphy 26

Curious Phenomenon of Light. — Wm. M'Laurin 26

Destruction of Flowers by tiirds. — R. A. Prvor 26

Our Astronomical Column : —

Orbits of Binary Stars 26

'1 he Star Lalande 19662 (Sextans) 27

The Star 61 Geminorum 27

Cometary Astronomy 27

Lectures at the Zoological Gardens, III.: Mr. Garrod on the

Deer Tribe 27

The Irom AND Steel Institute 2«

The Progress of the Thlegrai'h, V. {.With Illusirations) .... 30

Recent French Mathematical Publications 32

Motes 32

Natural History of Kerguelen's Island. By Rev. E. A. Eaton 35

Scientific Serials 37

Societies and Academies 37

NATURE

THURSDAY, MAY 20, 1875

THE UNSEEN UNIVERSE

The Unseen Universe j or, Physical Speculaiions on a

Fuiure State. (London : Macmillan and Co., 1875.)

THIS book, which rumour attributes to a co-partnery
of two distinguished physicists, will at least serve
to prove one thing, that scientific men are not necessarily
unbelievers, and that some scientific men accept frankly
and fully the whole of what is generally understood as
the scheme of Trinitarian Christianity, and find in it the
most adequate expression of their own physical specu-
lations. Whether their readers agree with or differ from
the authors, they cannot fail to recognise the extent of their
information and the freedom of their reasoning. There
is no attempt to make anything square with preconceived
theories, and although we doubt whether the writers
would have arrived at their conclusions without the
accepted scheme of orthodox Christianity to serve them
as a clue, it is equally clear that they rest them on what
they think adequate scientific evidence.

The preliminary chapter states the fact of the all
but universal belief in, or aspiration after, Immortality.
It admits that that doctrine is inconsistent with the
doctrine of continuity as generally understood and
as applied solely to the visible universe. It accepts
and explains the principle of continuity in the fullest
sense, and it attempts to reconcile it, as thus apprehended,
with the doctrine of immortality. Incidentally — out of
the apparent waste of energy in space, and on other
indications chiefly teleological— it constructs a hypothesis
of an invisible universe, perhaps developed out of
another invisible universe, and so on ad itifitiitum.
It is another consequence of the theory that our natural
bodies are probably accompanied by a sort of invisible
framework or spiritual body, and that the phosphorus
and other substances of which the natural body is
built up are not really identical with these elements in
their ordinary condition of inorganic atoms, but are some-
how transubstantiated by the co-existence, along with
the mere chemical substance or with its chemical pro-
perties, of this invisible, imponderable, immaterial, accom-
panying essence, which derives a kind of vis vivida from
a connection with the unseen universe. The passage
from the visible universe to the invisible seems to be made
intelligible to the authors by the existence of the ether, a
substance into which energy is continually being passed,
and into which it is perpetually, and, so far as any obvious
or sensible effect is concerned, finally, absorbed.

As a first postulate the authors assume the existence of
a Creator. Finite beings, creatures, are conditioned by
the laws of the universe, and it is in these conditions that
we must seek to discover its nature. The first pair of
subjects for human thought are matter and mind, and the
materialists tell us, that whereas mind or mental activity
never exists without being associated with some forms of
matter, we may perfectly conceive matter, as for instance
a block of wood or a bar of iron, existing without intelli-
gence. Is mind then the dependant— is there nothing in
matter which serves as the vehicle of intelligence different
from all other matter ? The authors answer that we have
Vol. XII. — No. 290

no right to assume that the brain consists of particles of
phosphorus or carbon such as we know these substances
chemically, that we cannot say that there may not be
something superadded to their chemical and physical
qualities. They dwell upon another fact — the fact that
individual consciousness returns after sleep or trance ; a
fact inferring some continuous existence. The assump-
tions of the materialist are less inevitable than he supposes.
Turning to mind, finite conditioned intelligence, the
authors ask, what is essential to it ? It must have some
organ by which it can have a hold upon the past, and
such a frame and such a universe as supply the means of
activity in the present. Outside they find physical laws,
and they look on the principle of continuity as something
like a physical axiom. By this principle we are compelled
to believe that the Supreme Governor of the Universe
will not put us to permanent intellectual confusion. It is
in the nature of man, certainly in the nature of scientific
man, to carry the explanation of everything back ad
infinitum, and to refuse perpetually to grant what is per-
petually demanded of him, that he has arrived at the
inexplicable and unconditioned. On this principle scien-
tific men have supposed themselves to prove that the
physical universe must one day become mere dead matter.
The authors consider that this is a monstrous supposition,
although they grant that the visible, or by-sense-perceiv-
able universe, must in transformable energy, and probably
in matter, come to an end. They think that the principle
of continuity itself demands a continuance of the universe,
and they are driven to believe in something beyond that
which is visible as the only means of explaining how this
system of things can endure in the future, or can have
endured for ever in the past. They see a visible universe,
finite in extent and finite in duration, beyond which, o
both sides stretching infinitely forward and infinitely
backward, there is an invisible, its forerunner and its
continuation. It is natural to infer that these two invisi-
bles must meet across the existing finite visible universe.
As we are driven to admit the invisible in the past and in
the future, there must be an invisible framework of things
accompanying us in the present.

What then is this present visible universe ; and can we
point to sure signs of this invisible substance which
accompanies what may prove after all to be the mere
shadow of things ? Matter has two qualities. The first is
that it is indestructible ; the second, that the senses of
all men alike point to the same quantity, quality, and col-
location of it. Our practical working certainty of ihe
existence of matter means (i) that it offers resistance to
our imagination and our will ; and (2) that it offers abso-
lute resistance to all attempts to change its quantity.
Certain other things — notably energy — are in the same
sense conserved, and if we recognise the transmutability
of energy of motion into energy of position, we may say
that energy is equally indestructible with matter itself.
But energy is undergoing a perpetual self-degradation.
All other forms of energy are slowly passing into invisible
heat motions, and when the heat of the universe has
ultimately been equalised, as it must be, all possibility of
physical action or of work will have departed. Mecha-
nical effort cannot longer be obtained from it. The per-
fect heat-engine only converts a portion of the heat into
work ; the rest is lost for ever as an available source of

42

NATURE

{May 20, 1875

work. There is indeed a sort of wild and far-off possi-
bility by which a little more work might be got out of a
uniform temperature universe, if we could suppose Clerk-
Maxwell's demons — "mere guidance applied by human
intelligence"— occupied in separating those particles of a
heated gas which are moving faster than the average
from those which are moving slower. But this is but a
broken reed to trust, and it would at the best avail us
little. What must happen in the existing physical system
would be this : the earth, the planets, the sun, the
stars, are gradually coohng ; but infinitely numerous cata-
strophes by which the enormous existing store of energy
of position may be drawn upon, may over and over again
restore unequal temperature. The fall together, from the
distance of Sirius, of the sun and another equal sun would
supply the former with at least thirty times as much
energy as can have been obtained by the condensation of
his materials out of a practically infinite nebulous mass of
stones or dust. But these catastrophes can only delay the
inevitable. If the existing physical universe be finite— and
the authors never seem to realise the speculative possi-
bility that it may not be so — the end must come, unless
there be an invisible universe to supplement and con-
tinue it.

What is the ultimate nature of matter, and especially
of the ether, which is the vehicle of all the energy we
receive from the sun ? There have been four theories,
for each of which something may be said. There is the
Lucretian theory of an original, indivisible, infinitely hard
atom, "strong in solid singleness;" Boscovich's theory
that the atom or unit is a mere centre of force ; the
theory that matter, instead of being atomic, is infinitely
divisible, practically continuous, intensely heteroge-
neous ; and, finally, the theory of the vortex atom, a
thing not infinitely hard and therefore indivisible, but infi-
nitely mobile, so that it| escapes all force which makes
effort to divide it. What we call matter may thus consist
of the rotating portions of a perfect fluid, which con-
tinuously fills space. Should this fluid exist, there must
be a creative act for the destruction or production of the
smallest portion of matter. Whichever of these theories
we adopt, we must explain the simplest affection of
matter— that by which it attracts other matter. There
seems little possibility of doing so. The most plausible
explanation is in Le Sage's assumption of ultramundane
corpuscles^ infinite in number, excessively small in size,
flying about with enormous velocities in all directions.
These particles must move with perfect freedom among
the particles of ordinary matter, andif they do so we can
understand how, through the existence of the ultramun-
dane particles, two mundane particles attract inversely as
the square of the distance. On this theory the energy of
position is only the energy of motion of ultramundane
and invisible particles— and a bridge is built between the
seen and the unseen. These ultramundane particles are
something far more completely removed from all possi-
bility of sensible qualities than the ether which Sir
William Thomson has attempted to weigh. Struve has
speculated upon the possibility that it is not infinitely
transparent to light, and his calculations, based on the
numbers of stars of each visible magnitude, lead him to
suppose that some portion of the light and energy from
' distant suns and planets may be 'absorbed in it. The

ether is thus a kind of adumbration or foretaste of the
invisible world. It may have certain of the properties of
that world which is perceived by sense, but it is probably
subject only to a few of the physical conditions of ordinary
matter.

Let us look once more at the substance of the universe.
We recognise that it is impossible to suppose any existing
state but as the'^'development of something pre-existing.
To suppose] creation, is to suppose the unconditioned.
Creation belongs to eternity,' and not to time. This
being so,' it is difficult'to believe in the vortex ring theory,
which regards the invisible universe as an absolutely
perfect fluid. With an imperfect fluid, the eternity of
visible matter which the vortex theory requires, disappears.
Such a visible universe would be as essentially ephemeral
as a smoke-ring — so that we may accept it as possible, if
not probable, that the visible universe may pass away —
that it may bury its dead out of its sight. In its present
state we have three forms of development — Chemical, or
Stuff Development, Globe Development, and Life Deve-
lopment. It is a question whether the ultimate atoms of
chemists are really ultimate ; whether some agent, like
great heat, for instance, could not split them up into various
groups of some primal substance like hydrogen. We
see the prospect of a similar simplicity in the development
of worlds on the theory of Kant and Laplace, which
makes the systems of the universe the result of the
gradual condensation of nebulous masses. In the end,
all the masses of the universe must fall together — in the
beginning there can have been no masses, everything
being nebulous and discrete, even if ordinary matter be
indestructible. The last state and the first state of the
visible universe are thus separated from each other by a
finite duration. A hke simplicity may be reached in the
development of life. Darwin has made it at least possible
that all hfe may issue from some primordial life-germ.
The complete refutation of the doctrine of abiogenesis —
the practical proof that life issues only from life — leaves
us still bound to account for that germ. There is no
doubt that species develop varieties which may ultimately
become distinct species, although there is little indication
that the varieties of what was once one species are ever
separated like species originally different, by a barrier of
mutual infertility. A sufficient length of time might
enable us to overcome this barrier. In all our develop-
ments— the substance development, the globe develop-
ment, the life development — we are thus brought, in the
end, to a something which we are not yet able to com-
prehend.

Turning from matter to the phenomena which affect
it, we notice one singular set of phenomena in which
things insignificant and obscure give rise to great lines
of events. A whole mass of water, the temperature
of which has been reduced below the freezing-point,
suddenly crystallises on the slightest starting motion ; a
whole series of tremendous meteorological phenomena,
such as hurricanes in the Indian Ocean, happen because
certain positions of Mercury and Venus affect the sun's
atmosphere, causing spots in his, and the condition of
the sun affects the earth. Like the complicated series
of effects which follow the pulling of the trigger of a gun,
the effects are utterly disproportionate to their causes.
Man is a machine of this unstable kind — some trivial

May 20, 1875]

NATURE

43

change affecting the matter of the brain is all that i
needed to set him in motion. May not other beings be
capable of touching what we may call the hair-triggers
of the universe ? Whatever these agencies are, angels
or ministering spirits, they certainly do not belong to
the present visible universe. The writers examine the
sacred records to confirm their speculations.

Thus, then, we have a visible and an invisible universe,
and we have processes of delicacy in the former which at
least suggest the action on it of agencies belonging to
the latter. Let us look at the first phenomenon of the
visible universe— the expenditure of energy in it. The
sun's energy is issuing in what is apparently waste space
just as it is issuing in that portion of space which is filled
by our earth. What becomes of the energy— probably
far more than half of that which proceeds from it— which
proceeds apparently nowhere, speeding on with the velo-
city of light ? Is it absorbed in the ether, and if so, what
does the ether do with it ? The writers suggest that the
ether may preserve for intelligent beings the record of
the past. But that seems scarcely sufficient use of the
energies spent on it ; the more so as the intelligent beings
existing in the visible universe will certainly come to an
end with it.

"We were led," say the authors, in a passage in
which their whole theory is perhaps summed up, " to
conclude that the visible system is not the whole uni-
verse, but only, it may be, a very small part of it ;
and that there must be an invisible order of things,
which will remain and possess energy when the pre-
sent system has passed away. Furthermore, we have
seen that an argument derived from the beginning rather
than the end of things assures us that the invisible uni-
verse existed before the visible one. From this we con-
clude that the invisible universe exists now, and this
conclusion will be strengthened when we come to discuss
the nature of the invisible universe, and to see that it
cannot possibly have been changed into the present, but
must exist independently now. It is, moreover, very
closelv connected with the present system, inasmuch as
this may be looked upon as having come into being through
its means.

" Thus we are led to believe that there exists now an
invisible order of things intimately connected with the
present, and capable of acting energetically upon it — for,
in truth, the energy of the present system is to be looked
upon as originally derived from the invisible universe.

" Now, is it not natural to imagine that a universe of
this nature, which we have reason to think exists, and is
connected by bonds of energy with the visible universe, is
also capable of receiving energy from it ? Whether is it
more likely that by far the larger portion of the high-class
energy of the present universe is travelling outwards into
space with an immense velocity, or that it is gradually
transferred into an invisible order of things ? May we
not regard ether or the medium as not merely a bridge
between one portion of the visible universe and another,
but also as a bridge between one order of things and
another, forming as it were a species of cement, in virtue
of which the various orders of the universe are welded
together and made into one ? In fine, what we generally
call ether may be not a mere medium, but a medium //«j
the invisible order of things, so that when the motions of
the visible universe are transferred into ether, part of
them are conveyed as by a bridge into the invisible uni-
verse, and are there made use of or stored up. Nay, is it
even necessary to retain the conception of a bridge?
May we not at once say that when energy is carried from
matter into ether it is carried from the visible into the
invisible ; and that when it is carried from ether to matter
it is carried from the invisible into the visible

" If we now turn to thought, we find that, inasmuch as
it affects the substance of the present visible universe, it
produces a material organ of memory. But the motions
which accompany thought will also affect the invisible
order of things, and thus it follows, that * Thought con-
ceived to affect the matter of another universe simultane-
ously with this may explain afttture state ' (see Anagram,
Nature, Oct. 15, 1874)."

Our notice has already extended so far that we shall not
follow the authors into their examination of the Scrip-
tures, and of certain Christian hymns in which the senti-
ments and feelings of the Christian world seem to them to
be embalmed. We notice only two of the objections to
their system, which they themselves state, and seem to
us to fail to refute. It is said that " if energy is trans-
ferred from the visible into the invisible universe, its
constancy in the present universe can no longer be main-
tained." The answer is, that this visible universe is not
the whole universe, and that the conservation of energy
principle is applicable only to the whole universe, visible
and invisible together, except under special limitations.
The retort is obvious, that in this sense, and except when
these special limitations specially and finally remove the
difficulty, the principle becomes unintelligible and useless.
It is a mere theological dogma to say that what energy
perishes in the visible passes into the invisible universe ;
and the dogma is worthless as a physical principle on
which to build any physical reasoning. The other objec-
tion is, that the dissipation of energy must go on even in
this invisible universe, and the new assumption only
delays the inevitable end of all things. The answer
made is, that the universe may be regarded as an infinite
whole. We have no objection, but the same may be said
of the visible universe, and the moment that it is so
regarded the arguments on which its end and its be-
ginning are inferred seem to vanish into air. An infinite
universe will have an infinite store of energy, and there is
no need to suppose that its store is ever exhausted, or
that in any finite time it has become practically degraded
and unavailable. The whole elaborate machinery of the
invisible universe (p. 171), piled one on the top of the
other, seems to us to fall like a house of cards, if we can
accept the eternal duration of an infinite by- sense-per-
ceptible universe.

The book is written in a simple and persuasive style, with
a transparent simplicity and purity of purpose. Once or
twice there is an outburst of irrepressible energy, like that
on pp. 106 and 107, about wife-beaters, who are to be
subjected "by an enlightened Legislature to absolutely
indescribable torture, unaccompanied by wound or even
bruise, thrilling through every fibre of the frame of such
miscreants," But these outbursts are transient, and they
relieve the strain on the reader's attention.

THE TIDES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN
Az Arapdly Fiumei Obolben {The Tides in the Roadstead
of Fiume). Prize Essay, published by the Royal Philo-
sophical Society of Hungary. By E. Stahlberger, Pro-
fessor in the Imperial Royal Marine Academy. (Buda-
Pesth, 1874, 4to., pp. 109, with plates and copious
tables.)

FEW points in physical geography have had more
interest for scientific men than the tides of the
Mediterranean. Connected with the Atlantic only by a

44

NATURE

\May 20, 1875

strait of a few miles in width, this inland sheet of water
is so effectually shut off from the general tidal move-
ments of the main ocean, that it has often been called a
" tideless sea." But this is not correct ; for, having an
extent of surface of some 700,000 or 800,000 square miles,
it is sufficiently large to be itself specially affected by the
attraction of the sun and moon, and thus it possesses a
true, although small, tide of its own.

The daily variations in the level of the water have of
course been always patent to the dwellers on the Medi-
terranean coasts ; and, no doubt, careful observers must
have remarked a periodicity in the recurrence of such
variations, identifying them to a certain extent with the
ocean tides. But from the small amount of the true
periodical rise and fall, and from the large influence of
accidental causes, the phenomena have been so irregular
as to present great difficulties in their analysis ; and, so
far as we know, there has not been, down to the appear-
ance of the present work, any systematic investigation of
the subject put on record.

The present publication has arisen from a prize of 200/,
having been offered in 1872 by the Royal Hungarian
Society (from funds furnished by Government) for scien-
tific labours bearing on the physical or meteorological
conditions of the kingdom of Hungary.

Fiume is a town of some importance, lying on what is
called the Hungarian littorale, washed by the waters of
the Gulf of Quarnero, an irrregular-shaped recess in the
extreme north-eastern part of the Adriatic. The Govern-
ment of Hungary, desirous to promote the maritime inte-
rests attached to their little seaport, have established
there a Marine Academy, and M. Stahlberger, one of the
professors in that institution, had had occasion to make
and register observations on the rise and fall of the
water in the neighbouring roadstead. Conceiving that
by studious labour the phenomena he had recorded might
be reduced to something like rule and order, he under-
took the elaborate theoretical discussion of them, and
the Society, appreciating the value of the work, has not
only awarded him the prize for it, but has published it,
in full detail, for the benefit of science in general.

The author was led to this investigation by the double
object of obtaining accurate information, first, as to the
general phenomena of the tides in the Adriatic, or rather
in the Mediterranean generally ; and secondly, as to the
peculiarities in these phenomena induced by local influ-
ences in the neighbourhood of the port of Fiume.

He remarks, in regard to the first point, that the semi-
mensual irregularity which it is customary to deduce from
observations, in order to predict the times of high and low
water, is altogether different in the Adriatic from what
obtains in regard to the ocean generally; and yet the
causes of this difference have never yet been explained.

In regard to the second point, he refers to notices that
had appeared of remarkable irregularities in the Fiume
tides, which rendered further investigation very desirable.
It had been perceived, that instead of the usual six hours'
alternating ebb and flow, there was frequently only one
high and one low water in the day ; and, moreover, that
the time of the lowest water advanced on the average two
hours every month, or twenty-four hours in a year.

These strange phenomena had attracted attention, and
in 1868 the Adria Commission of the Imperial Academy

of Sciences at Vienna established a self-registering tide-
gauge at Fiume, the control of which was entrusted to
M. Stahlberger. The present essay contains the results
of three years' observations, which are fully and scientifi-
cally discussed by him.

The tide-gauge was on a plan that has often been used
in this country. It consisted of a float, which by means of
connecting machinery and a pencil made a mark on a
sheet of paper stretched on a drum. The drum being
moved uniformly by clockwork so as to make one revolu-
tion in twenty-four hours,' the height of the tide at any
time of the day could be deduced by simple measurement
from the curve produced on the paper. The same paper
was used for three days' observations, the curves being
distinguished from each other by different coloured
pencils being attached at the beginning of each day.

The author appears to have gone to work in his investi-
gation in a thoroughly philosophical way. He has first
collected a very large number of facts, as shown by the
records of his gauge ; he has then tabulated them with
great carejand ingenuity, classifyingj^them with special
reference to the nature of the influences known to be in
operation, such as the positions of the heavenly bodies,
the direction and force of the wind, the state of the baro-
meter, and so on ; and finally, working on the records
thus arranged, he has, by applying scientific calculations
of a high order, been able to a large extent to simplify
the complicated questions involved, and to throw much
light on their explanation.

To facilitate the investigation, he divides the tidal
phenomena into two classes : namely, in the first place,
periodical motions of the water produced by cosmical
causes ; and secondly, non-periodical motions produced
by the influence of meteorological or local agencies. He
then discusses each of these two divisions at considerable
length.

As to the periodical motions, he found that in calm
weather, and even to a less extent at unsettled times, the
figures drawn by the gauge showed unmistakable signs
of periodicity ; but the appearances were of two kinds :
sometimes they showed two well-defiued maxima and
minima, six hours apart ; at other times there was only
a single maximum and minimum, sharply defined, these
two types melting into each other with all gradations.

These regular forms were clearly to be referred to the
periodical motions of the heavenly bodies, and the author,
having carefully collected and arranged the facts, enters
into a long and full theoretical discussion of their causes,
according to the principles laid down by Newton and
Laplace.

We cannot pretend to give any details of the laborious
mathematical calculations which follow : it must suffice to
extract the author's brief summaryof his results on this
head. He says that the periodical movements of the
sea in the Gulf of Fiume depend in the first place on
four simple oscillations, two of the sun and two of the
moon ; and secondly, on four other simple vibrations,
two due to each body, which are reckoned in sidereal
time, but which have only a slight effect, and may be
neglected in computation.

If 8,„ and S^ represent the declinations of the moon and
sun respectively, p^ and p their distances (expressed in terms
of their respective mean distances), /„ and /^ the numb

May 20, 1875]

NATURE

45

of lunar or solar hours (Mondbeziehungsweise Sonnen-
stunden) which have elapsed since the last upper culmi-
nation of either body respectively ; then the theoretical
elevation or depression of the sea in the Gulf of Fiume
due to these causes for any given time is found in milli-
metres by the expression :—
.. cos*5.

+ 272-4 ^-s cos

3 COS I (/„ - 8-49)
COS "S^

cos-^(/.

;-57)

+ 130-4

-s COS — (4
12

4-46)

_^(/„- 4-60) + 60-3

sin^25,
p.

This is the" theoretical amount, not allowing for any
local retardation, or any'irfluence of the weather.

The author has calculated this for a great variety of
conditions of the variable quantities, and compared them
with the results of observations, and the comparisons
have always been satisfactory.

He gives comparative pairs of curves, one drawn by the
tide-gauge, the other calculated by the formula, and the
striking resemblance is at once appreciable by the eye-
The coincidence would be still nearer if the influence of
the small sidereal-time variations were added.

The mean amplitudes of the four chief oscillations are
as follows : —

Millimetres.
. 103-2

55*
• 130-5
62-4

For the oscillation of twelve lunar hours

For that of twelve solar hours

For that of twenty- four lunar hours
For that of twenty-four solar hours

The maximum amplitudes are : —

For the oscillation of twelve lunar hours ... 1 32 8

For that of twelve solar hours 6o'9

For that of twenty-four lunar houis 272*2

For that of twenty-four solar hours ioo'2

The author shows how the variable combinations of
these several elements determine and account for the
peculiar phenomena observed, and he explains in what
particulars the circumstances at Fiume would appear to
differ from those in other places, and to give rise to
special phenomena peculiar to that locality.

He further devotes particular attention to the explana-
tion of the singular daily retardation, which he states has
also been noticed by M. Aimd on the coast of Algeria,
although it had been erroneously ascribed by him to the
effect of the wind. The real cause he shows to be the
oscillations depending on sidereal time.

The non-periodical motions of the water are caused
chiefly by variations in the direction and force of the wind,
and in the barometer-pressure. The temperature of the sea
rain, and storms, may have also some influence, but too
slight to require investigation.

The author therefore confines his attention to the wind
and the pressure of the air. In regard to the former,
looking at the form and position of the Gulf of Quarnero,
it is evident that southerly winds will force the water into
the cul-de-sac towards Fiume, and so will raise the
level, while northerly winds will tend to drive the water
out of the gulf, and £0 lower the surface.

In regard to the barometer-pressure, it is pointed out
that if the weight of the atmosphere at any given part of
the sea differs from that at another part some distance
away, there must be a corresponding difference in the
level of the water ; [and this ^difference will be propor-

tional to the specific gravities of the two fluids :— thus a
difference in the barometer of one inch of mercury will
cause a difference of level of about 13^ inches in the
water.

The effects of these two influences are involved in
various complications, but they are sufficiently proved by
the records, and their amount is shown to be consider-
able.

The following facts shown in the records will give some
general idea of the extent of the Mediterranean tides ; we
believe they are pretty much the same in all parts of the
sea.

The highest water level known was on" Dec. 26, 1870,
being 0-870 metres above a certain datum point ; the
lowest was on Jan. 1 1, 1869, being 0-482 metres below the
same point. Hence the greatest difference of level
experienced was 1-352 metres, or>bout 4^ English feet.

The average daily variation of level was 0*583 metres,
or nearly two feet English ; the greatest daily variation
was 0-825, and the least 0-259 metres.

The mean daily variation of level is the same, what-
ever be the absolute general level of the water; as is
natural, seeing that the latter is influenced by local cir-
cumstances that have no effect on the attractions of the
sun and moon.

The mean high and mean low water stand at equal
distances above and below the average mean level.

The author modestly expresses the opinion that his
own three years' observations are of too limited extent to
determine fully the values of all the influences which affect
the tides, and he recommends that before the investigation
is carried further, accurate observations should be made
at other points of the Adriatic Sea, in order that, by a
combination of such data, the distinction between normal
and exceptional phenomena may be more positively
defined. No doubt such an extended inquiry would give
results of great value to physical science, and M, Stahl-
berger's excellent example is not unlikely to stimulate
others to co-operate in such an undertaking.

The book is well got up. It is written in the national
language, but there is also given a translation into Ger-
man, and the data, in the form of tables, are so full and
complete as to enable anyone to verify, by his own
examination, the conclusions anived at by the author.

OUR BOOK SHELF

Cambridgeshire Geology j a Sketch for the use of Students.
By T. G. Bonney, F.G.S., Tutor and Lecturer in
Natural Science, St. John's College. Cambridge :
Deighton, Bell, and Co., 1875.)
Mr. Bonnev's short sketch of the geology of the neigh-
bourhood of Cambridge will be a useful handbook to
those students who wish to become practically acquainted
with the geological features of the country round their
temporary home. It makes no pretensions to be an
exhaustive description, and happily is not written in a
style suitable for cramming, but simply draws the atten-
tion of the careful reader to all the interesting points in
connection with the geology of the district, and notices
the various contributions to fact or theory made by pre-
vious writers, embodying many of Mr. Bonney's own
observations. The first deposits described are the Oxford
clay of St. Ives and the Elsworth rock, the true position
of which latter is discussed : and then follows a notice of

46

NATURE

\May 20, 1875

the coral reef at Upware, and the Kimmeridge clay at Ely,
We have next a discussion of the coprolite and associated
beds at Potton and Upware, which Mr. Bonney considers
Upper Neocomian,and hethinks most of the fossils derived.
After a short notice of the Gault comes a full discussion
of the interesting questions connected with the so-called
Upper Greensand. An admirable outline of its palaeon-
tology is first given, and the origin of its phosphatic
nodules is then concluded to be analogous to that of flint,
or what is here called concretionary action. With regard
to its age, Mr. Bonney follows Mr. Jukes-Browne in con-
sidering it homotaxial with the chloritic marl, and a large
part of its fossils derived from the Upper Gault. The
chalk is dismissed with a very short notice, and an
account of the Post Pliocene deposits concludes the
sketch. These deposits are described under six divisions,
the lowest being the true Boulder Clay. The most in-
teresting of these is the " Fine Gravel of the Plains,"
which has yielded so many mammalian remains. Five
appendices follow : on Upware sections, the Ely pit, the
Hunstanton red rock, the water supply, and building
stones of Cambridge. The second of these might well have
been omitted, for though it refers to an interesting case of
a large chalk boulder, we are no\Y sufficiently familiar
with such instances of huge transported rocks to make it
waste of time to discuss imaginary systems of impossible
faults to account for its presence in some other way.

'Journey across the Western Interior of Australia. By
Col. Peter Egerton Warburton, C.M.G. With an In-
troduction and Additions by Charles H. Eden. Edited
by H. W. Bates. With Illustrations and a Map.
(London : Sampson Low and Co., 1875.)

Col. Warburton well deserves any honours which he
may have received ; for the sake of increasing knowledge
he has performed as bold a feat of travel as is on record.
With his son, Mr. J. W. Lewis, two Afghan camel-drivers,
and two natives, he set out on April 15, 1873, from Alice
Springs, in E. long. 133° 53' 14", S. lat. 23° 40', about
1,120 miles north from Adelaide, and travelled right across
the centre of the Australian continent, reaching the
western side in January 1874. Col. Warburton's narrative
in the book before us consists of the record which he kept
day by day of his progress. The party had sixteen camels,
and were provisioned for six months. Experience has
shown that to explore Central Australia camels alone are
of any use, horses being totally unable to bear up against
the universal scarcity of water, and the bristling spinifex
stalks which cover the ground almost everywhere, and
which cut their legs to pieces. Col. Warburton's journal,
not long after the start, becomes a painful record of a
daily hunt after water, a hunt which was often unsuccess-
ful. During the greater part of the journey man and
beast were in a chronic state of parching thirst. The
country crossed over is as arid and desolate a wilderness
as can well be conceived, consisting mainly of low sandy
hills covered almost everywhere with the above-mentioned
spinifex, occasionally varied by a salt marsh, a few hills,
and rarely a few trees. Indeed, the whole country from
121° to 131° E. long, is one great sandy desert. Bustards,
one or two species of pigeons, owls, rats, a small species
of kangaroo, swarms of torturing flies and ants, were
met with, the last-mentioned with painful frequency.
Natives were also seen, and they proved perfectly harm-
less and generally shy, and some of them Col. Warburton
describes as handsome and well made.

The general method of procuring water was to scoop
out wells in the sand, and it was only at long intervals
that suitable places occurred. The food supplies of the
party were very soon exhausted, and they had for the
greater part of the journey to live on roots, an occa-
sional " wallaby " (small species of kangaroo), and on the
camels which they were compelled to kill. Of the four-
teen camels, only two reached the journey's end, some

having been lost, some left behind as unable to move, and
seven killed for food. The flesh of the latter seems to
have t een as tough and devoid of nourishment as leather,
and by the time the party reached the welcome river
Oakover they were all nearly on the point of starvation ;
latterly. Col. Warburton himself had to be tied on his
camel's back. On reaching the Oakover, some of the
party pushed on to the settlement for relief, which at last
came, and Col. Warburton met with an enthusiastic
reception everywhere from Roeburne to Perth and on to
Adelaide. He has made a valuable contribution to our
knowledge of Central Australia, and as the spirit of ex-
ploration seems to be thoroughly aroused in the colony,
we may hope soon to have its geography at last filled up.
The difficulties and dangers of Australian exploration are
well known, and by forethought and organisation no
doubt they might be successfully met. It seems doubtful
whether any economic use can ever be made of the arid
wastes of Central Australia, but a thorough knowledge of
its natural history and geology would be of high value
from a scientific point of view. All the expenses of Col.
Warburton's journey, we should say, were generously
borne by the Hon. T. Eden and Mr. W. W. Hughes,
public-spirited Australian colonists.

The introduction occupies about one-half of this
volume, and consists of a carefully compiled and most
interesting r^sum^ of Australian exploration from Eyre's
daring journey in 1840 downwards ; it adds much to the
value of the work. Mr. Bates has discharged his edito-
rial duties satisfactorily. A good portrait of Col. War-
burton is prefixed, and the map gives one an excellent
idea of the route as well as of the nature of the country.
The other illustrations are rude but interesting. Alto-
gether the volume is a valuable contribution to the history
of Australian exploration.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[ The Editor does not hold himself responsible Jor opinions expressed
by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return,
or to correspond with the writers of, rejected nianuscrifts.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications,']

Acoustic Phenomenon

Perhaps the following description of a phenomenon in sound
which I have frequently observed may be of some interest to a
few of your readers : —

If an observer is placed a short way, say about eight yards,
in front of a straight palisaded fence made with deals of about
three inches in width and about six inches from centre to centre
apart, so as to leave intervening spaces of three inches, and then
gives a smart clap with his hands, or, what is better, with two
flat pieces of wood, a peculiar echo is heard almost at the same
instant.

The nature of the sound is neither that of a true musical note
nor of an inflection ; it appears to the ear to be somewhat inter-
mediate to those, inclining more at the beginning, when well
elicited, to a very high-pitched sound of the latter kind ; it slides
down until it becomes a distinctly audible musical sound at the
end, if the fence is 80 or 100 yards long ; with those dimen-
sions a moderately quick ear can easily recognise the pitch of the
final note to be near D on the fourth line of the treble clef.

The phenomenon is caused by each board of the fence giving
rise to a resonance ; those aerial impulses succeed each other at
constantly increasing intervals of time, and with such a degree
of rapidity as to constitute a continuous sound of the kind which
is here described. The vibrations will be seen, from the follow-
ing diagram, to be neither isochronous like those of a musical
sound, nor to vary in their periods in the same simple order as
those of an inflection which is produced by sliding the bridge of
a monochord while it is vibrating.

Let 0 be the position of the observer, and d-d^ d„ d^ Sec. the
boards of the fence.

Call the distance 0 d == D, and dd — S. Then by the common
rule for right-angled triangles the distances of each board from
the observer are respectively V2^ V-^* + 5*, V-^'' + 45",

May 20, 1875 1

NATURE

M

hJD'^ + 98- ; the reflected sounds which reach the observer will
travel double those distances.

D {D- + S=) (D- + 45-) &c., being integral quantities, and 5
positive, the series will be an increasing one ; hence the first
impulse which is heard is that produced by d, and the last one
that by r;'„.

Twice the difference between any term and that which imme-
diately precedes it will be the length of the sound-wave corre-
sponding to that term, and the velocity of sound per second,
divided by the wave-lengths, gives the relative pitches of the
different impulses.

The wave-lengths corresponding to dd^^ d.^ &c. are —
2(V/J-'-i-8-^ - D);2{ y/J^ f 45-^ - s.'n-'^ + 5-) ;

2( sjD'^ + 952 - »jn-' + 45-) &c, (i.)

And calling V the velocity of sound per second, we get the rela-
tive pitches —

^ , — .=£ =- &c

2( VZ)« + 8'-2 - £>)' 2{ s'U^ + 452 - VZ)2 + 52)

Now, if the observer removes close up to the fence, the distance
D becomes an indefinitely small quantity, or zero, and the
series (i) for the^ wave-lengths becomes 2 ^''8- ; 2(2 v'S- - \/5') ;
2(3 V'S'"- 2x/r); 2(4 v' 5^ - 3\/5'). &c., or 28, 28, 28, &c. ;
that is, the wave-lengths are all equal, and a musical sound is
heard. In practice, an ordinary fence does not yield a suffi-
ciently loud note to be easily heard in this case, but one made
with posts having intervening spaces of about five inches gives
a good result when one stands four or five feet from it, the note
comes out almost perfect. By taking different values for D we
have from series (i) a corresponding change of wave-lengths, so
that if a row of persons are placed from o to d, each will hear a
sound which is different in pitch from that heard by all the
others.

It is perhaps needful to state that the sound which has been
described is completely masked if there are houses or a wall a
few feet behind it, or if the place of observation is a road fenced
with palisades ©n both sides, two sounds are produced which
interfere and confuse each other,

Glasgow Andrew French

The Degeneracy of Man

The numbers of Nature for June and July last, which have
lately reached me (vol. x. pp. 146, 164, 204 and 205), contain a
correspondence on the subject of the degeneracy of man, in con-
nection with which I wish to contribute a few remarks.

I have nothing to say on the original point introduced by Mr.
E. B. Tylor. But, during my residence in the islands of the
Pacific, I have given some attention to the general question of
degradation or progression, as exhibited in the Polynesians.
The result is, that I believe there are numerous indications of
the degeneracy of these people from a higher social and intel-
lectual level than that which they at present occupy. I could
not give in detail, in this letter, the entire evidence on which
this opinion is based ; I will therefore briefly mention two or
three indications only of this degeneracy which I have noticed.

The language of the Polynesians furnishes one of these.
^Vhile there is much in it which shows a low moral tone, there
are, on the other hand, many refinements (a large proportion of
•which are known to most of the present generation) which I do
not believe could have been invented, or gradually developed,
by the r.ice in its present intellectual condition. Their old tra-

ditional stories, and their ancient poetry also, are so different
from anything the present Polynesians are capable of producing,
that I often think (your classical readers will please pardon the
comparison) the relative difference, between the past and present,
is a? great as that between the intellect of the Greeks, in the
period of the highest Attic culture, and those of the present
century. I have often asked men of more than average intelli-
gence, why their modern compositions are so inferior to many of
the old ones. They invariably reply that the men of old were
greater and wiser than those of the later generations.

The industrial and ornamental works of the Polynesians are
all, I believe, of ancient origin. Their houses, their canoes (with
one exception), their fine mats, the way in which they make their
bark cloth, and even the patterns wliich they print on it, are all
according to the traditional forms handed down from generation
to generation. There is no originality. Invention is unthought
of. Even now, when the influence of external civilisation is
brought to bear with considerable force upon them, they adopt
a new idea ver)', very slowly. If they had never been in a higher
and more active intellectual condition, I cannot conceive how
they could possibly have obtained the many comparatively
excellent customs, the — in many respects — elaborate language,
and the advanced social customs which were in their possession
when first they became known to the civil. sed world.

I am well aware that absolute proof of the degeneracy of the
Polynesians will not, by any means, render necessary the con-
elusion that degeneracy has been universal with the human race.
Advocates of the progressive theory do not deny that some
instances of degradation are to be found. In his "Primitive
Culture" (vol. i. p. 34) Mr. Tylor says : " Of course the pro-
gression-theory recognises degradation, and the degradation-
theory recognises progression, as powerful influences in the course
of culture." Hence I present the indications of degeneracy
above-mentioned as, at most, only a minute portion of the cumu-
lative evidence which must be adduced indisputably to prove the
degradation-theory of general application to the human race.

Apropos of this question I may add, that I often think much
of the difference between (at least the more moderate) progres-
sionists and degradationists is owing to the want of a clear
definition of the term civilisalioii as used on either side. One
appears to me to think chiefly of a material civilisation, while
the other thinks mainly of a moral civilisation. I do not believe
in the evolution of man from a lower form of life. But, notwith-
standing this, I doubt whether the first man was civilised in the
ordinary sense in which that word is now used. So far as a
material civilisation goes, I take him to have belonged to
the earliest stone age. But at the same time I feel the
strongest conviction that he was, in point of moral civilisation,
immeasurably in advance of a savage. It has often been said by
advocates of the degradation-theory that no well-authenticated
instance has ever been given of a savage who has, apart from
external help, improved his condition. I believe this assertion to
be true, notwithstanding Sir John Lubbock's " Cases in which
some improvement does appear to have taken place," given in
the appendix to his " Origin of Civilisation " (pp. 376-380), I
do not deny the force of tfie reply to the above assertion, given
by advocates of the progression-theory ; viz., that it is almost
impossible to prai'e that a savage race has, unaided by external
influence, bettered its condition. But from personal observation
of savage and semi-savage life, I feel almost certain that a real
savage is utterly incapable of, in any way, raising himself. He
lacks the sensibility which must serve as a fulcrum for the lever
which is to lift him. Upon this ground alone, if I had no other
reason for it, I should doubt whether man had, unaided, deve-
loped himself from a state of unmitigated savagery.

Upolu, Samoa S. J. Whitmee

The Law of Muscular Action

In NATtJRE vol. xi. p. 426, my esteemed friend Prof. Kin-
richs does me the honour to comment on my paper published in
Nature, vol. xi. pp. 256 and 276.

He claims to have found that in lifting a weight 10 until ex-
haustion sets in, the number of lifts n is represented by the
equation —

^ \

"-i- („

or log. « = log. A — w log. Bi )

where A and B are constants.

That the relation between n andtc (the strength of the muscle

48

NATURE

\May 20, 1875

remaining constant) is a logarithmic function was plainly indi-
cated jn the last paragraph but one in my second paper in
Nature, p. 277. In my paper in the Anurican Journal of
Science, Feb. 1875, p. 130, a formula was given at the close of
the paper, p. 137, which is equivalent to Hinrich's formula (i),
calling T the time of exhaustion (or number of lifts), and s the
strength of the muscle obtained with a dynamometer, and

r=a(. -iS)- (2)

where a and ;3 are constants. If the dynamometer gave the
real strength in kilograms, j8 would equal w. In the series pub-
lished in Nature, s was obtained in another way, there described,
and y3 was zero (nearly) ; z/ is a function of the weight. So that
Hinrichs' formula does not seem to differ essentially from (2).
In giving this formula, I stated expressly that I did not wish to
discuss this equation at present, as the constants had not been
determined with satisfactorj' precision, I take this occasion to
repeat that statement.

Another point to which it may be well to call attention is,
that in exhausting the arm with heavy weights very little pain is
felt. With light weights, however, the pain is very great.

Our knowledge of this whole subject is yet so fragmentary,
and the subject itself is so complex, that we can only hope to
represent our knowledge by empirical formulae. The best ser-
vice is to be rendered in the direction of careful experiment. I
shall therefore devote a few years to the work outlined in my
paper in the American yotirnal of Science.

Washington University, F, E. Nipher

St, Louis, Mo., April 28

Physiological Effects of Tobacco Smoke
Is Dr. Krause (Nature, vol, xi. p. 456, vol. xii. p. 14)
acquainted with the manner in which cascarilla bark modifies
the physiological effects of tobacco smoking? The addi-
tion of a few very small fragments of the bark can hardly
be supposed to materially affect the amount of carbonic
oxide produced ; and yet, with such an admixture, the strongest
tobacco may be smoked by a tyro without, in most cases, the
production of the usual nauseating effects. Loss cf appetite,
thirst, vascular and nervous depression are sometimes produced
if such a mixture is smoked in excess. On the other hand, if Dr.
Krause's theory, that the nausea, &c., of tobacco smoking is due
to the carbonic oxide inhaled, be admitted, the question is sug-
gested whether some of the volatile products of burnt cascarilla
bark are antagonistic in their physiological action to the gas in
question? C. E. S.

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN
New Variable Star (?). — Mr. J. E. Gore, of Umballa,
writes with reference to a star of about the 6th magni-
tude noticed on the 13th of January about 1° north,
following 6 Leporis, and not having found it in Harding's
Atlas or in Lalande, or the B, A, C, he supposed it
might be a new star. " It is of a reddish colour, and is
in the same low-power field with, and about 25' north of
(a Httle preceding) the 7m, star Lalande 11778 ... It is
closely followed by two small stars which formed with it
a curved line." From this description the star is evi-
dently VI. 58 of Weisse's first Catalogue, observed by
Bessel early in 1825, and estimated 67 magnitude, the
small stars preceding it being Nos. 68 and 78 of the same
hour. It is not found in D'Agelet, Lamont, or in any
other catalogue we have examined, of previous date to
that accompanying Heis's Atlas, where it is entered 67,
but erroneously identified with VI. 78 of "Weisse's second
Catalogue, instead of VI. 58 of his first. (The large
number of similar errors in Heis's references is a serious
defect in a work otherwise of so much value.) Mr. Gore
mentions that he had not remarked, up to the middle of
April, any variation in the star's light, but it evidently
requires further examination, and may yet appear on our
rapidly extending list of variables.

The Binary Star f Herculis.— If good measures of
this star are obtained during the present season, we may
expect to know the elements of the orbit with conside-
rable precision. Dun^r's results, founded upon measures

1826-69, will be the best so far published, but he did not
regard them as definitive ; they will no doubt be very
useful in any further investigation, and for this reason
are here subjoined : —

Peri-astron passage 1 864 "23

Node 45° 56' Excentricity ... 0*42394

Node to peri-astron Semi-axis ... i"'223

onorbit ... 250 50 Period 34'22l yrs.

Inclination ... 34 52

Peters' Elliptic Comet 1846 (VI,). — This comet,
which was detected at Naples on the 26th of June. 1846,
by Dr. Peters, now Director of the Observatory at Clinton,
New York, was calculated by Prof. D'Arrest, and in a
more complete form by the discoverer himself, who, in a
memoir pubhshed in the Transactions of the Naples
Academy in 1847, found the time of revolution i2"85
years, but with an uncertainty of ± i*6i years ; in a sub-
sequent communication to Briinnow's Astronomical
Notices, he gave elements for 1859, including the effect of
perturbations of the planet Saturn, which, however, he
shows to be liable to very considerable doubt, on account
of the observations in 1846 being insufficient to fix the
mean motion at perihelion in that year within narrow
limits. It is to be remarked that in 1846 the comet
appeared under nearly the most favourable circumstances
possible for observation, and at the time of discovery the
comet was distant from the earth less than o"6 of our
mean distance from the sun, yet Dr. Peters found it very
small and faint, and unless the perihelion passage should
happen to fall about the same time of the year as in 1 846,
it might be exceedingly difficult, if not impossible, to
recover it. The only hope of doing so is in keeping a
close watch in the late spring and early summer, upon
those parts of the sky indicated with different suppositions
for date of perihelion passage, say from May 15 to June
15, which are wholly in south declination, a circumstance
that will render the assistance of observers in the other
hemisphere very desirable. To give an idea of the comet's
track in the heavens when the perihelion falls in May,
we assume the 15th and 25th for the passage by
this point of the orbit, and thus have the following posi-
tions : —

In perihelion, May 25 '0.
B.A. Decl. Distance

228° -8. 55° -8 S 0-600

231 "I 48 '4 0-561

233 -4 39 -2 0-546

235 -8. 29 -4 S 0-564

In perihelion, May 15-0.

R.A. Decl. Distance
May 15... 256" -5 5o°-oS 0-594

„ 25.. 256 -5 42 -2 0-552
June 4---255 "9 32 '8 0538

„ 14.. .255 -3 23 -iS 0-555

The least distance between the orbits of the earth and
comet is about 0-53.

Considering the uncertainty in the mean motion de-
duced from observation in 1846, it is quite within possi-
bility that a perihelion passage may occur as late as the
summer of the present year, and it may be worth while to
institute a search upon that supposition.

Minor Planets. — No. 26, Circular zum Berliner
Astronomischeii Jahrbuch, just issued, contains new ele-
ments and an ephemeris of No. 114, Cassandra, and
corrected ephemerides of No. 71, Niobe, and No. 128,
Nemesis. The period of revolution assigned to Cas-
sandra for November 1872 is 1 598-5 days. Several of
this group are now adrift, the elements not having been
determined with sufficient approximation to keep them in
view. The planet found by Borrelly at Marseilles, 1868,
May 29, and that detected by Pogson at Madras on
November \'] in the same year, are thus situated ; both
travel beyond the limits of our ecliptical charts, which
contain very small stars.

OUR BOTANICAL COLUMN
The PandanEjE. — A fine series of Pandanus fruits
has recently been received at the Kew Museum from
Mr. John Home, of the Botanic Garden, Mauritius

May 20, 1875]

NATURE

49

These fruits form the first consignment of a quantity
collected in Mauritius and Seychelles by Mr, Home
for transmission to Kew, as material for the Pan-
danecE in the forthcoming Mauritius Flora, and will
form a valuable addition to the Museum collection.
The fruit-heads of the Pandanea, like the cones of
the Piceas, are very difficult to preserve entire except
they be kept in fluid, and even then, if they are
gathered too ripe the single drupes are apt to separate
from the central axis. Those just to hand from Mr.
Home are the best set ever received at Kew, inasmuch
as they appear to have been carefully selected and
gathered before they were too ripe, wooden tallies with
numbers cut in them firmly fixed upon each specimen
with copper wire, and the whole sown up tightly in stout
sacking or canvas and placed at once in rum. In this
way the collection contained in five small barrels arrived
in perfect safety at Kew, where the specimens, after being
taken from the spirit and the canvas coverings cut away,
were securely enclosed either in a network of thin copper
wire or fine strong cord and gradually dried. We men-
tion these facts because travellers and collectors too fre-
quently send home specimens of Conifers, Cycad cones,
or others of a similar nature simply rolled in paper or
packed in sawdust ; in the one case they dry and fall to
pieces immediately upon opening, while in the other the
sawdust absorbs moisture, and the fruit or cone simply
rots and becomes quite worthless. Another advantage
in sending woody fruits like the Pandani in fluid in the
manner above described, is that they can be removed,
dried, and mounted on wooden stands, by which they are
more convenient for examination, and occupy much less
space, and are manifestly more economical both for public
and private collections than when preserved in large glass
jars in alcohol. The collection, numbering some twenty-
three heads of fruits, sufficiently illustrates the variety of
form and size in the different species, the largest being
some thirteen inches through, and the smallest not more
than two inches. Mr. Balfour, who accompanied the
Transit of Venus Expedition to Rodrigues, has also paid
special attention to the Pandanece, and his collections,
preserved, we believe in a similar manner, have recently
arrived in this country.

Santal Vert.— Under the name of Santal Vert,
or false sandal-wood, a dark green, close-grained
wood, somewhat hke Lignum vita, may occasionally
be seen in wood collections. The origin of this wood
is not generally known, but it seems to be the pro-
duce of an Euphorbiaceous plant, probably a species
of CrotoH. The bulk is obtained from Madagascar,
and some from Zanzibar. It is generally supposed,
however, to be the produce of Zanzibar, probably on
account of that from Madagascar passing by way of
Zanzibar in course of transit to India, to whence it is
mostly shipped, chiefly, it is said, for the purpose of burn-
ing the bodies of Hindoos, as it fetches a much lower
price than the true sandal-wood. The wood of the
Santal Vert, though small, is sometimes used in Mozam-
bique for furniture. A species of Crotofi found by Dr.
Kirk on the Zambesi produces a similar wood ; indeed, it
may be identical.

SOME RESULTS OF THE "POLARIS"
ARCTIC EXPEDITION

IN a letter to the French Geographical Society, pub-
lished in the March Bulletin, Dr. Bessels, the principal
scientific member of the Polaris Arctic Expedition, rebuts
some of the statements published by Mr. Tyson, and
gives some of the scientific results which were obtained.
The position of the Observatory, obtained from many
varied observations, was 81° 38' N. lat., 61° 44' W. long.,
and thirty-four feet above sea-level. Many careful obser-
vations were made on the tides, in meteorology, magnetism

zoology, botany, geology, and with the pendulum, in order
to determine the force of gravity. Unfortunately, in the
catastrophe which happened to the ship, many of the
results of these observations were lost ; nevertheless,
enough was saved to afford a fair idea of the physical
geography, the geology, the fauna and flora of the region
visited. Dr. Bessels is preparing a detailed account of
the results obtained, and we believe has given much
valuable information for the use of our own Arctic Expe-
dition.

The pendulum observations are specially precise and
valuable. The magnetic observations are more complete
than any hitherto made in the polar regions. The obser-
vations on declination were made every hour for five
months, and during three days in each month every six
minutes. The western declination was found to be 96°,
and the absolute declination 84° 23'.

The observations on the tides were made with very
great care, generally every hour, and for three or four
weeks every ten minutes, in order to obtain the precise
moment of the flux and reflux. High water occurs about
every I2h. 13m. ; the highest flux observed was 8 feet ;
the lowest reflux, 2*5 feet ; mean of high and low tide, 3*8 ;
mean of spring tide, 5*47 ; mean of neap tide, i'83. Other
hydrographical observations comprehend soundings, tem-
peratures at various depths, and detailed observations on
the specific gravity of the water.

After having entered Smith Sound, a current was ob-
served running southwards, the rate of which varied from
1*5 to 5 miles. This current carried with it much drift-
wood, all the specimens of which seen by Dr. Bessels
were coniferous, with very close ligneous layers, indicating
that the specimens came from a cold climate.

The greater part of the meteorological registers were
saved, embracing observations on the temperature of the
air and on barometric oscillations, anemometric and
hygrometric results, observations on terrestrial and solar
radiation, on polar aurorae, and on ozone.

The fauna and flora of Hall's Land are very rich, but
unfortunately nearly all the specimens collected were
lost. Eight species of mammals were observed, twenty-
three kinds of birds, fifteen species of insects, and seven-
teen species of plants. Of the mammals, Myodes, spr.
(Pallas) and Ovibts moschatus (Zimm.) were found in
West Greenland for the first time. The greater part of
the insects are Diptera, of which one species is new.

Although the geological formation of Polaris Bay and
its neighbourhood presents only Silurian limestone, con-
taining few fossils, yet some very interesting observations
were made. At elevations of 1,800 feet, not only was drift-
wood found, but also shells of molluscs {Mya, &c.), of
species which still exist in the neighbouring seas. On
examining some of the small lakes which abound in the
region, marine crustaceans were found to be living in
these fresh waters. This is certain evidence of the
gradual elevation of the coast of this part of Greenland.

Wherever the country is not too steep, large numbers of
erratic blocks are met with, of a kind quite different from
the rocks on which they rest. There are blocks of granite,
gneiss, &c., from South Greenland, and these blocks have
evidently been borne, not by glaciers, but by floating ice-
bergs ; a proof that at one time the current in Davis Strait
had a different direction, and passed from south to north.
Dr. Bessels believes that Greenland has been separated
from the American Continent in a direction from south
to north.

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF A STONE MASK
IN NEW JERSEY, U.S.A.

THE occurrence of stone " masks," such as the speci-
men referred to, has been somewhat frequent, in and
about the "mounds" of the Ohio and Mississippi Valleys,
but not eastward of these localities. Somewhat more

50

NATURE

\May 20, 1875

elaborate carvings of the human face have betn found in
Western New York, figures of which are given in the
Thirteenth Annual Report of Regents of New York
State University. These may or may not be of identical
origin with the western mound specimens. The specimen
here figured is, I believe, the only one ever found in New
Jersey. It is a hard sandstone pebble, such as are
common to the bed of the Delaware River, above tide
•water. It measures six inches in length by a fraction
over four inches in greatest breadth. It is concavo-
convex, the concavity being shallow and artificial. The
carving of the front or convex side is very rude, but shows
distinctly that it has been done with stotie tools only. The
eyes are simply conical counter-sunk holes, rudely ridged,
and just such depressions as the stone drills, so common
among the surface reUcs of this neighbourhood, would
produce. In the collection of stone implements from
Central New Jersey, at the Peabody Academy of Salem,
Mass., are several drills sufficiently large to bore as wide
and deep depressions as the " eyes " of this mask. The
nose is very flat and angular j the mouth merely a shallow
groove. The ears are broken, but appear to have been
formed with more care than any other of the features.
The chin is slightly projecting.

The interest attaching to this specimen is, I think,
twofold, and worthy of a moment's consideration. It
is interesting from the fact of being found in New
Jersey, a point much further east than the mound-
builders have been supposed to reach, and there is
no reason to suppose that the specimen was ever brought
by white men from the west, and lost here. The cir-
cumstances connected with its discovery render such
a supposition untenable. Its interest, otherwise, is in
the fact (as I suppose it) of its being a true relic of the
mound-builders. The mystery of this people has cer-
tainly yet to be solved, if, indeed, it ever can be, and the
relationship they bore to the " Indian " determined. In
the prosecution of my investigations into the " stone-age "
history of the New Jersey Indians, I was continually
struck with the great resemblance of the stone-imple-
ments found in New Jersey to those found in the
western mounds. The specimens figured by Messrs.
Squier and Davis, in the first vol. of Smithsonian Contri-
butions, 1847, were all, or nearly so, duplicated by speci-
mens I gathered in New Jersey ; and up to the time of the
completion of my second paper on the Stone Age of New

Jersey (now in press), I needed but " animal pipes " and
stone masks, such as the above, to make the duplication
of the mound-rehcs complete. The occurrence of this
specimen brings it to the one form of pipes, and that such
have occurred in New Jersey is highly probable ; but
not having gathered such a specimen, myself, I assume
that none have yet been found. It must be borne in
mind, however, that as there are no mounds in New
Jersey, animal pipes, if found here, must occur as surface
relics, or in graves ; which latter were, as a rule, very
shallow. As New Jersey has been settled for about two
centuries, it is probable that such animal pipes would be
gathered up, when found, and soon again lost or de-
stroyed, when ordinary " relics " would be overlooked.
In this way, such animal pipes would have all dis-
appeared, perhaps a century ago, when their value as
archaeological specimens was unknown. This, too, might
account for the great rarity of such specimens as the
mask here described. Chas. C. Abbott

Trenton, New Jersey, U.S.A., April 22

FERTILISA TION OF FLO WERS B V INSECTS*

X.

Lilium Martagon.

CSPRENGEL was the first to turn his attention to
• the structure of the beautiful flowers of this plant ; t
but he did not succeed either in observing insects visiting
them or in explaining the contrivances by which they are
cross-fertilised when visited by suitable insects. Since
Sprengel's time nobody had, as far as I know, studied the
manner of fertilisation of Lilmm Martagon. It was,
therefore, with great pleasure that, in Thuringia, I exa-
mined the structure of its flowers, and watched them in
their natural habitat. The results of my observation were
as follows.

Along the middle of each sepal and petal, beginning at
its base and continuing throughout a length of 10-15 mm.,

Fig. 63.— Flower of Lilhtm Martagon in its natural position and
natural size.

is a furrow, which secretes honey, and whose margins
converge and are bordered with reddish knobbed hairs,
so close as to cover the open side of the furrow, and to
convert it into a channel {h, Figs. 63, 64). The basal opening
of this channel {fi, Fig. 64) being closed by the base of a
filament, the only way by which the honey is attainable
is the small opening at the end of the channel {e, Fig. 64).
This opening, as well as the channel itself, is very narrow,
its diameter only a little exceeding i mm. No other in-
sects except Lepidoptera are provided with sucking instru-
ments sufficiently long and slender to be able to reach the
honey concealed in these long and narrow channels ; and
from the flowers being turned downwards and the sta-
mens projecting and slightly bending upwards, it is
evident that Lepidoptera, when sucking this honey,
cannot avoid dusting their under-side with pollen, and
effecting cross-fertilisation as often as they fly to another

* Continued from vol. xi. p. 171.

t C. Sprengel, " Das entdeckte Geheimniss," &c., pp. 187-189

May 20, 1875]

NATURE

51

flower and bring their pollen -covered under-side first in
contact with the stigma, which slightly overtops the
anthers. The flowers of Lilium Martagon must conse-
quently be considered as adapted to cross-fertilisation by
Lepidoptera.

The colour of these flowers, dark reddish brown, with
dark purple dots on the inside, is not very striking, and
in the daytime they are but slightly scented, whereas
during the evening they emit a very attractive sweet
odour. Hence we may safely conclude that they are far
more attractive to crepuscular and nocturnal than to
diurnal Lepidoptera.

Thus far, in Thuringia, in July 1873, I had succeeded in
explaining the separate pecuUarities of the flowers ; but
in vain had I watched them repeatedly during the evening
in order to surprise the fertilisers in the very act of
fertilisation. But the hope I had failed in when making
every effort to realise it, happened to be fulfilled a year
later, quite unexpectedly. In the Vosges, returning from
the Hoheneck, and passing the village Metzerall, July 5,
1874, towards the evening, I was struck with the sight of
flowering plants of Lilium Marta^ott growing in a
garden hard by, and a specimen of Macroglossa stella-
tartim flying round them and fertilising them.

Fig. 64.— a single

magnified.

Freely fixed in the air by the rapid movement of his
wings, this busy Sphinx inserted his long slender pro-
boscis into the honey-channels of the sepals and petals,
now of a single one, now of others of the same flower, and
having done so immediately flew away to another flower.
Yet, the flowers never being turned directly downwards,
but somewhat inclined, all the honey- channels of any
flower were never sucked by the Sphinx, but in every case
only those of the uppermost sepals and petals. When
sucking he always touched the stigmas and the anthers
with his legs and under-side, and the latter ones were to
be seen rocking and swinging. Thus, undoubtedly, the
under-side of the Sphinx was dusted with pollen, and the
stigma of the flower next visited, when first touched by
the pollen-covered under-side, was cross-fertilised. A single
Sphinx, with his vehement movements during a quarter
of an hour, may easily visit and cross-fertilise plenty of
flowers of Lilitivi Martagon. Nevertheless, self-fertili-
sation in many of these flowers will occur, where visits of
Sphingidse are wanting. For the stigma, by being bent
upwards more decidedly than the anthers, comes fre-
quently into contact with one or two of them ; and
C. Sprengel, who enclosed the yet unopened flowers of
L. Martagon in a net, thus excluding all insects except
some ants (and perhaps Thrips), was surprised to find that
every capsule developed and matured its seeds.

Lippstadt Hermann Muller

NOTE ON THE HYRCANIAN SEA

THE resolution of the problems which are involved in
the physical aspects of Western Turkestan, and
which have offered so ample a scope for speculatioii, will
probably be one of the earliest and most important con-
sequences of the occupation of the banks of the Amii
Darya by Russia. But, whatever may be the light which
will thus be afforded to geographers, ethnologists, or his-
torians, it is to be expected that the field of mquiry will
widen and recede, in proportion as each step forward is

made, along paths which have hitherto been shrouded in
obscurity.

Among the observations which will demand, and which
will most certainly fully repay, the greatest attention, are
those which shall accurately determine the true rate of
evaporation from, the surface of Lake Aral. A meteoro-
logical observatory was established in June 1874 on the
lower courses of the Amu, and its working will contribute
much to a knowledge of the rate of local evaporation. It
may be doubted, however, whether such observations as
are recorded at Niikiis will be of practical value for deter-
mining the desiccation going on in Lake Aral itself. In
the absence of precise information we shall for some
years be dependent upon data of doubtful trustworthiness,
in regard to the aspect the lake may have presented at
different epochs in past history.

Among such data there is an isolated observation
which seems worthy of more attention than has hitherto
been given to it. Between the years 1848 and 1858
Boutakoff found that the depth of water at the entrance
of Abougir (the gulf at the south-west corner of Lake
Aral, which is now entirely dry) had decreased by eighteen
inches, or, in other words, at the rate of 0*05 yards per
annum. This rate of decrease may possibly be not very
exact ; but it is approximately so, and may therefore
serve, until better data are available, to draw some con-
clusions regarding the Aralo-Caspian Sea.

The chart of Lake Aral, compiled from the surveys of
1848-49, shows the waterspread to be about 24,500 square
miles. The contour Une drawn at a depth of twenty-four
feet on this chart includes an area of about 18,300 square
miles, i.e. the loss of surface is 6,200 square miles. For
every yard of fall below its surface of 1848, Lake Aral,
down to a depth of eight yards, loses a waterspread of
775 square miles. And since during the past twenty-
seven years the surface has fallen 27 X 0-05 = 1*35 yards,
the waterspread of 1875 will be 24500 - 775 X i'35 =
24500 — 1046*25 = 2345375 = 23454 square miles, say.
The mean of the two waterspreads of 1848 and 1875
will be ?_45^2L±13454 _ 47954 _ ,3977 square miles, or

2 2

74,271,155,200 square yards ; and this quantity multipUed
by 0*05 gives 3,713,557,760 cubic yards as the volume of
water lost by Lake Aral yearly since 1848, or a loss of
120 cubic yards per second.

The supply poured into Lake Aral by the Amii and by
the Syr can only be guessed at, since it has probably
fluctuated during the past twenty-seven years. At the
present time the combined volume afforded by those two
rivers may be taken at about 2,000 cubic yards per
second ; and this estimate is probably not ten per cent,
removed from the actual truth. The evaporation, then,
from the lake must be assumed to have been, since 1848,
2000 -f 120 = 2120 cubic yards per second, from a water-
spread of 23,977 square miles, or 74,271,155,200 square
yards, which is equal to an evaporation of 00026 yards
per diem = 0*0936 inches per diem, or thirty-four inches
per annum.

The physical aspects of the shores of Lake Aral suffice
to show that in very recent times its level has been at
least fifty feet higher than that of to day. With this
increased depth the waterspread would be about 36,500
square miles, or 1 13,062,400,000 square yards. The daily
evaporation from this surface at 0*0026 yards will be
293,962,240 cubic yards, or 3,400 cubic yards per second.
There was therefore a time (and that a recent one) when
Lake Aral received a supply of 3,400 cubic yards per
second ; and, indeed, of more than that quantity. The
Russian knowledge of the country, handed down by the
great map of the sixteenth century, informs us that a
river flowed from the Aral to the Caspian. The geogra-
phical MS. of (according to M. Vdmbdry) Ibn Said el
Belkhi, notices in the early part of the tenth century, the
opinion that the two seas communicated ; and this com-

52

NATURE

[May 20, 1875

munication could, and almost certainly did, take place in
the following way.

The crest of the spur of, the Ust Urt plateau, which
formed the southerly limit of the now desiccated gulf
Abouc^ir, is about fifty feet above the present level of
Lake Aral. Once filled up to that level, if the lake con-
tinued to receive more water than was evaporated from
its surface, /.<?. more than 3,400 cubic yards per second,
an overflow would take place into the country now tra-
versed by the channel called Uzboy, which has a gentle
«;lope to the south of less than four inches per mile.* It
is probable that the lands stretching from Uzboy west-
wards to the foot of the elevations encircling Karaboogas
would have been flooded. Perhaps at this high level
Aral may have discharged at its extreme north-western
point also, and have flooded the country stretching round
the northern foot of Ust Urt. On the north, it may have
topped the low transverse ridge which now divides the
northern and southern drainage. And if, in addition, the
level of the Caspian was at that time some few feet higher
than it now is, its waterspread would have advanced to
meet the overflow from Aral, and Ust Urt and its narrow
southern spurs, which run along the east shore of the
Caspian, would have been isolated among marshes and
shallow water. The classical geographers would thus
have had ample grounds for the description they have
handed down to us of the Sea of Hyrcania, as well as
good reason for giving but a single name to the water-
spread of the sea, since the separation of its basin from
that of Aral would have become evident only after the
fall of the level of this lake.

Until the separation became evident, this Aralo-Caspian
Sea would have presented all those aspects which history
tells us it has had. As the level gradually fell in Lake
Aral, the inundated ground would become dryer ; and
in the first century of our era, as reported by the
Chinese, the banks of the "Western Sea" would have
been surrounded with great marshes. It may be doubted
whether the Palus Oxiana of Ptolemy and the Oxian
Marsh mentioned by Ammianus Marcellinus should be
placed in this locality ; but there is more probability that
the Sinus Scythicus of Mela is identical with Lake Aral
and its former southern marshy appendage, of which
Uzboy is the axis.

The waterspread of such an Aralo-Caspian Sea would
have added an area of about 70,000 square miles to the
limits of the Caspian of to-day ; and the evaporation
from such a surface would have absorbed a supply from
the rivers then feeding Lake Aral of about 7,000 cubic
yards per second ; in other words, a volume of water
three-and-a-half times greater than that discharged by
the mouths of the Amu and the Syr together at the
present time.

If it be considered that at this epoch the greater, if not
indeed the entire volume of the Oxus passed directly
westwards into the Caspian, the difficulty is somewhat
increased in finding an answer to the important question,
where the large volume of water mentioned came from ?

However, it is very probable that the Tchuy and the
Sary Su discharged at that time into Lake Aral, instead
of losing themselves, as they now do, in the sand. The
Kenderlik of the great Russian chart, as well as the
Demons, the Baskatis, and the Araxetes of the classics,
together no doubt with many other minor streams, have
disappeared in these countries, though their waters for-
merly would have fed Aral. Their disappearance seems
to have been contemporaneous with the desiccation of the
Oxus branch of the Caspian, at an epoch when those
irruptions of Mongol hordes from the north-east were
taking place, which swept away early Central Asian
civilisation, and which subsequently caused the destruc-
tion of the Greco-Bactrian Monarchy. Whether this ruin
of ancient social culture was accompanied by the destruc-
* See Nature, vol. xi. p. 231.

tion and wreck of a system of hydraulic works which were
necessary for the cultivation of the soil, is a question
whose answer possibly bears very nearly on the causes of
the desolation which Nature now wears in the countries
of Western Turkestan, Herbert Wood

THE COMMONS EXPERIMENTS ON
ANIMALS BILL

THE Bill for the prevention of cruelty in experiments
on animals, made for the purpose of scientific dis-
covery, prepared and brought forward by Mr. Lyon Play-
fair, Mr. Spencer Walpole, and Mr. Evelyn Ashley, is of a
very different character from that introduced by Lord
Hartismere in the House of Lords and commented on
in our last issue (Nature, vol. xii. p. 21). In it no legis-
lative interference is proposed in the case of operations
performed for scientific purposes under the influence of
anaesthetics, provided that the insensibihty is continued
throughout the experiment ; immediately after which the
animal is to be killed if it has been in any way seriously
injured. In the case of operations performed on animals
in which it is impossible to employ anaesthetics, it is pro-
posed that those who wish to conduct them shall be re-
quired to obtain a license authorising their undertaking
them, to obtain which from the Secretary of State a certi-
ficate must be produced signed by one at least of the
following persons, viz, : the President of the Royal
Society, or the Presidents of the Royal Colleges of Phy-
sicians or Surgeons of London, Edinburgh, or Dublin ;
and also by a Professor of Physiology, Medicine, or
Anatomy in Great Britain. In the case of the applicant
being himself one of the just-named professors, or an
authorised lecturer on the same subjects, such a certifi-
cate is not to be required, but in its place his application
would have to be signed by the registrar, president, princi-
pal, or secretary of the university or college with which he is
connected. The license requires renewal each five years,
except in the case of professors, with whom it lasts during
their tenure of office. It extends to any person assisting
the holder of the license, provided that the person assist-
ing acts in the presence and under the direction of the
holder of the license.

The penalty proposed for any contravention of the Act
is a fine not exceeding fifty pounds, or imprisonment for
a term not exceeding three months.

The whole tenour of this Bill is so much in accordance
with our own feelings that we can say nothing against it.
Physiological operations on the lower animals, when con-
ducted under the full influence of anaesthetics, cannot
shock the most sensitive-minded ; and supposing the Bill
passes, it will be in the power of all to see that nothing
of a painful nature is undertaken. No definition of what
is meant by pain is given, it is true ; and the only im-
provement we can suggest is that one be added which
prevents the employment of curare as an anaesthetic until
its pain-killing power is demonstrated.

BALLOONING AND SCIENCE

THE number of aeronautical ascents in France has
been greatly increased since the Zenith catastrophe
attracted public notice to aerial questions. On Sunday,
the 9th of May, not less than three different balloons went
up in different places.

These ascents took place at Ivry, close to Paris, at 5.30,-
at Nantes at 5.40, and at Algiers at 3.45. In the
three cases the balloonists experienced a change in
the direction of the wind, varying greatly with altitude.
The general direction of the Nantes balloon was
south-east. The Paris balloon had a less velocity with
a greater number of circuits, having ultimately run"
a distance of ten miles in two hours. The greatest
velocity of the air was in close vicinity to the earth ;•
this is an indication of a special current probably pro-

May 20, 1875]

NATURE

53

duced by the warming action of the sun on the sohd
surface exposed to its rays. These special currents,
although somewhat dangerous in making a descent, die
out at an altitude of a few hundred feet. The superficial
current experienced in the Algiers ascent was running
eastwards, and was really a marine current produced by
the vicinity of the sea. A peculiarity of this ascent was the
' presence of a fog, observed at a certain distance above
i the earth, in air which was coming from the water and had
been rendered humid when crossing the Mediterranean
Sea. The thermometer, which was only 23° centigrade on
the ground, ascended gradually to 25°, and gave 38° and
40° when the balloon had traversed the fog. The maxi-
mum observed was 43" at a small altitude.

Clouds do not always prevent the rays of the sun from
warming the atmosphere below to a certain extent. In
an ascent executed at Avignon (Vaucluse) on the 6th, the
thermometer exhibited a warming effect of 5° C, although
the balloon had not passed through the clouds, which were
at an elevation of more than 4,000 feet.

I do not think we should depend entirely for our know-
ledge on such points to elaborately organised ascents.
As much of our knowledge of the sea has been ob-
tained from the log-books of trading vessels, so by a little
good management on the part of aeronautical societies,
much important information concerning the atmosphere
might be collected from balloonists who make ascents
either for purposes of pleasure or profit.

W. DE FONVIELLE

NOTES
. M. Andr6, the head of the French Transit Expedition to
New Caledonia, has arrived in Paris. His account of the obser-
vations will be read to the Academy on Monday week. Dr.
Janssen is not expected to arrive in Paris before the loth of
June.

Dr. Hooker was present at Monday's sitting of the Paris
Academy of Sciences, of which he is a correspondent in the
section of Botany. M. Fremy, the president, noticed the fact,
and Dr. Hooker was warmly received by all present.

We remind the Fellows of the Royal Society of the Reception
on the 26th inst, at their rooms in Buriington House, to which
they have been invited.

Information has been received at the Admiralty, by tele-
gram, stating that the Challenger will not visit Vancouver Island
as intended, but will proceed to Nagasaki, Honolulu, and Val-
paraiso. Letters should be addressed to Honolulu until the
middle of July, and after that date to Valparaiso.

The French Aeronautical Society has elected for its president
M. Paul Bert, the physiolc^ist, who recently organised the fatal
ZifmV/j expedition. M. Bert (has never ascended in a balloon,
and has refused several times to do so. M. Tissandier, who had
experienced so narrow an escape in the Zenith, was appointed
one of the vice-presidents.

The Spectacle Makers have resolved to confer the freedom of
their Company on Sir George B. Airy, K.C.B., F.R.S., &c.,
Astronomer Royal.

We learn from the Australian papers that an expedition for
the exploration of New Guinea is being fitted out by Mr. Macleay,
a wealthy citizen of Sydney. Important scientific results are ex-
pected to be gathered by this expedition, and Mr. Macleay is
worthy of praise for devoting his wealth to so important an object.
Notwithstanding that so many explorers are and have been on the
island, there is a great deal yet to be done ere we can have any-
thing like an adequate knowledge of its people, its physical con-
dition, and natural history. We hope Mr. Macleay's expedition
will attack a part of the island not hitherto explored, and add
much that is new and valuable to our knowledge of a country so
interesting in itself and in relation to the past of Australia.

The Swedish Arctic Expedition to Novaya Zemlya, which
will start at the beginning of next month from Tromsbe, will be
occupied first with botanical, geological, and ethnological
inquiries in the southern part of Novaya Zemlya, and then
advance along the west coast to the northern point, which it
expects to reach about the middle of August. Thence it will go
to the north-east to explore this still quite unknown part of the
Polar Sea, and then southwards to the mouths of the Obi and
the Jenisei, where the country is geologically very interesting.
If the ice creates no obstacles, Prof. Nordenskjold will here
quit the vessel, and go in a boat up the river, to return home
afterwards by land.

The February number of the Proceedings of the Asiatic Society
of Bengal contains the President's Address. Colonel Hyde,
among other important and interesting topics, refers to the scheme
for providing Calcutta with a Zoological Garden, which, through
various untoward circumstances, has been hitherto frustrated.
The value of such an institution in Calcutta, if put on a rational
footing, both to the European and native communities as well
as to science, is undoubted, and we hope with Colonel Hyde
diat the scheme will have the attention both of the Imperial and
Local Governments. Indeed, we believe that the Lieutenant-
Governor of Bengal has taken up a piece of land suitable for the
purpose. The question of the estabhshment of a Zoological
Garden at Calcutta has been before the public and the Asiatic
Society from time to time during the last thirty-five years, and
it does seem strange that the capital of India should have been
so long without such an institution.

Another subject referred to by the President in the above
address is that of earth-current measurements, a committee in
connection with which has been appointed at the suggestion of
Mr. Schwendler. Considering the very great importance of
research in this direction, " there can be no doubt," to quote
the Calcutta Englishman, "that the Government of India
would be fully justified in promoting the undertaking, just as it
has assisted the observations of the Transit of Venus, of eclipses,
and of meteorological phenomena ."

An unprecedented contest has taken place at the Academic
Fran9aise in filling the seat vacated by the recent demise of M.
Guizot. After four scrutinies, the election was postponed for
six months. M. Dumas, the perpetual secretary of the Academy
of Sciences, was a candidate, and had as an opponent M. Jules
Simon, the former Minister of Public Instruction, an influential
member of the Academy of Moral Sciences. But a third
candidate, M. Laugel, the scientific reviewer of the Temps, and
the private secretary of the Due d'Aumale, having been pro-
posed by his patron and voted by him throughout the four
scrutinies, no result could be obtained, the nominations bemg
only made on an absolute majority. M. Laugel has written a
few philosophical essays on scientific matters, and is a man of
knowledge, but is not known except to a limited circle of
friends.

It is said that thirty young Chinese belonging to influential
families are expected very shorUy in Paris, where they are to be
educated. They are under the care of a French naval ofl.cer
who, having joined the Chinese navy, has been appointed
Director of Fow-chow Arsenal.

M LEVERRiER has presented to the Academy of Sciences
the observations on the transits of small planets made during the
last three months at Greenwich and at Paris : the two Obser-
vatories are working conjointly in this department. Obser-
vations, limited to those asteroids which are near their apposition,
have been made on twenty-two small planets ; but the weather was
so bad at both Observatories that only sixty-nine observations are
recorded, sixty at Paris and nine at Greenwich. Generally the
proportion is greater in favour of English observers, but the
clouds were dreadfiiUy against them during the last quarter.

54

NATURE

{May 20, 1875

We are informed that Mr, Chadwick, M.P., brought with
him from California, on his recent visit, a box of superior
Californian silkworm eggs. We understand that he is anxious
to distribute them to anyone having a supply of mulberry,
leaves and wishing to cultivate them. The eggs have been
entrusted to Mr. Loose, the secretary of the Chamber of Com-
merce, Macclesfield, from whom small quantities can be
obtained on application. Mr. Loose has also prepared a few
simple instructions for feeding and keeping the cocoons.

The number of candidates at the recent General Exami-
nation for Women at the University of London was thirty-five.
Of these, twenty have passed, viz., seven in honours, twelve in
the first, and one in the second division.

Prof. J, Sachs, of Wiirzburg, is engaged in the preparation
of a History of Botany, which is expected to be ready for pub-
lication in the course of the present year.

In answer to a request made by the Paris Figaro, M. Dumas
has given the following details of the alleged effective remedy
against Phylloxera :— All remedies discovered up *to the year
1874 had the disadvantage that while destroying the ob-
noxious insects they did considerable harm to the vine itself ;
the experiments lately made with sulpho-carbonate of potash
were, however, perfectly successful, as they do not effect the
vine in the least ; they were made by M. Milne-Edwards, Du
Chartre, Blanchard, Pasteur, Thenard, and Boulay, in different
wine-growing districts, particularly in the environs of Avignon,
Cognac, Montpellier, and Geneva. The sulpho-carbonates are
strewed on the ground, the next rain helps them to penetrate
the soil, and the Phylloxera are completely destroyed by them.
These salts at present are still rather expensive, but in the dis-
tricts where the Phylloxera have only just appeared a very small
quantity is sufficient, and it is hoped that if Government under-
takes a larger production of the salts, the price will be consider-
ably reduced.

The new Reptile House in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, has
sustained some heavy losses. A large turtle died from the shot
it had received many months ago when captured in the Atlantic
Ocean, and a large serpent from a wound inflicted by a rat. The
rat having been offered as hving food, resisted violently, and bit
his adversary so deeply that he died a few days afterwards. The
warders in the picturesque Reptile House will probably be more
cautious in future in showing visitors the spectacle of Ophidians
runnmg after their food.

We are glad to say, however, that the above heavy loss will
be to a considerable extent compensated, as the Jardin des
Plantes will receive in a very few days a Boa more than eight
yards m length, which has just arrived at Havre. We believe it
takes a goat or a sheep to appease its appetite at one time.

A Geographical Society has been established in Roumania
under the patronage of the present Prince. A great want has
been felt of such an institution, not a single original work having
been written by Roumanians on the geography of their native
land. All geographical school-books are merely translations of
foreign works, and are all full of errors, even as regards
Roumania.

A CORRESPONDENT of the Pharmacmtical Journal, Mr. G. C.
Druce, suggests whether Saxifraga tridactylitcs is not a carni-
vorous plant. He states that the glands on the leaves present a
veiy similar appearance to those oi Drosera, and secrete a viscid

exam,,,ed he found the d^ris of some insect attached to the

The second of a series of industrial exhibitions projected by
the Manchester Society for the Promotion of Scientific Industry
was opened at Cheetham Hill, Manchester, on Friday last. The
present show has been arranged for the special encouragement of
appliances for the economy of labour.

A LARGi deposit of amber has been discovered in' the
Kurische Haff, near the village of Schwarzort,*; about twelve
miles south of Memel. It had been known for many years that
amber existed in the soil of the Kurische Haff, from the fact that
the dredgers employed by Government for the purpose of clearing
away the shallow spots near Schwarzort that impeded navigation
had brought up pieces of amber, which, however, were appro-
priated by the labourers ; and no particular attention was paid to
the matter till recently. Some speculative persons, reports our
Consul at Memel, made an offer to the German Government, not
only to do the dredging required at their own expense, but als3
to pay a daily rent, provided the amber they might find should
become their own property. The proposal was accepted, and
the rent fixed at twenty-five thalers for each working day. The
dredging was commenced by four machines, worked by horses,
which have increased in number and efficiency till eighteen other
dredges and two tug-boats, with about 100 lighters or barges,
employing altogether 1,000 labourers, are,' now engaged in the
industry. The ground covers an area of about six miles in
length, and a yearly rent of 72,200 thalers is paid by the com-
pany to the Government.

A NEW species of a new genus of serpents, collected by Lieut.
Wheeler's expedition in Arizona during the field season of 1874,
has just been identified and named by Prof. E, D. Cope. It is
called Monopoma rufipunctaUim. The rostral shield of this new
genus resembles that of Phimothyra, and the lateral head shields
those of Cydophis ccstirus. It is, however, more like Eutccnia
in general character. This is a very interesting discovery.

For some time past the United States steamer Fortune, com-
manded by Commander F. M. Green, has been engaged in the
Gulf of Mexico and the West Indies, under the direction of the
Hydrographic Office, in determining the latitude and longitude
of certain points connected by submarine telegraph. Those so
far decided are Panama, Aspinwall, Kingston, Santiago de
Cuba, and Havana, in each of which places a portable observa-
tory and astronomical instruments were set up, and numerous
observations made. The longitudes M'ere determined by the
exchange of telegraphic 'signals, and the latitudes by the zenith
telescope observations. During the course of this work nume-
rous soundings were taken, and a very extensive series of speci-
mens of the sea-bottom brought up. These have been submitted
to Prof. Hamilton L. Smith, of Hobart College, Geneva, New
York, who finds among them many new species, and others pre-
viously considered as very rare, and scarcely met with since their
description by Prof, Bailey and others.

The Manchester Field Naturalists' Society issues a very
EMdest Report for 1874, from which it seems that the Society is
<J<Hng quiet, steady, satisfactory work ; "the working members
-of the Society have steadily extended their knowledge, and latent
tagte for Natural History has been fostered and developed,"
Thss Society is a field club, and during 1874 had twelve suc-
cessful excursions, interesting reports of which are given by Mr.
F, J, Faraday.

Another Manchester society, and one that really deserves
honourable mention, is that known as the Manchester Scientific
Students' Association. From its Annual Report for 1874 it is
evident that the Society does much good work in which a com-
paratively large proportion of the members take part. Their
frequent excursion* are not mere pleasure-trips, as, besides a
leader, a lecturer is appointed, who generally takes up a parti-

May 20, 1875]

NATURE

55

cnUir subject and illustrates it from the observations and gatherings
of the day. During the winter meetings are held for the reading
of papers, many of which seem of considerable value. This
Society was formed for the practical study of science, and on the
' ole this object appears to be well kept in view.

■J iiE Cambridge Board of Natural Science Studies announce
that applications by members of the University desirous of avail-
ing themselves of the facilities for study at the Zoological Station
at Naples during the ensuing season, are to be sent to Mr.
I'oster, Trinity College, on or before the 20th of October.

An appeal is made on behalf of the widow of the late Dr.
Beke : that lady, it seems, having been left in very straitened cir-
cumstances. It is proposed to utilise the Beke Testimonial Fund
for this purpose, and additional subscriptions are requested to
be paid to Messrs. Cox, Biddulph, and Co., Charing Cross, or
to Messrs. Robarts, Lubbock, and Co.. Lombard Street.

We would draw the special attention of our readers to an
excellent new quarto work, abundantly and beautifully illustrated,
on ' ' The Marine Mammals of the North-western Coast of North
America, together with an account of the American Whale-
Fishery," by Capt. Charles M. Scammon, It is published at
San Francisco by J. H. Carmany and Co. The figures of
the characteristic attitudes of the different species of seals, as
well as of the whales, in their native element and otherwise, are
far superior to any we have ever seen, having all been evidently
taken from the life. The volume is dedicated to the memory of
Louis Agassiz,

Pkof. Sitaler has published a memoir upon the "Antiquity
of the Caverns and Cavern Life of the Ohio Valley," in which
he endeavours to show the period at which the animal life, so
characteristic of Western caverns, received its first expression.
He sums up his researches in the following propositions : — i.
The extensive development of caverns in the Ohio Valley is
probably a comparatively recent phenomenon, not dating further
back than the latest Tertiary period. 2. It is doubtful whether
there has been any extensive development of cavern life in this
region before these caverns of the subcarboniferous limestone
began to be excavated. 3. The general character of this cavern
life points to the conclusion that it has been derived from the
present fauna. 4. The glacial period, though it did not extend
the ice-sheet over this cavern region, must have so profoundly
affected the climatal conditions that the external life could not
have held its place here in the shape we now find it, but must
have been replaced by some Arctic assemblage of species.
Under the circumstances, it is reasonable to suppose that most,
if not all, the species found in these caves have been introduced
since the glacial period. 5. We are also warranted by the facts
in supposing that there is a continued infusion of "new blood"
from the outer species taking place, some of the forms showing
the stages of a continual transition from the outer to the inner
form.

The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the
past week include a Campbell's Monkey {Cercopilhecus ca^ttpbellt)
from West Africa, presented by Capt. Damm ; a Lesser White-
nosed Monkey {Cercopithecus petatirista) from West Africa, pre-
sented by Mr. John Gordon ; a Sloth Bear {Mehirsus labiaUis)
from Ceylon, presented by Mr. W. D. Wright ; two Antarctic
Skuas {Lestris otiiarcticd) from the Kerguelen Islands, presented
by the Rev. A. Eaton ; a Proteus {Proteus anginnus) from the
Adelsberg Caves, presented by Capt. R. F. Burton ; a Persian
Gazelle (Gaxella suli^uiturosa), two Coatis (A^asua naska), bom
in the Gardens; two Wapiti Deer (Cervus canadensis) from
North America, an Ocelot {Felis pardalis) from South America,
a Hoflmanp's Sloth {Cholopus hoffmanm) from Panama, de-
posited.

ARCTIC MARINE VEGETATION

"M" O W that another expedition is about to sail for the Arctic
regions through Davis's Straits, it is thought that some
notice of the magnificent flora of the shores of Greenland may
prove interesting. An essay on this subject,* written in Swedish,
by Professor Agardh, the celebrated Swedish algologist, is now
before me, but as it is too long for insertion in these pages,
I will endeavour to condense as much of it as possible into an
abstract.

During the Swedish Expedition to Greenland in 1870, a
collection of Alga' was made on the Greenland coast, between
Disco Island and Sukkertoppen, some degrees to the southward.
These Algre were afterwards examined by Professor Agardh, and
in the essay above mentioned he gives us the result of his
examinations, and some exceedingly interesting observations
upon the characteristics of the marine flora of this Arctic district.
It is not only the more or less numerous species which give to
the marine vegetation in different zones a difi'erent characfer,
but it is the abundance or scarceness of Algis, their divarication
in a greater or less degree from the common form and aspect,
their great size, the multitude of individuals, and so on, which
give J very variable appearance to the seaweed-grown shores of
different seas.

As in the northern region of the pine-tree, there are but few
species, while the masses of forest are formed of an immense
number of individuals which grow near together ; so with regard
to the northern marine flora, the principal portion of which is
found to possess a general character, consisting of a few similar
species, but, as before mentioned, of an imnaense number of
individuals. Nearest to high-water mark are the species of
Fuci ; below them are the Laminarix (Tangles, or seaweeds) ;
these crowd on every rock and stone, and to each of them is
attached its peculiar parasitic species. Occasionally, otlier
species, belongmg to the northern marine flora, stray into calm
bays, inclosed caverns, or are carried away by strong currents.
Compared with the weed-covered shores of Southern Europe,
the uniformity of aspect on these Arctic shores is very great, and
the number of species occurring there fewer than those of our
own coasts. The principal characteristic of the vegetation of
the colder seas is the gigantic size of the species of which it is
composed, and this is especially the case with regard to the
northern Algoe. Laminaria saccharina and L. di^itata, Himaii-
thalia, Alaria, Scytosiphonfilutii, &c., on our own coast, give but
a feeble indication of what the more Arctic regions in this respect
exhibit. When it is known that the Mediterranean and warmer
seas contain some few species which from their great size are
never found in Herbaria, one can understand how diflicult it
must be to find specimens suitable for Herbaria among the
Arctic species. Professor Agardh lays great stress upon the
importance of collecting specimens of these plants in all stages of
their growth, and points out the great similarity to each other of
young plants of different species, which makes it extremely
diflicult to discriminate the diflferent species in the young state.
The numerous examples, of all ages, brought home tjy the
Swedish expedition, and especially those laid down in salt,
could thus be examined in a fresh state, and enough of them
might be dissected for the more accurate determination of these
large-growing species. As Professor Agardh has referred here
to salting down the Algas, it may be as well to mention that in
another publication he has stated that the best way of pre-
serving Alga: is by the following process. In a cask or other
convenient vessel put a layer of salt, then a layer of Algrc ; then
another layer of salt, then another of Alga?, and so on until the
cask is full. Algas thus preserved are found to be almost as
fresh as when first taken out of the sea.

If in the extreme north the phanerogamous flora is characterised
by dwarf forms, so do forms of an opposite character prevail in
the marine vegetation of the Arctic regions. To a certain degree
the aspect of the magnificent Arctic marine vegetation depends
upon the common large-growing Laminaria;, which constitute a
considerable and characteristic portion of it. Laminaria are
also found in the Southern Ocean, and there are even other large
Alga, as, for example, the S])ecies of Iridaa, in the North Pacific,
which have much larger dimensions in colder oceans than have
analogous species in the warmer seas. So, also, the great num-
ber of species of Laminaria in the Arctic seas is an indication

* Bidrag till kanncdomen af Gronlands I..aminaricer oc!i Fucaceer af J
G. Agardh, inlemnadt till K. Vet. Akad. den 27 Sep. 1871. (Stockholm,
1872, P. A. Norstedt and S5ner.)

5^

NATURE

[May 20, 1875

that if these prevail the number of other species is relatively
less. While, on the other hand, only one species of Laminaria
with an entire, and one with a laciniated frond, is found on tlie
Swedish coast, there are on the coasts of Spitzbergen and
Greenland at least five species of Laminaria. The L. aineifolia
of Greenland is about the same size as L. saccharina ; but Z.
longicruris, one of the commonest Algae of Greenland, is very
large ; the stalk, which is sometimes many ells * long, bears a
lamina (frond) of equal size. Some specimens had been seen by
Prof. Agardh, which, including both stem and frond, were
eighty feet long. Ruprecht mentions an Alaria from the Sea of
Okhotsk, the frond of which was about the same breadth as that
of the common European form, which had a length of more than
fifty feet. From Spitzbergen comes another species of this
genus, whose frond is as much as one ell in length and about
three ells long ; and also another species several ells long, with a
stem as thick as a finger. But it is especially in the north part
of the Pacific, on the North American coast, that the richness of
the Laminarian forms and their great size are most conspicuous.
The species of Alaria, Arthrothamnus, Thalassiophyllum, Aga-
rum, and Nereocystis together constitute such a magnificent
marine flora, that one feels a difficulty in forming an idea of the
smaller representatives of the same group which are found in
other seas. Nereocystis Lutkeana has a stalk 270 feet in length,
when it swells into a bladder that bears a tuft of fronds which are
quite twenty-seven feet in length. In the Antarctic seas the
analogues are to be found, the Durvillsea, and Lessonia of Cape
Horn, Ecklonia of the South African coast, the species of Macro-
cystis, &c., are well-known examples of the large Algas which are
found there.

It is perhaps less surprising that a rich marine flora should
appear on the coast ot Spitzbergen wherever a considerable
branch of the water of the Gulf Stream follows the coast, and
in proportion receives a higher temperature and a greater degree
of saltness. But in Greenland it may be otherwise. Cold cur-
rents are said to flow along the west coast of Greenland up-
wards, as well as on the opposite coast of America downwards, t
During a considerable portion of the year the sea appears to be
frozen along the coast, and even during the summer months drift
ice is reported to be continually seen in the open sea. Under
such conditions, although a marine vegetation of large size ap-
pears there, it may be assumed that an ice-cold or nearly ice-
cold sea by no means prevents a great development of Algse,
where the other conditions necessary for their growth are found.
One is tempted to believe that the great abundance and size of
the marine flora on the coasts of the colder seas, on the one
hand, and on the other the richness of the open seas in Diato-
macese, are in some measure the cause of the abundance ot
animal life which prevails in these regions, and which, in the
regularity of its limits, may afford a hint to the expeditions for
carrying on the whale fishery that every year employs thousands
of vessels. "It has been remarked," says Ruprecht, " that the
northern boundary of the large sea animals is found where the
coast is most bare of Algse ;" and Maury (" Physical Geography
of the Sea ") remarks on the superior flavour of fish from the
colder waters, and the greater excellence of the principal fishery
grounds of the world, which are all situated in the colder waters.

In direct opposition to what occurs on the Greenland and
Spitzbergen coast, • Ruprecht states that the whole coast of
Behring's Sea north of the Aleutian Islands is almost entirely
without marine vegetation ; an astonishing statement, as not only
on the Aleutian Isles, but also on the American coast to the
south of them, the marine flora is rich and is developed on a
grand scale. Ruprecht's statement that the whole Arctic sea of
Siberia, eastward from the Gulf of Kara to Behring's Sound, is
almost entirely without marine vegetation, is almost open to
doubt, since Prof. Agardh possesses specimens of two Algse in
good preservation which were taken near the mouth of the Lena,
and Ruprecht himself mentions another Alga which was found
in Behring's Sea. Should it be ascertained that while the rocks
of the Arctic Sea, wherever they have been examined, namely,
in Norway, Spitzbergen, Greenland, and the coasts of America,
present, through the number of individuals and their great size,

» A Swedish ell is equal to two feet.— M. P. M.

t In the narrative of the North German Expedition it is stated that on the
east coast of Shannon Island, lat. 75° 29' N., drift-wood, identified as alder
{Alnus incana, L.) and poplar (P. tremula, L.) was washed ashore, thus
plainly showing that the drift-wood of N.E. Greenland comes originally from
N, Siberia ; whence, driven into the sea by the strong currents, it floats in a
westerly direction north of Spitzbergen, and is carried on until it reaches
Greenland, where it takes a southerly course. See vol. ii. p. 537.— M. P.M.

a peculiar marine vegetation, while, on the other hand, eastward
from the Gulf of Kara the sea should be found to be very poor
as regards its flora, or even desitute of these large Alga?, perliaps
one might under these circumstances form an opinion ihat the
Baltic Sea was one of the former gulfs of the Arctic Ocean, and
at a later period was separated from it ; hence great interest at-
taches to the study of the Algse of the Baltic Sea. The cha-
racter of extraordinary scarcity of Algse, which according to
Ruprecht characterises the Arctic Ocean, also prevails in the
Baltic Sea, where long ranges of rocks, broken like those of the
Atlantic into bays, and apparently well adapted to harbour a
rich vegetation, are entirely bare of vegetation, while the rocks
and rock-pools on the western coast are crowded with Algse.
The stunted representatives of marine Algse that most generally
appear in the southern and western parts of the Baltic Sea may
perhaps have come at a later period from the west, after the
Baltic was united with the Atlantic.

More accurate information relative to the Algse and their
alleged scarcity in the Siberian Sea and Behring's Sound are
still wanting, but ii priori one is scarcely entitled to assume that
the Algce in these localities should differ materially from the
uniform character of gigantic size which seems to distinguish
the vegetation of the other Arctic Sea. On the other hind, that
the Bakic Sea, as well in respect of the number of individuals as
of their development, is in direct opposition to the vegetation in
the other northern sea, is undeniable. But the (Baltic Seals
in a peculiar state. It is an enclosed sea, into which large fresh-
water rivers discharge themselves, and a freezing sea, ice-covered
during a considerable part of the year, in a great degree prevents
evaporation. Both these circumstances may cause the Baltic to
be considered almost as a fresh- water basin, into which isalt
water flows from the sea almost entirely through the Kattegat
and more south-westerly parts, and in the deep water retains
some perceptible degree of salt. The influence of the salts on
the growth of Algse is at present but little understood, but that
they have great influence cannot be doubted. The Alga; which
appear in the Baltic cannot be said to indicate a high northern
or north-eastern origin. They seem to be the Algae ot the Katte-
gat in a dwarf form. Some few species of Alga; appear to be
peculiar ; but in this case they do not prove that the Baltic was
once a gulf of the Arctic Sea.

It has been already remarked that a scarcity of forms and
abundance of individuals is a characteristic of the marine vege-
tation of the northern ocean. Nevertheless it must not be con-
cluded from the scarcity of forms which prevails in every
separate locality, and of which a few species of each constitute
the principal masses of marine vegetation, that the same species
prevail everywhere. We should then fall into the error of the
older botanists, who thought that they recognised in foreign
Algse many well-known forms of the European flora, which
outwardly bear a great resemblance to each other. With regard
to the northern Laminarise and Fucacete, it may yet be shown
that there are analogous — if not identical — species, which appear
in different localities, and that the species resembling each other
in aspect, also in their habitat resemble each other, and thus
constitute representative species. The circumstance that at first
one does not perceive the difference between species bearing
similar names from different localities, is but weak evidence of the
identity of the forms which under the same names were supposed
to prove that all these so-named European species actually ap-
peared on the coast of Australia ; although we might justly
allege this fact as a proof of changes which might have broken
the tormer connection between the seas, and so prevented migra-
tion from taking place at the present time. So soon as accurate
examination is made, important variations are observed to exist
between many species which pass under similar names, and some
doubt may be entertained, not only whether they constitute
entirely different species, but even whether they do not some-
times belong to entirely different genera.

Such representative species appear in many, and in perhaps
most genera ; but in Laminaria and Fucus there are some ana-
logous forms which are very similar to the eye ; there being in
each genus two principal forms only, while each possesses many
species which bear a great resemblance to each other. The
similarity is, in reality, here so great that many were for a long
time considered, and many more may probably even henceforth
be considered, as modifications of the same species.

The difficulty of characterising the species of Laminaria is
really very great, not only on account of the great resemblance
between them, but also because the species change their aspect

May 20, 1875]

NATURE

57

during different periods of their development, and this more fre-
quently in an analogous manner. During the first period they
are so like each other that it is almost impossible to separate one
from the other the younger forms of the most dissimilar species.
They all begin with a short stalk and an undivided frond (lamina) ;
then the stalk continues short in some, and lengthens consider-
ably in others ; in some the lamina continues undivided ; in
others it is cloven. But it is especially to be; observed that
this lamina, whether undivided or cloven, is variable in most
species. Thus, all are at first small and extended in length,
with a more or less wedge-like base ; but the wedge-like base
becomes heart-shaped and even kidney-shaped in some ; in others
it retains a wedge-like form throughout its whole state of deve-
lopment. Most species periodically change their lamina ; with
the change the new lamina becomes larger and broader than the
old one. The young lamina is thin ; in colour rather inclining
to green than to light brown ; in different species the lamina is
at a later period thinner or thicker, and with a different tint of
colour. The fructification appears in different species not only
in different parts of the lamina, but the sori extend in different
directions, although they do not seem to assume precise forms.
The characteristics of species must therefore be judged, not
Irom the peculiarities of appearance, but by the whole develop-
ment of the plant, the differences of which are with difficulty
comprehended, unless the species throughout their whole range
of growth be accurately compared with each other. Considering
that certain characteristics are scarcely perceptible except when
the plants are in fresh condition, and that collectors are contented
with preserving portions or incomplete specimens only, we
cannot wonder that the species of Laminaria should be confounded
with each other.

Greville had named a Laminaria from the coast of Africa,
L- pallida, from a modification in its colour. Younger forms, in
which the colour was less evident, or the lamina not yet cloven,
were referred by many algologists sometimes to Z. digitata, some-
times to L. saccharina. But between these northern species and
that of the Cape, lies an ocean which it is difficult for a Laminaria
to pass. Although the characters which separate Z. pallida and
L digitata are not more important than those which separate
Z. digitata from Z. steiiophylla, it naust, nevertheless, be consi-
dered that Z. pallida is a distinct species.

Z. longicruris is the most common as well as the largest of
the Greenland Laminarise. It is the representative on their
coast of Z. caperata, a native of Spitzbergen, no specimens of
which have been seen from Greenland, neither has Z. longicruris
yet been found at Spitzbergen. From Greenland Z. longi-
cruris spreads down the American coast as far at least as the
forty-second parallel, and one specimen is reported from the
Bahamas. Portions of this species have been cast ashore on
the coasts of Norway, Ireland, and Scotland. In Gunner's
" Flora Norvegica," a form is mentioned under the name of Ulva
maxima, which Agardh considers to be Z. caperata ; the same
Jorm has also been found on the north coast ot Scotland.

The Berggren collection also contained a gieat number of
examples of Laminaria that, by Dickie (Alga; from Cumberland
Sound, in Linn. Soc. Journ. vol. ix. p. 237) and by Croall (in
Brown's " Flora Discoana," Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb. p. 459),
was called Z. saccharina. Prof. Agardh considers the above-
mentioned plant as identical with his Z. cuneifolia. He states
that he has never seen a specimen from Greenland of Z saccha-
rina as it appears on our coast. Z. cuneifolia is an example of
a species which is found near Greenland and also in the northern
part of the Pacific. The "Alga described by Ruprecht under
the name of Z. saccharina v. lessonio'/olta mzy be a smaller form
of the same species. Specimens from Newfoundland and Scot-
land have been seen, which may belong to the same species. *

Of Z. solidungula' there are specimens from Ritterbank and
Jakobshavn, This species seems to have a wide range in the
Arctic sea, appearing at Spitzbergen, Greenland, and in the
northern parts of the Pacific, if, under this species, is to be
accepted some specunens with disciform roots described by
Ruprecht.

In the same collection is a new species with laciniated frond,
named Z. atro-Julva from its dark colour, which distinguishes it
from every other species, in all stages of its growth. Excepting
Z nigripes, it is the only Laminaria from Greenland with a laci-
niated frond. Neither Dickie nor Croall mentions it in their lists

* Near Walrus Island, lat. 74° N , great quantities of marine plants,
chiefly consisting of a large Laminaria, were washed up by th« ice and the tide,
or were lying in hollows. See Nairative of North German Expedition,
vol. ii. p. 518.— M. P. M.

of Alga;. In a note to the Flora Discoana it is mentioned that
in another collection Z. digitata was found. From such a
statement one may, nevertheless, be unable to determine which
Laminaria with laciniated lamina was here referred to. That
Z. digitata, so common on the European and Spitzbergen coasts,
should not be found in Greenland was so much the more singular,
that it was thought to be common at Newfoundland, and is
stated by Harvey to appear on the American coast as far south
as Cape Cod. Postel and Ruprecht also mention it as existing
in the North Pacific, but perhaps the specimens seen belong to
other species. Z. Bongardiana, with which Z. atro-fulva most
nearly agrees, is said to have a canaliculated stem, by which it
is easily separated from the Greenland species.

Of Z. dermatodca there is only one specimen in this collection.
It is probably rare in Greenland. This species is found at New-
foundland, Spitzbergen, and Norway.

Z. Fascia is included in the Berggren collection, but is not met
with at Spitzbergen. *

A Greenland specimen, called Scytosiphon filum, was in a
state of preservation too imperfect to be determined.

The most beautiful and characteristic species of the Greenland
marine flora are, undoubtedly, those of Agarum, a genus which
belongs also to the northern part of the Pacific. The Greenland
species extend down the North American coast and that of
Newfoundland, but not a fragment of this genus has as yet been
found on the Spitzbergen and European coasts. It appears
to be common in Greenland. The Greenland species vary in the
breadth of the costa and the closeness of the holes with which
the frond is pierced, but Agardh knows of no other difference,
and refers all the specimens to one species, namely, A. Turneri.

Among the Laminaria;, included in the collection, few are of
greater interest than the form of Alaria taken in Sukkertoppen
in great abundance and of all ages. Hence Prof. Agardh has
been able to characterise the different Greenland species of Alaria,
which are as follow : — A. esculenta, A. musajolia, A. Fylaii^ A.
vtembtanacea, and A. grandi/olia.

Next to the Laminariae the Fucaceos form the most consider-
able part of the Berggren collection. They consist chiefly of
the more Arctic forms.brought home from Spitzbergen, with some
differences. Of the forms common on the north coast of Europe
{Fucodium canaliculatum, Fucus serratus, \IIalidrys siliquosa)
which have not been found on the coast of Newfoundland or
America, there are not any examples in the Greenland col-
lection. Of these, F. serratus only is found at Spitzbergen, but
this differs from the true European form. With F. serratus
may be compared F. edentatus of Newfoundland, F. canalt-
culatum was compared by Harvey with F, fastigiatum of
California. Analogous species probably represent each other in
different localities. Of fucodium nodosum, some examples,
taken from different localities, are foimd in the Greenland
collection.

Fucus vesiculosus, so common along the European coast even
up to the extreme north of Norway, is absent, or at least very
scarce, at Spitzbergen, but is one of the commonest of the Green-
land species. It is found there both with and without vesicles.
Besides F. vesiculosus, the collection contains numerous ex-
amples of Z! evanescens, J. Ag., F. Miclonensis, and F.filiformis,
which grow together, and in the same locality as F. vesiculosus,
which is distinguished from the others by its stout consistence
and by its drier surface, while the others give out more mucus.
It is also easy to separate extreme forms of F. ez^anescens, F.
Aliclonensis, and F.filiformis, but among the abundance of speci-
mens brought from Greenland intermediate forms appear, so that
it is often difficult to decide the boundary between these species.
When extreme forms lie together, F. fihformis, so different in its
aspect from F. evanescens, is without doubt much more nearly
related to F. evanescens than to F. distichus, with which it has
long been confounded and considered identical.

Among the Greenland collection is one which differs from any
that Prof. Agardh had seen, but which agrees most nearly with
F. fili/ormis, although it is separated by fixed characters from all
the species previously received. The smallest forms come
nearest to Z. balticus, like that forming globular vesicles which
probably float the plant with ease into deeper water. It has been
named F. divergens.

The fact that the species of Fucus, more than those of various

*In the narrative of the German Arctic Expedition (vol. ii, p. 345) Z.
Phyllitis is stated to have been found all along the East Greenland coast
among and under the ice. This is the first time I believe that this Alga has
been reported from so high a latitude. It was accompanied by Dtsmarestia
aculeata.—'UL. P. M,

58

NATURE

{May 20, 1875

other genera, appear to be formed upon a single t)rpe, contri-
butes naturally to the common opinion that the genus has few
but much-varying species. In describing the Greenland fo:ms,
Prof. Agardh has endeavoured to show that besides the differ-
ence in form, deviations also occur which ought to be retained
as characteristics. In a preceding memoir he had stated that
the differences noticed by other algologists in the antheridia and
spores being formed in the same or in separate receptacles may
possibly be explained thus : namely, that in different seasons the
receptacles ditiler in this respect. Should such an explanation
prove to be erroneous, it will undoubtedly be seen that it is these
differences, more .than others, that deserve to be considered as
the characteristics of species.

The reader who wishes for further information relative to the
species of Algae inhabiting the Arctic seas is referred to the list of
Arctic Alga; in Harvey s Ner. Bor. Americana, and to Dr.
Dickie's List of Algae obtained in Cumberland Sound (Journal
of Linn. Soc. vol. ix.) Perhaps also some of the Algre collected
by Dr. Lyall on the north-west coast of America, thirty- two of
which had not been found elsewhere, may extend to the Arctic
Sea. See Harvey's List of AlgEC, collected by Dr. Lyall, Joum.
of Linn. Soc. vol. vi.

Mary P. Merrifield.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Atncrican Journal of Science and Arts , April, — The principal
contents of this number are : The history of Young's discovery of
his theory of colours, by Alfred M. Mayer. The aim of this
paper is to give extracts from Newton, Young, and Wollaston,
which embody the early literature of Young's celebrated theory
of colour, and to furnish a history of the steps by which he was
led to the adoption of what is now known as Young's theory of
colour- sensation. — A re-determination oi the constants of the
law connecting the pitch of a sound with the duration of its
residual sensation, by Alfred M. Mayer. This article refers to
a previous article of October 1874 on the same subject. Since
then, Madame Seller (who assisted Helmholtz) and Dr. Carl
Seller have spent considerable time in re-determining the dura-
tions of the residual sonorous sensations, using Mr. Mayer's
apparatus. From their experiments he has found the law

given before as Z> = {.^'^^ + 24)'oooi requires to be modi-
fied \.o D =■ —5^— -t- '0022, where D = the durations of the

N -^ 31
residual sonorous sensation corresponding to N number of vibra-
tions per second.— On the action of the less refrangible rays of
light on silver, iodide, and bromide, by Carey Lea. The result
of 160 very concordant experiments shows that AgBr and Agl
are sensitive to all the visible rays of the spectrum. Agl is more
sensitive than AgBr to all the less refrangible rays and also to
white light. Ttie sensitiveness of AgBr to the green rays was
materially increased by the presence of free silver nitrate. AgBr
and Agl together are more sensitive to both the green and the
red rays than either Agl or AgBr separately.— On the Silurian
age of the Southern Appalachians, by F. H. Bradley. First
portion (to be continued). — Spectroscopic examination of gases
from meteoric iron, by Arthur W. Wright. On the supposition
that meteoric iron has received its hydrogen and other gases
from the sun or some other body having a similar atmosphere of
great density, it seemed probable that a spectroscopic examina-
tion might reveal the unknown gaseous elements assumed to be
present in the solar corona. Only negative results were obtained.
But the fact incidentally observed of the varying character of the
oxygen and hydrogen lines in the presence of hydrogen, and the
near coincidence of two of them with prominent coronal lines,
with the possible coincidence of a third line, goes to show that
the characteristic lines in the spectrum of the corona, so far from
indicating the presence of otherwise unknown elements, are
simply due to hydrogen and the gases of the air, oxygen and
nitrogen. — On the duplicity of the principal star of 2 1097, by
S. W. Burnham. — The original notes under the head of Scien-
tific Intelligence are : Progress of Geological Survey of Canada,
1873-74 ; the genera Opisthoptera (Meek, 1872) and Anoma-
lodonta (Miller, 1874) ; the Gulf of Mexico in the Miocene
time.

Der Naturforscher, Nos. I to 5, 1875. — This part contains many
papers reprinted from other journals, besides several original
contributions. We note the following : — On the physiological

action of amyl nitrite and the causes of blushing ; investigations
made by Herr Wilhelm Filehne, who found that amyl nitrite
acts upon that part of the brain which is also acted upon when
the individual has the feeling of shame and blushes. The most
interesting part of the paper is the description of the effects of
amyl nitrite upon animals ; accelerated breathing and palpita-
tions were the result, evidently similar to the physiological phc«
nomenon in man. In the latter case, whether produced by the
ether or by psychic emotion, the phenomenon is exactly the
same. — Report on the Crustacea observed on board the Challenger
between the Cape of Good Hope and Australia, in the Antarctic
seas, by Willemoes-Suhm. — On the ascending currents of air in
our atmosphere, by J. Hann, — On the finer structure of the
electric organs of fish, especially of the species Torpedo, Malap-
terurus, and Gymnotus, by F. Bol. — On the point of combus-
tion : a lecture delivered by A. Mitscherlich before the Chemical
Section of the Association of Naturalists at Breslau. — On the
fossil Cetacea of Europe, by J. F. Brandt— On the diatoms of the
coal age, by F. Castracane. The author succeeded in proving the
existence of diatoms in a piece of Lancashire coal ; it was pow-
dered finely, and burnt in a stream of oxygen. The residue was
treated with nitric acid and chlorate of potash, and then washed.
The species he found were all sweet-water species, with the
exception of a Grammatophora, a little Coscinodiscus, and an
Amphipleura, and comprised the following: — Fragilaria Harri-
sonii, Sm. ; EpUhemia gibba, Ehrbg. ; Sphenella glacialis, Kz. ;
Gotnphonema capitatum, Ehrbg. ; Nitzschia curvula, Kz. ; Cym-
bella scotica, Sm. ; Synedra vitrea, Kz. ; and Diaiovia vulgare,
Bory.— On the Chastopoda of the Atlantic, by E. Ehlers ;
account of the results of a collection made on board the Porcu-
pine in 1869. — Studies on the diameter of the sun, by P. Rosa.
These studies were published after the death of the author, by
Fathers Secchi and Ferrari, and contain many interesting details
which are well worth the attention of astronomers. — On the
absorption spectra of some yellow vegetable colouring matters,
by N. Pringsheim. The result of these investigations seems to
be that these colouring matters are merely modifications of chlo-
rophyll, and that there exist numerous modifications of thi» sub-
stance, from the brightest yellow to the darkest green. — On the
influence of the concentration of blood upon the motion of the
bl ot>i-corpuscles.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

London
Physical Society, May 8.— Prof. Gladstone, F.R.S., presi-
dent, in the chair.— Mr. Crookes, F.R.S., exhibited and described
some very important experiments on attraction and repulsion
resulting from radiation, which he has recently submitted to the
Royal Society, and of which an account has already been given in
this journal (vol. xi. p. 494). It is unnecessary therefore to de-
scribe them at length, but it may be pointed out that the most
beautiful of the instruments is one which Mr. Crookes calls a
radiometer. It consists of four arms suspended on a steel point
resting in a cup so that they are capable of revolving horizon-
tally. To the extremity of each arm is fastened a thin disc of
pith, lampblacked on one side, the black and white faces alter-
nating. The whole is enclosed in a glass globe, which is then
exhausted as perfectly as possible and hermetically sealed.
Several of these instruments varying in delicacy were exhibited,
and experiments made showing the influence of light and heat of
different degrees of refrangibility, and in proof of the law of
inverse squares, &c. — The President, in expressing the cordial
thanks of the Society, referred to Mr. Crookes' statement that
the repulsion was proportional to the length of the vibrations,
and asked whether at the red end of the spectrum there was an
abrupt termination of the action, and a gradual diminution
towards the ultra violet. — .Mr. Walenn inquired as to the action
of the magnet and of different axes of crystals in causing repul-
sion.— Prof. Woodward made some observations with reference
to the manipulation. — Prof. Guthrie paid a graceful compliment
to Mr. Crookes' work, and observed that researches might be
divided into two classes ; those in which the value of the work
outweighed the merit of the author, and those in which a result
of comparatively trifling significance is the outcome of years of
patient labour. He expressed a strong conviction that Mr.
Crookes' research had, in an almost unparalleled degree, both
elements of greatness. — Mr. Crookes stated, in reply to Dr.
Gladstone's question, that the glass envelope of the radiometer

May 20, 1875]

NATURE

59

mu't be taken into account in considering the action of the rays
of different refrangibility, and further, that the increased effect
due to red light may have been in part due to the concentration
of rays of low refrangibility which attends the use of glass
prisms, A diffraction spectrum might give a different result.
He added that when a ray falls on a surface capable of motion,
which reflects it, very little work is done, but if the surface
quenches the ray, motion is produced. He then thanked Irof.
Guthrie for his kindly remarks.— Prof. Comu, of the Jccole 1 oly-
technique, described his recent experiments on the determination
of the velocity of light. Hegave an account of the method of Fou-
cault, and exhibited the complete apparatus, including the arrange-
ment of mirrors for multiplying the distance traversed between the
two reflections from the revolving mirror (Nature, vol. xi. p. 274).
—Prof. Adams, vice-president, mentioned that M. Comu had con-
tributed in no small measure to the success which had attended
the formation in France of a society closely corresponding to our
British Association, and assured him that the Physical Society
felt grateful for his presence, as he could well understand the
difficulties with which the early days of such a society are beset.
— M. Comu stated, in answer to a question of Prof. G. C. Foster,
that he objected to the revolving mirror method, because the
distance to be traversed by the light was very small, and because
the path of the ray lay through a vortex of air produced by the
rapid revolution of the mirror.

Royal Horticultural Society, April 7.— Scientific Com-
mittee. A. Grote, F.L.S., in the chair.— A communication
was read from W. Wilson Saunders, F.R.S., describing a
diseased condition of young poplars planted on the sides of roads
in Fast Worthing. The disease seems sooner or later to be fatal
to the tree, for he had not seen one tree attacked of which there
seems any chance of recovery. The trees are from twelve to
eighteen feet high, and with stems varying from five to seven
inches in diameter. The disease is most apparent in large,
rough, open wounds about the commencement of the lower
branches, and on the stem ; but upon closer examination
symptoms of the disease will be found all over the tree, even to
the tops of the branches. The disease seems to show itself at
first by a longitudinal fissure in the bark, which fissure is nearly
straight and but of little depth, having its lips slightly elevated
and reflexcd. At first the fissure does not penetrate the whole
depth of the bark, but, gradually deepening and extending in
length, the wood becomes exposed. This continues until the
wood is quite exposed, and in a branch of two years' growth the
disease assumes the appearance of a long open wound, exposing
much of the wood which the growth of the bark partially covers
up. Tracing the progress of the disease further, side fissures
will be seen producing the same results ; and these fissures,
running one into the other, break up the bark until occasionally
the disease extends all round the branch. When a branch gets
diseased, the portion above the wound dies. The disease is
often slow in progress, particularly when on the main stem,
large open wounds then appear, cf the same character as those
en the branches, exposing much of the wood, but having the
surrounding bark, although diseased and cracked, in a healthier
state.— Mr. M'Lachlan referred to a note in the report of Lieut.
Carpenter, of the American Geological Survey, in which it was
stated that the Colorado Potato Beetle was distributed by means
of seed potatoes, and that its absence in Utah and other parts of
California was to be attributed to the fact that it has not yet
been necessary to import seed potatoes.— :Mr. Hemsley sent a
turnip with a cavity in the interior of the root nearly filled by
leaves growing from the crown downwards and inwards. — Prof.
Thiselton Dyer exhibited under the microscope a portion of the
Plasmodium of Aithaliiim, showing the "streaming" move-
ments of the protoplasm of which it is composed.

General Meeting.— W^ Burnley Hume in the chair.— The Rev.
M. J. Berkeley commented on the objects exhibited, including a
group of species of Drosera and Drosophyllum exhibited by
Messrs. Veitch.

April 21. — Scientific Committee. — Andrew Murray, F.L.S.,
in the chair. — The Chairman remarked that from his own obser-
vation there could be no doubt that the Colorado Potato
Beetle was perfectly able to live in the climate of Canada. —
Mr. Edmonds sent from the Gardens at Chiswick House
a basket of Pcziza lanuginosa.— "Dr. Masters exhibited shoots
of peach-trees which had been killed owing to having been
thickly painted with colza oil. — Mr. Wilson Saunders
communicated a note on a monstrous condition of the early
St. John's Cabbage. When the bed of cabbages was about

at its best, a long, warm, very dry period was succeeded by
much rain. The sudden impulse given to vegetation by this
soon caused the solid heads of the cabbage to burst, and in a
few days a series of smaller, well-shaped, rounded, compact
heads were formed from the central axis of growth, closely
touching each other, and backed up by the leaves of the original
head, which remained green and full of sap. The number of
these smaller heads varied from three to six in each cabbage. —
Prof. Thiielton Dyer read an abstract from the Sitzimgsbericht
der Gesellschaft Naturforschender Freunde zu Berlin for Nov. 17,
1874, in which an account was given by Magnus of the produc-
tion of graft hybrids in the potato by Renter, the chief gardener
at Potsdam, in 1874. He used tbe white long Mexican and the
dark grey black kidney, both of which sorts had been intro-
duced from America by the Novara Expedition. A wedge-
shaped piece of the former, bearing an eye, was grafted upon
the latter. The graft hybrids exhibited an intermediate cha-
racter in form between the parents. They were broader and
thicker than the long thin Mexican, longer than the black
kidney. One of the potatoes also exhibited a blending of the
colours. The two ends were red, and the middle zone a greyish
yellow. The dark grey colour of the black kidney is produced
by the intense red sap in a layer of cells covered by the corky
rind. In a subsequent communication Magnus mentioned
similar experiments which had been made by Dr. Max Heimann,
and communicated to the botanical section ot the Schlesischen
Gesellschaft in the Sitzungsberichi for Nov. 19, 1872. Magnus
described similar results obtained by Dr. Neubert, of Stuttgart,
by herbaceous grafts of the stems.

General Meeting.— W. Burnley Hume in the chair.— Prof.
Thiselton Dyer commented on the objects exhibited.

Anthropological Institute, May 11.— Col. A. Lane- Fox,
president, in the chair.— Mr. Moncure D. Conway, M.A., read a
paper on Mythology. He maintained that the evolution of
mythology was the reverse of what the facts of physical evolu-
tion might suggest ; it was not from beneath upwards to higher
things, but rather from the grand in nature that the human mind
had arrived at the association of mystical meanings with the
stock and stone, plants and animals, which figured so largely in
popular mythology. Sacred animals were consecrated as syni-
bols of the higher phenomena. Flowers and plants derived their
potency from connection with solar or lunar influences, still
represented in the belief that to be healing they must be gathered
at certain holy times or at certain phases of the moon. It was
also maintained that the gods were personifications of power, and
unmoral ; they were gradually divided into good and evil, the
demoniac powers being for a long time not diabolical, but per-
sonifications of hunger, thirst, and the dangers and impediments
of life. The idea was combated that men had ever worshipped
purely evil powers. The legend of Eden was held by Mr. Con-
way to be inexplicable by Semitic analogues. In India were
found the myths of serpent-guarded trees and the apple of im-
mortality, and the curse on the serpent which had puzzled theo-
logians was explained by the theory of transmigration.— A paper
by Rev. A. H. Sayce, M.A., was read, on Language and Race.
The author held that the fallacy of language as a sure and certain
test of race is one to which few modem philologists would com-
mit themselves. There was no assertion which could be more
readily confronted with history, or, when so confronted, more
clearly be demonstrated to be false. Society implied language,
race did not ; hence, while it might be asserted that language is
the test of social contact, it might be asserted vdth equal pre-
cision that it is not a test of race. Language could tell us
nothing of race. It did not even raise a presumption that
the speakers of the same language were all of the same origin .
It was only necessary to look at the great States of Europe, with
their mingled races and common dialects, to discover that lan-
guage showed only that they had all come under the same social
influences. Race in philology and race in physiology meant
very different things.— Mr. A. W. Franks, F.R.S., exhibited an
inscribed wooden gorget from Easter Island.

Entomological Society, May 3.— Sir Sidney Smith Saunders
C M G , president, in the chair.— The President exhibited male
specimens of Styhps, taken by himself in the pupa state, on
Andrena atriceps, at Hampstead Heath, on the 6th, 9th, and
17th April last. Mr. Enoch, who had been there on the 6th at
an earlier hour (between nine and ten o'clock) had been still more
successful, having captured 17 males, one of which, however,
was taken after 2 P.M. The President drew attention to th«
remarkable difference observable in the cephalothorax of the

6o

NATURE

[May 20, 1875

females in these specimens, as compared with those met with on
Andrena convexiuscula, and rehiarked on the importance of not
confounding the species obtained from different Andrence,
Stylo ps Spencii having been described from A. atriceps, while
S. Thwaitesii had been described fr«m A. convexiuscula. Mr,
Smith beUeved that eventually a great many species would be
found to inhabit this country, and that as many as a dozen
different species would probably be found on the genus Andrena
alone, independently of Halictus. — Mr. M'Lachlan read an
extract from a report made to the Royal Society, on the Natural
History of Kerguelen's Island, by the Rev. A. E. Eaton, who
was attached as Naturalist to the Transit of Venus Expedition to
the island (Nature, vol. xii. p. 35). Nearly all the insects were
remarkable for being either apterous or with greatly abbreviated
wings. Mr, M'Lachlan said that the theory as to the apterous con-
dition of the insects was that the general high winds prevailing in
those regions rendered the development of wings useless ; and Mr.
Jenner Weir remarked that the apterous condition was correlated
with the fact that plants under similar circumstances were apetalous
and self- fertilising ; and hence it was supposed that the existence of
winged insects was unnecessary, — Mr. C. O. Waterhouse exhi-
bited a Chelifer which he had discovered under the elytra of a
Fassalus from Rio Janeiro, — Mr. C. O, Waterhouse also ex-
hibited a drawing of a Neuropterous insect of the family Asca-
laphidce, from Swan River, presenting the pecuUarity of having
a large bifid hump ©n the basal segment of the abdomen,
dorsally, each division of the hump bearing a crest of hairs. He
believed it to be the male of Suphalasca magna, M'Lachlan. —
Mr. Wormald exhibited a collection of Coleoptera, Neuroptera,
and Lepidoptera, sent by Mr. H. Pryer, from Yokohama. — Prof.
Westwood communicated descriptions of some new species of
short-tongued bees belonging to the genus Nomia, Latreille ;
and also a paper, on the species of Rutelid(Z inhabiting Eastern
Asia and the islands of the Eastern Archipelago, —Mr, C, O.
Waterhouse communicated a description of a new species be-
longing to the Lucanida {Prosopoccelus Wimberleyi), by Major
F. J. Sidney Parry ; and also a description of the male oiAlcimus
dilatatus, by himself.

Royal Microscopical Society, May 5, — Mr. H, C. Sorby,
F.R.S., president, in the chair. — A discussion took place upon a
paper read at the last meeting by the president, upon spectrum
analysis by means of the microscope, and some additional par-
ticulars of interest were furnished by the author in reply to
questions addressed to him by Dr. Pigott, Dr. Matthews, Mr.
Slack, and Mr. Crisp. — Mr. Slack read a paper on the rela-
tion of angular aperture to surface markings and accurate
vision, in which he showed the fallacy of the present system of
using high-angled objectives for these purposes to the exclusion
of those of small angular aperture, and pointed out that extreme
angles were only to be obtained at the expense of accurate cor-
rection and penetrating power.

Cambridge

Philosophical Society, May 3. — A communication was
made by Mr. Pirie, on a method of introducing a current into a
galvanometer circuit. Mr. Pirie said that electricians had often
to work with currents far too strong for their galvanometer. He
mentioned various methods in use for checking the swing of the
needle ; but contended that an easily made and easily used con-
troller for rough work was a desideratum. He described an
instrument in the form of a continuously varying shunt, in which
a moving connection was obtained by a tube filled with mercury
sliding on a wire of suitable resistance. This form of connec-
tion was first used by Prof. Barrett of Dublin. With the aid of
Mr. Gamett, the Demonstrator of Physics, Mr. Pirie showed
that a verv good connection was obtained by this means ; and
subsequently, that the instrument described gave a control over
the movements of the needle in a galvanometer whose resistance
was not too different from its own.

Glasgow

Geological Society, April 15. — Mr. James Thomson,
F.G.S., vice-president, read a paper on the geology of the
River Liddel, Dumfriesshire. He described several fine sections
exposed along the banks of that river, showing wonderful con-
tortions, with great "faults" and "down-throws" of strata.
He also referred to the striking identity of the fossils found in a
band of impure limestone in that district with those found in
many parts of the Ayrshire and Lancashire coal-fields. — Mr.
Thomson also read some notes on new species of carboniferous
corals, giving an account of hLs recent investigations in that
department. -

Berlin
German Chemical Society, May 10.— T. Bohm studied the
influence of various salts on the growth of Phaseolus multiflorus,
and found lime salts alone efficient for the culture of these plants.
— G. Gerlich, bringing into contact sulphocyanide of potassium
or of ammonium with bromide of allyl, obtained sulphocyanide
of allyl when the reaction was allowed to take place at 0°, while
at higher temperatures the isomeric mustard -oil prevailed. — L.
Nilson has studied the selenites of beryllium, lanthanium, cerium,
didymium, yttrian, erbium, and yttrium. The former metal
appeared to enter into the salt as a diad, the rest as triads ;
thorium as a tetrad. — V. Hsemilian has proved the presence of a
considerable portion of ordinary alcohol in commercial methyUc
alcohol, — L, Pfaundler stated the influence various solvents have
on the proportion in which a base is divided between two acids,
— W, Ebstein and J, MuUer have isolated the ferment contained
in the liver and found its action on glycogen to disappear not
only when phenol but when the trace of any acid was added. —
O. Fischer has transformed methyl-anthracen into methylalizarine,
C15H10O4. — A. Ladenburg observed the action of acetic acid on
diamines to consist in the formation of ethenyl compounds :

C7H6{NH2), -1- C2H4O2 = C7H6N2HC2H3 + 2H2O.
Toluylendiamine. Ethenyltoluylendiamine.

— V. Meyer and W. Michler, by treating disulphobenzolic acid
with cyanide of potassium and potash, have obtained both tere-
pthalic and isophthalic acid in the same reaction. — Drs. von
Mering and Musculus, after giving large quantities of chloral to
patients, have found an acid in the urine of the composition
C7Hi2Cl20g. They deny the decomposition of chloral into
formic acid and chloroform to take place in the human system. —
P. T. Austin, treating chloronitrobenzol CgH3(N02)2Cl with
ethylate of sodium, has obtained the ether C6H3(N02)20C2H4. —
A. W. Hofmann has observed the following reaction of cyanogen
cnmercaptansRSH-hCNa = CNH + R-S-C-N. Where
R is = C3H5 allyl, the sulpho-cyanide is first obtained, which at
ordinary temperatures passes into the isomerical oil of mustard. —
R. Lussy has been able to combine one molecule of toluylene-
diamine with two molecules of phenyl-iso-sulphocyanate. The
compound diphenyl-toluylen-sulphurea, when treated with hy-
drochloric acid, yields aniline and the mustard-oil of toluylene
C7H8"{NCS)2.

BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

British.— A Sketch of Philosophy : J. G. Macvicar, LL.D., D.D. (Wm.
Blackwood and Sons). — Wanderings in the Interior of New Guinea : Capt.
J. A. Lawson (Chapman and Hall). — The Chemistry of Light and Photo-
graphy in its applications to Art, Science, and Industry : Dr. Hermann
Vogel (H. S. King and Co.) — Fourth (December 1872 to December 1873) and
Fifth (December 1873 to December 1874) Annual Reports of the Wellington
College Natural Science Society. — Vestiges of the Molten Globe : William
Lowthian Green (E. Stanford). — The Native Races •f the Pacific States.
Vol. ii. : Hubert Howe Bancroft (Longmans). — The Province of Psychology
— the Inaugural Address at the First Meeting, April 14, 1875, of the Psycho-
logical Society of Great Britain, by the President, Mr. Serjeant Cox. — On
the Distribution of Rain over the British Isles during the Year 1874. Com-
piled by G, J. Symons, F.R.B.S. (E. Stanford).

CONTENTS Pack

The Unseen Universe 41

The Tides of the Mediterranean 43

Our Book Shelk : —

Bonney's "Cambridgeshire Geology". . . ._ 45

Warburton's "Journey across the Western Interior of Australia" . 46
Letters to the Editor : —

AcousticPhenomenon.— Andrew French (H^2VA///?«/ra//<7«). . 46

The Degeneracy of Man. — Rev. S. J. Whitmee 47

The Law of Muscular Action. — F. E. Nipher 47

Physiological Effects of Tobacco Smoke 48

Our Astronomical Column : —

New Variable Star (f) 48

The Binary Star f Herculis 48

Peters' Elliptic Comet 1846 (VL) 48

Minor Planets 48

Our Botanical Column : —

The Pandanese 48

Santal Vert 49

Some Results OF the "Polaris" Arctic Expedition 49

On the occurrence of a Stone Mask in New Jersey, U.S.A. By

Dr. Chas. C, Abbott (IVith Illustration) 49

Fertilisation of Flowers by Insects, X. By Dr, Hermann

MuLLER {With Illustrations) 50

Note on THE Hvrcanian Sea. By Major Herbert Wood, C.E. . 51

The Commons Experiments on Animals Bill 52

Ballooning and Science. By W. de Fonviellk .... ; . , 52

Notes 53

Arctic Marine Vegetation. By Mrs. Mary P. Merrifield . . 55

Scientific Serials 5S

Societies and Academies 58

Books and Pamphlets Received 60

NATURE

6i

THURSDAY, MAY 27, 187S

THE ARCTIC EXPEDITION

ACCORDING to present arrangements, the Arctic
Expedition leaves our shores on Saturday next.
We feel that this event is one of no ordinary scientific
importance, and indeed that it is significant, in a high
degree, of a change which has come over the ideas of the
governors and the governed alike in this country.

While prior Expeditions have advanced knowledge on
their way to a high northern latitude, the present one
sails to a high northern latitude for the purpose of
advancing knowledge. We believe that the Admiralty
authorities are fully aware of the importance of this dis-
tinction, and that when the final Instructions about to be
issued to Capt. Nares are published, it will be seen that
although they have been compelled to lay down a route
and to state a goal to be reached if possible, the advance-
ment of natural knowledge as opposed to mere topography
is recognised as the main object. ♦

All the best hearts in Britain will beat higher at the
thought of this noble British attempt to drive still
further back the boundaries of the unknown and the
unexplored in spite of the obvious perils with which the
attempt is surrounded. The work is undoubtedly one of
difficulty, and although a combination of past experience
and present discipline may be regarded as certain to
restore to us at some future day the gallant men now
aboard the Alert and Discovery, it is almost too much to
hope that both the ships will run the gauntlet of the ice-
barriers both out and home. Capt. Nares, we presume,
has, as the Admiralty Arctic Committee recommended, full
authority to abandon the Alert in 1877 if the exploration
in 1876 has been final or her escape be doubtful, and the
possible abandonment of both ships is contemplated in
the Committee's Report : this shows that the Admiralty
has counted the cost, and the fact that the Expedition
sails shows us how the benefit resulting from scientific
inquiry is acknowledged by the Government.

Were the officers of the ships less devoted to the scien-
tific side of their work, or less capable of undertaking it
than they are, they might be fairly alarmed at the parting
gifts of the men of science which they have received
this week in the shape of Instruments of all kinds, a
special Arctic Manual of Scientific Inquiry of some
eight hundred pages, and Scientific Instructions in the
branches of work to which the Council of the Royal
Society attaches the highest importance. The Manual,
which has been edited by Prof. Rupert Jones on the biolo-
gical, and by Prof. W. G. Adams on the physical, side, is
supposed to contain the most important information
already acquired on the various inquiries to be prose-
cuted ; the Instructions being intended to show in what
direction and in what manner this information can be
extended.

A glance at the Manual and Instructions, to which we
shall take occasion to refer more at length on a subse-
quent occasion, will make many regret that they are not
among those who, if they are incurring risk and under-
going privations, will, during the greater part of their
absence, be living in a new world of surpassing interest
from a scientific point of view, as well as of soul-stirring
Vol. xii.— No. 291

grandeur, not unmixed with awful beauty ; a world in
which there is almost a new astronomy, where even the
colours of the sky are different, and where not only the
physicist but the biologist finds fresh wonders at every step.

The Hydrographer of the Admiralty, Capt. Evans,
has made a noble contribution to the volume of In-
structions, in the shape of three provisional maps
of the Magnetic Elements, not only over the whole
of the region to be explored, but including Greenland
and part of the region to the west of Baffin's Bay and
Davis' Strait. The various inquiries to be prosecuted
by the officers and the naturalists of the Expedition,
Capt. Feilden and Mr. Hart, are dealt with in the In-
structions, among others, by Profs. Stokes, Sir Wm.
Thomson, Adams, and Tyndall, the Hydrographer, Mr.
Hind, Mr. Spottiswoode, Dr. Haughton, Mr. Scott, Dr.
Rae, and Mr. Lockyer, on the physical side ; and by Dr.
Hooker, Profs. Huxley, AUman, Flower, Maskelyne,
Ramsay, and Roscoe, Dr. Giinther, Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys,
Mr. J. Evans, and Mr. Judd on the biological, geological,
and mineralogical sides.

Looking at the contents of the Manual, every possible
source of information in Arctic Biology, Geology, and
Physics would seem to have been ransacked, and the
result is a volume which must be of the highest value,
not only to those whose only text-book it will be for the
next two or three .years, but to all who wish for the best
information about the region for which the envied ex-
plorers sail on Saturday. Among those whose contri-
butions have been printed in the biological department will
be found such names as those of Liitken, Morch, Gieseckd,
Hooker, Heer, Nordenskjold, Huxley, E. Forbes, and
many others.. All the most notable Arctic explorers
have been drawn upon, from Sabine and Parry down to
Payer and Weyprecht ; while contributions will be found
from many of the greatest living authorities on such
subjects as Meteorology, Physical Properties of Ice,
Tides and Currents, Geodesy and Pendulum Experi-
ments. Terrestrial Magnetism, and the Aurora.

It will be sufficiently evident, therefore, that those men
of science who were anxious for Arctic exploration, and
on whose recommendation the Government have fitted
out the Expedition, have done all in their power to make
it as complete as possible. The sending of the Valorous
to Disco with the Alert and Discovery will not only
enable it to start under the best conditions, but will
enable a new lustre to be added to the whole attempt, in
the shape of biological and temperature observations in
the waters passed through on the return journey, waters
which up to now have never been explored. For this we
have to thank Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys, for unless he had volun-
teered to superintend these researches, they certainly
would never have been made. It is to be hoped that the
authorities have not been unmindful of the importance of
at least duplicating all observations as soon as they are
made and of depositing them in safe places, so that
whatever may be the fate of the ships, the loss to science
shall be reduced to a minimum.

Capt. Nares and those who accompany him may be
assured that though they will be lost to sight for a long
time to come, they will be by no means forgotten, all will
wish them success, and every hint of news will be eagerly
welcomed. May the two trews return " all told."

62

NATURE

[May 27, 1875

SACHS'S « TEXT-BOOK OF BOTANY''

Text-book of Botany, Morphological and Physiological.
By Julius Sachs, Professor of Botany in the University
of Wiirzburg. Translated and annotated by Alfred
W. Bennett, M.A., B.Sc, F.L.S., assisted by W. T.
Tbiselton Dyer, M.A., B.Sc, F.L.S. (Oxford : at the
Clarendon Press, 1875.)

IN 1868 the first edition of Dr. Sachs's " Lehrbuch der
Botanik" appeared in Germany; a second edition
was soon called for, and it appeared "in 1870 ; the third
was published in 1873, and the fourth was issued about
the end of 1874. The third edition was translated into
French and annotated by M. Ph. van Tieghem, and now
we have an English translation of the same edition from
the hands of Messrs. Bennett and Dyer.

The want of a good text-book of Botany, one that would
give an accurate idea of the present state of botanical
science, has long been felt by English students. We
therefore heartily welcome the appearance of the English
translation of Sachs's " Lehrbuch der Botanik," because
we feel certain that it will supply that want so long felt,
and be of the greatest value to both teachers and students.
Our text-books had mostly fallen behind the time, the
older ideas and theories were still retained instead of
being swept away to make room for new facts or for the
more correct interpretation of long-known but imperfectly
understood phenomena. The illustrations of the older
works were often defective, frequently absolutely incoirect,
and yet they descended from text-book to text-book with
unfailing regularity. Terms were multiplied needlessly,
without any correct appreciation of the facts to be indicated
by them ; lectures became a mere illustrated botanical
glossary, the biology and physiology of plants were almost
entirely neglected, and the science rendered as repulsive
as possible. In the work now before us we have a text-
book of Botany which the teacher can confidently recom-
mend to the student as being an excellent guide; as
giving an extensive and trustworthy account of the pre-
sent state of botanical science in Europe ; and while it
indicates the theories and problems at present occupying
the attention of botanists, it points him to the subjects
which will best repay the original investigator. The
illustrations form an important feature in the work, most
of them being original, and the result of laborious investi-
gation : if borrowed, it was only when the objects were
inacessible, or because it seemed impossible to give a
better than the figure already in use. This gives a fresh-
ness to the book, which is a charm in a text-book of
Botany.

Prof. Sachs's work is devoted exclusively to Morpho-
logical and Physiological Botany, and therefore differs
in its scope from the text-books to which botanical
students in this country are accustomed. The whole
work is divided into three books. Books I. and II. treat
respectively of General and Special Morphology, Book III.
being devoted to Physiology. No exhaustive account of
the characters of the natural orders of flowering plants is
given, a feature which at once places Sachs's text- book in
marked contrast to our English ones. All that is given
is an enumeration of the orders and families according to
the systems recently proposed by Braun and Hanstein.
But the want of characters of orders and families cannot

be felt by the English student, as he can consult the
admirable translation of Le Maout and Decaisne's
" Traitd General de Botanique," and there get all he can
possibly want. Indeed, we may look upon Sachs and Le
Maout and Decaisne as forming a complete work, the
one treating fully of such parts of botany as are omitted
or only very imperfectly dwelt upon by the other.

The General Morphology of Plants is treated of by
Sachs in the three chapters forming the first book. The
first chapter deals entirely with the morphology of the
cell, and is a most exhaustive treatise on the subject. In
describing the nature of the cell, Sachs says : " By far the
largest proportion of cells in the living succulent parts of
plants, e.g. young roots, leaves, internodes, fruits, are seen
to be made up of three concentrically-disposed layers ;
firstly, an outer skin, firm and elastic, the cell-membrane
or cell-wall, consisting of a substance peculiar to itself,
which we call cellulose. Close up to the inner side of
this entirely closed membrane is a second layer, also
entirely closed, the substance of which is soft and in-
elastic, and always contains albuminous matter ; H. von
Mohl, who first discovered this substance, gave it the very
distinctive appellation of Protoplasm. In the condition
of cells now under consideration it forms a sac enclosed
by the cell-wall, in which usually also other portions of
protoplasm are present in the form of plates and threads.
Absent from some of the lowest organisms, but present in
all the higher plants without exception, there lies im-
bedded in the protoplasm a roundish body, the substance
of which is very similar to that of the protoplasm — the
nucleus. The cavity enclosed by the protoplasm sac is
filled with a watery fluid, the cell-sap. And besides this,
there are also very commonly found in the interior of the
cell granular bodies, which, however, may be passed over
for the moment." Following this we have an account of
the formation of cells, and then the cell-wall, the proto-
plasm, nucleus, granular and other substances contained
in the protoplasm, cell-sap and crystals are each de-
scribed in turn. The union of cells to form tissues is
next described, and Sachs gives us a three-fold division of
tissues into epidermal, fibro-vascular, and fundamental
or "ground tissue." The section devoted to Primary
Meristem and the apical cell will be read with interest,
and the facts there stated will probably be new to most
English readers.

The Morphology of the External Conformation of Plants
is treated of in the last chapter of the first book. In
English text-books much space is devoted to " Organo-
graphy," the physiological method of study being chiefly
adopted. Sachs, however, draws a wide distinction
between members and organs, and in the section on
Metamorphosis shows that all " organs " may be referred
to a few original forms. The original forms or morpho-
logical members are only five in number, viz., Thallome,
Caulome, Phyllome, Trichome, and Root. These members
do not perform any functions, but they are capable of
being " adapted " or metamorphosed into "organs "per-
forming many very dififtrent functions. Take the adap-
tations of a Phyllome or leaf-member as an illustration of
this. Sachs mentions that " the thick scales of a bulb,
the skin-like (not "cuticular," as given in the English
translation, p. 129, top line) appendages of many tubers,
the parts of the calyx and corolla, the stamens and

May 27, 1875]

NATURE

65

carpels, many tendrils and prickles, &c., are altogether
similar (in mode of development) to the green organs
which have been termed simply leaves." So with all the
other members ; they may be modified to perform the
most varied functions.

The second book, treating of Special Morphology and
outlines of Classification, will probably be found to be
the most generally interesting part of the work. It
gives a clear and valuable account of all the " classes" of
the vegetable kingdom, which, according to our author,
are thirteen in number, and are to be further arranged in
five groups, viz., Thallophytes, Charace^e, Muscineae,
Vascular Cryptogams, and Phanerogams. Here the
in'dustry and care of the author are well shown, as he has
collected from all trustworthy sources, descriptions of the
structure and life-history of typical forms of plants. This
classification is slightly modified in the appendix, which
is taken from the fourth edition. The distinction
between the Algas and Fungi, namely, that the Algai
contain chlorophyll, while the Fungi do not, is disregarded,
and the Alga>, Fungi, and Characea: made into four
classes, the characters being taken from the modes of
sexual reproduction. It seems a pity that the division of
the Vascular Cryptogams into classes was not recon-
sidered, as the discovery of the prothallium of Lycopodium
breaks down the division into isoporous and hetero-
sporous groups. We prefer a division of the vascular
cryptogams into three classes : Filicina?, Equisetaceas,
and Lycopodinas. The Filicinse include four orders —
Filices, Marattiaceae, Ophioglossaceae, and Rhizocarpea; —
while the Lycopodina; include three, viz., Lycopodias,
Selaginella;, and Isoetea?. The chapter on the groups of
flowerless plants are of great interest, and will be studied
with pleasure by those who have only seen the meagre
s.nd often untrustworthy account given in some of our
text-books.

Passing to the Phanerogams, Sachs considers the dis-
tinguishing characteristic of the group to be the formation
of the seed. He contrasts the Cryptogams and Phane-
rogams, and points out the homologies of the reproduc-
tive organs. " This organ (the seed) is developed from
the ovule, which, in its essential part, the nucleus, pro-
duces the embryo-sac, and in this the endosperm and
the embryonic vesicle. The latter is fertilised by the
pollen-tube, an outgrowth of the pollen-grain, and,
after first growing into a pro-embryo, produces the
embryo. The phanerogamic plant, which is differ-
entiated into stem-leaves, roots, and hairs, corre-
sponds to the spore-forming (asexual) generation of vas-
cular cryptogams ; the embryo-sac to the Macrospore ; the
pollen-grain to the Microspore : the endosperm is equi-
valent to the female prothallium j and the seed unites in
itself, at least for a time, the two generations, the Pro-
thallium (endosperm) together with the young plants of
the second (sexual) generation (the embryo)." Throughout
the whole of the chapters of the second book, the influence
of the " Theory of Descent" is very evident. Sachs, how-
ever, withdraws, in the fourth edition, the pedigree of the
vegetable kingdom, which he sketches in Book III. of the
present edition. The Phanerogams are divided into
three classes, Gymnosperms, Monocotyledons, and Dicoty-
ledons. Our author adheres mainly to the Gymnospermous
theory, and certainly the question whether conifers are

gymnospermous or not" has yet to be decided, notwith-
standing the recent controversy of Eichler and Stras-
burger.

More than one hundred pages are devoted to the
Angiosperms, Monocotyledons, and Dicotyledons. In the
remarks on the flowers of Angiosperms, many of our long-
cherished ideas, the arrangement of stamens, for example,
are rudely disturbed. Monadelphous stamens, as in
Malvacccs, are shown to be the result of cohesion of
primordial stamens, and subsequent branching. The
Polyadelphous stamens of Hypericum are formed by
branching of three or five primordial stamens. The use
of the English terms "regular" and "symmetrical" as
applied to flowers, has been a cause of trouble to the
translators, and we cannot but express the hope that both
these terms may be quietly dropped into oblivion. On the
subject of placentation, the statements of Sachs differ from
those usually taught in this country. He shows the
relation between the parietal and axile forms, and,
making two divisions — viz., the ovules produced by carpels,
and the ovules produced on the axis — further subdivides
both of these into two : —

1. Marginal. Ovules for reflexed margins of carpels.

2. Superficial. Ovules for whole inner surface of the
carpel, except on midrib.

3. Lateral. Ovules produced singly or in numbers
from floral axis.

4. Terminal. Apex of axis bearing nucleus of ovule.
The formation of the embryo is very carefully described

from Hanstein's researches, and the three layers of tissue
in the embryo, Dermatogen, Periblem, and Plerom, care-
fully figured. The great significance of these layers has
probably not yet been fully appreciated, and if it holds that
axial structures arise from plerom and lateral appendages
from periblem tissues, then a most important guide will be
obtained enabling us to determine accurately the mor-
phological value of many disputed structures.

In the classification of inflorescences we have Schim-
per's term Dichasium substituted for the incorrect "dicho-
tomous cyme" used in English works. This is a marked
improvement, as it was always a difficulty to the student
to find that, although called dichotomous, it was not so.
There is also a great difficulty with the terms heUcoid
and scorpioid. Sachs uses Schimper's terms bostryx
and cicinnus. De Candolle, in 1827, used the term
scorpioid to distinguish the characteristic inflorescence
of Myosotis, the scorpion grass. The recent researches
of Kaufmann, Warming, and Kraus, show that the in-
florescences of Borragineas are sympodial arrangements of
dichotomies ; and we do not think there would be any
difficulty in retaining the term scorpioid for them. Bo-
stryx and cicinnus were used by Schimper in 1835, while
it was not till 1837 that the brothers Bravais amended
De Candolle's definition of scorpioid and introduced the
term helicoid. Schimper's terms, therefore, have the
priority, and ought to be used. (See Hofmeister's
" Handbuch der Phys. Botanik," vol. i. p. 434).

The floral diagrams given by Sachs will be found very
useful, and we also think that the adoption of the florjU
formulas will be a great assistance to the student. Sachs
uses the collective terms for the whorls throughout in his
floral formulae — calyx, corolla, androecium, and gynoecium,
while the translators have substituted the name of the

64

NATURE

{May 27, 1875

individual member of each whorl, ' sepal, petal, stamen,
carpel. This, we venture to think, is a mistake. We
have now used for some time the contractions Ca. Co.
An. Gn,, which we prefer, the only objection being that
this formula contains eight letters instead of five.

Many and great difficulties must have been encountered
in translating the second book, and these difficulties
seem to have been successfully overcome. We have no
doubt that further experience will suggest changes and
improvements even in the admirable book now before us.

The third book treats of Physiological Botany, and is
divided into seven chapters. The first chapter is devoted
to the molecular forces in the plant, and the second to
the chemical processes in the plant. Naegeli's theory that
organised bodies consist of isolated particles or molecules
between which water penetrates is here fully described,
and the value of the theory in explaining nutrition and
growth by intussusception pointed out. The movements
of water and gases in plants are also treated of in this
chapter. The second chapter deals with the elementary
constituents of the food of plants, assimilation and meta-
tastasis, and respiration in plants. Sachs describes the
separation of oxygen and fixation of carbon as assimila-
tion, and limits the apphcation of the term respiration to
the taking up of oxygen and liberation of carbon dioxide.
The influence of external conditions, as temperature, light,
electricity, and gravitation in plants, forms the subject
of the third chapter. The mechanical laws of growth,
including the movements of growing parts, are fully
described in chapter iv. This chapter will be read with
much interest, and many of the statements will be found
to be new to Enghsh students. The fifth chapter gives a
careful resume of what is known regarding the movements
met with in full-grown parts of plants, whether periodic
or dependent on the action of stimuli. Chapter vi. is
devoted to the phenomena of sexual reproduction, the
sections on the influence of relationship on sexual cells,
and on hybridisation being of much importance. The
last chapter is devoted to the origin of species, to varie-
ties, and to the Theory of Descent.

In closing the book after giving the above brief sketch
of its contents, we cannot but express our satisfaction at
the manner in which Messrs. Bennett and Dyer have
done their work. The notes appended to the English
edition are of much value, and will assist the student in
his studies. We hsve but one objection to the work, and
that is its high price as compared with the German
edition. Surely the price will be an obstacle in the way
of its extensive circulation. Could anything be done to
obviate this ? Sachs himself has already issued the
physiological portion of the third German edition sepa-
rately. Why not permit students to obtain one or other
of the three books separately ? Or might not an abridg-
ment be made, somewhat on the principle of Prantl's
Lehrbuch ? As a text-book it must exercise a most
powerful influence on botanical teaching in this country,
and while it will supersede all other text-books for
advanced students, we fear that its size and price may
prevent it being so widely used as it ought to be. With
Sachs' text-book within reach, teachers and students will
be themselves to blame if they are behind the time in
botanical science. Then, the English edition being
translated from the third German edition, students can

readily keep up their knowledge, because the "Bota-
nischer Jahresbericht," beginning as it does in 1873, will
refer them to all the more recent literature. While we
have thus expressed our entire satisfaction with the work
of the translators and annotators, let us not forget to
mention that the way in which the work is got up does
credit both to the Clarendon Press and Messrs. Mac-
millan and Co. W. R. M'Nab

DR. CHAMBERS'S ''MANUAL OF DIET"
A Manual of Diet in Health and Disease. By T. King

Chambers, M.D. (Smith, Elder, and Co., 1875.)
'"pHERE are many writers who, immediately they place
-L pen to paper, seem to be affected with a certain
formality of diction and seventy of style which prevents
them doing justice to their subject in the eyes of the more
easily satisfied public, who, while desiring instruction,
prefer it to be mixed with a certain amount of that form of
interest which can be given it by an apparent " at home-
ness " on the part of the author. Dr. Chambers does not
sufl'er from this fault. In the work before us he has pro-
duced one of the most readable as well as practical
manuals on diet which we could want to see. The inte-
rest is maintained from beginning to end, and much
valuable information is given on many of the important
topics of everyday life without the uncomfortable sensa-
tion of any effort being needed to obtain it.

The subject is treated of under three headings : General
Dietetics, Special Dietetics of Health, and Dietetics in Sick-
ness. The author commences with the question — What
is the natural food of man Flesh-eating animals have
teeth, jaws, and limbs suitable for capture and tearing,
vegetable feeders have bulky viscera, and so on. Apply-
ing similar arguments to the human race, " to judge by
form and structure alone, the natural" food of an adult
man must be pronounced to be nothing-;" from which we
must necessarily deduce, as is indicated by other conside-
rations, that man as man assumed his special characters
after he commenced the employment of instruments for
offence and defence. In fact, the developed heel, with
which is correlated the non-arboreal habit, is incom-
patible with the naturally defenceless condition of cur
species.

The space which is gained by the omission of the
chapters on the chemistry, botany, &c., of food stuffs to
be found in most works on diet and food, is, as we are
told in the preface, employed in a full discussion of many
matters connecting food and drink with the daily current
of social life. The number of observations which will
come home vividly to almost anyone turning over the
pages of this work is so numerous that we think a few
quotations will give the best idea of their scope. For
instance, salads form an important article of diet in every
family. " The salad ought to be dressed by one of the
daughters of the house, after she has herself dressed for
dinner, singing, if not with voice, with her clean, cool
fingers, sharp silver knife, and wooden spoon —
" Weaving spiders, come not here ;

Hence, you long-legged spinners, hence :

Beetles black, approach not near ;

Worm nor snail, do no offence."
Since the introduction of railways the difficulty in pro-
curing good mutton is acutely felt in all but large cities,
and the author makes a suggestion which, where carried

May 27, 1875]

NATURE

out, would much reduce the inconvenience. He recom-
mends those who can do so "to join a 'mutton chib,'
buying the lambs of a full-sized breed, and keeping them
to at least three-and-a-half years old before killing. The
price per pound will not be less than charged by the
butcher, but it will supply an article twice as good as his."
The remarks with reference to eggs are also very much
to the point. " High game has fortunately gone out of
fashion, and the most frequent form in which we now
meet with decomposing albuminoid matter is that of a
fusty egg. Some housekeepers seem to consider this
quite good enough for made dishes, and thus spoil
material worth ten times what they save by their nasty
economy. No egg should be allowed to enter the kitchen
that has the slightest smell of rotten straw."

In accordance with the opinion of most of the medical
profession and of a large body of the public, we read that
" as a regular beverage for a healthy person there is no
wine in the English market equal to claret." No doubt
the statistics of a few years hence will prove that the present
reaction against port and sherry will make itself evident
in the considerable diminution of the number of those
who are liable to be attacked with the gout, and so
demonstrate the advantages of the lighter wine.

In the section on the special dietetics of health many
important remarks are to be found. Hints are given to
those who pursue the commercial, the literary, and pro-
fessional life, special chapters being devoted to each.
The regimen of infancy and motherhood, of childhood
and youth, are not emitted. Dr. Chambers is not the
cnly author who inveighs against afternoon tea, and we
cannot agree with the argument on which his objections
are based. He tells us that " the dilution and washing
away of the gastric secretion weakens its power of digest-
ing the subsequent dinner, improperly blunts the appetite,
and not unfrequently generates flatulence and dyspepsia."
But the gastric juice is not secreted if solid food is not
taken, and any fluid introduced into the stomach can
hardly but be absorbed within a quarter of an hour or so.
The substitute suggested, " a biscuit, and an orange or
an ice," is, in our estimation, much more injurious.

Over thirty pages are devoted to the question of the
value of alcohol, the results being too lengthy to sum-
marise on the present occasion. They are well worth
reviewing. " So me well-meaning persons think to disen-
courage intemperance in drink by affecting a cynical
carelessness as to the quality of that which is consumed.
. . . However little a man's purse allows him to drink, let
it be good."

The question of the dietetics of disease will appeal to
all who have the charge or any interest in those who are
invahded. They bear the same practical impress as the
other portions of the work. Though some of the author's
suggestions may appear to be founded on a somewhat
dogmatic basis, they all have an clement of truth in them
which may lead the reader to think twice of the reasons
why he is accustomed to adopt any line of action which
may be directly opposed to them.

OUR BOOK SHELF

An Elementary Exposition of the Doctrine of Energy.
By D. D. Heath, M. A., formerly Fellow of Trinity
College, Cambridge. (Longmans, Green , and Co.)

In this book we have a very good elementary exposition

of the Doctrine of Energy ; perhaps, however, better
adapted for the use of schools than for the general public.
Indeed, we are told in the preface that the work was deve-
loped from a set of lectures given to the senior classes of
Surrey County School. In his discussion of fundamental
units the author makes some very good and original
remarks. He tells us, for instance, in connection with
the first law of motion, that "the rate and the direction
of motion with and in which (respectively) a bo dy is
moving at any moment is to be considered as part of its
actual conditiott at that moment, which it will retain until
some adequate cause changes either the velocity or the
direction, or both. We may reasonably inquire how it got
the motion it has, as we may how it came by its shape
or its temperature ; and again, under what circumstances
it will change any of these properties ; but not why,
having got them, it keeps them."

After dismissing the subject of fundamental units, the
writer goes on to dynamical energy, a subject which is fully
and fairly discussed. The author next proceeds to ther-
mal and other energies, and ends by a brief account of
molecular theories. If we have any fault to find, it \i that
undue preference seems to be given to the British system
of units, while the decimal system is overlooked.

We think, too, that in the introductory part of the work
the author is not very clear in his statement with regard
to energy, where he tells us we may define it to be " the
capacity or power of any body or system of bodies, when
in a given condition, to do a certain measurable quantity
of work ; that is, to change its own condition and that of
other bodies, exhausting its power by the using of it."
We think that the second part of this definition might
have been omitted with advantage.

The author, as he tells us in his preface, has endea-
voured to give the young student some conception of the
possibility of explaining the conservation of energy by
the theory that all phenomenal changes are really in
themselves changes of motion and position among the
molecules or ultimate atoms of substances ; and he adds
the hope that he has succeeded in presenting this as ex-
hibiting a probable surmise, which may be false without
vitiating the doctrine previously developed.

This strikes us as being very well put. The conserva-
tion of energy would hold if we imagine the universe to
be composed of ultimate atoms with forces acting in lines
between them; but should it be found that this last con-
ception is inapplicable to portions of the universe, as, for
instance, the medium which conveys light, nevertheless
it does not follow that the conservation of energy does
not still hold true.

The Commercial Handbook of Chonical Analysis. By
A. Normandy. New edition, enlarged, by Henry M.
Noad, Ph.D., F.R.S. (London : Lockwood and Co.,
1875.)
When the late Dr. Normandy first pubHshed his work
on Commercial Analysis the Adulteration Act did not
exist, and the book was chiefly used by chemical manu-
facturers and by the small class of practical analysts.
Dr. Noad's enlarged edition of the work appears very
opportunely, and it will be found to be essential to the
analysts appointed under the new Act. It contains, in
alphabetical order, a concise list of all ordinary substances
which can require to be analysed in connection with food
and drink, and in addition the methods of analysing
many substances which can only be required in special
manufactures, or are only used as drugs. Each article
commences with an account of the substance in its pure
state : this is followed by a Hst of the most common im-
purities or adulterations, and then by the best means of
detecting them. The adulterations of some common
commodities are somewhat startling; thus, bread may con-
tain rye and barley flour, oatmeal, pea and bean meal,
potato starch and rice flour, while of mineral constituents
there may bCjlime, alum, magnesia, ground soapstone,

66

NATURE

[May 27, 1875

and sulphate of copper. Ttie substances sometimes
employed to colour sweetmeats, liqueurs, jellies, &c.,
include some of the most fatal poisons, such as the
acetate, arsenite, and carbonate of copper, chromate and
iodide of lead, and the sulphides of arsenic and mercury.
Indeed, we well remember going over a sweetmeat manu-
factory, and on remarking on the bright yellow colour of
some large comfits we were told that chrome yellow was
employed to produce it, our informant evidently having
no idea that the substance is a most virulent poison. A
long article is devoted to the adulteration and fabrication
of wines, and the "plastering" and "fortifying" of
sherries is discussed at length. In all cases the most
recent results are given, and the work is well edited
and carefully written. A glossary at the end of the book
will be found useful both to the analyst and the student.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[ The Editor does not hold himself responsible Jor opinions expressed
by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return,
or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.'^

"The Unseen Universe"

We have read with satisfaction (Nature, vol. xii. p. 41), your
very candid and fair /r/m of our recent woik, "The Unseen
Universe." There are, however, one or two comments added
in which the writer seems to have misapprehended our meaning,
possibly from the fact that in the first edition of such a work the
arrangement may be regarded as not having quite taken its final
shape.

To begin, we fail to understand what the reviewer means when
he says, " It is a mere theological dogma to say that what energy
perishes in the visible passes into the invisible universe ; and the
dogma is worthless as a physical principle on which to build any
physical reasoning."

Oar views will be found on p. 159 of our book : "May we not
say that when energy is carritd from matter into ether it is carried
from the visible into the invisible?^' Surely the ether may be
looked upon as forming part of the invisible universe, and also
as having received a large portion of the energy which was once
attached to visible matter.

Our object was to show that we introduced no new dogma
inconsistent with the received ideas regarding energy, inasmuch
as these contemplate an invisible universe as truly as we our-
selves do.

The second point upon which we would remark is the asser-
tion of the reviewer that by regarding the visible universe as an
infinite whole, the arguments on which its end and its beginning
are inferred seem to vanish. In reply to this we would remark,
that even allowing (which we are not disposed to allow) that the
visible universe is infinite, this would not affect our argument
against its past eternity. Our argument (see p. 127 of the book)
is, that the dissipation of the energy of the visible universe proceeds,
pari passu, rvith the aggregation of mass, and the very fact there-
tore that the large masses of the universe are of finite lize is suffi-
cient to assztre us that the process cannot have been going on for
ever.

The Authors of "The Unseen Universe."

Sense of Humour and Reason in Animals
In the recently published edition of the " Descent of Man"
there is some additional matter concerning the above subjects, and
as the following illustrative cases fell under my own observation, I
think it is worth while to publish them as supplementary to those
adduced by Mr. Darwin.

Several years ago I used to watch carefully the young Orang
Outang at the Zoological Gardens, and I am quite sure that she
manitesttd a stns-e ot the ludicrous. One example will suffice.
Her feeding-tin was ot a somewhat peculiar shape, and when it
was empty she used sometimes to invert it upon her head. The
tin then presented a comical resemblance to a bonnet, and as its
wearer would generally favour the spectators with a broad grin
at the time of putting it on, she never failed to raise a laugh from
them. Her success in this respect was evidently attended with
no small gratification on her part.

I once had a Skye terrier which, like all of his kind, was very
intelligent. When in good humour he had several tricks, which
I know to have been self-taught, and the sole object of which
was evidently to excite laughter. For instance, while lying upon
one side and violently grinning,* he would hold one leg in his
mouth. Under such circumstances nothing pleased him so much
as having his joke duly appreciated, while if no notice was taken
of him he would become sulky. On the other hand, nothing
that could happen displeased him so much as being laughed at
when he did not intend to be ridiculous. Mr. Darwin says : —
" Several observers have stated that monkeys certainly dislike
being laughed at " (p. 71). There can be little or no doubt that
this is true of monkeys ; but I never knew of a re?lly good case
among dogs save this one, and here the signs of dislike were un-
equivocal. To give one instance. He used to be very fond of
catching flies upon the window-panes, and if ridiculed when un-
successful, was evidently much annoyed. On one occasion, in order
to see what he would do, I purposely laughed immoderately every
time he failed. It so happened that he did so several times in
succession— partly, I believe, in consequence of my laughing —
and eventually he became so distressed that he T^o?,\Vi\t\y pretended
to catch the fly, going through all the appropriate actions with
his lips and tongue, and afterwards rubbing the ground with his
neck as if to kill the victim : he then looked up at me with a
triumphant air of success. So well was the whole process simu-
lated, that I should have been quite deceived, had I not seen
that the fly was still upon the window. Accordingly I drew his
attention to t^is fact, as well as to the absence of anything upon
the floor ; and when he saw that his hypocrisy had been detected,
he slunk away under some furniture, evidently very much
ashamed of himself.

The following example of reason in a dog is the most striking
that has ever fallen wittiin my personal observation. A son of
the above-mentioned terrier followed a conveyance from the
house at which I resided in the country, to a town ten miles
distant. He only did this on one occasion, and about five months
afterwards was taken by traiji to the same town as a present to
some friends there. Shortly afterwards I called upon these
friends in a different conveyance from the one which the dog
had previously followed ; but the latter may have known that the
two conveyances belonged to the same house. Anyhow, after I
had put up the horses at an inn, I spent the morning with the
terrier and his new masters, and in the afternoon was accom-
panied by them to the inn. I should have mentioned that the
inn was the same as that at which the conveyance had been put
up on the pievious occasion, five months before. Now, the dog
evidently remembered this, and, reasoning from analogy,
inferred that I was about to return. This is shown by
the fact that he stole away from our party — although at what
precise moment he did so I cannot say, but it was certainly
after we had arrived at the inn ; for subsequently we all remem-
bered his having entered the coffee-room with us. Now, not
only did he infer from a single precedent that I was going home,
and make up his mind to go with me ; but he also further
reasoned thus: — "As my previous master lately sent me to
town, it is probable that he does not ,want me to return with
him to the country : therefore, if I am to seize this opportunity
of resuming my poaching life, I must now steal a march upon
the conveyance. But not only so, my former master may pos-
sibly pick me up and return with me to my proper owners :
therefore I must take care only to intercept the conveyance at a
point sufficiently far without the town, to make sure that he will
not think it worth his while to go back with me." Complicated
as this train of reasoning is, it is the simplest one I can devise
to account for the fact, that slightly beyond the third milestone
the terrier was awaiting me — lying right in the middle of the
road with his face towards the town. I should add that the

* This habit of violently grinning is not, I believe, uncommon among Skye
terriers— the pure original breed ol Skyes, I mean, and not the broad-nosed
shaggy-coated animals which have almost supplanted them. The habit is
very remarkable, for there can be no doubt, 1 think, that it is intended to
imitate laughter. Manyintelhgent dogs understand the meaning of laughter
as implying good humour. I have a setter just now, which always rouses
up and whines for admittance to a room when he hears a good laugh going
on, wagging his tail the while, in proportion to the varying intensity of the
laughter ; but I do not know of any other breed of clogs which actually imitates
it- at all events not with such evident purpose as do bkye terriers. The
purpose is evident, not only because the gesture is never made at any other
time than when the animal wishes to be particularly agreeable ; but iXio
because the grin is carried to a highly unnatural degree— much more, e.g.,
than the strongest snarl would require ; and, which is stranger still, I have
frequently seen my terrier on such occasions shaking his sides in a con-
vulsive manner— an action he never performed at any other time.

May 27, 1875]

NA TURE

67

second two miles of the road were quite straight ; so that I could
easily have seen the dog if he had been merely running a com-
paratively short distance in front of the liorsea. Why this animal
should never have returned to his former home on his own
account, I cannot sugsjest ; but I think it was merely due to an
excessive caution which he also manifested in other things. Be
the explanation of this, however, what it may, as a fact he never
did venture to come back upon his own account, notwithstanding
there never was a subsequent occasion upon which any of his
former friends went to the town but the terrier was sure to
return with them, having always found some way of escape from
his intended imprisonment.

Regent's Park, N.W. George J. Romanes

Equilibrium of Gases

In a former letter (Nature, vol. xi. p. 486) I ventured to
express an opinion contrary to that of most authorities, that the
temperature of a vertical column of gas at rest would tend to
diminish from below upwards.

I then stated that there was nothing to counteract the ten-
dency to the upward diminution of energy which must result
from gravitation. I am indebted to Mr. S. H. Burbury for pointing
out to me that a counter-action exists in the removal from the
system, at every point of the ascen^, of those molecules whose
vertical energy at that point is nil. The total mean energy of
the molecules may thus remain the same, although a constant
deduction is made from the energy of every molecule remaining
in the system.

Mr. Murphy's argument (Nature, vol. xii. p. 26) from the
absence of cumulus in the Arctic regions, is also a sound one as
far as it goes, and fairly counterbalances that derived from tro-
pical calms and storms.

I must therefore withdraw my dissent from the generally
received doctrine of the tendency to equality of temperature in a
vertical column. R. C, Nichols

Athenaium Club, May 20

Contributions to the Natural History of the Wolf (C^zw/V
pallipes) of Northern India

Having had the opportunity of examining a number of wolf-
cubs, it may not be without some interest to record my observa-
tions in your useful journal.

This year (1874-75) I examined fourteen batches or litters of
wolf-cubs between December 18 and February i. Judging from
the apparent ages of the different litters, I should fix the breed-
ing time of the wolf from about the middle of October to about
the end of December. But the majority are bred in December,
as out of the fourteen batches I could approximately fix the birth
of eleven of them in some date of December. On the 29th of
December a full-grown she-wolf, in milk, was brought to me,
with seven cubs, which appeared to be about a week old. She
had ten teats. The eyes and ears of the cubs were closed ; their
ears were drooping ; their general superficial colour was sooty
brown, with an under colour, that is, at the roots of the hairs, of
dirty light tan. The latter colour was more marked on the
head and flanks, while the sootiness was more decided on the
hinder part of the body. They all had a milk-white chest-spot
varying in size. Six of them had white hairs at the tips of their
tails.

All those I "examined, of about this same age, had similar
characters. When the eyes of young wolves open, and they
begin to crawl, about the third week, their general colour is a
dirty light tan, washed with soot. As they grow, their ears
become erect, their general colour a uniform light tan, with only
the tips of the hairs dark, the tail being the darkest part of the
animal. After the sixth week or so, the white chest-spot
emerges into the light fawn colour of the remainder of the chest,
and a dark collar on the under part of the neck becomes visible.
This collar looks as if dark grey ashes were brushed across the
greyish white of the neck. All those I examined which looked
older than four or five weeks had this collar. But it disappears
again as the wolf gains its adult colouring, becoming merged
into the uniform creamy white of the neck and chest. Out of
seventy-nine wolf-cubs which I examined, all but one had a
white chest-spot, varying in size from a few hairs to a patch the
size of a rupee. Fourteen of them had white tips to their tails,
varying in size. Seventeen of them had white tips to one or more
of their feet. These white marks leave no doubt about the close
relationship between the wolf and the domestic dog. The sex

of seventy-four cubs was note 3, belonging to thirteen litters.

Forty were males, and thirty- foar were females. The number ot
young at a birth was from three to eight.

Lucknow E. Bonavia

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN
I Leporis (Fl.).— This star is wantinjj in both Arge-
lander's Uranometria and in Heis's Atlas, though the
estimations of magnitude are very accordant ; indeed,
with the exception of Lalande, who calls it 6J observers
including Flamsteed, Bradley, Piazzi, and Johnson
appear to have uniformly estimated it . It x'i \s' s.p.
e Leporis, a star of the 4th magnitude. Baily has this
note : " The star is designated as of the 9th magnitude in
the British Catalogue j bat I apprehend this is a typo-
graphical error, as it is stated to be the 6th in the original
entry." Yet, the star having been omitted by Argelander,
and particularly by Heis, there remains a suspicion of
variability of light.

The Comet of December 1872 (IClixkerfues—
Pogson). The observation of a telescopic comet by
Mr. Pogson, at Madras, on the mornings of December 3
and 4, 1872, in consequence of a telegraphic message
from Prof. Klinkerfucs, of Gottingen, that Biela's Comet
had "touched the earth" on November 27, and might
be sought for near the star 6 Centauri, will be fresh
in the recollection of our astronomical readers. The
remarkable shower of meteors on that evening had
exhibited a radiant almost identical in position, with
the diverging point, which meteors moving in the orbit
of Biela's Comet would have, and hence the assump-
tion of our close proximity to this body during the
meteoric display. Places of the comet detected by Mr.
Pogson in the first interval of favourable weather after
receiving the telegram were communicated by him in the
same month to the Astronomer Royal and Prof. Klinker-
fues, but without details of the observations upon which
they were founded. With the aid of these positions the
question of identity of Pogson's Comet with one of the
bodies forming Biela's Comet was examined. There was
at the outset this difficulty in the way of entertaining the
idea of identity, that if Biela's Comet were actually close
to the earth on the evening of November 27, its perihelion
passage would have taken place on the 27th of the fol-
lowing month, ten or eleven weeks later than the date
indicated by Michez's orbit as perturbed to 1866 ; never-
theless, since the comet was not detected in i86;-66, in
the track it should have followed according to Michez's
calculations, though the largest telescopes were em-
ployed in a search for it, there remained the possi-
bility of disturbance of the mean motion in 1852, when
observations were last obtained, from some unknown
cause. Klinkerfues, therefore, assuming the elements
of Biela's Comet, examined their relation to Pogson's
places, and arrived at the conclusion that the identity of
the comet observed at Madras with one of the two Biela
comets could hardly be doubted. Subsequently, Prof.
Oppolzer, of Vienna, gave attention to the subject : he
remarked that with Michez's orbit of Biela, Pogson's
observations were not represented upon any supposition
as to date of perihelion passage, but with the semi-axis
of Biela, and assumed small distances of the comet from
the earth at the time of the Madras observations, he
deduced several sets of the other elements bearing
greater or less similarity to those of Biela, and indicating
a very near approach to the earth on November 27th :
his conclusion was, that Pogson's Comet stands with high
probability in intimate connection with the meteor-
shower of that evening ; and it is at least possible that
the observed object was really one of the heads of Biela.
Since these investigations, the full details of the
Madras observations have been published in the Astro-
no7nische Nachrichten, and Prof. Bruhns, of Leipsic, has

68

NATURE

[May 27, 1875

submitted them to very complete discussion, the results
of which he has just made known. His inferences are
generally opposed to those drawn by Klinkerfues and
Oppolzer. With one of the systems of elements given
by the latter, he calculates the apparent path of the
comet from Nov. 30 to Dec. 8, finding, as was to be
expected, a good agreement with Pogson's observations,
and with the rate of motion in R.A. given by his com-
parisons on the first morning, that of Dec, 3, but the
ephemeris does not agree with the rate of motion on the
following morning, which, Pogson's differences are sufficient
to prove, had not diminished. And it should here be ob-
served that the differences of R. A. were evidently obtained
with considerable precision, as might be looked for from
so practised an observer as Mr. Pogson. The orbit here
referred to is as follows :— Mean anomaly, Dec. 3*0
Berlin time, - 5° 6'-8 ; longitude of perihehon, 141° 9' ;
ascending node, 244° 34' ; inclination, 10° 28' ; angle of
excentricity, 54° 17', the semi-axis major being that
assigned by Michez for Biela's Comet, and corresponding
to a mean daily motion of 53o"-i. Again, Bruhns ob-
serves that it speaks further against the identity, that by
all the ephemerides, at least from Nov. 23 to Dec. 3, the
first days in the northern and later in the southern hemi-
sphere the comet should have been more conspicuous
than at the time of Pogson's observations, and it is
unlikely that it would have escaped notice, particularly in
the northern hemisphere. He so far agrees with Oppolzer,
that no assumed date for perihelion passage will bring
about an agreement of places calculated from the elements
of Biela, with those observed ; and that an extension of
the comet's period of revolution to 2528 days, without a
near approach to the planet Jupiter, is most improbable.
In Oppolzer's orbit given above, the inclination is 10° 28',
while that deduced by Michez is 12° 22'; and to prove that
such diminution is not to be accounted for by perturba-
tion during the assumed near approach of Biela to the
earth about the time of the meteor-shower, he has calcu-
lated the effect of the earth upon the elements of Biela,
with the perihelion passage fixed to Dec. 2775, ^^^ epoch
which would occasion the nearest approach of the two
bodies. The incUnation of the orbit to the ecliptic is
found to be increased i'-6 only, the node is advanced o'-4,
the perihelion longitude 7'"3, and the angle of excentricity
is diminished I'S. The earth's perturbations during such
a near approach as is possible in the orbit of Biela (for
1866) would not therefore account for a change of ele-
ments sufficient to represent the places of Pogson's Comet.
Bruhns then makes two assumptions with regard to the
ratio of the curtate distances of the comet from the earth
at the times of the Madras observations on Dec. 3 and 4,
and in both cases arrives at retrograde orbits : the motion
of Biela's Comet is dh-ect. The first of these orbits from
which he computes an ephemeris is as follows (we adapt
the longitude of perihelion and the inclination to the
catalogue form of expressing them) : — Perihelion passage
1872, Dec. 15*3763 Greenwich time; longitude of peri-
helion, 332° 28' ; ascending node, 33° 1 1' ; inclination,
31° 13' ; perihelion distance, 0-035205, Hence the track
of the comet would be—

RA.

Decl.

DISTANCE FROM

i2h.

h. m.

,^

Sun.

Earth.

Nov. 5

II IO-3

20 13 s.

1-251

I -606

„ 13

II 37*3

23 42

1-073

1-359

.. 21

12 i8-i

28 10

0-879

1-118

„ 29

13 27-8

33 14

0663

0-906

Dec. 3

14 21'5

35 4

0-541

0-828

„ 7

15 30-0

34 50 S.

0-405

0-787

We believe there is little doubt that, so far as can be
ascertained from Pogson's two days' positions and the
rate of motion indicated by his comparisons, the orbit of
the comet observed by him was retrograde, and therefore
agree with the inference of Prof. Bruhns that it had no
relation to Biela's Comet, or, we may add, to the magni-

ficent meteoric display of 1872, Nov, 27, notwithstanding
the singularity of its discovery by Pogson, in consequence
of the telegram sent to him by Klinkerfues, which was
grounded on the opposite opinion.

LECTURES AT THE ZOOLOGICAL

GARDENS*

IV.

May 13. — Mr. Garrod on Antelopes and their Allies

THE true Ruminant Animals characterised among
Artiodactylate Ungulata by the absence of incisor
teeth in the upper jaw, as well as by the possession of a
stomach in which three separate compartments, named
paunch, honeycomb bag, and reed, are always present,f
naturally fall into three different families, the Chevrotains,
the Deer, and the Antelopes. The first and last of these
remain for consideration.

In the Antilopine, or Cavicorn section, as the latter
name implies, the horns are hollow organs. They are
epidermic in structure, being composed of hairs aggluti-
nated together to form tubes, which are moulded and
fixed upon osseous protuberances of the frontal bones.
These " horn cores " are quite different in their nature
from the antlers of the deer tribe, as they persist through-
out the life of the individual, and are perfectly continuous
in their structure with the bones from which they spring.
The horns themselves bear much the same relation to
the thin layer of vascular membrane which covers the
" cores " that the nails on the fingers do to the subjacent
soft parts ; in the Rhinoceros the horn or horns, though
similar in structure, are solid throughout. In many
species the horns are present in both sexes, and in one
genus ( Tetraceros) there are two pairs, one attached near
the anterior and the other near the posterior margin of
the frontal bones.

Many attempts have been made to classify these animals
by means of the peculiar structures which are found in
some species and not in others. Among the most im-
portant of these are the condition of the muffle, or tip of
the nose, which is moist in some, as in the ox, and hairy
in others, as the sheep. The gland below the eye is also
a varying feature, being largely developed in the Indian
Antelope, for example, and absent in the Eland. In most
species there are two small " false hoofs," remnants of the
second and fifth digits, behind the true foot. These, how-
ever, are absent in the Royal Antelope and the Pallah.
Whether the horns are cylindrical, as in the Chamois, or
grooved, as in the Koodo ; straight, as in the Oryx,
arched, as in the Ibex, or spiral, as in the Markhour ;
smooth, as in the ox, or transversely ringed as in most,
are also tangible characters, by the combination of which
with others of less significance various endeavours have
been made to arrange the family. These, nevertheless,
are none of them satisfactory, on account of the large
number of the possible combinations which are to be
actually found, at the same time that the relative import-
ance of the different included characters is scarcely capable
of being estimated.

There are two animals, the Giraffe of Africa and the
Pronghorn, or Cabrit, of the western regions of North
America, which are evidently closely allied to the Ante-
lopes, and are probably nothing more than extreme modi-
fications of them. In both, the horn processes cr horns
are developed in both sexes, at the same time that neither
possess false hoofs. The abnormal feature in the Giraffe
is found in the horn-like developments, which are pedestals
of bone, covered with the ordinary skin of the body,
and capped with a tuft of hair. These pedestals, how-
ever, differ very materially from those in the Muntjacs
among the Deer, and from the horn-cores of the typical

* Continued from p. 28.

t A fourth, the manyplies, is found in all but the Chevrotains.

May 27, 1875 J

NATURE

69

Cavicomia, in being independent ossifications, situated,
on the suture between the frontal and parietal bones
instead of simple outgrowths from the frontal only. A
median excrescence on the forehead, in front of the
above-mentioned processes, is the result of a protrusion
upwards of the bones in the part.

The Pronghorn {Antilocapra) has well-developed horns.
They are attached to ordinary bony cores, exactly similar
to those of the Antelopes. They are, however, unique of
their kind in that they are branched or bifurcate at their
tips, a second smaller point springing from the anterior
margin of the flattened stem, and running forward with a
gentle curve, convex upwards. In another respect these
horns are even more peculiar. Mr. Bartlett, the Super-
intendent of the Society's Gardens, was the first to show,
from a specimen living in the Gardens, that the Pronghorn
is in the habit of annually shedding its horns from off
their cores. This surprising discovery has since been
fully confirmed; at the end of each season the core being
found covered with a skin from which the fresh horn is
developed.

Respecting the geographical distribution of the Cavi-
cornia, none are to be found in Australasia or in South
America. Very few inhabit North America ; the Big-
horn Sheep, one of the Bisons, the Musk Ox, the Moun-
tain Goat, and the Pronghorn embracing them all, Africa
is the head-quarters of the sub-ordei', and specially of the
Antilopine family. In Europe the Bison is a native of
Poland, the Chamois and the Ibex of the Alps ; whilst
the peculiar Saiga reaches our side of the Caspian Sea.
Among the best known Indian Antelopes are the Sasin
or Antelope par excellence, and the Nilghau,

The Chevrotains, or Tragulidas, form a group of small,
deer-like animals, without horns, which were formerly
associated with the Musk Deer. The investigations of
Prof Flower have, more than any others, proved the in-
dependent nature of the group, which approach in their
internal anatomy to the Pigs. The third stomach of
other Ruminants — the Psalterium— is wanting. In the
axis vertebra, the odontoid process, instead of being
scooped into a spout, as in the Deer and Antelopes, is
peg-like, as in the Swine. The second and fifth meta-
carpal bones are completely developed from end to end,
and the lateral marginal intervals of the upper jaw
between the canine and molar teeth are not cut away, as
they are in other Ruminants. These and other pecu-
liarities in the teeth, &c., are quite sufficient to divide off
the sub-order as an independent one, ranking with the
others previously described. The number of genera and
species are very inconsiderable, there being two of the
ioxvaexiHyo^noschusdirvdi. Tra^ulus), and not half a dozen of
the latter. Hyojnosclms inhabits Western Africa, occu-
pying much the same ground as does the Chimpanzee. In it
the metacarpal bones remain separate during the life of
the animal, as in the Swine, and not in the other Ruminants.
The fur is spotted like that of most young deer, through-
out life. Tragulus is found, two species — T. meminna
and T. Stanley aims — in India, the Napu {T. javanicus)
and one or two others making Java and Sumatra their
abode.

(7'tf be continued.)

RARE ANIMAL AT THE MANCHESTER
AQUARIUM

AMONG the numerous new accessions brought to-
gether to swell the list of special attractions for
the throngs of Whit-week visitors at the Manchester
Aquarium, one of the latest arrivals is especially deserving
of notice in these columns. This is an example of the
so-called ''Congo Snake" {Mttranopsts tridactvld), ixom
the neighbourhood of New Orleans, a singular eel or
snake-likc animal, belonging, nevertheless, to neither of

the classes represented by those two types, but rather to
the true Amphibia. Judging from its shape, proportions,
and colour, the uninitiated would certainly pass it as an
ordinary eel, from which, on closer examination, it will be
found to differ in possessing no fins, small bead-like eyes
a mere puncture in the place of the ordinary gill-
operculum, though more especially in having stationed at
each extremity of the attenuated body a pair of feeble
little legs, and each leg furnished with three slender toes.
These legs may be described as almost rudimentary, but
they are at the same time used by the animal, and with
more marked effect than might be presupposed, when
crawling over the ground at the bottom of its tank.
Rising into the midst of the water, it can further swim
with great rapidity, progressing then by rapid undulations
of its body from side to side, after the manner of a true
snake. The length of this specimen is about two feet
six inches ; greatest diameter, in the centre of the body,
one inch and a half, tapering off from the posterior pair of
legs into an attenuate and slightly compressed tail. The
colour closely resembles that of an ordinary eel, being
slate-grey on the dorsal surface and sides down to the
lateral line, and below this, ash colour. Along the lateral
line is a double row of minute punctures, the orifices, no
doubt, of mucous glands similar to those obtaining in true
fishes. The animal has to repair to the surface of the
water to breathe, but this is at distant intervals, a large
quantity of air being drawn through the nostrils into the
lung-pouch by a singular inflation of the throat, repeated
several times in succession. This specimen is exhibited
in one of the octagon table tanks in the centre of the
saloon, eighteen inches in depth, so that when taking in
its supply of air it does not altogether leave the ground,
but raises itself in a semi-erect position until the head
touches the surface of the water. With the head just an
inch or two below the surface, and standing, as it were,
upon its posterior legs, with the anterior pair held out
helplessly in the water, is a very favourite attitude with
this creature, though at the same time an essentially gro-
tesque one, reminding the observer of the somewhat
similar attitude and general appearance, on a colossal
scale, of the larva of Ourapteryx or other of the Geo-
metria moths. In its native swamps the " Congo Snake "
is reputed by the black population to be highly venomous,
an injustice to the poor creature as great as when applied
by our own benighted countrymen to the harmless Newt
or Triton of English ponds and streams, and of which it is
merely a highly interesting and most extraordinary exotic
type.

We are indebted for this rare and, indeed, at present, we
believe, in this country, unique example of this species to
Capt. A. H. Mellon, of the Dominion and Mississippi
Steamship Company, to whose influential and friendly
assistance we are also under further obligations for a fine
young alligator some two feet long, the trophy of a pre-
ceding voyage. W. Saville-Kent

THE PROGRESS OF THE TELEGRAPH*
VI.

IT has already been observed that from the limited
speed on the wire, the development of any extended
system of telegraphic communication between the centres
of commerce in a country where great distances have to
be reached, involves a vast outlay in the duplication of
the circuits necessary to afford the requisite transmitting
powers, and that by the adoption of the automatic
process, in addition to the accuracy of its performance,
the greater speed obtained upon long circuits enabled
the telegraphic service to be conducted by a much
smaller number of wires, thus reducing in a most im-
portant degree the outlay of capital expended on con-

• Continued from p. 33.

70

NATURE

[May 27, 1875

struction. It is not, however, only by the automatic
process that the full transmitting capacity of a con-
ducting wire can be attained. Metallic conductors under
certain conditions are capable of transmitting more than
one current at the same instant of time, both in the same
and in opposite directions ; and by a very ingenious
system of adjustment of electric resistances and balance
of currents, perfected by Messrs. Stearns, Edison, and
Prescott, the American electricians, intelligence can be
transmitted and recorded over a single wire in opposite
directions at the same moment. This system of trans-
mission is known as " Duplex" and " Quadruplex " Tele-
graphy, and is already extensively employed by the West-
ern Union Telegraph Company in the United States, and
over several of the more important circuits in Great Britain.
The " Duplex " system is working in America between
nearly all the principal cities, and has recently been in-
troduced between Port Hastings, on the island of Cape
Breton, where the land circuits are in connection with
the submarine cables, and San-Francisco, a distance
little short of 5,000 miles. The " Quadruplex " system
has been successfully introduced between New York and
Boston, with a transmitting capacity upon a single wire
equivalent to the transmitting power of four wires worked
upon the ordinary Morse system. Thus, by employing
arrangements such as the " Duplex " and " Quadruplex,"
a circuit may be worked either as one wire, or two, three,
or four wires, according as the transmitting capacity of
the circuit may require to be increased.

As is well known, several sounds may be conveyed at
one and the same time by vibrations through a rod with-
out interference, and it is difficult to realise the accuracy
with which every vibration is reproduced by anyone who
has not witnessed an illustration of the "transmission of
sound " by solid conductors. So it is with " Duplex " and
" Quadruplex " transmissions through the same wire in
opposite directions at the same moment of time ; it is
equally difficult to reahse how distinct signals can be
received at either end without interferingwith or destroying
each other ; and yet the principles involved are very
simple and easy of explanation.

By the Duplex system, one of the most difficult problems
incident to the successful development of telegraphic lines
has been solved, namely, how to provide for the annual
increase (averaging 20 per cent.) in the amount of busi-
ness without the annual expenditure on capital account
for the erection of additional wires. In the United States,
over 150,000 miles of wire are in operation, the rate of
increase being something like 20,000 miles per annum,
and the Duplex system is capable of doubhng the carrying
capacity of these wires. The great value of the Duplex
system consists in its capability to double the capacity
of a wire at any moment, should injury by storm or
conflagration interrupt the circuits. By its means, the
moment one wire is restored to continuity it becomes
equivalent to two, and a second wire raises the carrying
capacity of the circuits to four wires, and by skilful
manipulation the system may be introduced and adjusted
on a circuit in about a minute. From the earliest
days of telegraphy it has been well known that two
currents, either in the same or in opposite directions,
could be passed simultaneously through a conducting
wire ; indeed, by this means, often has the frame of
mind and temper of the operator at the distant station
been clearly read at the receiving station, even though
situated some hundred miles distant. When the direc-
tion of the currents from the two stations are passed
into the wire in the same direction, the directive force
of the needle becomes more decided, and when the
direction is contrary the motion of the needle will be
comparatively neutralised and scarcely perceptible. The
effect of a current transmitted along a wire from one
station upon a galvanometer needle while currents are

being transmitted from another station has therefore been
long known. How this circumstance has been applied to
the indication of distinct signals will now be explained.
Let us suppose two stations, A and B, are to be connected
for signalling each other upon the Duplex system : the
action of the coils in the instruments at the respective
stations is so arranged that neither station's local or out-
going current shall affect its needle when passed into the
line, its dial being left free to indicate the effects pro-
duced by the incoming current from the distant station.
For this purpose it is necessary to wind the coils of the
instruments with two parallel wires after the manner of a
differential galvanometer. Now, as is well understood
in testing a line wire for resistance between two stations
with a differential galvanometer, until the artificial resist-
ance interposed has been made equal to that of the line
to be tested, the battery current passed by the key into
the galvanometer will move the needle in the one direction
if the artificial resistance is too small, and in the other
direction if the resistance is too great. It is only when an
accurate balance is obtained — that is, when the two
resistances have been made equal — that a current will not
move the needle, because then the current is equally
divided between the coil connected with the artificial
resistance and that connected to the line, which two
coils being wound in opposite directions counteract one
another. Thus, so long as the artificial resistances (rheo-
stats) at each end of the line are equal to that of the cir-
cuit, each station will see the current sent by the other,
while neither station will see upon his own instrument the
current he is passing into the line ; and for this reason, that
the currents sent by each station divide equally between
the line and the rheostat, passing through the coils in
opposite directions, and have therefore no effect upon the
needle of the sending instrument. When the distant
station sends a current, it either increases or diminishes
the effect of the home current ; in the first case, it aug-
ments that portion which passes through the coil con-
nected to the line, so that more flows into the line than
into the rheostat, and the needle moves. In the second
case, it reduces the current flowing to the line, and more
will flow through the rheostat, moving the needle in an
opposite direction. Thus it is seen that the two currents
do not pass one another, but that when both stations
signal at the same time, the current sent by either of them
acts upon the distant instrument by determining whether
the currents sent by that station shall pass through the
line or the rheostat. Thus we see that when station A
signals separately, the current is equally divided in pass-
ing through its instrument coil, and its effect is neutralised
upon the needle, but it passes through both coils of the
distant instrument in the sajne direction, and therefore
produces a signal. If both A and B depress their contact
keys at the same moment, the currents from the two bat-
teries are united so far as the line wire is concerned, and
this produces an effect upon the differential arrangements
at each equivalent to a lessening of the resistance of the
line, and therefore more current flows to the line than
through the rheostat. It is thus seen that the Duplex
system affords a means of increasing the transmitting
capacity of a wire ; and an invention which practically
converts one wire into two, three, or four, as the necessi-
ties of business may require, is of great value.

A short historical summary of the introduction and
progress of the electric telegraph, from its earliest
appUcation in a practical form to the estabhshment
of its present world-wide reputation and utility, will
be naturally of interest to the general reader ; and the
following short sketch may convey in a succinct manner
the step by step progress that year by year has registered
the index of improvement. It is not intended in any way to
make the present sketch personal: some well-known names
must of necessity be referred to, and the reader should also

May 27, 1875]

NA TURE

be informed that the narrator in this instance has person- j
ally been more or less connected with the progress of the |
telegraph from 1844, the date at which this story com- 1
mences, to 1875, the period under review. In the year
first mentioned Charles Wheatstone, Professor of Natural
Philosophy at King's College, London, was at the same i
time connected with a musical instrument and publishing 1
business in Conduit Street, Regent Street. In that j
house many of his important improvements and patents in '
connection with the electric telegraph were carried out,
and many of the drawings connected with the filing of
the specifications of those patents were, by permission of
the directors of the East and West India Dock Company,
elaborated by a clerk in the Dividend Office of the Dock
House, Billiter Square ; resolutions standing in the Minute
Book of the Dock Board authorising the devoting of his
spare time in the office to Mr. Wheatstone's telegraph
drawings, and afterwards a resignation in favour of an
appointment in the then projected Electric Telegraph
Company.

Prefaced with these preliminary remarks, the more imme-
diatesubjectmatterofthepresentpaperwill be commenced.
It is a matter of history that the early telegraph patents of
Cooke and Wheatstone were disposed of for a sum of
1 20,000/. to a Company called the Electric Telegraph Com-
pany, in which the late John Lewis Ricardo, M. P. for Stoke-
upon-Trent, was at once the mainspring and vital element.
Of this amount Cooke retained 90,000/., and Wheatstone
received 30,000/. This sum included the transfer to the
Company, besides other matters, of the telegraph line
between Paddington and Slough, on the Great Western
Railway, already alluded to in the earlier pages of this
summary. As already mentioned, this short line was a
kind of Madame Tussaud — daily advertisements,
and a profusion of visitors entertained, or, as
they imagined, duped or bamboozled, at one
shilling a head, into the belief that standing be-
fore the little instrument in the Paddington
station, it would the7-e and tJieti convey their
thoughts, and in intelligible language return a
response from a station some twenty miles dis-
tant. Inquiries as to the " time of day," " state
of weather," or general health of the operator,
served to test the accuracy of the new invention.
Nevertheless, nine out of every ten persons who
were attracted by the printed placards sown
broadcast about the station, left the Paddington
terminus as little impressed with any behef that
what they had seen represented the future germ
of a great invention, as if they had viewed the
automaton chess player. Necromancy, witch-
craft, and delusion seemed to be the parting
impression on their minds as they left, in return
for their shilling charge. The announcement as
issued in 1844, inviting the patronage of the
public, is here reprinted ; it affords an amusing
souvenir of the early history of the telegraph : —

{^Facsimile of Announcement.']
'* Under the Special Patronage
OF ROYALTY.
Instantaneous Communication
l)e*wcen Paddington and Slouch, a distance ot
nearly twenty miles, by means of the
ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH,
which may be seen in operation Daily, from nine in the
morning till eight in the evening at the
Great Western Railway, Paddington Station,
and the Telegraph Cottage, close to the Slough Station.

Admission- One Shilling, Children and Schools halfprice.
Since this very interesting Exhibition has been opened to the
Public, it has been honoured by the visits of His Royal High-
ness Prince Albert, the Emperor of Russia, the King, and Prince
William of Prussia, the Duke de Montpcnsier, His Royal High-
ness the Duke of Cambridge, the Duke of Wellington, Sir

Robert Peel, the Foreign Ambassadors, and most of the
nobility, &c.

"In no way has the science of Electricity been made so sub-
servient to the uses of man, as in its application to the purposes
of Telegraphic Communicition, wliich is now brought to the
height of perfection. The working of this beautiful apparatus is
not in the least degree affected by the weather, intelligence can
be sent by night equally well as by day ; distance is no object ;
by its extraordinary agency communications can be transmitted
to a thousand miles in the same space of time, and with the same
ease and unerring certainty, as a signal can be sent from London
to Slough. Accordinfj to the best authorities, the electric fluid
travels at the rate of 280,000 miles in a second.

" The Electric Telegraph has been adopted by Her Majesty's
Government, and the Patentees have just completed a line of
communication between London and Portsmouth, agreeably to
directions received a short time ago from
the right honorable the lords of the admiralty,

"In the late trial of John Tawell, at Aylesbury, for the murder
at Salt Hill, near Slough, the Electric Telegraph is frequently
mentioned in the evidence, and referred to by Mr. Baron Parke
in his summing up. The Times newspaper very justly observes
' that had it not been for the efficient aid of the Electric Tele-
graph, both at the Paddington and Slough stations, the greatest
difficulty, as well as delay, would have been occasioned in the
apprehension of the prisoner.' Although the train in which
Tawell came to town was within a very short distance of the
Paddington Station before any intelligence was given at the
Slough Telegraph Office, nevertheless, before the train had
actually arrived, not only had a full description of his person and
dress been received, but the particular carriage and compart-
ment in which he rode were accurately described, and an officer
was in readiness to watch his movements. His subsequent
apprehension is so well known, that any farther reference to the
subject is unnecessary.

Fig. 26 —Cooke and Wheatstone's five-needle telegraph.]

"The Telegraph Office at Paddington Station is at the end of
the Up-train Platform, where a variety of interesting apparatus
may be seen in constant operation."

The first office of the Electric Telegraph Company was
at 345 Strand, a site now occupied by the Gaiety Theatre.
In those days (1846) scientific men of renown crowded
the instrument room to witness the prog^ress of this great
invention : George Stephenson, the Astronomer Royal,
Brunei, Vignoles, G. P. Bidder, Samuda, Rennie, Fair-
bairn, and most of the leading engineers of the day. In

72

NATURE

{May 27, 1875

345, Strand, the magnetic disturbances and interference
with transmitted signals from auroras and earth-currents
were first observed and the observations tabulated, which
have since proved useful, notwithstanding the then defec-
tive construction of the recording apparatus ; here also the
earliest lines of railway telegraph were inaugurated ; the
long five-inch astatic combination of the double needle

and single needle instruments was employed, taking the
place of less perfect apparatus. It must be remembered
that, previous to the introduction of the double and single
needle instruments, very cumbersome apparatus had been
employed. There was the five-needle instrument, requir-
ing five wires for the five needles, and a sixth wire for the
return current (Cooke and Wheatstone's patent, 1837) ;

Fig. 27.— Wheatstone's letter-showing dial telegraph, 1840.

the respective letter or signal being indicated by the
concurrent deflection of two pointers. Obviously, this
instrument became useless for extended circuits, the
eapital cost of outlay for the six wires restricting its use.
The old letter-showing apparetus of Cooke and Wheat-
stone ( 1 840), in which the letters of the alphabet composing
the word are severally presented to view at an opening in
a dial-plate by means of an electro-magnet acting upon
the pallets of an escapement, put in motion by inde-

pendent clockwork. The communicator of the instrument
is furnished with a dial-plate similar to that of the indi-
cator, so that on the rotation of the dial of the communi-
cator by the operator, the necessary succession of make
and break currents of electricity are sent through the wire
and controlled so as to actuate the motion of the index-
pointer of the indicator at the distant station.

{To be continued^

THE INDIAN TRIGONOMETRICAL SURPEV*

ONE does not usually expect to find much of general
interest in the Report of a Trigonometrical Survey.
Col, Walker's admirably drawn-up Report, however, in-
cludes some matter of more than special value ; indeed,
many of the details connected with the immediate work
of the Survey are calculated to interest the general reader,
they are concerned to such a large extent with the peculiar
difficulties to be overcome by the various parties, difficul-
ties which make ordinary survey work look like mere
child's play.

The Index Chart prefixed to the Report enables one to
form a very full idea of the work which has already been
done, and of how much there is yet to do. From Cape
Comorin to Peshawur and all along the Himalayan fron-
tier, and from Kurrachee on the west to Burmah on the
east, the country is covered with an intricate net- work of
triangulation, including, however, many gaps which will
take many years to fill up. Shooting out from the
northern border of the system of triangulation are nume-
rous aurora-like lines indicating the secondary triangula-
tion to fix the peaks of the Himalayan and Sooliman
ranges. We cannot go into the details of the work of the
Survey, and must content ourselves with a brief summary
of the out-turn of work during the year under review, and
with a reference to a few of the more interesting side
topics.

Of Principal Triangulation, with the great theodohtes
of the Survey, seventy triangles, embracing an area of

* General Report of the Operations of the Great Trigonometrical Survey
of India, during 1873-74, by Col J. T. Walker, R.E., F R.S., Superinten-
dent of the Survey (Dehra Dun ; Office of the Superintendent, G. T.
Survey, M. J. O'Connor, 1874.)

7,190 square miles, and disposed in chains which, if
united, would extend over a direct distance of 302 miles,
and in connection with which three astronomical azimuths
of verification have been measured. Of Secondary Trian-
gulation, with vernier theodolites of various sizes, an area
of 5,212 square miles has been closely covered with points
for the topographical operations, an area of 3,650 square
miles has been operated in pari passu with the principal
triangulation but exterior thereto, and in an area of 1 2,ocx3
square miles— in the ranges of mountains to the north of
the Assam Valley which are inhabited by independent
tribes — a large number of peaks have been fixed, many
of which have already been found serviceable in the geo-
graphical operations now being carried on with the mili-
tary expedition against the Dufiflas. Of Topographical
Surveying, an area of 534 square miles has been com-
pleted in British portions of the Himalayas, on the scale
of one inch to the mile, an area of 2,366 square miles in
Kattywar on the two-inch scale, and areas of 690 and 63
square miles respectively, in Guzerat and in the Dehra
Dun, on the scale of four inches to the mile. Of Geo-
graphical Exploration much valuable work has been done
in Kashgharia and on the Pamir Steppes, in connection
with Sir Douglas Forsyth's mission to the Court of the
Atalik Ghazi, and several additions to the geography of
portions of Great Thibet and of Nepaul have been
obtained through the agency of native explorers.

In the course of the operations of the year under review
the northern section of the Brahmaputra Meridional Series
has been completed, whereby two important circuits of
triangulation formed by it with the Assam and East Cal-
cutta Longitudinal Series to the north and south, the
Calcutta Meridional and the Eastern Frontier Series to

May 27, 1875]

NATURE

72,

tlic west and east, have been closed. The Straits of the
Gulf of Manaar have been reconnoitred, with a view to
connecting the triangulation of India with that of Ceylon,
which has been found to be feasible.

Probably the most important features in the operations
of the principal triangulation of the year are the re-
sumption of the chain of triangles in Burmah, and the
completion of the Bangalore Meridional Series for the
revision of the southern section of the Great Arc.

Referring to the revision of certain important triangu-
lations which were originally executed ^at the commence-
ment of the present century with very inferior instruments,
Colonel Walker expresses his conviction that no portion
of the principal triangulation remains which will ever
require to be revised, and that the last of the old links
in all the great chains of triangles which might with any
reason have been objected to as weak and faulty, have
now been made strong and put on a par with the best
modern triangulation.

The pendulum observations have been completed, and
the final results are now being computed and prepared
for publication.

Considerable assistance was, moreover, rendered to
Col. Tennant in the operations connected with the obser-
vation of the Transit of Venus ; the Appendix contains
Mr. Hennessey's account of his observations at Mussooree,
the details of which have already appeared in Nature.

The reports of the various district superintendents are
very full, and contain a good deal that is of general
interest ; the accompanying district sketch-maps are of
great use in enabling one to read these reports with
understanding. We shall briefly refer to some of the
points of more general interest.

In Major Branfill's report on the Bangalore Meridional
Series, a very interesting phenomenon is noticed in con-
nection with the Cape Comorin base-Une. The operations
of 1873-74 were intended to close in a side of the polygon
around the base-line which had been completed in
1868-69 j but it was found that one of the two stations on
the side of junction had disappeared. This station was
situated on a remarkable group of Red Sand Hills,
where, in 1808, Col. Lambton had constructed a station
by driving long pickets into the drift sand ; in 1869 Major
Branfill, finding no trace of these pickets, had caused a
masonry well to be sunk to a depth of ten feet, where it
reached what was believed to be firm soil below ; but
during the interval of four years this well had been under-
mined, and nothing remained thereof but some scattered
de^bris. It would appear that the sand hills travel pro-
gressively in the direction from west-north-west to east-
south-east, which is that of the prevailing winds in this
locality ; if Col. Lambton's station was situated on the
highest point of the hills and in a similar position rela-
tively to the general mass as Major Branfill's, then the
hills must have travelled a distance of about 1,060 yards
to the E.S.E., for the results of the triangulation show
that this is the distance between the positions of the two
stations ; thus the rate of progression would be about
seventeen yards per annum. From Major Branfill's
Notes on the Tinnevelly district, which are appended to
the General Report for 1868-69, it appears that certain
measurements of the eastward drift had made it as much
as 440 yards in the four years 1845-48 ; but the distance
between the trigonometrical stations of 1808 and 1869
probably affords the most accurate measure which has
hitherto been obtained of the rate of progress of this
remarkable sand-wave, which gradually overwhelms the
villages and fields it meets with in its course, and has
never yet been effectually arrested ; numerous attempts
have been made, by growing grass and creepers and
planting trees on the sands, to prevent the onward drift,
Ijut they have hitherto been unsuccessful.

Mr. Bond, one of Major Branfill's staff, managed to
procure an interview with a couple of the wild folk who

live in the hill jungles of the western Ghdts, to the south-
west of the Palanei hills. A strange dwarfish people had
often been heard of as frequenting the jungles near the
station of Pdmalei, in the north-west corner of the Tinne-
velly district, but until Mr. Bond caught these two speci-
mens no trace of them had been seen by the members of
the Survey. These two people, a man and a woman,
believed themselves to be 100 years old, but Mr. Bond
supposes the man to be about twenty-five, and the woman
eighteen years of age. "The man," Mr. Bond states,
" is 4 feet 6| inches in height, 26J inches round the chest,
and 18J inches horizontally round the head over the eye-
brows. He has a round head, coarse black, woolly hair,
and a dark brown skin. The forehead is low and slightly
retreating ; the lower part of the face projects like the
muzzle of a monkey, and the mouth, which is small and
oval, with thick lips, protrudes about an inch beyond his
nose ; he has short bandy legs, a comparatively long body,
and arms that extend almost to his knees : the back just
above the buttock is concave, making the stern appear to
be much protruded. The hands and fingers are dumpy
and always contracted, so that they cannot be made to
stretch out quite straight and flat ; the palms and fingers
are covered with thick skin (more particularly so the tips
of the fingers), and the nails are small and imperfect ;
the feet are broad and thick skinned all over ; the hairs
of his moustache are of a greyish white, scanty and coarse
like bristles, and he has no beard.

" The woman is 4 feet 6^ inches in height, 27 inches
round the chest (above the breasts), and 19^- horizontally
round the head above the brows ; the colour of the skin
is sallow, or of a nearly yellow tint ; the hair is black,
long, and straight, and the features well formed. There
is no difference between her appearance and that of the
common women of that part of the country. She is
pleasant to look at, well developed, and modest." Their
only dress is a loose cloth, and they eat flesh, but feed
chiefly on roots and honey.

" They have no fixed dwelling places, but sleep on any
convenient spot, generally between two rocks or in caves
near which they happen to be benighted. They make a
fire and cook what they have collected during the day,
and keep the fire burning all night for warmth and to keep
away wild animals. They worship certain local divinities
of the forest— RAkas or Rdkdri, and Pd (after whom the
hill is named, Pd-malei)."

The woman cooks for and waits on the man, eating only
after he is satisfied.

The means taken for tidal observations in the Gulf of
Kutch promise to lead to valuable result?. The object of
these observations is to ascertain whether secular changes
are taking place in the relative level of the land and sea at
the head of the gulf. Very great difificulties were found
in selecting suitable stations for fixing the tide-gauges, as
the foreshores of the gulf consist mainly of long mud-
banks, which often stretch miles into the sea, and are left
bare at low water, when they are intersected by innumer-
able tortuous and shallow creeks, whose shifting channels
would be very unfavourable positions for tide-gauges.
Only three points suitable for tidal stations were met with
on the coasts of the gulf : at Hanstal Point, near the head
of the gulf; at NowanAr Point, half-way up, on the
Northern or Kutch coast ; and at Okha Point, on the
southern coast, opposite the island of Beyt. None of
these points, however, are situated in ports or harbours,
where piers, jetties, landing-stages, or docks might have
been utilised ; on the contrary, they are all situated at
some distance from the nearest inhabited localities, and
present no facilities whatever. The operations had thus
to be of the very simplest nature. The only practicable
plan was to have the tide-gauges set up on shore, over
wells sunk near the high-water line, and connected with
the sea by piping. The wells are iron cylinders, with an
internal diameter of twenty-two inches, which slightly

74'

NATURE

{May 27, 1875

exceeds the diameter of the float; the cylinders were
made up in sections of fifty inches in length, the lowest
of which is closed below with an iron plate, and the whole,
when bolted together, forms a water-tight well, into which
water can only enter through the piping for effecting the
connection with the sea. The piping is of an internal
diameter of two inches, which has been computed to be
sufficient to permit of the transmission of the tidal wave
to the well without sensible retardation. Iron piping is
laid from the well to the line of low water ; it is brought
vertically up from the bottom of the well nearly to the
surface of the ground, and is then carried down to the
sea, where flexible gutta-percha piping is attached, and
carried into the deep water. The outer piping terminates
in a " rose," which is suspended a few feet above the bed
of the sea by a buoy, in order to prevent the entrance of
silt as much as possible, and it can be readily detached
from the iron piping whenever it has to be cleaned.

After many difficulties, and even dangers to life, Capt.
Baird's party managed to get the gauges erected and set to
work, and what with the tidal observations, observations of
the barometric pressure, the velocity and direction of the
wind, and the amount of rainfall — for each station has
been provided with means for making such observations-
very valuable results may be expected.

Lieut. Gibbs's notes on the portion of the Dang Forests,
in the Guzerat district, visited by him in 1874, are of great
interest, and we regret that space forbids us referring to
them in detail. His observations on the inhabitants of this
region are of special value ; he also seems to have paid
considerable attention to the fauna, flora, and geology of
the district.

Capt. Heaviside's lively narrative of the pendulum work
in India, of his journey home, and of the operations at
Kew, will also be read with interest.

Two narratives of somewhat unusual interest are given
in the Appendix. One of these, by Lieut.-Col. Mont-
gomerie, gives an account of a journey to the Namcho or
Tengri Niir Lake, in Great Thibet, about ninety miles
north of the Brahmaputra, by a native explorer, during
1871-72. The explorer was a semi-Thibetan, a young man
who had been thoroughly trained for the work, and who
was accompanied by four assistants. The party set out
from Kumaon in November, and crossed the Brahma-
putra at Shigatze, and amid considerable hardships made
their way northwards, reaching the lake about the end of
January, when they found it completely frozen over,
although the water is so salt as to be unfit for drinking.
The party intended to travel all round the lake, which is
15,200 feet above the sea, fifty miles long and from six-
teen to twenty-five miles broad, and intended to proceed
further to the northward and take complete surveys, but
were robbed of nearly all they had, and were thus com-
pelled to beat a rapid retreat, which they did by way of
Lhdsd.

During the great part of his journey to the Namcho
Lake the explorer found the streams all hard frozen, and
he was consequently much struck by the number of hot
springs that he met with, and more especially by the great
heat of the water coming from them, his thermometer
showing it to vary from 130° to 183° Fahrenheit, being
generally over 150°, and often within a few degrees of the
boiling point, being in one case 183° when the boiling
point was 183!°. The water generally had a sulphurous
smell, and in many cases was ejected with great noise and
violence ; in one place the force was sufficient to throw
the water up from forty to sixty feet. These springs in
some respects seem to resemble the geysers of Iceland.

To the south the lake is bounded by a splendid range
of snowy peaks, flanked with large glaciers, culminating
in the magnificent peak " Jang Ninjinthangld," which is
probably more than 25,000 feet above the sea. The range
was traced for nearly 150 miles, running in a north-
easterly direction. To the north of the lake the moun-

tains were not, comparatively speaking, high, nor were
there any high peaks visible further north as far as the
explorer could see from a commanding point which he
climbed up to. He only saw a succession of rounded hills
with moderately flat ground in between them. Imme-
diately north he saw a lake of about six miles in length,
which he was told was called Bui Cho, from the borax
(bul) which is produced there in large quantities, sup-
plying both LhdsA and Shigatze with most of the borax
that they require.

The Tengri Nur or " Namcho " Lake is considered to
be a sacred place, and although at such a very great dis-
tance from habitations and so high above the sea, it boasts
of several permanent monasteries and is visited by large
numbers of pilgrims. There are several islands in the
lake, two of them large enough for monasteries : at the
time the explorer was there the Ldmas on the islands
kept up their communication with the shore by means of
the ice, but he did not hear as to what was done in summer.
Fish are said to be abundant, and modern lake shells were
found on the shore as well as fossil shells, which were
very numerous and of all sizes.

The narrative contains many other valuable observa-
tions made on the people and the country through which
he travelled ; there is a good map of the route.

The other narrative is quite equal in interest to that
just referred to. It consists of extracts from a native
explorer's narrative of his journey from Pitor^garh in
Kumaon via Jumla to Tadum, and then down through
Nepaul, along the Gandak River, to British territory.
The explorer, who had to exercise much determination
and ingenuity, took minute notes by the way of all he
saw, and has added much to our knowledge of the geo-
graphy, the people, and the products of a region com-
paratively unknown. He had to cross many rivers by the
way, which was generally done by means of ropes sus-
pended between the banks. The explorer wished to pro-
ceed much further than Tadum, which is a little beyond
the Brahmaputra, in Great Thibet, but was prevented by
the head man of the village. He started on July i, 1873,
and reached British territory again about the end of
November, after having travelled nearly 500 miles. We
have space to notice only one interesting phenomenon
which he observed. At Muktindth, near Kdgbeni, about
1 1,280 feet above the sea, in N. lat. 29° and E. long.
83° 45', about 600 feet south of the temple, is a small
mound with a little still water at its base, having a sul-
phurous smell. From a crevice in this mound, at the
water's edge, rises a flame about a span above the surface.
The people of the place told the explorer that the water
sometimes increases in quantity sufficiently to flow into the
crevice ; the flames then disappear for a while, and there
is a gurgling noise, a report, and the flames burst up and
show again. This spot is called Chume Giarsa by the
Bhots.

Our readers will see, from the cursory glance we have
been able to take at this Report, that it contains much
valuable matter apart from the immediate work of the
Survey, the members of which are doing good service to
India and to science.

THE BIOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE
BRITISH MUSEUM

n^HE newly-issued Report of the condition and develop-^
•*■ ment of the British Museum has, so far as biologists
are concerned, a special interest. Its results m.ay be
considered as an index of the public feeling on the im-
portance of the study of Natural History. Looked at in
this light, we think that specialists in all the departments
may feel hopeful. The acquisitions to the Zoological
Department have been numerous (30,699 in all), over
6,000 being Vertebrata, " the majority being either entire

May 27, 1 875 J

NATURE

IS

animals preserved in spirits, or skeletons." The spirit
collection till recently has been much neglected, and all
who have wished to prosecute their investigations into the
more intricate details of zoology and comparative anatomy
—into points of myology, nerve distribution, &c., quite as
important as, but much less easily arrived at than, osteo-
logical characters — may justifiably look forward to the
time when the national collection will contain, preserved
in their entirety, examples of all reasonably-sized species.

" In the acquisition by purchase of skeletons, particular
care has been taken [we are told] that they should be
those of animals captured in a wild state, the skeletons of
mammals (and birds) which have been brought up or have
lived for some time in menageries, showing rarely, if ever,
a perfect development of the osseous system. Scarcely
less caution is required in admitting specimens of this
kind into the collection for the sake of their skins." There
is a great deal of truth in these remarks, but there are
many new species of animals, such as the new Mourning
Kangaroo, brought over by M. d'Albertis, and the Hairy-
eared Rhinoceros {Rhitwceros lasioiis), discovered by Mr.
Sclater, and now enjoying perfect health in the Zoological
Society's Gardens, which are only known from these indi-
viduals.* It would be a loss to the collection if these
were not obtained when opportunity afforded, and we are
glad to know that the small kangaroo referred to has
died and has been secured by Dr. Giinther.

We are informed that over three thousand students who
have visited the department during the past year, with the
object of consulting the various portions of the collections,
"have been, assisted and attended to." All, we are con-
vinced, will agree in expressing their best thanks to Dr.
Albert Giinther, who, as the worthy successor of the late
Dr. J. E. Gray, has done all in his power to place every
facility in the way of those who are desirous of studying
Natural Histor)'.

NOTES

M. LeverrieR was expected in England during tiie present
month ; but as the revision of his planetary theories, and
especially of the Theory of Saturn, in which he has been occu-
pied for some time, is not yet completed, his visit to this country
will be delayed.

The Emperor of Brazil has sent to Prof. Virchovv, accom-
panied by an autograph letter in French, an interesting collec-
tion of skulls and skeletons, amongst which are some found in
ancient caverns of Brazil. The collection has been made at the
Emperor's request by the director of the Museum at Rio,
Seuor Ladislas Neto. The Emperor regrets that he did not
have the pleasure of making Prof. Virchow's acquaintance at
Berlin when he visited that city, as the Professor's investigations
" are highly esteemed even by those to whom, like myself, it is
not given to be more than friends to science. '

The Geographical Society of Rome gave a banquet, on May
1 1, to the celebrated African traveller Dr. Nachtigal ; many of
the members and several notabilities of the city of Rome were
present in honour of the guest. The Vice-president of the
Society, Senator Amari, proposed the health of the guest, who
had just returned from a journey through Fezzan, Bornu, Wadai,
and Darfur. Dr. Nachtigal, in reply, wished success to the scien-
tific expedition to Central Africa planned by the Society ; he
considered that this expedition would be an honour to the whole
Italian kingdom.

The transfer of the India Museum to the Eastern Galleries
of the International Exhibition Buildings, South Kensington,
having been completed, the collection was thrown open to the

* A second specimen of the latter species has been just received by
Mr. C. Jamrach.

Institute of Civil Engineers, who had a brilliant conversazione
in the galleries on Tuesday evening ; there were about 2, 500
present. Considerable advance has been made in the arrange-
ment of the valuable collections belonging to the Museum,
though it must necessarily take some time before everything can
find its proper place. There are two galleries, the upper and
the lower. In the former, the Manufactures and Arts of India are
represented ; in the latter, which are not yet finished, the
Natural History of Ilindostan, the mineral, vegetable, and animal
products, are represented. No doubt the India Museum, as it
will ultimately be arranged, will become a favourite and instruc-
tive resort of the public, and we hope it is only the first step
towards the realisation of Dr. Forbes Watson's great scheme of
an Indian Institute.

Mr. H. H. Sclater, the naturalist to the Rodrigues section
of the late Transit of Venus Expedition, and the Rev. A. E.
Eaton, who held the same position at Kerguelen's Land, are both
working out the materials which they collected during their stay
in the islands which they visited. The former zoologist has
obtained a great number of remains of the extinct Solitaire, one
skeleton and several skulls being perfect ; besides the remains
of several other species of birds. Mr. Eaton's specimens include
the skeleton of one Cetacean, two Scab, and several species of
Petrels.

Dr. Lyon Playfair has withdrawn his bill for restricting
experiments on animals, on account of the appointment of a
Royal Commission on the subject, the names of the members
of which have not yet been published.

Prof. Leidy, the distinguished American biologist, is now
in this country.

The volcanic phenomena in Iceland, of which we have already
given some details (vol. xi. p. 514) seem still to be as active as
ever, and indeed to be gaining in intensity. Outbreaks have
occurred since the beginning of the year to the middle of April,
when the latest news left. In March the DyngjufjoU was inces-
santly vomiting fire, the eruption was steadily spreading over the
wilderness, and the whole region of the My-vatn Mountains was
one blazing fire. So large a district of the surrounding country has
been covered with ashes that the fanners have been obliged to re-
move in order to find pasture for their stock. Early in April a new
eruption had broken out in a south-easterly direction from Bar-
fell, more than half-way to the east, between it and the Jokulsa.
A party went out from Laxardal to explore, and on approaching
the place of eruption they found the fire rising up from three
lava craters, in a line from south to north, which it had piled up
around itself on a perfectly level piece of ground. At a dis-
tance of fifty to eighty fathoms to the west from the craters a
large fissure had formed itself as the fire broke out, and the land
had sunk in to the depth of about three fathoms. Into the
hollow thus formed the lava had poured at first, but now it
flowed in a south-wfsterly direction from the two southern
craters. The northernmost crater had the appearance of being
oblong, about 300 fathoms in length, and from this crater the
molten red-hot lava was thrown about 200 or 300 feet into the
air in one compact column. The top of this column then
assumed a palmated appearance, and the lava fell down in small
particles, like drops from a jet of water, which, as they became
separated from the column, grew gradually darker, and split into
many pieces, bursting into lesser and lesser fragments as they
cooled. No flames were observed, but the glare proceeds from
these columns and the seething lava in the craters. At times the
explorers could count twenty to thirty of these columns. No
real smoke accompanied the eruption, but a bluish steam, which
expanded and whitened in colour as it rose to a greater distance
from the crater, and such seemed to be the power of this blue jet
of steam that it rose straight into the air for many hundreds of
fathoms in despite of a h^vy wind blowing. •

76

NATURE

\May 27, 1875

A SHOCK of earthquake was felt at Spezzia, Italy, on May 20.
It is possible that the earthquakes which were felt almost daily
in Italy a few weeks since were connected with the Icelandic
phenomena ; generally, any volcanic commotion in Iceland occurs
simultaneously with volcanic or seismic phenomena iu Italy.

The University of Cambridge proposes to con 'or the honorary
degree of LL.D. upon Dr. Samuel Birch, F.S.A., the Keeper of
Oriental Antiquities in the British Museum.

The death is announced, on Feb. 5 last, at the age of thirty-five
years, in the interior of Africa, of Mr. Frank Gates, F.R.G.S.,
who, since the beginning of 1873, has been travelling in that
country with the twofold object of acquiring an accurate know-
ledge of its natural features and of studying its fauna. After
spending some time in the Matabele country, north of the
Limpopo River, towards the end of last year Mr. Gates pro-
ceeded to the Victoria Falls, on the Zambesi. Shortly after
leiving the Zambesi, when near to the Makalake towns, he
succumbed to fever. Mr. Gates's effects, it is hoped, will be
brought home by a personal friend, who has recently gone up
count ry from Pietermaritzburg. They include a large number of
specimens of natural history and curiosities which Mr. Gates
had collected, besides all his notes and papers, and are expected
to prove of very considerable interest. Mr. Gates had already
made a successful expedition into North and Central America.

The Report read at the Anniversary of the Royal Geo-
graphical Society on Monday shows a net increase of 202 mem-
ber.-, the roll of ordinary members now reaching the total of 2,960
The total income of the year was 7,511/. 11^. loa'., all but about
500/. of which has been disbursed. Medals were presented to
Count von Beust on behalf of Lieuts. Weyprecht and Payer, and
to the successful competitors in the public schools examinations.
A presentation gold watch was handed by the chairman. Sir
H. C, Rawlinson, to Col. Montgomerie, of the Indian Trigono-
metrical Survey, for transmission to Mr. W. H. Johnson, the
explorer of Kuen Lun and Khotan. The President, in his
address, referred to the losses by death sustained by the Society,
to the Arctic Expedition, to the Admiralty Surveys in the
Challenger, the Basiliik, the Shearwater, and other vessels, and
to other geographical topics.

Mr. William Macleay, of Sydney, who has fitted out the
expedition for the exploration of New Guinea, is, we believe, an
ardent naturalist. The ship he has purchased is named the
Chevert, and has been placed under the command of Captain
Edwards. Mr. Macleay accompanies the expedition, which left
Sydney on the i8th inst.

The body of an American, John Blackford by name, has
recently been found in a large ice-block in the vicinity of Mont
Blanc, after several days of thaw. The unfortunate tourist had
tried three years ago to ascend Mont Blanc without a guide,
and had not since been heard of Features and clothes are
perfectly preserved.

In the vicinity of Salzwedel an immense layer of rock-salt has
been discovered. Borings had been made for some time past
with a view to discovering coal ; the formation of limestone,
however, in which these experiments were made, is extremely
hard, and the borings made but small progress. At the be-
ginning of this year the first specimens of rock-salt were ob-
tained at a depth of about 730 feet. The borings have now
gone 250 feet deeper, and the rock-salt remains the same. It is
the intention of the proprietor to go to a depth of 2,000 feet.

Mr. Mallet's paper on " The Nature and Grigin of Vol-
canic Heat and Energy," read to the Royal Society in 1872, and
published in Phil. Trans, for 1873, has been translated in full
into German by Dr. A. von Lasaulx, Professor of Geology at
the University of Bonn, and published as a separate work. We
regret that a few clerical errors which' escaped correction until

the original paper was published, together with the necessary
errata, have been overlooked by the translator. The errors are,
however, self-evident, and occur in the German translation in
paragraphs 186 to 198. The errors originate by dividing, in
place of multiplying, a certain number of heat units at line 11,
par. 186, and do not affect the argument of the paper.

A little medal of palladium, with hydrogen occluded in it,
now at Leeds, is described by the compiler of the " Yorkshire
Exhibition Guide" in the following terms:— "A medal and
plate formed of the new metal, palladium, will be interesting to
scientific men. The discovery of this metal by Prof. Graham a
few years ago finally settled the long-disputed point as to
whether or not the gas hydrogen was a metal. He provtd that
palladium was simply hydrogen condense!. This may be easily
exemplified by placing a piece of the metal under the receiver of
an air-pump and exhausting the air. The solid metal at once
flies off as a gas, and on re-admitting the air it shrinks again into
its former size. The little medal shown contains lOO times its
volume of the gas." The writer's wild remarks display so much
ignorance, that it is to be feared, notwithstanding their calm
positiveness, they can hardly be attributed to a firm and cheerful
faith in molecular mobility.

The French Academy of Sciences, at its private meetings, is at
present deliberating upon the means of diminishing the expenses
of publishing the Coviptes Rendus without injuring the interest of
science. The yearly expense of editing that journal is about
70,000 francs, after deducting the receipts from the sale, which
is not very large. The Academy has a very liberal free list, the
number of copies presented amounting to many hundreds. It has
been proposed by M. Leverrier to use a smaller type. Gbjections
have been raised by some members, who wi.sh merely to diminish
the number of pages allotted to the several papers. But it is
very likely that the former suggestion will be adopted, and steps
taken to make the Conptes Kenans less bulky. The Compter
Hendus forms yearly two thick quarto volumes. The eightieth
volume is in course of publication. The number of pages pub-
lished since the ist of June, 1835, is about 100,000.

The Report of Brigadier-General Myer, Chief Signal Gfficer
of the United States for 1874, has just been received. This
Report, giving an admirable resume of the meteorology of the
United States lor 1873-74, and exhibiting throughout an earnest-
ness and a vigour in the successful application of the science to
practical matter-;, we shall fake an early opportunity to bring
before our readers.

Symons' " British Rainfall," showing the distribution of rain
over the British Isles during 1874, as observed at about 1,700
stations, has just been published. It contains, in addition to
the usual large mass of valuable information detailing the rain-
fall of the year, a notice of the remarkable rainfall of Gctober 6.
and a map showing its distribution over England and south of
Scotland ; [and papers on the measurement of snow and on the
rainfall at certain health-resorts in the United Kingdom. We
observe with much satisfaction that the editor has ob-
tained the services of nine gentlemen as county superinten-
dents, to assist him in collecting the rain returns of their
respective districts, it being in this way that the observation of
this important element will best be rendered still more com-
plete. The publication of the monthly as well as the annual
amounts of rain for the whole of the 1,700 stations is very
desirable, and it is hoped that in an early issue of the "British
Rainfall " it will be done.

A NEW street in Magdeburg has just been called " G uerike
Street." Gur readers know that Otto von Guerike, some time-
Burgomaster of Magdeburg, was the inventor of the air-pump.

On May 20 the Plenipotentiaries of France, Austria, Germany,
Italy, Russia, Spain, Portugal, Turkey, Switzerland, Belgium,

May 27, 1875]

NATURE

n

Sweden, Denmark, the United States, the Argentine Republic,
Peru, and Brazil, signed, at Paris, the International Convention
for the adoption of the metrical system of weights and mea-
sures. A special clause reserves to the States not included in
the above list the right of eventually adhering to the Convention.

It was the Hon. T. Elder (not Eden), who, with Mr.
Hughes, bore the expenses of Col. Warburton's journey across
Australia, the narrative of which we noticed in last week's
Nature (p. 46).

The French Association for the Advancement of Science
meets at Nantes this year, under the' presidency of M.
d'Eichtal, an influential banker largely connected with railway
interests. The local committee is presided over by the Mayor,
and a large sum has been collected for defraying the expenses
connected with the meeting.

The annual report of the trustees of the Museum of Compara-
tive Zoology, of Cambridge, U.S., for 1874 has just been pub-
lished, and contains the current history of that distinguished
establishment, as also the list of the additions to its various
departments. The strict economy necessary to relieve the
Museum from its embarrassments, after the death of Prof.
Agassiz, has effected its purpose, and its financial condition is
rapidly approaching a satisfactory state.

Prof. Alexander Agassiz announces that the experience
of the past two years has shown the impossibility of conducting
the Arderson School of Natural History, Penikese Island,
upon the plan originally intended. The trustees find themselves
at the end of the means at their disposal. To enable them to
carry on the school it is proposed to charge a fee of fifty dollars
for the season, and they hope that a sufficient number of pupils
can be secuied to warrant them in going on. Even with the
proposed charges there will be a considerable deficit (as was the
case last year) to be met by the friends of the Penikese School.

We believe that M. Wallon, the French Minister of Public
Instiuction, is to present a law for the organisation of the higher
education in Fiance.

The Watford Observer of May 22 contains reports of two
papers read at the last meeting of the Watford Natural History
Society: " Introductory Remarks on the Observation of Perio-
dical Natural Phenomena," by Mr. J. Hopkinson, F.L.S., and
" Notes on the Observation of Plants," by the Rev. Dr. W. M.
Hind. It is gratifying to see local societies turning their atten-
tion to subjects of so much importance.

During the first three days of last week the Geologists' Asso-
ciation made an interesting excursion to Charnwood Forest, in
Leicestershire. A full report of the proceedings appears in the
Leicester Chronicle for May 22.

Messrs. Chapman and Hall have just published a trans-
lation of F. Jagor's "Travels in the Philippines," of the German
edition of which we were able to give a favourable review in
vol. viii. p. 138. The translation seems to us to be well done,
and the book contains a good map and many illustrations ; it
merits a favourable reception from the English reading public.

We have an evidence of the activity of research in the United
States in the following list of American Microscopical Societies
furnished by the American Naturalist :—Agz.%%\z Institute, Sacra-
mento, California j Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia,
Biological and Microscopical Section ; American Association for
the Advancement of Science, Microscopical Section ; American
Microscopical Society of New York ; Bailey Club, New York ;
Boston Microscopical Society ; Boston Society of Natural His-
tory, Microscopical Section ; Dartmouth Microscopical Club,
Hanover, N, II. ; Fairmount Microscopical Society of Phila-
delphia ; Indiana Microscopical Society, Indianopolis, Ind. ;

Kirtland Society of Natural History, Cleveland, Ohio, Micro-
scopical Branch ; Louisville Microscopical Society, Louisville,
Kentucky ; Maryland Academy of Sciences, Baltimore, Section
of Biology and Microscopy ; Memphis Microscopical Society,
Memphis, Tenn. ; New Jersey Microscopical Society of the City
of New Brunswick, N. J. ; Providence Franklin Society, Pro-
vidence, N. J., Microscopical Department; San Francisco Mi-
croscopical Society ; Society of Natural Sciences, Buffalo, N.Y.,
Microscopical Section ; State Microscopical Society of Illinois,
Chicago, 111. ; State Microscopical Society of Michigan, Kala-
mazoo, Mich. ; Tioy Scientific Association, Troy, N.Y., Micro-
scopical Section ; Tyndall Association, Columbus, Ohio, MicrO'
scopical Section. Eight of these societies have been established
within the last two years.

We have received the Eighth Annual Report of the Perthshire
Society of Natural Science, from which we regret to see that
there has been rather a falling-off in the prosperity of the Society,
arising mainly from indifference on the part of the majority ot
its members. In this, as in most ether similar societies, the work
is done by but a small portion of the members. Still the Society
is working well in various ways, and this report contains a long
and interesting address by the President, Sir Thomas Moncrieff,
on the work done by the Society during the past year. We
hope the publication of this Report will be the means of rousing
a larger number of the members to take an interest in the work
of the Society.

The Report for 1874, leadatthe thirteenth annual meeting of
the West Riding Consolidated Naturalists' Society, embracing a
large number of Field Clubs in the West Riding, is a very favour-
able one. At the time of the meeting, some months ago, the
number of members was 545, and the Report states there is good
reason to believe that studies in the various branches of Natural
History are now diligently and earnestly pursued.

The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during
the past week include a Black Ape {Cynopithecus niger) from
Celebes, presented by the Hon. Evelyn H. Ellis ; a West Indian
Agouti {Dasyprocta antillensis) from Trinidad, presented by Mr.
Christopher James ; a Coypu Rat {Myopotavius coypu) from
South America, presented by Mr. Robert E. Baton ; a King
Penguin {Aptenodytes pennanti) from the Falkland Isles, pre-
sented by Mr. L. Cobb ; an Indian Cobra {Naia iripudians),
two Russell's Vipers ( Vipera russdli), three Carpet Vipers {Echis
carinata), an Indian Eryx (Eryx johnit), an Indian Python
{Python moliirus), three Indian Rat Snakes (Ptyas mucosa), and
five Long-snouted Snakes {Passerita mycterizans), from India,
presented by Dr. John Shortt ; two Rendall's Guinea Fowls
{Numida retidalli) from West Africa, two King Parrakets
{Aprosmictus scapulatus) from New South Wales, deposited ; a
Molucca Deer (Cervus moluccensis), born in the Gardens.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Journal oj the Franklin Institute, April. — The following
are the principal original papers in this number : — Report on a
test trial of a Swain turbine water wheel, by J. B. Francis,
C.E. — On the moments and reactions of continuous girders,
by M. Merriman, C.E. — Compound and non-compound engines,
steam jackets, &c., by C. E. Emery, C.E. ; this is the first part
of a paper presenting a discussion of the results of experiments
made on several U.S. Government steamers. — First part of a
paper on experiments made at the Mare Island Navy Yard,
California, with different screws applied to a steam launch, to
ascertain their relative propelling power, by Chief Engineer
B. F. Isherwood, U.S.N. — New processes in proximate gas-
analyses, by Prof. Henry Wurtz, continued from a former
number. — On the cause of the light of flames, being a transla-
tion from the German of W. Stein, who discusses the results
attained by Prof. FranklMid.

78

NATURE

[May 27, 1875

I?er Naturforscher, Feb. 1875. — This valuable publication
contains abstracts of many important papers published elsewhere,
most of which are noticed separately in Nature ; but there are
also numerous original papers. We point out the following : —
On the elements of the flora of the Chalk period, by C. v.
Ettingshausen. — On the nature of lichens, by P. Magnus. This
is an account of the difference of opinion existing amongst the
authorities on the subject in question, some of whom do not
think lichens uniform organisms, but rather suppose them to
consist of a fungus which draws the greatest part of its organic
substance from the Algoe (the so-called lichen Gonidia) round
which it grows, while others do not agree with this view ; the
author, however, tends to the adoption of the idea as a correct
one. — On the Biela Comet shooting stars observed by Herr
Winnecke at Strasburg on Dec. 3 last. — On the revival of
Rotifera, by Mr. Leidy. — On the atmospheric peroxide of hydro-
gen, by Herr Houzeau. — On the colour and specific gravity of
sea-water ; observations made on board the German Expedition
corvette Gazelle on her voyage to the Kerguelen Island, under
the superintendence of Herr von Schleinitz. These observations
seem to show that the blue colour of sea-water stands in close
relation with the quantity of salt the water contains, and that as
the salt decreases the colour passes from blue^to blue-green and
dark green. There seems to be such regularity in this, that
simply according to the specific gravity of the water the shade of
colour could be determined which the water must show, and
vice versd. The transparency of the water seems also to increase
with its quantity of salt ; that of blue water was found to be 47
meters, while that of dark green only 2-5 meters. — On the
nature and the laws of adhesion, by J, Stefan. — On the assimila-
tion of nitric and sulphuric acids by germinating peas, by Herr
Kellner. — New researches on some absorption phenomena of
field-soils, by Herr Eichhorn. — On the spectra of comets, by
H. C. Vogel, with special reference to Coggia's Comet. — On
the copulation of spores of Algte, by P. Magnus. — On the diges-
tion of albumen, by R. Maly. — On a new method to investigate
the nature of electric discharges, by Herr A. M. Meyer. — On a
new theory of the sensation of light, by Herr E. Hering. This
theory refutes that of Young and Helmholtz, which adopts three
simple colours, red, green, and violet, and sometimes requires
certain psychic processes for explaining certain facts. Herr
Hering tries to do away with these processes in question. — On
the new malleable glass, by Herr J. Fahdt. — On the decomposi-
tion of preserved wood, by Max Paulet.

Zeitschrift der Oesterreichischen Gesellschaft fur Meteorologie,
Feb. 15. — This number contains an article on the universal
meteorograph, by Prof. Van Rysselberghe, of Ostend. The
instrument was fully explained by the inventor at a recent meet-
ing of the Meteorological Society.

March i. — The subject of rain and the barometric minimum
is here further discussed by Prof. Reye,who finds that his views
agree in the main with those of Herr Hann. Both these meteo-
rologists recognise the latent heat of vapour as moving force in
rotating storms ; this causes the air to ascend and fresh air to be
drawn in. According to Herr Hann, the barometer only sinks
fast after a large whirl with a strong ascending current has been
formed. Prof. Reye agrees with him in thinking that the rota-
tory movement contributes to rarefaction in the centre and thus
renders possible the occasional long duration of minima. But
he differs with him regarding another point. He considers that
the ascending central current can only last so long as its tem-
perature, derived from condensation, exceeds that of the sur-
rounding air, and that this higher temperature must make
pressure lower beneath the ascending current than around the
cyclone. Dr. Hann, on the contrary, affirms that condensation
has little effect on pressure, and that the minima of storm-centres
are not caused by rainfall. Mohn's theory of the propagation of
storms in the direction of largest rainfall cannot hold good if the
latter view be correct. Loomis has shown how American storms
generally move towards the area of greatest rainfall. Mohn finds
from observations of 210 European stations that moisture is most
prevalent on the front side of depressions. Thorn testifies to the
enormous rainfall accompanying storms in the Indian Ocean.
Prof. Reye calculates that if it were possible for rain to fall to
the amount of I mm. at any place without producing any in-
draught of air, the barometer would fall f of a millimetre, and
generally in that proportion. Now, in hurricanes, such a con-
- dition is more nearly approached than in thunderstorms or steady
rains. In the vortex, air and vapour rise so rapidly that they
cannot part with much heat, and at the same time the inflow of

the lower strata is retarded and the outflow of the upper strata
accelerated by centrifugal force. There still remains, after
liberated latent heat has been employed in expansion, a por-
tion which has been disregarded, equivalent to the vis viva
of the whirling mass and the work of expansion performed in
ascending. With all this evidence he maintains his theory. —
In the Klei7iere Mittheilungen v/e have the last part of Dr.
Ucke's paper on atmospheric oxygen, containing tables which
give its variations in quantity at different seasons, with reference
to the me.ins of all stations together, and of the stations taken
separately. At Seringapatam the difference between summer
and winter is least, viz., i per cent. ; London shows 4, Brussels
6, Vienna 8, Petersburg 9, Samara 14, and Barnaoul 16 per
cent. Pi-oximity of the sea and elevation obviously produce the
low figures, and the more easterly a place lies on the continent
the greater are the differences between the seasons.

The Gazzetia Chimica Italiana, fasc i. e ii. 1875, contains
the following original papers, besides a great number ot abstracts
from other serials : — On two new derivatives of phloretic acid,
by W. Koerner and P. Corbetta. These are researches on
methyl- and ethyl-phloretic acids and their products of oxida-
tion. The authors arrived at the conclusion that phloretic acid
can most probably be regarded as phenolisopropionic acid of the

formula CgH4. OH. CH j COOH'""^^ ^^^ °"2in of the sul-
phides and hyposulphides found in natural sulphur waters, by
Prof. E. Pollacci. — Researches on some derivatives from natural
and artificial thymol, by E. Paterno. The author considers acety lie,
methylic, ethylenic, and the sulpho-methylic derivatives of both
thymols, and points out their differences. — On paratoluic nitride
and some of its derivatives, by E. Paterno and E. Spica. — A
note from Dr. M. Fileti, on a glucosate of copper. — Account of
experiments made by the same author and E. Paterno, to obtain
a carbo-cymenic acid. The experiments made until now with
natural thymol and its artificial substitute obtained from cymene,
show that both are hydroxyl derivatives of the same cymene,
which upon oxidation gives paratoluic acid, and therefore con-
tains the propyl and methyl group in the positions I to 4 ; the dif-
ference rests therefore only in the position of the hydroxy], and
as only the two following oxy- derivatives of parapropylmethyl-
benzine

C3H7 C3H,

OH

and I

^yoH
CH3 CH3

were possible, it remained to be decided which of the two for-
mulae applied to natural and which to artificial thymol. The
nature of the cresols obtained by Engelhardt and Latschinoff,
and by Kekule, by the action of phosphoric anhydride on the
isomeric thymols, has rendered it very probable that the first of
the above formulae represents the natural thymol, the other the
artificial one. The authors made the experiments of converting
sulpho-cymenic acid into carbo-cymenic acid, which has the

( C3H,
following formula, CgHg i CH, , and then tried to oxidise the

( COOH
latter, by which they would have finally solved the above ques-
tion. They have not quite succeeded yet, although they hope to
publish their final results shortly. — On the supposed emission of
carbonic acid from the roots of plants, by M. Mercadante and
E. Colosi. The authors pretend that no such emission exists. —
The remainder of the number consists entirely of summaries
from other journals, most of which we have already noticed.

In the 2"= fascicule of the Bulletin de la Societi d'AntkroJio-
legie de Paris for 1874, M. Dareste concludes his reply to M.
Broca's theory of the mode of formation of double monsters,
considering them under the several types named by Isidore G.
Saint- Hilaire, "janiceps, iniopes, synotcs," and " deradelphes."
In a later meeting of the Society, M. Broca entered at great
length on the consideration of the " Doctrines of Diplogenesis,"
and endeavoured to show the untenability of the hypothesis
which ascribes this abnormality to fusion rather than to excess of
development, and an inherent tendency in the embryo to a
repetition or doubling of parts. — A letter was read from M.
Prunieres, in which he describes the artificial perforations dis-
covered by him in human skulls belonging to the period of
dolmens. As early as 1868 the writer first, drew attention to
the numerous cases in which cranial and other human bones had

May 27, 1875J

NATURE

n

been found bearing evidence of having been cut or perforated
by instruments belonging to the polished stone age. M. Broca,
in describing the crania submitted to his notice by M. Pru-
nieres, draws attention to a similar condition in a skull sent to
him by Mr. Squier, and taken by the latter from an ancient Peru-
vian tomb, in which a square opening had been made, evidently
by a saw, and probably a few days before death ; and he men-
tions that among the Kabyles and other African tribes trepanning
is resorted to in the present day for comparatively unimportant
diseases, while Hippocrates refers to the process as one esta-
blished in his time among the Greeks. M. Broca does not,
however, assume that cranial perforations among primitive races
in Europe had any connection with surgical processes, but is
rather disposed to assume them to have been the result of certain
obligations of religion.— M. J. de Baye describes circumstan-
tially the caverns and recesses, amounting to more than one
hundred, which he has recently discovered and explored in the
Valley de Petit-Morin, in Marne. — M. Bertrand has presented
the Society with a cast of a reindeer horn, on which is distinctly
traced with a flint instrument the figure of a reindeer grazing,
which was found at Thainghen, near Lake Constance. — MM.
de Quatrefages and Hamy, in oflfering their colleagues the second
edition of their great work on "Crania Ethica," which is en-
tirely devoted to the consideration of the Cro-Magnon race,
entered into an exposition of their views in regard to the rela-
tions existing between the Troglodytes of Perigord and certain
southern races, including not only the Basques, but Kabyle tribes
from the Beni-Menasser and Djurjura regions.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
London

Mathematical Society, May 13. — Prof. Cayley, F.R.S.,
vice-president, in the chair. — The Rev. C. Taylor read a paper
on some constructions for transforming curves and surfaces.
The basis of the paper was a neglected work on conic sections,
•' which for originality and thorouj;hness is in its own special de-
partment unsurpassed." The author was G. Walker, F.R.S. ,
of Nottingham, and his work appeared in 1794. The tedious-
ness of the style may account for the fact that the work was not
appreciated. Dr. Hirst and the Chairman made some remarks
on the paper. — Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher communicated some notes
on Laplace's coefficients. — A short paper by Mr. Harry Hart,
on a linkwork for describing sphero-conics and sphero-quartics,
was taken as read.

Chemical Society, May 20. — Prof. Abel, F.R.S., pre-
sident, in the chair. — Mr. A. H. Smee read some notes on
milk in health and disease. From the results of numerous
experiments he finds that when cows are fed on sewage grass
alone the milk soon goes putrid, and the butter made from
it is soft, and rapidly becomes rancid. He also noticed the
outtreaks of typhoid which had occurred in various places
owing to sewage water having been used to cleanse the dairy
utensils or to reduce the quality of rich milk to the lowest
standard permitted by law. Along and interesting discussion
followed, after which Mr. W. H. Deering read a paper on some
points in the examination of waters by the ammonia method,
in which he proposes certain modifications to facilitate the
application cf the Nessler test and eliminate incidental errors.
There was also a ccmmunicatiun from Prof. H. Howe on some
Nova Scotian Triassic Trap minerals.

Geological Society, May 12.— John Evans, V.P.R.S., pre-
sident, in the chair, — Ihe following communications were read.
— Notes on the occurrence of Eozoon catiadtnse at Cote St.
Pierre, by Principal Dawson, F. R. S. The author commenced
by describing the arrangement and nature of the deposits con-
taining Eozoon at the original locality of Cote St. Pierre on the
Ottawa River. The Eozoal limestone is a thick band between
the two great belts of gneiss which here form the upper beds of
the Lower Laurcntian. Eozoon is abundant only in one bed
about lour feet thick ; but occasional specimens and fragments
occur throughout the band. The limestone contains bands and
concretions of serpentine, and is traversed by veins of chi7Solite ;
the former an original part of the deposit, the latter evidently of
subsequent formation. A thin section, 5^ inches in depth,
showed ; (l) Limestone with crystals of dolomite and fragments
of Eozoon ; (2) Fine-grained limestone, with granules of serpen-
tine, casts of chamberlets ot Eozoon and of small Foraminilera ;
(3) Limestone with dolomite, and containing a thin layer of

serpentine ; (4) Limestone and dolomite with grains of serpentine
and fragments of supplemental skeleton oi Eozoon ; (5) Crystal-
lised dolomite, with a few fragments of Eotoon in the state of
calcite ; ( 6) Limestone containing serpentine, as No. 2. The
author criticised some of the figures and statements put forward
by Messrs. King and Rowney, and noticed two forms of Eozoon,
which he proposed to regard as varieties, under the rames of
minor and acervulina. He stated that fragments of Eozoon,
included in dolomitic limestones, have their canals fille i v^'ith
transparent dolomite, and sometimes in part with calcite. In
one specimen a portion was entirely replaced by serpentine.
The author called particular attention to the occurrence of ser-
pentinous casts of chamberlets, single or arranged in groups,
which resemble in form those of the Globigerine Foraminifera.
These may belong either to separate organisms or to the acer-
vuline layer of the Eozoon ; the author proposes to call them
Archaospherina, and describes them as having the form and
mode of aggregation of Globigerina, with Ihe proper wall of
Eozoon. The author discussed the extant theories as to the
nature of Eozoon, and maintained that only that of the in-
filtration of the cavities of Foraminiferal structure with ser-
pentine is admissible. He particularly referred to the resem-
blance of weathered masses of Eozoon to Stromatoporoid corals.
— Remarks upon Mr. Mallet's theory of volcanic energy, by the
Rev. O. Fisher, F.G.S. Mr. Mallet's paper, read before the
Rojal Society in 1872, was discussed by the author seriatim as
far as it seemed open to criticism. With respect to the condition
of the earth's interior, whether it be rigid or not. Sir W. Thom-
son's arguments for rigidity were referred to, and geological diffi.
culties in accepting his conclusions suggested. Mr. Mallet's
views regarding the formation of oceanic and continental areas,
that they have on the whole occupied nearly the same positions
on the globe at all periods from the very first, were objected to
on the ground that all continental areas with which we are
acquainted are formed of water-deposited rocks, and that there-
fore those areas must at some time have been sea-bottoms ; and
if these wide features have not occupied the same positions which
they now do from the very first, Mr. Mallet's explanation fails,
that they were caused by unequal contraction when the crust
was first permanently formed and thin. It was also shown that
the theory of unequal radial contraction cannot account for the
difference of elevation between continental and oceanic areas
upon reasonable assumptions. For if we consider the crust to
have been 400 mUes thick (which cannot be considered thin),
and to have cooled from 4000° F. to zero (a most extravagant
supposition), then, if the crust had contracted one-tenth more
beneath the oceanic area than it had done beneath the conti-
nental, we should only get a depression of one mile for the
oceanic area, using Mr. Mallet's mean coefficient of contraction.
The main feature of Mr. Mallet's theory was then discussed, viz.,
that " the heat, from which terrestrial volcanic energy is at pre-
sent derived, is produced locally within the solid shell of our
globe, by transformation of the mechanical work of compression
or crushing of portions of that shell, which compressions and
crushings are themselves produced by the more rapid contraction
by cooling of the hotter material of the nucleus beneath that
shell, and the consequent more or less free descent of the shell
by gravitation, the vertical work of which is resolved into tan-
gential pressures and motion within the shell." Mr. Mallet's
mode of estimating the amount of heat derivable from crushing
a cubic foot of rock was explained, and it was accepted as a
postulate, that the heat developed by crushing one cubic .foot of
rock would be sufficient to fuse O"lo8 of a cubic foot of rock ; or,
in other words, that it would require nearly the heat developable
by crushing ten volumes to fuse one. Mr. Mallet considers that
the heat so developed may be localised. But Mr. Fisher inquires
why, since the work is distributed equally with the crushing, the
heat should not be so also ; and, since no cause can be assigned why
one portion of the crushed portion of rock should be heated more
than the rest, assumes that all which is crushed must be heated
equally. In short, he is of opinion that if Mr. Mallet's- theory
were true, the cubes experimented upon ought to have been
themselves fused. After paying a just tribute of admiration to
Mr. Mallet's elaborate and highly important experiments upon
the fusion and subsequent contraction of slags, the author re-
marked upon Mr. Mallet's estimate of the probable contraction
from cooling of the earth's dimensions, showing that it had been
based on untenable assumptions. (The author of the paper,
however, holds that the contraction of the dimensions of the
globe has been greater than mere cooling will account for.)
Upon the concluding portions of Mr. Mallet's paper, in which

8o

NA TURE

\JVIay 27, 1875

he estimates that the amount of energy afforded by the crushing
of the solid crust would be sufficient to account for terrestrial
vukanicity, some strictures were made ; but it was held that, if
the main proposition had not been proved, these calculations
were not of essential importance.

Meteorological Society, May 19.— Dr. R, J. Mann,
president, in the chair.— The following papers were read :— On
some practical points connected with the construction of light-
ning conductors, by Dr. R. J. Mann. This paper dealt espe-
cially with the material and dimensions of conductors, the nature
and influence of points, the essentials of earth contacts, connec-
tion with metallic masses forming a part of the construction of
buildings, the power of induction in producing return shocks,
the dangerous action of metal chimney-pots upon unprotected
chimney shafts, and the facility with which houses may be effi-
ciently protected when the defence is made part of the original
design of the architect. The conditions which were finally
insisted upon as indispensable to efficiency of protection were :—
I. Ample dimension and unbroken continuity in the lightning
rod. 2. Large and free earth contacts, with frequent examina-
tion by galvanometers of the condition ot these to prove that they
are not in process of impairment through the operation of
chemical erosion. 3. The employment of sufficient points above
to dominate all parts of the building. 4. The addition of ter-
minal points to the conducting system wherever any part of the
structure of the building comes near to the limiting surface of a
conical space having the main point of the conductor for its
height, and a breadth equal to twice the height of that point
from the earth for the diameter of its base. 5. The avoidance
of all less elevated conducting divergencies within striking dis-
tance of the conductor, and especially such dangerous divergen-
cies of this character as gas-pipes connected with the general
mains, and therefore forming good earth contacts. — On certain
small oscillations of the barometer, by the Hon. Ralph Aber-
cromby. These small oscillations of the barometer (sometimes
called "pumping") have long been associated with gusts of
wind, but the precise nature of their action has not been deter-
mined. The author gives two examples as typical :— i. Win-
dow looking S., wind nearly S., in strong gusts. In this case
the first motion of the barometer was always upwards about
o-oi inch, as if the effect of the wind being arrested by the
house was to compress the air in the room. 2. A corner house,
one window to S., another to W., wind S. in strong gusts. With
the W. window open there were violent oscillations, but in this
case the first motion was always downwards. On opening the
S. window as well, the pumping ceased. The explanation seems
to be, that the wind blowing past the W. window drew air out of
the room, but when the S. window was opened as much air
came in as was drawn out, and the pumping ceased. It is well
known to medical men that many acute diseases are aggravated
by strong winds ; and the author has observed this distress to be
associated with the pumping of the barometer. He suggests the
following practical methods of palliittion :— -If windows can be
borne open, try by crossing, or otherwise altering the drafts,
to diminish the distress. When, as in most cases, windows
cannot be open, all doors and windows should be closely shut,
as well as the vent of the chimney, if there is no fire ; and, if
possible, the patient should be moved to a room on the lee side
of the house. — Proposed modification of the mechanism at pre-
sent in use for reading barometers so that the third decimal place
may be obtained absolutely, by Mr. R. E. Power.

Paris
Academy of Sciences, May 10.— M. Fremy in the chair.—
The following papers were read -.—On the substitution by approxi-
mation within determined limits of the relation of variables of a
homogeneous function to two variables of another homogeneous
function of the same degree, by M. H. Resal.— A letter by M.
Faye, on the distribution of temperature on the sun's surface and
the recent measurements of M. Langley.— Observations on the
PandanetB of New Caledonia, by M. A. Brogniart.— On a loco-
motive on stilts instead of wheels, by M. Tresca. — On a law
connected with the work performed by steam-engines, by M. A.
Ledieu. — The President then welcomed M. Fleuriais, the chief
of the party of observers sent to Pekin to observe the Transit
of Venus. M. Fleuriais then read a detailed description of
the work done by the expedition and of the journey, which
■ was accompanied by many difficulties. — Observations on the
epoch of disappearance of the ancient fauna of Rodrigues Island,
by M. Alph. Milne-Edwards. — Memoir on the formula; of per-

turbation, by M. E. Mathieu. — On some properties of algebraic
curves, by M. Laguerre. — On the toxicological effects of the
bark of Mancone, by MM. Gallois and Plardy. — On observations
made with different Phylloxera, by M. Lichtenstein. — The
Minister for Public Instruction transmitted to the Academy a
letter, dated Capetown, Feb. 22, 1875, ^"^'^'^ M. Lanen, and con-
taining interesting data regarding the fauna and the flora of the
Kerguelen Islands. These data arc due to the observations
made by Dr. Kidder, a naturalist who was attached to the
Transit of Venus party sent to those islands by the United
States. — A note by M. Gamier, on the use of glycerine in
the treatment of glycosuria. — On the theory of storms, a reply
toM. Faye, by M. Peslin. — On the presence of sulphuric anhy-
dride in the gaseous products of the combustion of iron pyrites ;
note by M. A. Scheurer Kestner. — On the quaternary lignites of
Jarville, near Nancy, by M. P. Fliche.— M. d'Abbadie then
spoke on the iirst results of observations made by M. de Rossi,
on the microscopical movements of freely-suspended pendula. —
M. Virlet d'Aoust, in relation to the recent catastrophe with the
Zenith balloon, pointed out the danger in the quick passage
through strata of air of variable densities.

May 17. — M. Fremy in the chair.— The following papers were
read : — Meridian observations of the minor planets, made at the
Observatories of Greenwich and Paris during the first quarter of
1875. The planets observed were the following :— i, 46, 49, 59,
33, 24, 67, 15, 18, 94, 103, 109, 134, 7, 124, 25, 47, 53, 54, 73,
84, and loi. This communication was made by M. Leverrier.
— Observations by M. Leymerie, on a note of M. Trutal relating
to a Pliocene deposit in the Eastern Pyrenees. — On the swimming-
bladder of Caratix trachuriis, and on the hydrostatic function of
that organ, by M. A. Moreau. — On chemical and physiological
ferments, by M. A. Miintz. — Experiments and observations relat-
ing to glutinous fermentation, by M. A. Baudrimont. — A note by
M. de Tastes, on the theory of cyclones. — Anatomical, physio-
logical, and pathological researches on the human ovum in its
relation to the diseases of the foetus, by M. G. J. Martin Saint-
Ange. — Observations of the moon and of moon culminating
stars, made at Melbourne Observatory, by Mr. Robert EUery
(communicated by M. Leverrier). — On mercury-cataracts, by M.
C. Decharrae. — A note by M. de Fonvielle, on the precautions
to be used when making balloon ascents to a great height.

BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

Foreign. — Zeitschrift fiir Wissenschaftliche Zoologie : Carl Theodor von
Siebold, Albert von Koliiker, und Ernest Ehlers (Leipzig, W. Engelmann).
— Jahrbiicher fiir Wissenschaftliche' Botanik : Dr. N. Pringsheim (Leipzig,
W. Engelmann). — Recherches sur les Phenomenes de la digestion chez les
Insectes : Felix Plateau (Bruxelles, F. Hayez). — Le Scoperte del Fusinieri.
Influence de la pression de I'air sur la vie.de I'homme. 2 vols. : D. Jourdanet
(Paris, G. Masson). — Der Venusmond und die Untersuchungen iiber die.
friiheren Beobachtungen dieses Mondes : Dr. F. Schorr (Braunschweig,
Friedrich Viewes: und Sohn). — Etudes Premieres et Secondes sur les seiches
du lac Leman : K. A. Forel (Lausanne, Rouge et Dubois). — Repertoriumliir
Meteorologie : Dr. H. Wild (Russia). — Annales de I'observatoire Physique
Central de Russie : Dr. H. Wild (Russia). — Traversee du Detroit par le
CapitaineP. Boyton. (Boulogne-sur-Mer, Charles Aigre).

CONTENTS

Pagi

The Arctic Expedition 61

Sachs's "Text-Book OF Botany." By Prof. W. R. M 'Nab ... 62

Dr. Chambers's "Manual OF Diet" 64

OuK Book Shelf : —

Heath's " Doctrine of Energy " 65

Noad's " Chemical Analysis " 65

Letters to the Editor: —

"The Unseen Universe."— The Authors of "The Unseen

Universe" •. • •. ^

Sense of Humour and Reason in Animals. — George J. Romanes . 66

Equilibrium of Gases. — R. C. Nichols 67

Contributions to the Natural History of the Wolf (Canis ^allij^es)

of Northern India. — E. Bonavia 67

Our Astronomical Column : —

I Leporis(Fl.) 67

The Comet of December 1872 (Klinkerfues — Pogson) 67

Lectures at the Zoological Gardens, IV. : Mr. Garrod on Ante-
lopes and then: Allies 68

Rare Animal at the Manchester Aquarium. By W. Savillh-

Kent, F.L.S 69

The Progress of the Telegraph, VI. (ff^iVA/Z/wi/ra/iV/i) ... 69
The Indian Trigonomethical Survey. By Col. J. T. Walker,
F.R.S 72

The Biological Department of the British Museum ,

Notes

Scientific Serials ^

Societies and Academies

Books and Pamphlets Beceived . ,

74

NATURE

8i

THURSDAY, JUNE 3, 1875

THE ARCTIC MANUAL
.•luiiual of the Natural History, Geology, and Physics of
Greenland and the Neighbojcrim; Keqions. By T.
Rupert Jones, F.R.S., and W. G. Adams, M.A., F.R.S.
Edited by Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S., under the
direction of the Arctic Committee of the Royal Society.
(PubUshed by Authority of the Lords Commissioners
of the Admiralty, 1875.)

THE Arctic explorers, to whom we must all give a
hearty God-speed now they have started on their
journey, besides being suppHed with " Instructions" as to
the points on which information is most required, and as to
the manner in which they may best obtain it, have had
compiled for them a most comprehensive " Manual " of
what has already been done with regard to the natural
history and physics of the northern regions. The tin\e
devoted to this work has been short, but the compilers
have made the most of it, and their names are guai^antees
that the information is as complete as possible.

The book consists of a series of reprints of the latest
and most trustworthy papers that have been written
on the various subjects included. No other form of
" Manual " would have been half so useful, even if there
had been time to compile it. The limited area within
which the exploration is to be conducted has made it
possible to include all these in one handy volume. What
would not an ordinary naturalist give to have all the pre-
vious work that had been done upon the district he was
visiting collected together for him, instead of his having
to search for it over scattered volumes .' and how much
more valuable it would be if it were revised up to the
latest date by the authors themselves. This is what has
been done for the Arctic naturalists, who will be cut off
lor years from all books but those they take with them,
and to whom this work will therefore be of inestimable
value. Of course we are not to understand that all that
has been written on the natural history and physics of
the Arctic regions is here reproduced ; that would have
been impossible : but in the first part complete catalogues
are given, without the descriptions of the genera or species
that have been named from Arctic specimens ; and the
second part, to which less time has been allowed, and
which is less complete, contains only the most important
portions of the papers or works from which extracts have
been made.

It is not the Arctic voyagers, however, who alone will
benefit by this Manual. Those who will follow them in
thought in their perilous but splendid undertaking will
find their interest increased, if this be possible, by the
many questions for solution which its perusal will raise in
their minds, and they will the more easily compare what
was known before the expedition with that which we hope
will be known after its return.

We proceed to give our readers some idea of the con-
tents of this " Manual." Although the list of papers is
no doubt scanty compared with what might be formed of
more temperate climes, many no doubt will be astonished
that so much has been done in the natural history of
these inhospitable regions, far more in proportion than
the observations of physical data.

The first part, devoted to Biology and Geology, is
Vol, XII. — No. 292

divided geographically into three sections ; the first, on
West Greenland, including Davis' Strait, Baffin's Bay,
Smith's Sound, and Kennedy Channel ; the second, the
Parry Islands and East Arctic America ; and the third,
East Greenland, Spitzbergen, Franz-Joseph Land, &c.
All these between them have iii illustrative papers, many
being double ones. They, are arranged in each section
zoologically, the first paper being by Dr. Robert Brown,
on the Mammals of Greenland, of which there appear to
be thirty-one now known, exclusive of introductions by
the colonists ; all but seven of which inhabit the sea.
This paper is followed by two others by the same
author, published about the same time (i860), con-
taining his accounts of the species and habits of the
Whales, Seals, and Walrus. Many such accounts have
been published ; they are always read with interest, and
we have no doubt much further light will be thrown by
the expedition on these animals, some of which are as
yet only known by their skulls sent home to museums.
There are six species of Greenland Seals, all sufficiently
distinct to be placed in different genera, though one is
often confounded with another. The chief are the Com-
mon Seal {Calloccphalus vitulinus), the Saddleback, the
male and female of which are of different colours, the
Grey Seal, and the Bladder-nosed Seal, the latter of which
was till lately represented in the Zoological Gardens by a
living specimen. There is also the Walrus, large numbers
of which used to inhabit British waters during the crag
period,;.but of which only two have as yet been brought
aUve to England, where they survived but a short time.
The Cetacea are more numerous, having sixteen repre-
sentatives, including the Dolphins and Porpoise. Dr.
Brown gives interesting details respecting several of
these, of which we need only mention the voracity of
the Killer {Orca gladiator), out of whose stomach Dr.
Eschricht took thirteen porpoises and fourteen seals, the
voracious animal having been choked by the skin of a
fifteenth. A case is known in ,which they attacked a
white-painted herring-boat in the Western Islands, pro-
bably mistaking it for a Beluga or White Whale.

From the Mammals we come to the Birds, the notes on
which are contributed in a separate paper by Prof. Alfred
Newton, the list being compiled by him from all available
sources. The number bf true denizens reaches sixty-
three, of which, however, only forty-seven occur within
the Arctic circle, and not more than thirty-six, if so many,
may be expected in Smith's Sound. These are printed in
a thicker type to draw attention to them, and short notes
are given by which they may be distinguished even by those
observers who are not professed naturalists. Prof. Newton
is very severe on the former expeditions for " so in-
gloriously missing their glorious opportunities " in orni-
thology, " through the absence of special naturalists ; "
but this will not apply to the present one.

For the catalogues of the Fishes and most of the
remaining classes of animals we have to go to Denmark,
Drs. Liitken and Morch, of Copenhagen, being the chief
authorities on these branches — and they have both
revised their lists to the latest date. The former writer
has in preparation an " Ichthyology of Greenland," and
the list of fishes here given is only provisional till that is
completed. The number reaches seventy-eight, the
greater number of course being Telcosteans, and many

82

NATURE

{June 2,, 1875

inhabitants of great depths, and consequently rare in
collections, eighteen only being well represented in
those of Britain.

Dr. Morch's list of the Mollusca, including land, fresh-
water, and marine forms, reaches a total of 216, which are
arranged after his own modification of Latreille's classifi-
cation. As this is not the classification usually adopted
or known in England, it may be well to indicate it. The
Mollusca proper are divided into five classes. The first,
Androgyna, Morch, includes the five orders : Grophila,
F<fr., or land shells ; Hy grophila, F^r., or freshwater
shells ; PtetiogUssata, Trochsel ; Gymnobranchia, Cuv. ;
and Pteropoda^ Cuv. The second class, Dioica, Latr., is
divided into the three ordeis, Tanio-, Toxo-, and Rhachi-
glossata of Trochsel, after the characters of their tongues.
The third class, Exocephala, Latr., is divided in the same
way, into Rhipido- and Heteroglossataj while the remain-
ing two classes, CepJtalopoda diVidi Acephala, are undivided,
although there are enumerated species of the different
orders as usually distinguished in the latter class. The
BracMopoda figure for four species in addition to the above,
under the title of BracMonopoda. The Tuiiicata number
thirteen species, and require revision, while the Polyzoa
mount to sixty-three. Of the Insects nothing is recorded
since Schiodte's list in 1857 of 114 species ; of Arachnida
there are almost none but a few Acari. The list of
Crustacea is a large one, and has been revised by Dr.
Liitken for this Manual. The whole number is 184, of
which no less than seventy are Amphipoda. Yet this hst
is plainly incomplete, the Ostracoda being represented
by one species only, while in the next paper Dr. Brady
enumerates twenty-four from their shells. The other
classes of animals have similar lists. In the Armelids
most families are represented by a few species ; the
various Entozoa are tabulated. The Echinoderms are
thirty-four, containing only one Echinid : the remaining
lists are short ones, except that of the fixed Hydrozoa,
and the Sponges, which are pretty numerous. It is
useless, of course, to catalogue " species " of Fora-
minifera, and only a few notes are accordingly given of
the various generic forms which have been met with at
various depths, with a description of the nature of the
materials in which they occur.

From animals we pass to plants. The first paper is
the well-known one by Dr. Hooker, " Outlines of the
Distribution of Arctic Plants," from the Linnean Society's
Transactions for 1861, which has been reprinted with
little alteration, chiefly from want of time, the more
recent discoveries being given in foot-notes. The list of
flowering plants contains those from the districts of
Arctic East America and Greenland only, which number
552, of which about two-fifths are Monocotyledons, and
the remainder Dicotyledons. Mr. Taylor's paper, on the
Plants of Davis' Strait, though without the generalisations
of the former, gives more details on the habitats and loca-
lities of the specimens ; but this paper also is one of old
date (1862). The Cryptogams are enumerated in various
papers on the several sections to which separate students
usually devote themselves j the most important being
Dr. Lindsay's, on the Lichen Flora of Greenland and
other Arctic Regions, from the Transactions of the
Botanical Society of Edinburgh for 1869. As lichens
will grow where nothing else will, their various species

may naturally be expected to make a large figure in an
Arctic flora ; and so they actually do, as they number by
themselves half as many as all the flowering plants
together. The Diatoms, which in their vast numbers
cause the discoloration of some portions of the Arctic
seas, form the subject of another interesting paper by
Dr. Brown.

When we reach the portion of the Manual relating to
Geology, we find some part of the information to be of
very ancient date, belonging to the days of Flaetz-Trap-
Formation and other exploded terms, which now convey
no information whatever. The interest of these papers,
written by Sir Charles Giesecke in the beginning of this
century, is mineralogical. He was a careful collector and
diligent observer, and his records are still valuable. One
of his chief discoveries was an easily fused mineral he
named cryolite, which is now an abundant source of
aluminium. To this two papers are devoted. Shortly
following these we have Dr. Sutherland's paper, no less
valuable because some twenty years old, on the Geolo-
gical and Glacial Phenomena of the Coasts of Davis'
Straits and Baffin's Bay, which contains many observa-
tions on the ice-phenomena both of small and large
masses. The Miocene Flora of Greenland, so admirably
described by Prof. Oswald Heer in his " Flora Fossilis
Arctica," and catalogued in other works, cannot of course
in a small Manual like the present receive more than a
comparatively brief notice, nor can it be needed, as
it is an essentially standard work. There is also a Cre-
taceous Flora catalogued from the "Kome Formation"
of the north coast of Noursoak Peninsula. Undoubtedly
the most interesting paper in this section is that of Prof.
Nordenskjold, extracted from the Geological Mdgazinc,
in which he gave an account of his fruitful expedition
to Greenland in the year 1870. The united papers that
detail his experiences are together of considerable length.
He made one of the very few attempts that have yet been
made to enter the great continental icefield, and suc-
ceeded in passing over thirty miles, the interesting details
of the journey being here recorded ; and much valuable
information was thus obtained. The new expedition will
have great opportunities of such explorations, which is
a reason for regretting the absence from it of any pro-
fessed geologist. Prof. Nordenskjold gives an account
also of the various strata of the coast, which exhibit beds
of Cretaceous and Miocene age, with some basalts which
are associated with them. One of the most interesting
discoveries made by him was that of three large masses of
meteoric iron at Ovifak, of which a woodcut and analyses
are here given, with full accounts of its various points of
interest. This latter recital is very naturally followed by
that portion of Dr. Flight's recent contributions to the
Geo logical Magazine on. Meteorites, which relates to those
found in Greenland. This contains the results of the
newer Swedish Expedition of 1871, together with further
details about the stones themselves, as compared with
other meteorites. The two chief remaining papers in
this division are, first, a valuable abstract of geological
notes on Noursoak Peninsula and Disco Island, by Dr.
Robert Brown, which is only just published in the Trans-
actions of the Glasgow Geological Society, and contains
a succinct account of the geology of that part of Green-
land as made out by various explorers ; and secondly, a

June 3, 1875]

NATURE

83

collection ot notes by Henry H. Howorth of the several
observations that have established the fact of the rising
of the circumpolar land.

We have now passed in review the chief portion of this
Manual, which occupies 500 out of its 750 pages, and
relates to that portion of the Arctic regions whither the
explorers are in the first instance bound. The remaining
portion of the Natural History division — occupied with
Parry Island and East Greenland — consists of shorter
papers and far barer catalogues. These perhaps require no
observations beyond noticing the fact — recently pointed out
also by Mr. De Ranee in our columns— that the various
geological periods are much better represented in these
latter districts, there being Silurian, Carboniferous, Tri-
assic, and Jurassic, as well as Cretaceous and Tertiary
rocks ; and consequently we have lists of fossils supplied
with which any that may be discovered may be compared.
The last of the Natural History series is an extract from
Mr. Woodward's paper on Glaciation, the object of the in-
sertion of which, as it is entirely theoretical, it is difficult
to understand, unless it be to give the explorers some
idea of the kind of questions on which some of their
geological and glacial observations may be expected to
throw light.

There are two things that strike one in reading these
long catalogues— ( I ), that he must be a well-informed
naturalist to whom many of the names which belong to
all classes and kingdoms of life are anything more than
names ; and (2), arising from this, what an advante.ge
there is in having specific names at least as far as
possible descriptive.

The second part of the Manual, relating to Physics,
requires of course less detail, and is included in a far
smaller number of pages. It is not constructed on ex-
actly the same plan as the first part, but consists in a
great degree in descriptions of the observations and
results, instead of reprints of the original papers ; nor is
it so exhaustive. It is divided into eight portions, relat-
ing respectively to Meteorology, Temperature of the Sea,
Formation and Composition of Sea-water Ice, Tides and
Currents, Geodesy and Pendulum Experiments, Observa-
tions on Refraction and on Air, Terrestrial Magnetism,
and the Aurora Borealis . Under the head of Meteorology
we have a few scattered notes on the results of the nume-
rous previous expeditions with the thermometer, baro-
meter, &c., and a valuable table on the mean temperatures
of various stations for the several months of the year.
The information as to the temperature of the sea is still
more meagre, and it seems to us that more might have
been included with advantage. The papers selected on
the Physical Properties of Ice are extremely suggestive
and valuable, consisting partly of observations in Arctic
regions as to the freezing-points of sea-water, and the
compositions of the resulting ice and the remaining hquid,
and partly of similar experiments in the laboratory.

The information also on the tides and currents is pretty
full, showing what methods have been adopted in various
expeditions for determining the former accurately and
with what resuUs. There are also papers of suggestions
as to the probable directions and amounts of both, and
the best places for observation, and on the Meteorology
and Hydrography of the Austro- Hungarian North Polar
Expedition. The part on Magnetism is on the same

model as the last mentioned, and is equally, if not more
valuable. The last chapter, on the Aurora Borealis, is the
best of all. Besides the ordinarily phenomenal obser-
vations already made, great attention is naturally paid to
the spectrum of the Aurora, its connection with electrical
discharges, together with Angstrom's views of its origin
as explained in Nature (vol. x. p. 246), and the opinions
of Prof. Herschel and Mr. Capron, as well as those of
MM. Lemstrom and Wijkander, deduced from obser-
vations made by them in the different Swedish expe-
ditions, all of which are here given as fully as possible.

Such is the book with which, in addition to all others,
the Arctic explorers are supplied. It is a library in one
volume such as one does not often see. The mass of
material it contains is something marvellous, and all is
condensed as much as is advisable. The compilers must
have had hard work, but they may congratulate them-
selves on the result. They have practically said to the
Arctic voyagers — " This is what we have ; go and obtain
more for us." May they be successful, and return with a
full cargo of information, which, if it were packed as tight
as in this Manual, would not take up much room in com-
parison with its high value.

LAW SON'S ''NEW GUINEA''
Wanderings in the hiterior of New Guinea. By Capt.
J. A. Lawson. With Frontispiece and Map. (Chapman
and Hall, 1875.)

IT is not often that a work of fiction calls for notice in
the pages of Nature ; but we have here an excep-
tional case. This book has been favourably noticed in
some of the daily and weekly papers as a genuine narrative
of travel and an addition to our knowledge of an almost un-
known region, and it therefore becomes a duty to inform
our readers that it is wholly fictitious. It is not even a clever
fiction ; for although the author has some literary skill
and some notion of the character of savages, he is so
totally ignorant of the geography and the natural history
of the country he pretends to have explored, and so com-
pletely unacquainted with the exigencies of travel and
exploration in trackless equatorial forests, as to crowd his
pages with incidents totally unUke any that occur to the
actual explorer, and with facts altogether opposed to
some of the best established conclusions of physical geo-
graphy. We proceed to give proofs of the accuracy of
these statements. First, as to his geography. He starts
from a point a little to the east of Torres Straits, of
which he is so injudicious as to give the latitude and
longitude (both to seconds) from his own observations.
He also gives a map of his route, but without scale or
meridian line. He describes himself, however, as tra-
velUng generally northwards with only such divergences
as the country necessitated, and we may therefore take it
that his route was nearly north, as it should have been to
cross the island. But although he gives no scale to his
map, he (again injudiciously) gives the dimensions of a
large lake, along one side of which he travelled, as
"between 60 and 70 miles long, 15 to 30 broad," which
being laid down on his map furnishes an excellent scale,
and shows that the total distance from his starting point
in a straight line to the place he professes to have reached
must have been somewhere between 560 and 620 miles.

84

NATURE

\7une 3, 1875

Now, the total width of New Guinea is here 380 miles
only, and the I longest distance possible to go without
reaching the sea is just about 620 miles, which takes you
to the shores of Geelvinck Bay.

The centre of New Guinea is about 6° S. of the
equator, and is almost certainly a forest region through-
out and abundantly watered. In this equatorial belt all
round the globe the temperature lis not excessive, 96° or
98" being the extreme daily limit, while the nights are
almost invariably cool (70° to 76°). The greater part of
the country here J described is, however, said to be open
plains with only occasional forest tracts ; water was not
found for a whole day's journey, even at the foot of a
mountain range 10,000 feet high, and the ordinary daily
temperature is said to have reached 106° to 109° and 115°
in the shade. He describes a terrific storm of hailstones
as large as hens' eggs, not on the mountains, but in the
low country about 7° S. latitude.

His mode of travelling is as extraordinary as his geo-
graphy. After the statement that in the tropics " early
morning and evening are the only times when it is
possible to travel," he assures us that he started at 3 A.M.,
and in the evening continued his journey till 9 P.M. This
gives two-and-a-half hours in the morning and the same at
night of total darkness, in an unknown, pathless, tropical
country, and he even ascends part of a dangerous mountain
full of fissures and huge rocks, till nine o'clock at night !
The country, too, was full of venomous snakes ; and huge
scorpions a foot long, whose sting was certain death
were very abundant ; and as these last are nocturnal
animals, travelling in darkness among fissured rocks and
dense vegetation must have been exciting. But then we
are told that he carried a lanthorn, and by means of this
artificial illumination it is to be supposed the whole party
made good progress and baffled the scorpions.

More marvellous still is the ascent of Mount Hercules,
32,783 feet high. He starts with one native from the foot
of the mountain at 4 A.M., carrying "food, water, arms, and
blankets," and ascends 14,000 feet by nine o'clock ! At
1 5,000 feet they came to snow, but continued on for many
thousand feet more, and by i P.M. had reached a height
of 25,314 feet, the temperature being 22° below freezing.
This is certainly good chmbing, as it is just 4,000 feet
higher than Chimborazo from the sea-level, and more
than twice as high as Mont Blanc is above Chamouni.
The Alpine Club must hide their diminished heads after
this. Of course, having turned back at one o'clock, our
travellers arrived safely at their camp at 7.30 p.m. A
tinted view of this wonderful mountain forms the frontis-
piece to the book.

Having digested this Alpine feat as best we may, let
us turn to Capt. Lawson's account of the natural history
of the island. It may be premised, for the benefit of non-
zoological readers, that New Guinea belongs to the Aus-
tralian region, and that with the exception of bats and a
wild pig, all the known mammalia are marsupials, four
species of kangaroos, several species of Cusciis (an animal
somewhat like an opossum), and some smaller marsupial
forms being known. The coasts have been visited for
centuries, and considerable excursions have been made
in the interior of the northern part of the island, while
the southern portions have also been several times visited
by our various surveying parties. The islands all round

it agree in this exclusion of all mammalia but marsupials.
But Capt. Lawson tells us quite a different tale. He met
with no solitary kangaroo or Cuscus all through New
Guinea, but he everywhere encountered deer of several
species, wild buffaloes, wild goats, wild cattle of a new
species, hares, foxes, a wonderful new tiger, long-tailed
monkeys, and huge man-like apes ! Of birds we have,
quite correctly. Cockatoos and Birds of Paradise, but
along with these, pheasants, woodpeckers, and vultures,
the two former not known within a thousand, the latter
within two thousand miles of New Guinea. The natives,
too, have great herds of hump-backed cattle, and far in
the interior many of them speak Dutch !

Hardly less absurd are Capt. Lawson's wonderful hunt-
ing feats and hairbreadth escapes. The monkeys of New
Guinea seem remarkable for waiting to be shot at,
although, as the natives have guns and shoot them for
food, they would in other countries have become wary.
Yet our author goes out with a native chief to shoot
monkeys, and in a couple of hours they bag a score and
wound several others. Again, in an hour's shooting he
kills "thirty-nine ducks, five ibises, two storks, seven king-
fishers, and three new birds." The deer are seen in
" herds of two or three hundred," the wild goats generally
go in " flocks of seventy or eighty ! " A herd of at least
ten thousand buffaloes .was seen, and in a single tree
more than a thousand hanging nests of one species of
bird were counted, each nest, too, containing several dis-
tinct famihes. Capt. Lawson is tossed and then trampled
on by a wild buffalo, and when recovered so that he could
" walk a few paces, leaning on the arm^ of one of his
attendants," he goes fishing, and in two hours " pulled out
over a hundred fish, the largest a yard long," not to men-
tion many large fish which broke away from the hook. A
huge New Guinea tiger gets him in its clutches, but
though the animal was larger than a Bengal tiger, he
of course escapes, though " drenched with the Moolah's
blood." He preserves the skin, which is " marked with
black and chestnut stripes on a white ground," and this
skin is "one of the few specimens he has succeeded
in bringing to Europe." Wonderful birds, snakes, and
insects are also described, sometimes very minutely, but
not one of them at all resembles any of the known deni-
zens of New Guinea. Here is a butterfly for example :
" The largest specimen I obtained, whose wings measured
exacdy twelve inches across, was black, with a red border
to the wings and red bands round the body. In the
centre of each wing were three light blue spots arranged
in a triangle. The body of this fly was as thick as
my thumb, and six inches in length. The feelers were
twelve inches in length, and curled into three coils."

As if to complete his own refutation, our author states
that he returned to the coast with a party of natives who
were conveying, among other merchandise, skins of
" birds, monkeys, &c.," and that two or three Dutch
traders, as well as many Malays and Chinese, come there
every year. This part of New Guinea is therefore in
constant communication with the rest of the world, yet
the existence in the island of monkeys, apes, deer, buffaloes,
goats, and tigers, has remained totally unknown till the
secret was revealed to us by this enterprising and vera-
cious traveller.

Alfred R. Wallace

June-^, 1875J

NATURE

85

OUR BOOK SHELF
Ifs/i^es of the Molten Glebe. By W. L. Green, Minister

of Foreign Affairs to the King of the Sandwich Islands.

(Stanford and Co., 1875.)
It is a pity that books of this sort are published, as they
can do no good. It is one of that class which attempts
to account for the general features of the earth by some
extravagant hypothesis, for the proof of which some
superficial obsei-vations of well-known facts and some
show of quotations from well-known writers are all that
is offered. Who besides the author can believe that the
shape of the earth, deprived of its oceans, would be a
tetrahedron, the four angles representing the four conti-
nents ? Yet the author announces himself as following
in the footsteps of Elie de Beaumont in his theory of the
reseau pentagonal, as the following lucid sentence on
page 2 shows : — " The form (of the earth) is included in
his reseau trinngtilaire, and is, as I propose to show, the
six-faced tetrahedron ; the easterly sag or twist of the
southern hemisphere on a twin plane, the apparently
macled form of the crystal, having caused the lines of
relief and depression of the earth's surface to elude solu-
tion whilst the reseau of that crystal in its simple form
alone was applied to them." We quite agree with the author
that " only the imperfection of the ideas or of the lan-
guage in which they are conveyed can prevent the follow-
ing pages being intelligible to every reader." However
untenable De Beaumont's theory was, it was conscien-
tiously and laboriously worked out, and the conclusions
were commensurate with the offered proof, even if they
were erroneous ; but Mr. Green, who would be his fol-
lower and improver, jumps to conclusions far wider on
the basis of supposition only. The present short volume
is only the first part of three that are promised on the
figure of the earth, volcanic action, and physiography ;
and we must hope that the second part, at least, which is
to contain " observations of the great active volcanoes and
the great extinct volcanic range of the Hawaiian group,"
which the author must have had good opportunities of
making, will be somewhat more solid than this first. Mr.
Green is plainly capable of better things than wild specu-
lation, which anyone can make and no one can prove.
There are no doubt many remarkable features in the dis-
tribution and shape of land and the direction of its coast
lines, some of which are here pointed out ; but the mean-
ing of these things will only be arrived at by a wider
knowledge of facts and sober induction from them. The
large map that accompanies the volume shows some of
these features well, and is beautifully executed.

Stanford's Elemental y Atlases. I. Physical Atlas {sixth
edition) J II. Outline Atlas; III. Projection Atlas j
IV. Blank Sheets for Maps. By the Rev. J. P.
Faunthorpe, M.A., F.R.G.S. (London : Edward
Stanford, 1875.)
This is really an admirable apparatus, not merely for the
purpose of teaching the construction of maps, but for the
giving of a real knowledge of what Physical Geography
means, and for the conveyance of an impressive idea of
the prominer t physical features of the particular countries
embraced in the set of maps. There are sixteen maps alto-
gether, and in the Physical Atlas the chief physical features
of the various countries are clearly brought out — mountain
ranges, table-lands, and river-courses. The mountain
ranges are simply but sufficiently indicated by thick lines,
the principal summits being shown by small circles ; the
table-lands arc shown by simple shading. Besides these
features, each map contains one or more of the principal
cross-sections of the country, which convey a vivid idea
of its conformation. Prefixed to the Physical Atlas are
a few useful hints on Map-drawing, on Mercator's Projec-
tion, on the Shape and Position of the Land Masses, and
a few notes illustrating each map. Atlases II., III., and

IV. are intended to lead the student gradually to skill in
map-drawing, and are well calculated to serve the pur-
pose. Anyone who goes faithfully through the course
indicated by this excellent set of books will have a more
real knowledge of the main features of the land-masses
of the globe than any amount of mere reading can give.
The fact that the Physical Atlas has reached a sixth
edition, which contains several new maps and additional
letterpress, proves that Mr. Faunthorpe's design has
been appreciated.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

{The Editor does not hold himself responsible jar opinions expressed
by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return,
or to correspond with the -writers of, rejected manuscripts.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.']

The Meteors of November 14
The writer some time since called attention to the fact that
the dates of certain meteoric showers, given by Humboldt and
Quetelet as belonging to the November stream, indicated the
existence of two distinct and widely separated clusters moving in
orbits very nearly identical. The years thus designated were
1787, 1818, 1820, 1822, 1823, 1 841, and 1846. As the last two
were subsequent to the great display of 1833, the meteors seen
were noticed only in consequence of their being specially looked
for ; and as the number conformable to the radiant of the Leonids
is not given, there may be some doubt whether those observed
really belonged to the November stream. The former displays
occurred before the periodicity of such phenomena had been
suspected, and the number of meteors would seem to have been
considerable. As the shower of 1787 preceded by twelve yeais
the great meteoric fall witnessed in South America by Humboh t,
the group from which it was derived had passed beyond tl^e
orbit of Saturn at the time of the latter display. The phenomtiia
of 1818, 1820, 1822, and 1823 indicate that, as in the case cf tl e
major group, which passed its descending node between 1865
and 1870, the meteoroids are extended over a considerable arc
of their orbit. From November 1787 to the middle of the nodal
passage of 1818-1823, is about 33^ years — a period nearly the
same as that of the principal cluster. These facts alone were
regarded by the present writer as giving reasonable probability
to the hypothesis of an approximate identity of orbits. In
Nature, vol. xi. p. 407, it was shown that the meteor-showers
of October 855 and 856 were probably derived from the stream
of Leonids, and it is certainly remarkable that the interval from
855 to 1787 is equal to twenty-eight periods of 33^293 years.
Again, the shower observed in Chma, Sept. 28, A.D. 288, making
proper allowance for the nodal motion, corresponds to the same
epoch ; the interval between 288 and 855 containing seventeen
periods of 33 "35 years. In view of the fact that the shower from
this cluster was due between 1851 and 1855, the folloving extract
from the writer's note-book is not without interest : —

"Newark, Delaware, Nov. 13, 1852. ... On the evening
of the nth, from 7 to 10 o'clock, an aurora borealis of ordinary
brilliancy was constantly observed. About midnight the sky
became overcast with clouds, thus preventing our watch for
meteors which we were about to commence. On the I2th, from
about 3 to 9 o'clock A.M., rain fell almost incessantly. About
noon the clouds broke away, and the night between the 12th and
13th was quite clear. During six hours — from 10 r.M. to 4 a.m.
— constant watch was maintained at four windows, facing north,
south, east, and west. From 10 to i o'clock the observations
were conducted by Prof. Ferris and myself with assistants. At
I the place of Prof. Ferris was taken by Prof. Porter, who
remained, with myself and assistants, till 4. We observed —

From I oh. to iih. 20 meteors.

,. II ,, 12 35 „

,, 12 ,, I 40 ,,

,, I ,, 2 52 ,,

2 „ 3 75 „

3 >. 4 59 M

Total 281

When the meteors were most numerous, near 3 o'clock, the
common point of divergence in Leo was distinctly observed."

I may here add, although the fact is not stated in my memo-
randa, that the conforn*ble meteors, or a majority of them,

86

NATURE

SJune 3, 1875

were seen near the radiant, and that they were generally smaller
and had shorter tracks than the November meteors observed
between 1865 and 1870. The number seen was too small to be
called a shower ; at the maximum, however, the fall per hour
was nearly double that of ordinary nights. In short, I have no
doubt that they were Leonids, and think it highly probable that
they were derived from a distinct cluster which passed its peri-
helion in 1787 and 1820. We have therefore nine recorded
meteor-falls which indicate the existence of a second cluster of
Leonids, viz., those of a.d. 288, 855, 856, 1787, 1818, 1820,
1822, 1823, and 1852. The showers of 855 and 856 may be
somewhat doubtful. If derived from the same meteor-cloud as
the others, the dates would indicate considerable perturbations
either by Uranus or the earth. The displays have been much
less conspicuous than those of the major group, and hence the
phenomena have been less frequently observed. The period is
about 33 '33 years, while that of the other swarm, according to
Newton, is 33*25 years. Since their separation, therefore, the
latter has gained nearly two-thirds of a revolution in their rela-
tive motion. The estimates which have been made in regard to
the recent entrance of tha cluster into the planetary system must
consequently be rejected. Daniel Kirkwood

Bloomington, Indiana, U.S.A., April 20

Systems of Consanguinity

In Nature, vol. xi. p. 401, I find a notice of the third
edition of Sir John Lubbock's valuable work on the "Origin
of Civilisation," in which the follov/ing paragraph occurs : —
"The facts with which he deals in this chapter [a new
one in that volume] have been taken from the voluminous
work of the American author, Mr. Morgan; but Sir John Lub-
bock, putting aside Mr. Morgan's theorising, has submitted a
view of them of his own. This, in the main, and as far as it
goes, we think, he has made out."

In the same article the following paragraph also occurs : —
" One of Mr. Morgan's theories (for he has, or seems to have,
two which it is no business of ours to reconcile with each other)
is, that these systems are, to use the words of Sir John Lub-
bock, 'arbitrary, artificial, and intentional.'"

These statements, to the last of which with your permission I
desire to reply, present the "American author "both harshly
and unfairly to the British public. The interpretation of these
systems of consanguinity, thus ascribed to me, is not mine;
neither is the interpretation given in my work on ' ' Systems of
Consanguinity."

There are three or four places, and perhaps more, in that
volume in which I speak of the system of a particular people as
" artificial and complicated," and as "arbitrary and artificial,"
without the qualification in each case which should, perhaps,
have been inserted. Thus, commenting on the same system
(Con, p. 392), I remark that " the chain of consanguinity has
been followed with great particularity, that the artificial and
complicated character of the system might be exhibited, as well
as the rigorous precision with which its minute details are ad-
justed." One who had read my work through could not have
been misled by this statement, which was intended to characterise
this system as it appeared on its face, and apart from all con-
siderations respecting its origin. On the next page but one
(p. 394) the same statement is repeated and qualified as follows :
" As a plan of consanguinity it [the same system] is stupendous
in form and complicated in its details ; and seemingly arbitrary
and artificial in its character when judged by ordinary standards."

In a single and final chapter of that work (pp. 467-510), en-
titled " General Results," I discussed the three great systems of
consanguinity found in the principal families of mankind, and
indicated some of the general conditions they seemed to warrant.
My interpretation of these systems will there be found. To
this chapter a person would naturally turn if he wished to
know the views of the author on the precise question whether
the systems were to be regarded as artificial or natural. Among
other things, it contains what is prudently called a "conjec-
tural solution " of the origin of the Malayan system of con-
sanguinity, and also a similar solution of the origin of the
Turanian system. These solutions are presented and discussed
in connection with a series of fifteen prominent institutions and
customs of mankind, articulated in a sequence in the order of
their probable origination. It commences with " I. Promiscuous
Intercourse"; "II. Intermarriage, or Cohabitation of Brothers
and Sisters ;" and ends with "XV. The Overthrow of the Clas-
gificatory System of Relationship, and the Substitution of the

Descriptive." In it are enumerated several successive forms of
marriage, several successive forms of the family, and the three
systems of consanguinity in their order of relation. It was
designed to illustrate the course of human progress from
savagery to civilisation ; one form of marriage being followed
by another, one form of the family by another, and one system
of consanguinity by another. It is a sequence of human progress
through the slow accumulations of experimental knowledge.

At the end of the solution of the origin of the Malayan system,
which is founded upon the assumed intermarriage of brothers
and sisters in a group (the second member of the sequence),
occurs the following statement (p. 482) : — " Every blood rela-
tionship under the Malayan system is thus explained from the
nature of descents, and is seen to be the one actually existing, as
near as the parentage of individuals could be known. The
system, therefore, follows the flow of the blood, instead of
thwarting or diverting its currents. It is a natural rather than
an arbitrary and artificial system." The reader will notice that
it was this form of marriage which created the Malayan system.

Again, at the end of the solution of the origin of the Turanian
system, and after showing that the latter was derived from the
Malayan, occurs the following statement (p. 486) : " If the pro-
gressive condition s of society during the ages of barbarism, from
which this solution is drawn, are partly hypothetical, the system
itself, as thus explained, is found to be simple and natural instead
of an arbitrary and artificial creation of human intelligence. "

In prosecuting this investigation one of the questions to
be determined was whether these systems were artificial or
natural. If the former, they are without ethnological value ; but
if natural systems, showing the relationships which actually ex-
isted when they were respectively formed, then they would pos-
sess immense value, because they concerned and demonstrated a
condition of ancient society of which previously we had no defi-
nite conception. From each system, in such a case, can be
deduced, with almost unerring certainty, the form of marriage
and of the family in which it originated. It was by this course
of reasoning that I discovered the necessary antecedent existence
of the intermarriage of brothers and sisters in a group to account
for the existence of the Malayan system of consanguinity. This
fact gives us the starting-point in which ancient society com-
mences, with the proof that it did so commence. Hence the
second member of the sequence above-named. This sequence
on its face, and these solutions in express terms, treat these
systems as natural in every respect.

In an address before the London Anthropological Institute in
187 1 upon the contents of the same volume on Consanguinity,
Sir John Lubbock places me in the same position, and leaves
me there. He remarks in that address (Journal of A. I., 1871,
p. 6), which I presume forms the basis of "the new chapter,"
that " Mr. Morgan, from several passages, appears to regard the
system as arbitrary, artificial, and intentional ; " from which he
takes occasion to dissent. I find in that somewhat elaborate
address no reference whatever to the solutions named, and none
whatever to the sequence, I am persuaded they must have
escaped his notice. Lewis H. Morgan

Rochester, New York, April 19

The Migration of Species

It has probably been the experience of most who have under-
taken a voyage to sea, to have observed land-birds and insects
far from the nearest coast, either in course of transit or resting
on the vessel. Many travellers have observed these visitants, and
their records have proved valuable biological facts bearing on
the occasional migrations of species and their consequences as
has been pointed out by Mr. Darwin. But it is more than pro-
bable that this dispersal of land species over extremely wide
areas of sea is far more constant and less occasional than we
are at present justified in affirming from the facts as yet collected.
Unfortunately, however, we glean very little biological informa-
tion from the great mercantile marine service of this country, an
assemblage of which we are so justly proud, and it is only by
costly Government expeditions that we become acquainted vwth
facts that remained and would have remained unnoticed by the
immense number of sailors who leave our shores. Nor can we
feel surprised at the result when we recollect that biology is
scarcely a subject thought necessary to form part of a mariner's
education. A good instance is afforded by the results of the
voyage of the Beagle. An impalpable powder fell upon the ship
off the Cape de Verd Islands. This powder^must have fallen
upon man^ ships before j but Mr, Darwin being on board the

yunei, 1875]

NATURE

87

Beagle, it was collected and sent for inspection to Ehrenberg, and
results of great scientific value accrued. Had our great philo-
sophic naturalist not been there, this dust might still have fallen
on ships to the present day, been swept away as a nuisance, and
unrecognised as of any possible interest. That errant species
must frequently visit vessels was shown me on a voyage to the
East a few years ago. Thus, in the early part of September, in
about lat. 12* N. and long. 26° W., a dove flew on board, which,
after resting for a short time, again pursued its journey. In
about lat. 9° N. and long. 25° \V. a moth, apparently S. con-
volvuli, reached the vessel just before the arrival of a squall. In
reply to my inquiries, both the officers and crew stated that these
were simply very common occurrences.

I think we may feel confident that most vessels sailing this
course meet frequently with like objects, and the interest would
be increased by finding whether the same were observed by
vessels still further from the nearest land. Could some means
be devised for obtaining records of these migratory species, or
could some large shipowner be induced to have the same care-
lully recorded in the log-books kept on board his vessels, I feel
little doubt that we should be astonished by the number and
constancy of these wanderers from other lands. The entry in
the log-book would ensure the date and approximate latitude
and longitude which would bj necessary factors in dealing with
this biological question, and would doubtless bear further proof
to Mr. Darwin's view of colonisation by chance or occasional
visitants.

So much might be done by some of our present means of
unendowed research that it seems weary waiting for the day
when a broader education will tend to induce our sailors to
reap that abundant harvest of scientific information which they
so constantly have the means of acquiring. There is surely
some branch of science which might be indebted to every vessel
that sails from this country on a foreign voyage, could the pre-
liminary information and impetus for inquiry be given to the
officers or crew. I believe the "Religious Tract," or some
kindred society, provides many of our vessels with devotional
literature ; could not our learned societies also compile and pro-
vide some scientific works and questions for solution which
might be placed in the hands of our sailors, thus affording a
pleasure for a long voyage, and producing effects to be appre-
ciated by science at home ?

We should not expect the results of a " Challenger Expe-
dition," but then Government outlays for that purpose are some-
times few and far between. W, L. Distant

Streatham Cottage, Buccleuch Road, West Dulwich

Muraencpsis tridactyla

With reference to Mr. Kent's letter in your last number
(p. 69), I beg leave to point out to you that it is very doubt-
ful, according to the best authorities, whether the so-called
Murcenopsis tridactyla is even specifically different from Amphi-
uma means (i.e. the two-toed form of the same animal). Of the
latter this Society have had several living specimens in their
collection. One of them (purchased December 6, 1870) is still
living in^the Society's Gardens. P. L. Sclater

Zoological Society of London

Hardened Glass

The account of hardened and malleable glass given in
Nature, vol. xi. p. 474, interested me greatly.

It seems hardly possible that a change in the molecular con-
stitution of glass can take place without affecting its optical
properties. May not this glass, therefore, possess refractive and
dispersive powers unlike those of the kind usually employed in
lenses ? If it can be made of sufficient purity and is found to
have a higher refractive power, it will enable us to make thinner
lenses with smaller curves, thus contributing to the further im-
provement of optical instruments. James H. Logan

Jacksonville, Illinois, U.S.A., May 6

Yorkshire Exhibition "Guide"
Will you kindly allow me, as a member of the Science Com-
mittee of the Yorkshire Exhibition of Arts and Manufactures,
held at Leeds, to point out that the Yorkshire " Guide " referred
in Nature, voL xii. p. 76, is entirely an unofficial publication.
No competent member of the Committee was applied to for
information respecting palladium or any other exhibit. The
first intimation the Committee had of the wild statements

contained in the " Guide " was received from a member
who purchased a copy in the usual way, and immediate steps
were taken to secure that more trustworthy information should
be contained in future editions of the *• Guide," unofficial
though it be. You will, I think, see that it is rather hard that
the Committee should, as by inference they may be, be made
responsible for the statements you indicate, and will, I hope,
give me space for this repudiation of them.

H. POCKLINGTON

Primroses and Cowslips

In answer to Mr. J. J. Murphy's inquiry in Nature of
May 13 (vol. xii. p. 34) I beg to state that the locality in which,
as far as I am aware, no primroses are found, is formed by the
outcrop of the chalk in the south of Cambridgeshire and north
of Hertfordshire, and is bounded on the north and south by the
outcrop of the chalk marl and the edge of the London Basin,
and east and west by the Great Eastern and Great Northern
main lines ; it is, from the nature of the underlying beds, very
dry. I have always thought, but perhaps without foundation,
that primroses are not generally found in the districts in which
cowslips are common, and vice z/ersd, and Mr. Murphy's remark
seems to bear out this.

I have not noticed any instance of the removal of the ovules
of cowslips by birds ; and even primroses, in other parts of the
garden than those first attacked, have been left untouched,

Odsey, near Royston, Herts H, George Fordham

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN
The Melbourne Catalogue.— We have received the
" First Melbourne General Catalogue " of stars, which is
founded upon the observations taken with the Transit
Circle under the direction of Mr, EUery, the Government
Astronomer, at the New Observatory of Melbourne,
between the middle of the year 1863 and the end of 1870.
It has been reduced and prepared for publication by Mr.
E. J. White, the first assistant, from the materials printed
in vols. ii. iii. and iv. of the Melbourne Observations.
Vol. i. contained a catalogue of 546 stars resulting from
the meridian observations taken previous to the removal
of the Observatory to its present site, and called the
" Williamstown Catalogue : " in the new publication we
have the positions for the beginning of 1870, of 1227
stars, with few exceptions observed at least three times,
and accompanied by the terms of precession to the third
order, proper motions, and Bessel's reduction-constants
(as in the British Association Catalogue), with the
synonyms in Lacaille, Piazzi, Brisbane, and Johnson.
Great care appears to have been taken in calculating the
precessions from the mean year of observation to the
epoch of the catalogue, and a detailed account of the
process employed is given in the introduction. The
proper motions of the stars have also been discussed
where the means were available, the more uncertain
results being distinguished from those possessing greater
claim to acceptance by enclosure in parentheses.

Many of the most interesting stars of the southern
heavens are included in this Catalogue, and we note that
the remarkable one e Indi has not been overlooked. In
this case the recent Melbourne observations, as compared
with Jacobs' at Madras in 1852, assign an annual proper
motion of 4"'58 in arcjof great circle, thus quite confirm-
ing values previously obtained from less reliable data.
We hope that at no distant period an attempt will be
made to determine the parallax of this star. Large
proper motion is indicated for the stars B. A. C. 5719,
Arfe, and 7816, Indi ; but on comparing the Melbourne
positions with those in Gilliss's Santiago Catalogue, in
the Washington volume of observations for 1868, not
mentioned by Mr. White amongst the authorities he had
consulted, it is not confirmed in either case.

The " First Melbourne Catalogue " is a handsome
specimen of typography from the Government Printing
Office. It must lonn ^n essential work of reference for
every southern astronomer, who has now, with the " Cape

88

NATURE

{7nne s, 1875

General Catalogue," two authorities supplying him with
excellent positions of a large number of stars.

The Comet of 1533. — In the catalogues of the orbits
of comets we find two sets of elements for this comet,
both deduced from the observations of Apian between
July 18 and 25, which are contained in his rare work,
Astrononiiann Casareiim. The first orbit is by Douwes,
who assigned reti-ograde motion, but in the Berliner
Jahrbnch for 1800, Olbers gives another orbit, equally
satisfactory as regards representing Apian's observations,
in which the heliocentric motion is direct^ and he appeared
to think it was not possible to decide which of the two is
to be preferred. In addition to Apian's account of this
comet we have a brief one by Gemma Frisius, who states
that after having been seen about the beginning of July
in 5° (or rather, as Pingr^ corrects him, in 15°) of the sign
Gemini, near the star Capella, with 24° of latitude and 48°
north declination, it passed by a westerly motion, or con-
trary to the order of the signs, to the constellation Cas-
siopea, which it traversed, finally disappearing in Cygnus.
Fracastor has also left us an account of the comet's track,
though there is some ambiguity about it. Since Olbers
calculated the orbit the Chinese observations have been
published, in the first instance by M. Edouard Biot, in
the additions to the Connaissance des Tevips for 1 846,
and more recently in Mi\ Williams' work upon Cometary
Observations in China, and it would appear that the
comet moved to the vicinity of tt Cygni, and was last seen
on .Sept. 16. If we compare the elements of Douwes and
Olbers with the track thus roughly defined, we see that
the retrograde orbit of Douwes is hardly probable, and
that possibly a modification of the direct orbit of Olbers
would be found to sufficiently represent the path of the
comet, according to Apian, Gemma, and the Chinese
Annals.

Occult ATiON of Venus.— Mr. R, Meldola, of the
Royal Society Eclipse Expedition, writes that the occul-
tation of May 2 was partially observed by Prof. Tacchini
and himself from the P. and O. steamer Pcshawnr in the
Arabian Sea. The moon was obscured by clouds at
the time of immersion ; the last contact took place at
i6h. 15m. 6s. local mean time. Ship's position furnished
by Capt. White— long, ^f 3' E., lat. 6° 48' 18'' N.

OUR BOTANICAL COLUMN
Phenomena of Plant-life. — The expansive power
of growing vegetable tissue is something marvellous,
if the experiments undertaken by Mr. Clark, pre-
sident of the State Agricultural College of Massa-
chusetts, are perfectly trustworthy. If his appliance
for measuring the force exerted by a growing pumpkin
was not at fault, the greatest weight lifted by the
pumpkin in the course of its development was nearly
two-and-a-half tons. Apparently the greatest care
was taken to arrive at the truth, and we have no
reason to doubt the accuracy of the statements con-
tained in Mr. Clark's paper which was presented to
the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture. But in our
ignorance of the phenomena of plant life we should
like to see the observations repeated. At the end of
the experiment alluded to the soil was carefully washed
from the roots of the pumpkin vine, and the entire system
of roots spread out upon the floor of a large room and
carefully measured. In addition to the main root, roots
were formed at each joint or node. The total length of
root developed was calculated to be over fifteen miles ;
and the time the plant was growing, four months. During
the greater part of the time, of course, the rate of growth
was relatively slow, but the maximum rate was computed
at not less than one thousand feet of root per day.

With another plant of the same species, Cticurbita
maxima, an experiment was instituted to ascertain the
pressure exerted by the rising sap. For this purpose the
plant was cut off near the ground, after it had attained

a length of twelve feet, and a mercurial gauge attached
to the part left in the ground. The maximum force with
which the root of the pumpkin exuded the water absorbed
by it was equal to a column of water 48"5i feet in height.

Some experiments to determine the channels through
which the crude sap rises, and on the diffusion of the
elaborated sap, gave interesting results. Mr. Clark says :
" We find that the crude sap imbibed by the root-hairs
from the surface of the particles of the soil seems to be
taken up in a dry state ; that is, it appears to be absorbed
molecule by molecule, no fluid water being visible, and
carried in this form through all the cellulose membranes
between the earth and leaf, by which it is to be digested
or exhaled. We do not say this is literally true, but it
accords very nearly with what is constantly to be seen in
some species of plants. The circulation of the sap in a
poplar tree is very dry compared with that of the blood
of any animal. Not a drop of moisture will ever flow
from the wood of an aspen, so far as we have observed."
It was found that an exceedingly small proportion of sap-
wood sufficed to convey the necessary supply of crude
sap to the foliage, but none would ascend through the bark.

The quantity of sap that flowed from difterent trees
during the season varied greatly in diverse species. Thus
the entire flow from the bitter-nut was less than the pro-
duct of the sugar-maple for a single day ; but the iron-
wood and the birches surpass the maple in the rapidity
and amount of their flowing. A paper-birch, fifteen inches
in diameter, bled in less than two months over one thou-
sand four hundred and eighty-six pounds of sap ; the
maximum flow, on the 5th of May, amounting to sixty-
three pounds and four ounces. The grape bleeds compara-
tively little as compared with many other things. A very
large proportion of the trees experimented upon did not
show any tendency to bleed in spring. We might extract
many other interesting details from Mr. Clark's paper,
had we sufficient space for them.

PHYSICS IN GERMANY
{Ftotn a German Correspondent^
TT ERR STEFAN, of Vienna, hss pubhshed a paper on
■»■-*■ a series of researches on adhesion. It is well known
that two plane plates which are placed upon one another ad-
here together so firmly that they can only be separated by a
certain amount of force. This phenomenon has hitherto
been considered as caused by adhesion {i.e. by the action
of molecular forces between the particles in contact be-
tween the two plates), and it was tried to determine the
magnitude of this adhesion statically.

The improbability of this conception already follows
from the fact that in the case in question no immediate
contact of the two plates takes place, but that between
them there is a layer of air of considerable thickness. If
two glass plates are employed for this experiment, they
do not show Newton's coloured rings ; these can only be
produced with plates that are perfectly plane and with the
application of considerable pressure. If, therefore, mole-
cular forces were active in this case between the particles
of the two plates, then the molecular sphere of action
would have to be very much larger than is generally
adopted according to other experiments. The phenome-
non becomes still more striking if the experiment is made
under water. In that case an attraction in the two plates
can still be perceived, even if they are a millimetre apart.
Herr Stefan used for his experiments two plates of glass,
of which one was suspended from a balance in such
a manner that its inferior plane was horizontal. The
balance was then brought to equilibrium. The second
plate was also placed horizontally under the other one.
Three little pieces of wire were then placed upon it, and
the upper plate was then let down so far as to rest upon
these pieces of wire. By varying the thicknesses of the
wires the distance of the two plates could be brought to
any desired magnitude. To tear away the upper plate

Jtme^,, 1875]

NATURE

89

from the under one, it was necessary to place a certain I
over- weight into the other scale of the balance.

It was found that the separation of the two plates can j
be accomplished by any force, however small, only the :
time in which the distance of the plates is increased by a
certain fraction through the action of such a force, is all
the greater, the smaller this force is. This time is still ;
greater if the two plates are in water or in another liquid,
instead of in air. To give an idea of this we may mention ;
that the distance of two plates, of 155 millimetres dia- i
meter, under water, which originally was ci mm., was \
increased in consequence of the continuous pull of
I gramme by o'oi mm. only in i^ minutes, by o'l mm. \
only in 7 minutes. j

Herr Stefan in his experiments measured the time that |
passed while the original distance of the plates increased ;
by a certain fraction. First, the law was established for
the motion of the plates in liquids as well as in air, that
the times stand in the reverse proportion to the separating
force. With the same overweight they are the longer,
the smaller the original distance of the plates, but this in
a far greater than a simple proportion ; they increase
nearly in square proportion if the distance of plates de-
creases in a simple one. For different sized plates the |
times in question stand in the proportion of the fourth •
powers of the semi-diameters of the plates ; for different
liquids in the same proportions as the times which elapse, i
while equal volumes of these liquids flow through a capil- ;
lary tube, under equal pressure. j

It results clearly that with this phenomenon there rests
a problem of hydrodynamics and not of molecular forces.
The phenomenon can be explained in the following
manner : — When the separating force begins to act, the
distance of the plates is increased by an infinitely small
part. The space contained between the plates is thus

enlarged, the liquid therein contained is dilated, and con-
sequently its hydrostatic pressure decreased. The over-
pressure of the exterior liquid acts against the separating
force. No equilibrium is, however, attained, because the
decrease of hydrostatic pressure between the plates causes
an inflow of the exterior liquid and thus a decrease of
the difference of pressure. The distance of plates may
be again increased by the separating force, and then the
same process is repeated in a continuous manner.

Herr Stefan has therefore given the name of apparent
adhesion to this phenomenon. He has tried to deduce
theoretically all the different laws to which the different
experiments have led him ; he has succeeded in finding
an equation which expresses these laws, and which at the
same time permits the deduction of the co-efficients of
interior friction of the liquids experimented with, directly
from the experiments. The values of the coefficients
obtained in this manner correspond almost exactly with
those obtained by the experiments of Poisseville, Maxwell,
and O. E. Meyer. But as Herr Stefan thinks the theore-
tical solution of the problem only an approximate one,
we reserve further details on the subject.

If we rub a wet cloth quickly over a glass tube,
closed at both ends, it is caused to vibrate longi-
tudinally. If at the same time it gives its lowest
longitudinal note (as we will suppose for the sake of
simplicity), then the end planes of the tube strike quite
periodically against the air enclosed in it, and cause the
same to vibrate. These vibrations are isochronous with
those of the tube itself They proceed from both ends of
the tube towards one another, and, as a consequence,
standing waves are formed in the enclosed air column.
If into such a tube lycopodium or silicic acid has been
placed, these powders (as also Herr Kundt has discovered

ik

*,

a few years ago) collect at the node points of the standing
waves and form figures of a very peculiar kind. As the
length of these standing waves depends solely on the
height of the generating sound and of the velocity of the
waves in the gas, with which the tube is filled, the pro-
portion of this wave-length to the wave-length in the
glass gives the relative velocity of sound in air, with that
in the glass as unity. Herren Kundt and Lehmann at
Strasburg have lately tried to produce longitudinal
vibrations and the figures just mentioned in a liquid,
enclosed in a cylindrical tube, in a similar manner.
It was found that in a column of water standing waves
and figures can be produced almost as easily as in a
column of air. The apparatus which was used for this
purpose consisted of a glass tube, A B, closed at one end,
B, which was placed firmly into a wider glass tube, C D,
by means of an india-rubber stopper. The latter glass
tube was closed at end D, and had two lateral outlets with
stopcocks, so as to be easily filled with water. The
powder which is placed in the tube C D must be suffi-
ciently heavy and of a certain degree of fineness ; it is
best to use for this purpose finely divided iron [Fa-rum
limaUim). The column of liquid must be free of even
the smallest air-bubble. If the liquid used, for instance
water, contains a gas absorbed, it must be first freed
from it by continual boiling. In order to make the
apparatus sound it is necessary only to rub a wet cloth
quickly over the protruding part of the tube A B.

The figures in this column of liquid may serve for the
determination of the velocity of sound in the liquid. If
the end A of the sounding tube is closed by a cork, and if
then over this end another tube is attached, which contains
lycopodium, then, by the figures which occur in the hquid,
and by those which occur in the tube with air, the wave-
length of the same sound is obtained both in liquid and

in air. The proportion of both gives the relative velocity
of sound in the liquid with reference to that in air as
unity. This relative velocity multiplied by the absolute
velocity in air at the same temperature, gives the absolute
velocity of sound in the liquid at the temperature in
question. It was interesting to compare the results of this
method of determining the velocity of sound in water,
with the values required by the ordinary theory of the
velocity of sound. According to the theory based on the
experimentally determined elasticity of water, the velocity
of sound at 8° Celsius is 1,437 metres. Colladon and
Sturm, by their experiments in the Lake of Geneva,
found the same to be 1,435 metres at 8° C. Although the
remarkable coincidence of these values is only acci-
dental, it is nevertheless proved that experiments such as
those of Colladon and Sturm do not give figures that are
very far from the theoretical values. The experiments of
Kundt and Lehmann show that the diameter and thickness
of the glass of the tube, which is used for the determina-
tion of the velocity of sound according to the method
above described, greatly affect the value of the velo-
city of sound in water. In a tube of 2*2 mm. thick-
ness of side, and 287 mm. diameter, the velocity at
18° C. was io4o'4 metres (the mean of two experiments
which coincided very closely) ; in another one of 5 mm.
thickness of side and 14 mm. diameter, the velocity was
found I382-2 metres at 22*2° C. As it would be very diffi-
cult to avoid unevenness in the sides of the tube, it does
not seem probable that when using tubes the above value
of 1,435 nietres could be completely reached. These
experiments, proving the influence of the thickness of the
sides and diameter of a tube upon the velocity of sound
in water, contradict the hypothesis of Wertheim, accord-
ing to which a column of liquid, which is sounding or
conducting sound, benaves like a firm rod. S.W,

QO

NA TURE

\yuite I, 1875

MA GNE TO-ELECTRIC MA CHINES *

Tj^EW discoveries in physical science have been more
-■- important in themselves, or richer in practical
results, than Faraday's discovery of the induction of
electrical currents ; and with the exception of the im-
mortal work of Newton on the properties of Light, it
would be difficult to mention any other experimental
nvcstigation, as it first issued from the hands of the

Pacinotti's Machine.

author, so complete in all its details, or so full of new
and original facts. CErsted's grand discovery, which
linked together electricity and magnetism, had already
yielded a scientific harvest of uncommon richness. It
led immediately to the construction of electro-magnets
vastly exceeding in power any permanent magnets which
were then known or have since been made. The mul-
tiplier or galvanometer of Schweigger supplied a new
and important instrument for measuring electrical cur-
rents, which, with a little modification, becan^e the electric
telegraph. Faraday discovered the rotatory character of

currents by means of a steel magnet— was in 1831 com-
pletely solved in the exhaustive memoir by Faraday, in
which he announced the discovery of the induction of
electrical currents. It may be interesting to describe,
nearly in his own words, Faraday's original experiments.
Two helices of insulated copper wire were passed
round a wooden block, the ends of the wire of one helix
being connected with a voltaic battery, and those of the
other with a galvanometer. So long as the current from
the battery passed through the first helix
the needle of the galvanometer remained
motionless, but on breaking the connec-
tion with the battery, a momentary cur-
rent, as indicated by the galvanometer,
traversed the wire of the second helix.
The direction of this current was the
same as that of the primary current of
the battery. When the first helix was
connected with the battery, another mo-
mentary current traversed the second
helix, but in this case it was in the oppo-
site direction to the primary current.
Substituting for the first hehx and the
voltaic battery a permanent steel magnet
or an electro-magnet, Faraday found that
on introducing one end of the magnet
into a hollow helix a temporary current
was produced in the wire of the helix in
one direction, and on withdrawing it an-
other temporary current occurred in the
opposite direction. For artificial magnets
the magnetism of the earth may be sub-
stituted, and thus electrical currents can
be obtained by induction from the mag-
netic conditions which everywhere prevail on the sur-
face of this globe. The singular phenomenon first
described by Arago, and afterwards elaborately inves-
tigated by Babbage and Herschel, that when a copper
plate is rotated below a freely suspended magnet the
latter tends to follow the motion of the plate, was shown
by Faraday to arise from electrical currents induced by
the magnet in the rotating metallic disc.

Soon after the announcement of these important
results, Pixii constructed in Paris the first magneto-
electric machine. I have still a vivid recollection of this
machine as I saw it in Pixii's workshop. The currents
were obtained by the rotation of a powerful horse-shoe
magnet in front of an armature composed of two short

Fig. 2.— Pacinotti's Machine (Plan).

the reciprocal action of magnets and electrical currents ;
and Ampere showed that all the properties of a per-
marent magnet could be explained on the hypothesis of
electrical currents in a fixed direction circulating around
the magnet. A problem which proved to be one of
surpassing difficulty, and long baffled many of the most
distmguished physicists of Europe— to obtain electrical i

T.ir:iI!!^v"VQ "" °^T Lecture with additions, delivered .at the Belfast i
Philosophical Society, March 17, by Dr. Andrews, F.R.S., L. & E,

bars of soft iron with a connecting crossbar, the latter
being surrounded by a long coil of copper wire covered
with silk. The armature had, in short, nearly the form
of a horse-shoe electro-magnet. With this machine
electrical sparks were obtained, and water was freely
decomposed. In the rotation of the magnet the faces
of the armature or electro-magnet became successively
north and south poles with intermediate conditions of
neutrality, and the direction of the current changed at
every semi-revolution of the magnet. Hence, in the
decomposition of water and other dectrolytes, the ele-

june-^, 1875]

NATURE

91

ments or radicles produced by the electrolysis could not
be obtained separately. Pixii is said to have applied a
commutator to his machine in order to obviate this defect.
An important modification of Pixii's machine was soon
after made by Paxton, who caused the armature to re-
volve instead of the permanent magnet. According to
the character of the current required, armatures with
longer or shorter wires were employed. A large machine
of this construction, exhibited some years ago at the
Polytechnic Institution in London, was capable of
igniting a short platinum wire. In Clarke's machine
the position of the armature was altered and an im-
proved commutator applied. Siemens afterwards, by
giving the armature a cylindrical form, rendered it more
compact and better fitted for rapid rotation.

Siemens' armature was happily applied by Wilde, in
1866, to the construction of a machine of extraordinary
power. Starting from a small magneto- electric machine
provided with six steel magnets, each weighing one
pound, and capable of carrying about ten times their
weight, Wilde transmitted the direct current from this
machine through the coils of an electro-magnet provided
like the former with a Siemens' armature, and the direct
current from the latter he in like manner transmitted
through the coils of another large electro-magnet— so
large, indeed, that its armature alone weighed above one
third of a ton. This was also provided with a Siemens'
armature. When the machine was in full action it
melted a rod of iron 15 inches in length and a quarter
of an inch in diameter, and gave the most brilliant illu-
minating effects when the discharge took place between
carbon points. As nearly as could be estimated, the
mechanical force absorbed in producing these results
was from eight to ten-horse power. Wilde's machines
have been successfully employed by Messrs. Elkington
for the precipitation of copper and other metals, and he
has lately proposed some important modifications to
adapt them to the production of the electric light.

Some years before Wilde's experiments were published,
Holmes had constructed on the Saxton principle a powerful
magneto-electric machine, which has been successfully used
at Dungeness and other lighthouses, and machines differ-
ing little from Holmes's are employed in some of the
French lighthouses. In Holmes's original machine forty-
eight pairs of compound bar-magnets were arranged for
the armatures (160 in number) to revolve between the
poles of the magnets, and by a system of commutators
the current was obtained always in the same direction.
Its amount, however, varied at almost indefinitely short
intervals from a maximum to one-half of that amount.
In practice these variations were wholly inappreciable.

The first suggestion of a magneto-electric machine
capable of giving a continuous current always in the
same direction is due to Dr. A. Pacinotti, of Florence. In
the nineteenth volume of " II Nuovo Cimento," which was
published in 1865,* Pacinotti describes the model of an
electro-magnetic machine constructed, some tima before,
under his direction, for the Cabinet of Technological
Physics in the University of Pisa, whose essential feature
was a novel form of armature to which he gave the name of
" transversal electro-magnet." This armature was formed
of a toothed iron ring, in m (Fig. i), capable of rotating
on a vertical axis, M M, and having the spaces between
the teeth occupied by helices of copper wire covered with
silk. The wire of the helices was always wound in the
same direction round the ring, and the terminal end of
each helix was brought into metallic connection with the
adjoining end of the wire of the succeeding helix. From
these junctions connecting wires were carried down
parallel to the axis of the machine, and united to insu-
lated plates of brass, of which a double row, as shown in
Fig. I, were inserted in a wooden cylinder, c, which was

* The date on the title-page of the volume is 1863, but it contains % letter
dated Rome, Jan. 19, 1865

itself firmly attached to the lower part of the axis. The
current entered through the successive brass plates as
they came into contact with a small metallic roller, k^
which was in communication with one pole of a vol-
taic battery. At the point of junction with the wires
of the helices, the current from the battery divided into
two parts, which respectively traversed in opposite direc-
tions the connected helices, each through a semi-diameter
of the ring, and finally left the machine on the opposite
side by a second roller, k, which was in connection with
the other pole of the battery. When the connections
were made, the iron ring began to rotate round its axis
with considerable force. In a trial in which the current
was supplied by four small elements of Bunsen, a weight
of several kilogrammes was raised. In the apparatus as
actually constructed, the poles of the electro-magnet were
enlarged by the addition of two segments of soft iron,
A A, B B (Fig. 2), which extended over the greater part of
the iron ring. The details of the construction of the
transversal electro-magnet will be easily understood from
the plan given in Fig. 2.

Towards the end of the paper to which I have already re-
ferred, Pacinotti shows that the iron ring armature, or trans-
versal electro-magnet, may be applied to reverse the con-
ditions just described, and to obtain continuous electrical
currents, always in the same direction, from a magnet,
whether a permanent one, or an electro-magnet. As the
original paper has not, as far as I know, been translated
into English, and the scientific journal in which it was
published is little known in this country, I will not make
any apology for giving the following extract without
abridgment.

" If we substitute for the electro-magnet A B (Fig. i) a
permanent magnet, and make the transversal electro-
magnet revolve, we shall have a magneto-electric machine
which will give an induced continuous current always in
the same direction. To find the most suitable positions
on the commutator from which to collect the induced
current, let us observe that in presence of the poles of the
fixed magnet, there are formed, by influence, at the extre-
mities of a diameter, opposite poles on the moveable
electro-magnet. These poles, N s (Fig. 2), maintain a fixed
position when the transversal electro-magnet rotates upon
its axis ; and therefore, in respect to the magnetism and
consequently to the induced currents, we may consider,
or suppose, that the helices of copper wire move round
on the ring magnet while the ring itself remains at rest.
To study the induced currents which are developed in
these helices, let us take one of them in the various posi-
tions it can assume. From the pole N (Fig. 3) advancing
towards the pole s, there will be developed a direct cur-
rent in one direction till the middle point a is reached ;
on passing this point the current will assume an opposite
direction. Proceeding from s towards N, the current will
maintain the same direction which it had from a to s, till
the middle point b is reached ; after passing b the direc-
tion will be again changed, and will now be the same
which it had from N to a. Now, since all the helices
communicate with one another, the electro-motive forces
will be collected in one given direction, and will give to
the entire current the course indicated by the arrows in
Fig. 3 ; * and for collecting it, the most suitable positions
will be rt: ^ ; that is to say, the rollers on the commutator
should be placed at right angles with the line of magne-
tism of the electro-magnet."

Pacinotti does not appear to have constructed specially
a magneto-electric machine on the above principle,
but he states that he verified the correctness of his
views by turning the iron ring in the electro-magnetic
machine, and observing the direction of the currents
when a galvanometer was introduced into the circuit.

* Fig. 3, as given in the text, is an exact fac-simile of the corresponding
figure in the original. It is obvious from the figure itself, as well as Irom the
text, that there is an error in the engraving, and that the arrow between s and
b should point towards s and n4 towards b.

92

NATURE

\_7nnei, 1875

The results he obtained were not great, but were suffi-
cient to enable him to announce that a magneto-electric
machine could be constructed which would have the
advantage of giving the induced currents all in the same
direction, without the help of mechanical arrangements to
separate opposed currents or to make them conspire with
one another.

From the foregoing analysis of Pacinotti's memoir,
there can be no doubt that it contains a description of the
ring armature which in the hands of Gramme has recently
led to the construction of magneto- electric machines
giving continuous currents of great intensity. I cannot,
however, pass over without notice an extraordinary blun-
der into which Pacinotti has fallen, and which would
render any machine constructed after his model altogether
valueless. By a reference to Fig. 2, which, as well as
Figs. I and 3, has been engraved from a photograph of
the plate appended to the original memoir, it will be seen
that the letters N and s are placed at the end of the
diameter of the ring which is at right angles to the hne
A B joining the poles of the fixed magnet. That Paci-
notti intended these letters to designate north and south
magnetic poles is manifest from the following passage
among others in his memoir : — " Osserviamo che per
influenza suUa elettro-calamita mobile si formano i poll
opposti alle estremitk di un diametro in presenza ai poli
della calamita fissa. Questi poli N S mantengono una
posizione fissa anche quando la elettro-calamita trasver-
sale ruota sul suo asse." It is hardly necessary to say
that the positions assigned by Pacinotti for the poles in
an iron ring under the influence of a fixed magnet are in
reality those of the neutral points, or points of no mag-
netism, and that the magnetic poles of the ring are at a
distance of 90° from the positions stated by him. This
mistake has led to a serious blunder in the construction
of his machine, the metallic rollers which carry off the
induced currents being placed, not at the neutral points
(as Pacinotti has himself clearly showed that they ought
to be), but at the poles of the ring. That any effects at
all were obtained from the model at Pisa, we must attri-
bute to the slight shifting of the poles of the ring due to
its rotation. Apart, however, from this unaccountable
error, it can scarcely be disputed that to Pacinotti is due
the merit not only of having devised the ring armature
or transversal electro-magnet, but of having also accu-
rately analysed its mode of action.

{To be continued^

LECTURES AT THE ZOOLOGICAL

GARDENS*

V.

Mr. Garrod on Camels and Llamas

THE Tylopoda form a group which includes the Camels
together with the Llamas ; the name indicating that
their feet are covered with callous skin instead of with
hoofs as in the typical Ruminants, from which group they
also differ considerably in many other characters, to be
considered seriatim.

Horns are not developed in either sex. The upper lip
is hairy and partly cleft. False hoofs are wanting. The
general body-proportions are not so symmetrical as in
any of the Cavicornia or Deer. Osteologically several
special features present themselves. In the vertebrae of
the neck the canals which are developed in the transverse
processes, for the vertebral arteries to run in on their way
to the brain, are excavated in the sides of the spinal canal
of the cervical region. In the ankle two of the bones —
the naviculare, or scaphoid, and the cuboid — which are
anchylosed in the true Ruminants, are independent of
one another. In the upper jaw there are two teeth deve-
loped, one on the side of each premaxilla ; they are there-

* Continued from p. 69.

fore lateral incisors. The canines in the lower jaw are of
a different shape, and are separated by an interval from
the incisors. The molars form a series of five above and
four below ; in the Camels, but not in the Llamas, an
additional small premolar, isolated in position and follow-
ing the canine, is to be found in both jaws, increasing the
grinder series to six above and five below on each side.

The abnormal conformation of the gastric section of
the alimentary canal in the Camels has attracted the
attention of many naturalists. In the Llamas the same
structure maintains. As in the typical Ruminants the
stomach is composed of several cavities communicating
one with the other, but there is some difficulty in deciding
which are the exact homologues of the rtwten, reticulum,
psalteritim, and abomasum. The first cavity is a capa-
cious globose sac into which the oesophagus opens. A
longitudinal band of muscular fibre partly constricts it,
in its course from the right side of the cardiac orifice
backwards along the ventral surface, opposite the middle
of which a narrow and long aggregation of " water cells "
starts to continue tranversely towards the left side of the
organ. This longitudinal muscular band forms one of
the boundaries — the left one — of a much larger collection
of deeper water cells, which embrace the posterior portion
of the right side of the paunch in the concavity of their
crescentic mass. From the right of this first main com-
partment a second smaller one is cut off by a constric-
tion which leaves a considerable opening between the
two. Its position is that of the reticulum ; it is deeply
honeycombed, the lining membrane of the cells being
covered with villi much like those on the surface of the
folds of the psalterium of the deer, &c. The cell-walls
are thin and but slightly muscular. In the paunch the
mucous membrane is smooth and not at all thick. The
water-cells are formed on a framework of many intersect-
ing muscular sheets arranged in layers with intervals of
less than an inch between them, one half being at right
angles to the other, so as to form rows of quadrilateral
cavities. These are again incompletely divided up by
secondary septa. The orifices of the cells are partly
closed by diaphragm-like membranes at their mouths.
Most probably the contraction of the aggregated muscular
fibres in the same situations is capable of closing the
cells completely when necessary. That the camel can
store fluid in these water-cells is borne out by the experi-
ence of so many authors that doubt is scarcely possible.
For instance, in his " Travels to discover the Source of
the Nile," Bruce (vol. iv. p. 596) tells us on one occasion
that " finding the camels would not rise, we killed two of
them . . . and from the stomach of each got about four
gallons of water, which the Bischareen Arab managed
with great dexterity." As John Hunter remarks, there is
no physiological reason why this should not be the case.
A specialised structure is observed by zoologists ; a
special power is attributed by travellers ; the function
and the structure may be reasonably correlated : why
should they not be so, as no other explanation suggests
itself? There is no arrangement for closing the cells
of the reticulum similar to that found in those of the
rumen.

A muscular fold runs from the termination of the
oesophagus along the superior or vertebral side of the
lesser curvature of the stomach to the third compartment,
which evidently directs the products of rumination into
it, just as the two folds of the same region do which
traverse the reticulum in the typical Peccora. Following
the honeycomb-bag is a single elongate cylindrical cavity,
which dilates slightly and becomes bent at its pyloric
extremity. This compartment is thin-walled and longitu-
dinally ribbed internally for its proximal five-sixths,
beyond which the mucous membrane is much thickened
and evidently digestive in character, especially in the
neighbourhood of the angle of the inflection in that region.
This section of the stomach apparently corresponds to

June I, 1875^

NATURE

93

the abomasum, the psalterium being absent. In the
Bactrian Camel there is a partial constriction in it, which
separates off a small proximal cavity, which may be its
homologue.

In the corpuscles of the blood the Tylopoda are unique
among: Mammalia, these minute discs being oval instead
o/, as in all other members of the class, circular.

Of the Camels there are two species, both domesti-
cated, the Bactrian and the Arabian ; the one possessing
two humps and the other one. A swift variety of the
latter is called the Dromedary. The former inhabits
Turkestan, Persia, Thibet, and Mongolia ; the latter
Arabia and Northern Africa. Of the Llamas there are
two wild species which have each of them domesticated
representatives ; the feral Guanaco and Vicuna finding
their tame representatives in the Llama and Alpaca.
They are all found in the Cordilleras of the Andes, down
as far as Terra del Fuego. Taking the Tylopoda as a
whole, their geographic range is extremely exceptional.
Closely allied animals, as the Ostrich and the Rhea, are
found in South Africa and South America respectively.
North Africa and Arabia, in some respects, resemble
India, as far as their fauna is concerned. No similar
ties bind Northern Africa with South America, and it
is this which makes the distribution of the Camels and
Llamas so abnormal and so inexplicable, on the assump-
tion that they sprang from a common ancestor as far back
as the Miocene age, when we take as our basis the
assumption that the existing zoological regions are the
remains of a very different distribution of land.
{To be continued.)

THE LINE BETWEEN HIGHLANDS AND
LOWLANDS

THE usual ten days' excursion which terminates the
work of the Geological Class at the University of
Edinburgh, has this year been devoted to an experiment
in the practical teaching of Geology which bids fair to
be often and profitably repeated — viz., the working out of
a definite problem in the field, teacher and students
together. In the Class excursion to Arran in 1872, it was
observed that the Old Red Sandstone appeared to be
brought against the Highland schists by a fault. Last
year the fault was actually seen by the Class on the other
side of the island in the cliffs of Stonehaven, Accor-
dingly, the task proposed to be accomplished this year
was to trace this dislocation across the country, if possible,
from sea to sea. Such a traverse would at least bring the
pedestrians face to face with some of the finest and least
visited river scenery in Scotland, while it would pro-
bably also impress some geological lessons on their
memory in a way not likely ever to be forgotten. At the
same time it might be successful in discovering some
new points in British geology.

The party mustered at Edinburgh, and proceeded at
once to Stonehaven, where the first day's work consisted
in following the magnificent coast-section which rises
above the sea in the picturesque cliffs of Kincardineshire.
The fault by which the slates and greywackes of the
Highlands have been brought side by side with the
red sandstones and shales of the Lowlands was again
found. The rocks have there been so greatly squeezed
against each other that their line of separation is by
no means so abrupt as it might be expected to be.
Instead of the mass of ddbris which so often fills up the
space between the cheeks of a large dislocation, there was in
this case a somewhat tortuous line of junction along which,
without any broken materials intervening, the two series
of Highland and Lowland rocks seemed to be, as it were,
welded together. One might pass this part of the section
and fail to notice the fault, though at the distance of a
few yards he would find himself in a totally different set

of rocks, and would then turn back to discover the
actual line of separation. That this fault must be an in-
portant one was first shown by the fact that the strata of
the Old Red Sandstone have here been thrown on end
for more than two miles back from their junction with the
Highland rocks. Along the noble coast cliffs the beds of
sandstone and conglomerate stand on edge like books
on the shelves of a library. The portion of them so
placed considerably exceeds 10,000 feet in thickness, and
yet by no means includes all the Old Red Sandstone of
this part of Scotland.

From Stonehaven the party worked its way across
the country for more than 100 miles to the Aberfoyle
district. The line of junction between the slates
and the Old Red Conglomerates and Sandstones was
traced at many points, and sometimes followed for
miles across the moors. In no case was the actual
fault again seen, but its position could be in most
cases drawn firmly on the map by help of the numerous
sections laid open by the rivers which descend from the
south-eastern slopes of the Grampians. As the journey
advanced, however, it was discovered that the fault did
not always lie between the Highland rocks and the Old
Red Sandstone, but that it sometimes left bays of the
latter formation on its north side. This was a new and
interesting fact, for it showed the base of the Old Red
Sandstone of these regions lying undisturbed and uncon-
formably upon the upturned edges of the slates. In these
bays were found enormous beds of coarse volcanic con-
glomerate and sheets of porphyrite, precisely agreeing
with those which form the chains of the Ochil and Sidlaw
Hills on the south side of the great valley which here
flanks the Highlands. It was, therefore, apparent that
the lavas, ashes, and gravels originally extended quite up
to and enveloped the base of the Highland mountains that
bounded on the north the inland sea or lake in which
the Old Red Sandstone was deposited.

But perhaps the question of most general interest eluci-
dated by this excursion was the relation between lines of
dislocation and lines of valley. The fault which begins
on the east coast at Stonehaven and nms in a straight
line across the country to Arran — a distance of 170 miles
— is probably one of the greatest, if indeed it is not abso-
lutely the greatest, in Britain. We do not yet know the
amount of displacement which it has caused. But that it
was accompanied by enormous movement of the earth's
crust is sufficiently proved by the band of vertical strata,
sometimes more than two miles broad, which runs along
its southern border. Surely if the valleys and gorges of
this country, as many writers still contend, have been
caused by or are coincident with lines of subterranean
fracture, such a grand line of fracture as this ought to be
strikingly characterised by such surface features. Parti-
cular attention was devoted to this point during the
excursion, and the result may be briefly given. Not a
single main valley was found to run along the fault, while
all the valleys and some of the deep gorges emerging
from the Highlands run directly across it without deflec-
tion. In one case only was there an approach to a coin-
cidence between the line of the fault and a glen, viz., in
that of Glen Artney. But there the dislocation, instead
of keeping the centre of the valley, was found to run far
up on the northern side, the stream in the centre winding
to and fro across the vertical strata of Old Red Sand-
stone. Along its whole course the fault is not more
marked than on other lines where two series of rocks of
different characters and modes of weathering come
together. But not only does no long and broad valley or
series of valleys mark the line of this fracture in its
passage across the island ; it passes athwart the channels
of the North and South Esk, the Prosen, the Isla, the
Ericht, the Tay, and the Forth, without in the least
degree producing any waterfalls or transverse gorges.
Moreover, it cuts across^wo of the best known lakes of

94

NATURE

[Junez, 1875

the Southern Highlands, Lochs Vennachar and Lomond,
without revealing its presence by any abrupt surface
features. These transverse valleys can be admirably
studied in some of the river ravines. The gorges of the
Ericht, Isla, and North Esk, indeed, are true caiions,
their precipitous walls range from 80 to sometimes 200
feet in height, between which the rivers toil in narrow
tortuous chasms. It is easy to examine the strata in
these natural sections, and to find conclusive proof that
in spite of their fissure-like character the ravines have
been cut out of the solid and unbroken Old Red Sand-
stone, the strata of which can be traced from side to side
in undisturbed continuity. The pot-holes marking old
levels of water-grinding can be traced at various heights
above the present streams, which are still at work deepen-
ing their channels in the same way. The contribution
therefore which this geological ramble makes to the dis-
cussion of an interesting question in the physiography of
Great Britain may be put thus :— An enormous disloca-
tion crosses the island along the southern margin of the
Highlands. It has not given rise to any marked line of
glens or valleys. It is crossed by all the rivers and some
of the lakes which emerge from the southern side of the
Grampians, and some of these rivers flow in deep narrow
gorges across the line of fracture. Yet in none of these
gorges could any trace be found of transverse fracture ;
on the contrary, they everywhere bore evidence only of
long-continued aqueous erosion.

Another point of interest noted in the course of the
excursion was the fact that Comrie — a locality so long
and widely celebrated for its frequent and sometimes
sharp earthquake shocks— lies almost directly over the
line of the great fault. This fact seems to be the first of
any consequence which has been ascertained in the
attempt to connect the abundance of tremors at that
place with any geological structure of the ground under-
neath. From this brief notice it will be seen that there
was plenty of geological interest and novelty to keep up
the enthusiasm of the party Irom the beginning to the
close of the excursion. Glorious weather and an endless
variety of scenery added fresh charms to each day's
work, while over the whole came the glee and hearty
exuberance which the free open face of nature could not
but evoke in men who had been working hard together in
town £ill the winter and spring.

THE U.S. GOVERNMENT BOARD FOR TEST-
ING IRON AND STEEL
IN accordance with " An Act making Appropriations
for Sundry Civil Expenses of the Government, for
the fiscal year ending June 30, 1 876, and for other pur-
poses," approved March 3, 1875, and in reply to a
memorial presented to Congress in January last by the
American Society of Civil Engineers, the President of the
United States has appointed a Board with instructions to
determine by actual tests the strength and value of all
kinds of iron, steel, and other metals which may be sub-
mitted to or procured by it, and to prepare tables
which will exhibit the strength and value of these mate-
rials for constructive purposes.

The object of this Board is so admirable, and in this,
as already in some other similar respects, the U.S. has set
an example so worthy of imitation by European Govern-
ments, that we shall be doing a service in publishing the
details of the organisation of the Board. Congress, we
may state, has voted 50,000 dollars to defray the expenses
of the Board.

The following are the names of its members : — Pre-
sident, Lieut.-Col. T. T. S. Laidley, U.S.A. ; Commander
L. A. Beardslee, U. S. N. ; Lieut.- Col, Q. A. Gillmore,
U. S. A. ; Chief Engineer David Smith, U. S. N. ; W.
Sooy Smith, C.E. ; A. L. Holley, C.E. ; R. H. Thurston,
^,E., Secretary,

The work of the Board is divided into sections, each
section being entrusted to a standing committee from the
members of the Board. The following are the Sections : —

(A) On Abrasion and Wear. — Instructions : To exa-
mine and report upon the abrasion and wear of railway
wheels, axles, rails, and other materials, under the con-
ditions of actual use.

(B) On Artnour Plate. — Instructions: To make tests
of armour plate, and to collect data derived from expe-
riments already made to determine the characteristics of
metal suitable for such use.

(C) On Chemical AVj^«;r//.— Instructions : To plan
and conduct investigations of the mutual relations of the
chemical and mechanical properties of metals.

(D) Oti Chains and Wire Ropes. — Instructions : To
determine the character of iron best adapted for chain
cables, the best form and proportions of link, and the
qualities of metal used in the manufacture of iron and
steel wire rope.

(E) On Corrosion of Metals.— Instructions : To in-
vestigate the subject of the corrosion of metals under the
conditions of actual use.

(F) On the Effects of Temperature. — Instructions : To
investigate the effects of variations of temperature upon
the strength and other qualities of iron, steel, and other
metals.

(G) On Girders and Columns, — Instructions : To
arrange and conduct experiments to determine the laws
of resistance of beams, girders, and columns to change
of form and to fracture.

(H) On Iron, Malleable.— Insirwciions^: To examine
and report upon the mechanical and physical proportions
of wrought iron.

(I) On Iroft, Cast. — Instructions : To consider and
report upon the mechanical and physical properties of
cast iron.

(J) On Metallic Alloys. — Instructions : To assume
charge of a series of experiments on the characteristics
of alloys, and an investigation of the laws of combination.

(K) On Orthogonal Simultaneous Strains. — Instruc-
tions : To plan and conduct a series of experiments on
simultaneous orthogonal strains, with a view to the deter-
mination of laws.

(L) On Physical Phenometia. — Instructions : To make
a special investigation of the physical phenomena accom-
panying the distortion and rupture of materials.

(M) On Re-heating and Re-rolling. — Instructions :
To observe and to experiment upon the effects of re-
heating, re-rolling, or otherwise re- working ; of hammer-
ing, as compared with rolling, and of annealing the
metals.

(N) On Steels produced by Modern Processes. — In-
structions : To investigate the constitution and charac-
teristics of steels made by the Bessemer, open hearth,
and other modem methods.

(O) On Steels for Tools. — Instructions : To determine
the constitution and characteristics, and the special adap-
tations of steels used for tools.

The Sectional Committees of the Board, we learn from
the official circular sent us, are appointed to conduct the
several investigations, and the special researches assigned
them in the interval during which the regular work of the
Board is delayed by the preparation of the necessary
testing machinery, and during such periods of leisure as
may afterward occur.

These investigations are expected to be made with
critical and scientific accuracy, and will, therefore, con-
sist in the minute analysis of a somewhat limited number
of specimens and the precise determination of mechanical
and physical properties, with a view to the detection and
enunciation of the laws connecting them with the pheno-
mena of resistance to flexure, distortion, and rupture.

The Board will be prepared to enter upon a more
general investigation, testing such specimens as may be

June 3, 1875]

NATURE

95

forwarded to the President of the Board, or such as it
may be determined to purchase in open market, imme-
diately upon the completion of the apparatus ordered, at
which time circulars will be published giving detailed
instructions relative to the preparation of specimens for
test, and stating minutely the information which will be
demanded previous to their acceptance.

GUST AVE THURET

ON the roth of May France lost one of her most dis-
tinguished naturalists, M. Thuret left his home at
Antibes in perfect health, and expired at Nice a few hours
afterwards from an attack of angina pectoris.

Unlike many of his contemporaries, Thuret was not a
voluminous writer. But his papers, though not numerous,
are all extremely admirable, and his work has laid the
foundation of our modern knowledge of the biological
phenomena of the AlgJE. Probably his earliest paper was
an account of the antherozoids of Chara (1840). He was
the first to detect the cilia upon these structures in any
plant. In 1 844 he published an account of the peculiar
mode of asexual reproduction in Nostoc. In 1845, in
conjunction with Decaisne, he described for the first time
the antheridia and antherozoids of Fucus. In 1850 and
succeeding years he published his admirable papers upon
the zoospores of different groups of Algas. In 1853 he
established for the first time by actual observation, in the
case of Fucus, the existence amongst Algae of the pheno-
menon of fertilisation. In 1866, in conjunction with
Bornet, he described the extremely remarkable pheno-
mena of sexual reproduction amongst the Floridea.
They found not merely that the process of fertilisation
was accomplished in a very peculiar and remote way, but
also that, besides the effect produced on the germ-cell, a
series of developments were induced in the parent plant
as the result of it. In every group of Alga; the results
which he achieved were of the most fundamental kind.

A man of independent wealth, he passed a great part
of the year on his property at Antibes, on the shore of
the Mediterranean. Bornet, his distinguished collabora-
teiir, lived with him. In the gardens which surrounded
his house he had assembled one of the most remarkable
collections of plants to be found growing in the open air
in any part of the world. W. T. T. D.

NOTES

Punctually at the time arranged, four o'clock in the after-
noon of last Saturday, the Alert and the Discovery, accom-
panied by the Valorous, left Portsmouth for their work in the
Arctic regions. No better equipped expedition, it may again
be said, has ever left any country, and no previous British
expedition has ever been so universally popular. Every
available point on land was occupied by spectators who had
come to see the departure of the expedition. The vessels in the
harbour and the yachts and boats along the beach were dressed
with flags, and as the two ships stood out to sea their course lay
through a. perfect flotilla of craft of all kinds, whose occupants
cheered Capt. Nares and his companions on their way. Among
the last messages received by Capt. Nares was a telegram from the
Queen "wishingyou and your gallant companions every success ;"
the telegram was accompanied by a packet, the contents of which
did not transpire. In the morning the Lords of the Admiralty
inspected the ships, and wished the expedition "God speed."
Mr. Clements R. Markham accompanies his cousin, Commander
Markham, as far as Disco. The ships arrived at Queenstovra on
Tuesday, the Alert and Discovery going on to Bantry Bay, The
Valorous joined them yesterday, when the three proceeded on
their way.

Mr. George Bentham, F.R.S., has been elected a corre-
sponding member of the French Academy of Sciences.

Mr. Charles Darwin has been appointed foreign honorary
member of the Imperial Academy of Science, Vienna.

The Hebdomadal Council of Oxford University have agreed
to propose that in the Convocation to be held at the Encoenia,
or Commemoration, the honorary degree of D.C.L. be conferred
on the following persons :— Sir W. R. Grove, F.R.S., Sir J.
Lubbock, F.R.S,, Mr, E. B. Tylor, F.R.S., Captain Douglas
Galton, C.E., F.R.S,, and Mr. C, T. Newton,

The reception at the Royal Society on Wednesday week was
a great success ; there was a very large attendance of Fellows.
There was plenty of opportunity for quiet talk, which was taken
ample, advantage of. Mr. Crookes repeated his interesting ex-
periments.

Government have refused to send or pay the expenses of a
commissioner to the forthcoming International Geographical
Congress at Paris. One would have thought that, as much from
a practically commercial as from a scientific point of view, this
Congress, judging from its programme, is likely to be of the
highest importance ; and who more likely to reap benefit from
such a Conference than the greatest naval and commercial power
in the world? Government, however, have the excuse that
the French Government simply approve of the Congress, and
have refrained from stamping it with an official character.

Invitation circulars have been issued for the Bristol Meet-
ing by the British Association, whose sittings commence on
August 25, under the presidency of Sir John Hawkshaw, C.E.,
F,R.S, The local secretaries are Messrs, W. Lant Carpenter
and John H, Clarke,

M, Edguard Collomb, who for many years has been the
Treasurer of the Geological Society of Paris, has just passed away
at the age of seventy-four years. M. Collomb accompanied
Agassiz in his Alpine travels. He also travelled during many
years in Spain with M. de Verneuil, studying the mineralogical
resources of the Iberian Peninsula. The result of these protracted
explorations was the pubUcation of the first geological map of
Spain.

Mr. Henry Willett again appeals for funds to carry on
the work of the Sub-Wealden Exploration to a depth of 2,000
feet. A week ago the boring had reached 1,080 feet. It has
been decided to continue the boring to 1,500 feet, by which
time all the available funds will be exhausted; to do this,
1,200/. are wanted, and we cannot think that for the want of so
comparatively small a sum the first scientific boring in this
country will be brought to a premature conclusion. The latest
cones and fossils indicate that the boring is still m the Kim-
meridge Clay, to the fauna of which Ammonites Jason must now
be added.

The acclimatisation of trout in Tasmania is certified by an
official report, which states that in 1873 a total distribution of
4050 trout ova was made from the rivers of that country to the
neighbouring colonies ; 800 of these^ova were sea trout, and the
rest brown trout.

The motion for diminishing the size of the type used in
printing the Comptes Rendus was lost, because a number of
members declared in the private sitting of the Academy
that it was impossible for them to read the papers printed with
the characters which had been proposed. Consequently it has
been resolved that the number of pages given to each paper
shall be diminished by one-third part of the number origmally
allotted.

The Municipal Council of Paris have voted a sum of 500/. to
pay the professors of a superior school of Anthropology, which
will be opened next November in a buildir,g lent gratuitously

96

NATURE

\yune 3, 1875

by the fecole de Medecine ; no' fees are to be charged from
pupils. M. Wallon has granted a sum of 300/. yearly for labora-
tory expenses. Anthropological societies and private individuals
have subscribed a fund ; the shares are said to be worth 40/.
Five courses of lectures are to be delivered, including a series by
M. Broca on Craniology, by M. Dailly on Human Races, M.
G. de Mortillet on Prehistoric Times. The number of lectures
is to be increased as the resources of the association multiply.

Active preparations are being made for the exhibition of the
French Geographical Society at the Pavilion des Flores. The
large hall is almost finished, and is said to be of superior taste
and magnificence.

For the first time in >ecent years the French Minister of
Public Instruction is one of the leading members of the Cabinet.
It is said that in the discussion on the new electoral law, M.
Wallon intends to ask the Versailles Assembly to vote that
ignorance be considered a disqualification, and that any elector
be disfranchised who cannot read and write.

M. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, the Director of the Jardin
d'Acclimatation, Paris, has just instituted a new intermediate
station for tropical plants at the lies d'Hyeres. Delicate plants
will consequently not be taken at once from a hot to a cold
atmosphere.

A MEMORTAL tablet, bearing an appropriate inscription, now
marks the spot in Westminster Abbey where the remains of Dr.
Livingstone are deposited.

A Scientific Society has recently been established in Caius
College, Cambridge, for the diffusion of scientific knowledge
among the members of the College, for the reading of essays on
scientific subjects, and for the holding of scientific discussions.
The Society admits within the range of its discussions all sciences
of observation. An interesting feature in the scheme of the
Society's proceedings is that the first half-hour of each meeting
is to be devoted to open discussion, to the answering of questions
proposed by any member either at the time or at a previous
meeting, or to the exhibition of specimens. The first presi-
dent of the Society is Mr. B. Anningson, M.A., M.B., the
newly-appointed Medical Officer of Health for Cambridge, and
the secretary is Mr. Wm. Ewart. A number of papers have
been read during the present term. The meetings have been
well attended and the discussions well supported.

A Scientific Society has been formed at Gloucester, chiefly
in connection with the School of Science there, under the title of
the Gloucester Philosophical Society. A programme of papers
for the year has been issued. In addition to the regular
monthly meetings, a course of six lectures on Structural Botany
is being delivered by Mr. Allen Harker to the members of the
Society. One or more excursions are to form a feature of the
course. Gloucester has hitherto been rather apathetic than
otherwise on science ; this looks more healthy.

On Nov. 23, at BaUiol College, Oxford, there will be an
examination for a Brackenbury Scholarship for the encourage-
ment of Natural Science, worth 80/. a year for four years.

We are very much surprised, and on all accounts it is greatly to
be regretted, that the Legislature of Massachusetts has rejected the
Bill for a new Survey of the State to which we have already referred.
Massachusetts is known all the world over as being one of the
most intelligent and best educated States in the Union. Evi-
dently, however, the State schools are too strong in arithmetic ;
a Mr. Plunkett brought some extraordinary calculations before
the House, showing that the Survey would cost nearly a million
and a half of dollars and occupy nearly a hundred years ! Be-
sic? es an advanced and accomplished calculator, the Massa-
chusetts Legislature is also happy in the possession of a *' funny

man," a Mr. Rice, who seems occasionally to relieve the severity
of Mr. Plunkett's extreme calculations by bright flashes of
buffoonery. Mr. Rice described the proposed Survey as "send-
ing young men with m.uck-rakes to scratch the sterile soil of the
State and make pictures."

The Indian Museum at South Kensington was opened to the
public on the ist instant.

The newly issued part of the Transactions of the Zoological
Society of London contains an exhaustive memoir on the birds
inhabiting the Philippine Archipelago, illustrated by twelve
coloured quarto plates.

Prof. Hall Gladstone completed his course of lectures at
the Royal Institution on chemical force on Tuesday, and exhi-
bited a new compound he had just discovered, Zinc Ethylochlo-
C2H5. I

ride, Zn

CI

The necessity of utilising the large rivers for maritime naviga-
tion is becoming one of the questions of the day in France. The
Municipal Councils of Lyons and Marseilles are considering the
means of connecting Marseilles with the Rhone by a canal prac-
ticable for shipping ; while the Municipal Council of Paris have
appointed a commission to devise means to render the Seine
navigable from Rouen to Paris.

Prof. Drake, the eminent Berlin sculptor, has just finished
a colossal statue of Alexander von Humboldt, ordered by the
city of Philadelphia ; it is nine feet high, and will be shipped to
its destination early in June.

A telegram, dated Berlin, May 28, states that the Tashkend
Government has sent an expedition to Hissar, an unknown prin-
cipality east of Shahrisiabsk, and north of the Afghan frontier.
The members of the expedition are mostly scientific.

BAiLLifeRE, of Paris, has published an analytical " Table des
Matieres" of the first ten volumes (1864-74) of the Revue
Scuntifique. The Table forms a very useful index to much of
the scientific work of the last ten years.

A thick Supplement (No. 41) to Petermann's Mittheilungen
has just been published, containing a multitude of statistics on
the population of the earth, by E. Behm and H. Wagner. They
estimate the total population of the globe at 1,396,842,000, dis-
tributed as follows : — Europe, 302,973,000 ; Asia, 798,907,000 j
Africa, 206,007,000; America, 84,392,000; Australia and
Polynesia, 4,563,000.

Heft vi. of Petermann's Mittheilungen contains a beautiful
map illustrative of Dr. Rohlfs' travels in the Libyan Desert
during 1873-74. It embraces the portion of North Africa be-
tween 25° and 29° N. lat., and 26° and 32° E. long. This map,
along with the explanatory letterpress by Dr. Jordan and Dr.
Rohlfs which accompanies it, will be found to add in a very im-
portant degree to an accurate knowledge of this hitherto imper-
fectly known region. The map shows the route not only of
Rohlfs' expedition, but of Schweinfurth and several other
explorers, from Krump (1701) downwards.

In a paper by Prof. J. D, Dana, in the May number of Silli-
man's American Journal, on Dr. Koch's evidence with regard
to the contemporaneity of Man and the Mastodon in Missouri,
the author comes to the following conclusions :— Taking all
things that have been reviewed into consideration, he thinks
there is sufficient reason for regarding Dr. Koch's evidence of
the contemporaneity of Man and the Mastodon very doubtful.
He hopes that the geologists of the Missouri Geological Survey
now in progress will succeed in settling the question positively.
The contemporaneity claimed will probably be shown to be true
for North America by future discoveries, if not already so esta-

June 3, 1875J

NATURE

97

blished ; for Man existed in Europe long before the extinction
j of the American Mastodon.

An interesting innovation has been tried with great success at

i tho National Libraiy of Paris. It has been suggested by M.

Belliard, one of the principal librarians, who was appointed the

j head of th« Receiving Office a few months ago, to publish a

I monthly paper containing a descriptive list of the works which

t havt been presented to the library, or purchased during the

preceding months. The works sent by the Home Office for the

d£p5t le^al are not registered in that paper : there is for these a

special publication. The first number has been issued, and is a

lithographed i2mo pamphlet of thirty-two pages, having about

two hundred entries. A copy will be presented to the great

libraries abroad and in France.

Mr. A. J. Harvey, known to many as the advocate of various
schemes of social improvement, now propounds a scheme for a
"People's Museum of Physical Astronomy, to be erected and
endowed by Government." "The object and design of a
Museum of Physical Astronomy," Mr. Harvey states, "should
be to popularise, familiarise, enlighten, and instruct the people in
whatever can be illustrated, taught, and told, through the eye
alone and without the aid or necessity of books, &c., of Physical
Astronomy." It should be "a museum worthy of the intelli-
gence and wealth of this great country, in which the whole
visible universe is roughly presented to us, exhibited upon a
colossal yet exact scale, and wherein the actual motions of the
heavenly bodies are visible to the naked eye, wherein vast space
can be spanned by the hand and great epochs of time counted
with ease by the mind."

We have received from Messrs. Blackwood and Sons an in-
teresting lecture by Dr. Page, entitled "Recreative Science; a
Plea for Field Clubs and Science Associations." It ought to be
circulated extensively among our field-clubs and other local
scientific societies.

One of the most important of the many valuable U.S. Govern-
ment documents published during a few months past is the Annual
Report of the United States Geological and Geographical Snr-
vey of the Territories for 1873, as prepared by Dr. Hayden,
being a volume of 730 pages, profusely illustrated with plates
and sections, and exhibiting the physical geography, the sectional
geology, the mining, and the natural history of the country.
The volume consists of several sections. The first, that of
Geology, Mineralogy, and Mining Industry, was prepared by
Dr. Hayden, Mr. Marvine, Mr. Peak, and Dr. Endlich. The
second embraces special reports on Palaeontology, on the Fossil
Flora, by Prof. Lesquereux, and on the Vertebrates by Mr.
Cope. Part third. Zoology, contains articles on the recent In-
vertebrates, by Lieut. Carpenter, Dr. Packard, Baron Osten-
sacken, Mr. Ulke, Dr. Hagen, Mr. S. J. Smith, Prof. Verrill,
and Mr. WiUiam G. Binney. Part fourth, upon the Geography
and Topography, is from the pen of Mr. James T. Gardner,
geographer of the expedition. There is also an appendix by
Mr. A. R. Marvine.

The Rev. G. H. Hopkins gives the following method for
fixing the curves which steel filings take when under the action
of a bar magnet. The filings having been prepared so as to be as
nearly the same size as possible, and that size very minute, are
pound into a mortar, and a small quantity of finely powdered
resin is added ; these are stirred together until the two sub-
stances are completely mixed, and then, considerable pres-
sure being exerted upon the pestle, they are rubbed until the
resin adheres to the filings in a very fine coating. The filings
can then be sprinkled as usual, and the curves formed. It is
best (after the curves are foinied) to heat the plane surface, glass,
paper, or wood, according to convenience, over a stove or in an

oven, which easily allow it to be sufficiently as well as uniformly
heated. For projecting the curves on a screen, the following,
we believe, is a very effective method. Cover the glass with
thin gum-water, allow it to dry perfectly ; obtain the curves on
the dry gummed surface ; finally, breathe on the plate : the gum
is thereby softened and the curve permanently fixed. Substituting
corresponding shaped pieces of paper for the magnets (a pin-
hole can be used to indicate the N. pole), the curves can be
covered with a second plate of glass, and thus preserved as an
ordinary lantern slide.

A VERY satisfactory report has been issued for the past year
by the committee of the Devon and Exeter Albert Memorial
Museum, &c. Several valuable additions in natural history have
been made to the Museum, and in the reference library there has
been an addition of eighteen per cent, in the issue of works on
science and art. The institution as a whole continues to work
so well that more room and better accommodation^are urgently
demanded.

The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during
the past week include a Grey-cheeked Monkey (Cercocebus albi'
gena), a Marsh Ichneumon {Berpestes paludosus), an Angolan
Vulture {Gypohierax angolinsis) from W. Africa, presented by
the late Mr. H. Ansell ; a Syrian Bear {Ursus syriacus from
Western Asia, presented by Mr. W. Kirby Green ; an Aus-
tralian Cassowary {Castiarhis australis) from Australia, presented
by Mr. E. P. Ramsay ; a Black-necked Stork (Xenorhynchus
australis) from Australia, presented by Mr. C.Moore ; two Egyp-
tian Geese (Chenalopex ocgyptiaca) from W. Africa, presented by
Mr. R. B. N. Walker ; three Chestnut-eared Finches (Amadina
tastanotis) from Australia, presented by Mrs. G. French Angas ;
a Common Raccoon {Procyon lotor) from N. America, presented
by Mr, Wesson; a Reeves's Muntjac {Cervulus reevtsi) born in
the Gardens.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

The American Journal of Science and Arts, May. — The first
article is a continuation (No. 5) of a series of notices on re-
cent earthquakes, by Prof. Rockwood. The second is an inquiry
by Prof. J. D. Dana on Dr. Koch's evidence with regard to the
contemporaneity of Man and the Mastadon in Missouri. (See
Note, p. 96.) — Mr. Carey Lea communicates a short note on
the influence of colour upon reduction of light, and Prof.
Rowland a description of a new diamagnetic attachment to the
lantern. — The geological articles are the Primordial Strata of
Virginia, by W.Fontaine, and the Age of the Southern Appala-
chians, by F. H. Bradley. — The contributions from the Physical
Laboratory of Harvard College are on the construction of
Gaugain's galvanometer, on a new form of magneto-electric
engine, by W. R. Morse, and some remarks by S. Newcomb on
the Transit of Venus.

The Journal de Physique thcorique et appliquSe, April 1875,
contains the following original papers : — Researches on thermo-
diffusion, by J. Violle. — Determination of the velocity of light
and of the sun's parallax, by M. A. Comu.— On some polarisa-
tion experiments, by M. Bertin (last paper). — On an apparatus
destined to get glass penetrated by the electric spark, by MM.
Terquem and Trannin.— The number contains also several
abstracts from papers taken from other serials.

Der Nahirforscher,^ March 1875.— From this part we note
the followmg papers : — On the influence of the densitjf of metals
upon their magnetisation ; new researches made by Herr Bom-
stein with iron, nickel, and cobalt.— On the meteorite of Roda
(in the Spanish province of Huesca), by Herren Tschermak and
Lang. — On the genetic classification of the flora of Australia, by
C. von Ettinghausen. — On the shooting stars observed on Nov.
13 and Dec. 10, 1874, at the Toulouse Observatory, under the
direction of M. Gruey. — On vegetable mucus, by Herren Kirch-
ner and Tollens. — On the action of hydrochloric acid upon lead-
antimony alloys, by Herr II. v. d. Planitz. — On the behaviour of
hydrocarbons under restricted oxidation, by M, Berthelot— On

NATURE

{June 3, 1875

the star system 61 Cygni ; discussion of M. Flammarion's latest j
papers on the subject. — On the repulsive power of comets, by
G. V. Schiaparelli. — On the respiration of Fungi, by Herr j
MUntz. — On over-saturated solutions and the dissociation
of salts in solution, by A. Tscherbatschew. — On forests, the
courses of rivers, and atmospheric moisture, by L. Fautrat. — On
the radiation of the sun ; observations made at the Observatory
of Montsouris, near Paris, by Marie-Davy. — On the time of
reaction of the sense of taste at the tip of the tongue, by Herren
M. v. Vintschgrau and J. Honigschmied. — On colouring matters
and the sensitiveness towards light of several silver salts, by II.
W.Vogel. — On the decomposition of vegetable xanthophyll by
light, by J. Wiesner. — On the circulation of ammo'iia in the
atmosphere, by Herr Al. Schloesing. — On some glacier-pheno-
mena in the Bavarian high plateaus ; a communication made to the
Munich Academy, by Herr Zittel. — Researches on the process of
digestion in the intestines of sheep, by Eugen Wildt. — Some re-
searches on magnetism, by M. Bouty. — On the antiseptic properties
of salicylicacid ; an extract ixoxaiheyournal filr prakiische Chemie,
by Herr Kolbe. — On the direct observation of the atmosphere of
Venus, by C. S. Lyman ; results of these observations show the
horizontal refraction of Venus' atmosphere to be 44''5 ; in 1866
it had been determined at 45' "3, and Madler in 1849 had found
it 43' 7. Mr. Lyman measured the diameter of the planet six
times on Dec. 10 (the day after the transit), and found it on the
average to be 63" 'l;. the average of eleven measurements on
Dec. II was 63"-75. — On the electric action of a thermal source
at Baden, Switzerland, by Herren Thury and Alb. Minich.

Zeitschrift der Oesterreichischen Gesellschaft fiir Meteorelogie,
March 15. — On the relation between differences of atmospheric
pressure and velocity of wind, according to the theories of
Ferrel and Colding, by Dr. Harm. The author begins with a
review of the two theories of storms, the older of which has
been accepted chiefly in Germany, the other in America
and the Northern States of Europe. According to the
former, whirlwinds are formed mechanically by different streams
of air meeting, and centrifugal force causes the central de-
pression. The more modern theory regards a local depres-
sion as the first condition, causing an indraught resulting in
a whirlwind through the earth's rotation. The primary de-
pression is held to follow condensation of vapour. Probably
there is something right in each of these views. Eddies can,
doubtless, be formed by currents meeting at certain angles, but
the direction of rotation would not be invariable in each hemi-
sphere. Besides, the mechanical resistance to the progress and
continuance of a whirlwind so formed would, without incon-
ceivably favourable conditions, be far too great to be overcome.
Dr. Hann recognises the part played by vapour in storms, but
thinks that many meteorologists rely too much on it in their
need, and points to the works of Hopkins and Laughton for
instances of this partiality. He believes that the greater part of
the low pressure which accompanies storms must be explained
by mechanical laws, and that the local differences of pressure in
a cyclone or even in a straight-blowing current (if such there be)
follow from movements of the air. Condensation may cause a
depression, and that depression we know may cause winds which
produce a depression ten or fifteen times greater. Prof. Ferrel
endeavours to show mathematically that depressions are due to
centrifugal force and the earth's rotation. Colding considers
tropical hurricanes as true whirlwinds, and his values for pressure
from centre to edge reckoned from this hypothesis agree with
observation. Now, there is no reason why centrifugal force
should not act in spirally-whirling storms in relation to radius
and velocity. The earth's rotation adds to the effect of this
force, and the result is a diminution of pressure towards the
centre on the earth's surface. The enormous extent of some
minima is thus explained, which an ascending current and preci-
pitation fail to account for. Dr. Hann proceeds to develop
mathematically the theories of Ferrel and Colding, and gives the
following formula (i) for finding the barometric gradient : —

A^ = ^gy-.-^(2»sin.<^ + «)4/

where B is the height of the barometer at point of observation,
T the absolute temperature (i.e. 273* + /),/= 50 geographical
miles, « the angular velocity of rotation, « the angular velocity of
the earth's rotation, ^ the latitude, and v the distance traversed
in unit of time. In this equation it is assumed that the circula-
tion is simple, without friction, and not inducing new masses of
air. — In the Kldnere Mittheilungen we have an article on Baum-
hauer's Meteorograph, and some extracts from a letter of Prof.

Mohn, dated 21st December last, on cyclonic minima. In this
letter the writer states that having called the attention of Herr
Guldberg to the fact that Colding's point of view is quite different
from that of the new school of meteorologists, that gentleman
worked out his own formula and found as much agreement
between his results and observations of an Antilles hurricane as
Colding found by his method. The factors taken into considera-
tion by Herr Guldberg were, barometric gradient, rotation of the
earth, centrifugal force, and friction of the air. Prof. Mohn
believes the central minimum to be a mechanical effect of rota-
tion. He discovered lately that Prof. Ferrel had worked with
similar formulae and had derived therefrom similar results, but
he intends to pursue his task, and believes it will be ascertained
that relations of pressure are in great part functions of
movement.

The Bulletin Mensuel de la Sociiti d' Acclimatation dt Paris
for February gives the customary yearly summary by M.
Quihou of the principal experiments carried out in the Jardin
d' Acclimatation in the Bois de Boulogne during 1874, and of
the most important plants cultivated there. ■ — M. Jeannel
gives a report on various experiments conducted by him
during the year in the Jardin de Luxembourg with the object
of testing the value of mineral manures in horticulture. —
The nev/ kind of silkworm, Attacus Yama-mai, is the subject
of a long paper by M. F. A. Bigot. — An attempt made by
M. Victor Fleury to acclimatise the Siberian rabbit in France
has not entirely succeeded, but excellent results have ensued in
the crossing of this race with the common grey rabbit of the
country. — The value of the Eucalyptus globulus in correcting the
unhcalthiness of marshy and other lands is proved by its effect
in certain parts of Algeria, where, in the neighbourhood of Lake
Fezzara, in Constantine, a large area of land hitherto noted for
its insalubrity has greatly improved since the plantation of a
large number of these trees.

Annali di Chitnica applicata alia Medicina, Feb. and March,
1875. — These numbers contain the following papers :— On
diastase and some preparations from malt, by H. Duquesnel. —
On croton-chloral, by Engel. — On a carbonic solution of tribasic
phosphate of lirne, by Chevrier. — On a glycerine solution of
iodide of potassium, by C. O. Barberis. — On the ventilation of
closed localities, by G. P. — On vinic alcohol, aldehyde, and
ethers : experimental researches made in the Physiological
Laboratory of Padua, by Drs. P. Albertoni and F. Lussana. —
On ferments and fermentations in the human organism, by A.
Pavia. — On some fermentation processes by J. Macagno. — On a
simple, easy, quick, and certain means to distinguish in man-
kind real death from apparent, by Dr. A. Monteverdi. This
consists of injecting under the skin an aqueous solution of
ammonia, and watching the appearance of the blister produced.
— On blood fibrine and the formation of a substance analogous to
ordinary albumen, by A. Gautier. — Researches on the parasite
that produces whooping-cough, by Dr. Lebrerich. — On apo-
morphia, by G. Hirne. — A note on cremation, by the editor of
the Annals, Dr. G. Polli.

The Gazzetta Chimica Italiana, fasc. iii. 1875, contains the
following papers : — On the action of acetyl chloride upon san-
tonine and santonic acid, by F. Sestini. — On some derivatives
from alphatoluic acid, by C. Colombo and P. Spica. — On the
formation of sugar in fruits, by M. Mercadante. — On a new
method of determining the tannic acid contained in wines, by A.
Carpane.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

London

Linnean Society, May 6.— Anniversary Meeting.— Dr. G.J.
AUman, F.R.S., president, in the chair. — The officers of the
Society were elected for the ensuing year as follows, viz. : —
President, Dr. G. J. Allman, F.R.S. ; Treasurer, Dr. J. Gwyn
Jeffreys, F.R.S.; Secretaries: T. Currey, F.R.S., and St.
George Mivart, F.R.S. ; and as Members of the Council : Dr.
J. D. Hooker, Pres. R.S. ; Dr. J. G. Jeffreys, F.R.S. ; Major-
General Scott, C.B. ; R. B. Sharpe, and Chas. Stewart, in the
place of J. Miers, F.R.S., T. P. Pascoe, Major-General
Strachey, F.R.S., Dr. H. Trimen, and the late D. Hanbury,
F. R.S. The President then delivered an address on the History
and Development of the Infusoria.

Anthropological Institute, May 25. — Col. A. Lane Fox,
president, in the chair, — Mr. T. G. B. Lloyd read papers •n

line

1B75]

NATURE

99

I'eotlnics of Newfoundland, and on the Stone Implements
of Newfoundland. The first paper was a continuation of
one read the previous session, and contained the further experi-
ences of the author in Newfoundland, which island he had
recently revisited. The Beothucs possessed several of the cha-
racteristics belonging to many of the tribes inhabiting North
America, whilst they differed from them in the following pecu-
liarities :— Lightness of complexion, the use of trenches in their
wigwams for sleeping places, the peculiar form of canoe, the
custom of living in a state of isolation apart from the white
inhabitants of the island, and their persistent refusal to submit to
any attempts made to civilise them. They were also remarkable
for their inability to domesticate the dog.— Prof. Busk communi-
cated a paper on two Beothuc skulls, and described them as
presenting ail the characteristics of the normal brachycephalic
form of the Red Indian skull. — In his second paper Mr. Lloyd
described the stone implements he had brought from Newfound-
land, consisting of axes, chisels, gouges, spear and arrow heads,
scrapers, fish-hooks ; also cores, flakes, whetstones, rubbing
stones, sinkers, and stone vessels. — Mr. Park Harrison exhibited
and described five photographs, from Tahiti, of Easter Island
wooden tablets ; and Mr. H. Taylor exhibited a series of fine
photographs of people inhabiting the South Sea Islands.

Royal Horticultural Society, May 12. — Scientific Com-
mittee. A. Murray, F. L.S., in the chair. — The Chairman made
a communication with respect to the acarus to which Prof.
Thiselton Dyer had drawn attention as destroying the female
flowers of the Yew. He believed it to be undescribed, and pro-
posed for it the name of Tetranychiis taxi. It was allied to the
acarus which Prof. Westwood had described as very injurious to
the young buds of the currant. — Mr. M'Lachlan exhibited speci-
mens of wallflower in which the petals were virescent. — Dr.
Masters showed leaves of the vine (from a nursery in the neigh-
bourhood of London) bearing galls produced by Phylloxera. —
Prof. Thiselton Dyer called attention to a paper by Dr. Franz
Low, translated in the current number of the Annals and Maga-
zine of Natural History. It described a nematoid worm ( Jyleti-
chus Millefolii), which produced the galls on the rachis of the
leaves of the common Milfoil. — Prof. Thiselion Dy^r exhibited
three flasks which contained Pasteur's solution, all three of which
had been subjected to boiling. The neck of No. i flask, treated
on March 3, 1875, was plugged, while the contents were still
boiling, with cotton-wool, and the fluid remains clear and
unaffected. In flask No. 2, otherwise similarly treated, but
without any plug, so that access of air and therefore of spores
was allowed, there was a dense growth of mould {Penicillium). In
No. 3, boiled on Sept. 30, 1873, but in which the plug was
removed for five seconds only on Oct. 15, 1874, a dense mould
had made its appearance.

General Meeting. — W. Burnley Hume in the chair. — Prof.
Thiselton Dyer called attention to the principal objects exhibited.
— A fine potful of the rare Irish Butterwort, Pinguicula grandi-
flora, was shown by Mr. Dean. Senecio macroglossus, an ever-
green greenhouse climber shown by Mr. Green, had foliage
identical with that of some forms of ivy ; it was a native •f the
Cape. — A ripe fruit of Stephanotis Jloribunda was sent by R. T.
Coombe, Taunton. Morels, which are abundant this year, were
represented by a fine series of Morchdla crassipes, sent by J.
Barclay, The Durdans, Epsom.

Physical Society, May 22. — Prof. Gladstone, F.k.S., pre-
sident, in the chair. — Mr. Spottiswoode, F.R.S., exhibited and
described a revolving polariscope. A luminous beam passes
from a small circular hole in a diaphragm through a polariscope,
the analyser of which is a double image prism, the size of the
hole being so arranged that the two luminous discs shall be clear
of each oiher. If the prism be made to revolve rapidly, one of
the discs revolves round the other and is merged into a ring of
light, which is interrupted at opposite sides by a dark shaded
band, the position of which depends upon the position of the
original plane of polarisation. The discs may be coloured by
inserting a selenile plate, and the rapid revolution of the analyser
then gives alternating segments of complementary colours ; or, if
a quartz plate be used, the rotating disc passes successively twice
in a revolution through all the colours of the spectrum, and
when the revolution is rapid, merges into a prismatic ring. The
effect of the interposition of a J-undulaiion plate, which convert*
plane into circularly polarised light, was then shown, and Mr.
Spottiswoode also interposed a concave plate of quartz, and
exhibited the effect of rotation on the characteristic rings of
quartz. —Prof. Adams exhibited a polariscope adapted for show-

ing the optic axes of crystals in wliich they arc much inclined to
each other, as in the case of topaz. The part of the instrument
by which this is effected consists of a frame in which the crystal
is supported between two hemispherical lenses, the common
centre of which is at the centre of the crystal. The frame is
capable of motion round an axis at right angles to that of the
instrument. By this means each of the axes can be brought
under the cross wires, and the space through which the frame is
moved affords a means of determining the angle between the
axes of the crystal. The crystal may be immersed in a liquid in
cases in which its optic axes are too far apart to be seen in air. —
Dr. Mills made a verbal communication on fusion-point and
thermometry. His apparatus for fusion-points consisted essen-
tially of a beaker, in which stood an inverted funnel, the shortened
stem of which carried a test-tube, supported by a contraction
at its base. The test-tube contains naphtha of high boiling-point,
and the thermometer and capillary tube containing the substance
occupy its centre ; the funnel has four equidistant semicircular
cuts at the end of its stem, and six on its lips ; the beaker is
nearly filled with strong oil of vitriol, and has a wooden cover ;
on the application of heat below the beaker, warm oil of vitriol
ascends in the funnel, and cold oil of vitriol descending, enters
at the lip ; thus an automatic stirring is kept up, and the mer-
cury in the thermometer rises so regularly as to appear perfectly
continuous in course, even under considerable magnifying power.
The manner of preparing and filling tiie capillaiy tubes was de-
scribed. Attention was then drawn to the "zero error" of
thennometers. In thermometers which have not been much used,
the zero error must always be determined immediately after
experiment. It is also generally necessary to correct for the
projection of the thermometer beyond its bath. This correction
has been experimentally determined by the author, and required
from 1,500 to 2,000 observations of temperature for each of four
instruments used. It was ascertained that the well-known
expression —

C = -0001545 (T - t)N
given by Regnault and Kopp is not supported by actual trial.
If we write the expression thus —

C = x(T- t)Ar
experiment shows that x depends on the length JV exposed, and

X = a + PAT
For lengths of about 25°, x is about •00013, *iid increases about
•0001 for every additional 25°. The exact values of a and $
require, however, to be ascertained for each instrument. — Mr.
Bauerman, F.G.S., described and illustrated a very simple
method for ascertaining the electric conductivity of various forms
of carbon. The method, which was originally devised by Dr.
von Kobell, consists in holdmg a fragment of the substance to
be tested with a strip of zinc bent in a U-form, and immersing it
in a solution of copper sulphate. In the case of a bad conductor
a deposit of cupper takes place solely on the surface of the zinc,
but when a good conductor is employed a zinc-carbon couple is
formed, and a deposit takes place on the surface of the carbon.
Numerous specimens were exhibited which showed that the con-
ducting power is greatest in coal which has been subjected to a
great degree of heat, and the lowest temperature at which this
change takes place appears, in the case of anthracite, to be
between the melting points of zinc and silver. Such experiments
appear to be specially important as giving a clue to the tempera-
ture at which anthracitic me'amorphism has been effected by the
intrusion of igneous rock. — Prof. Woodward exhibited an appa-
ratus for building up model cones and craters. It consists of a
wooden trough about 18 inches long, with sloping sides ; at the
bottom of the trough a bladed screw carries forward the ashes,
sawdust, or other material used, to an opening through which
air (rom a powerful bellows is forced upwards. A board 3 or 4
feet square, with a hole in the centre, is placed over the air-jet,
and on this the crater is formed. Several of the peculiarities of
natural cones may thus be illustrated, and their structure* shown,
by using sawdust of various colours.

Wellington, N.Z.

Philosophical Society, Feb. lo.— Dr. Hector, F.R.S., in
the chair. — The annual report by the Council (adopted as read)
congratulated the Ncciety upon its prosperous condition, not
only in regard to the great increase in the immbei of members,
but upon the growing interest taken in the work of the Society,
as indicated by the large attendance at the meetings of the past
session, and bj the number of interesting papers read and dls*

lOO

NATURE

[ytine 2,, 1875

cussed by members. There are now 161 names on the book?,
twenty-two new members having been elected since January
1874. Seven general meetings were held, and thirty-two pa,pers
read on the following s,\xh]&cis i—Gtvlogy.—i. Did the Great
Cook River run N.W. or S.E. ? Mr. Crawford. 2. On the
Tertiary Series of Wanganui, Mr. Purnell. 3. On the micro-
scopic structure of the igneous rocks of New Zealand, Richard
Daintree. 4. On the Pleistocene glaciation of New Zealand,
Mr. Travers. 5. Changes in the physical geography of New
Zealand since the arrival of the Maoris, Mr. Hood. Zoology.—
I. Description of fish, presented to the Museum by Prof.
Wyville Thomson, Dr. Hector. 2. On new fish from Chatham
Islands, Dr. Hector. 3. On certain disputed points in New
Zealand Ornithology, Dr. BuUer. 4. On New Zealand whales,
Dr. Hector. 5. On FMus nova: hollandut. Dr. Buller. Botany.
—I. On a new species of Rubiis, by Mr. Buchanan. 2. On
the durabihty of New Zealand timber, Mr. Buchanan. 3. On
Juticus camprocarpus and a new species of Isoetes, Mr. Kirk.
4. On new specits of mosses, Dr. Knight. 5. Flowering plants
and ferns of Chatham Islands, Mr. Buchanan. 6. Description
of New Zealand lichens, Dr. Knight. 7. Two plants new to
New Zealand, Lepilccna preissii zxA Carex chlorantka, Mr. Kirk.
Meteorology. — I. On solar radiation in New Zealand, Mr. Rous
Marten. 2. On the hot winds of Australia and their influence
on the climate of I^ew Zealand, Mr. Plood. 3. On the hot
winds of Canterbury, Mr. M'Kay. Chemistry.— ¥ivQ papers
pointing out certain new discoveries in chemistry, Mr. Skey.
Miscellaneous.— I. On ergot in rye. Dr. Hector. 2. On portion
of a wreck found at the Haast River, Capt Turnbull. 3. On
the identity of the Moa hunters with the present Maori race, Mr.
M'Kay. 4. On Maori traditions respecting the Moa, Mr.
Hamilton. 5. On the longitude of Wellington Observatory,
Capt. Nares, of H.M.S. Challenger. 6. On the Duplex system of
telegraphy, Mr. Lemon. These papers will all appear in the
seventh volume of the " Proceedings and Transactions of the New
Zealand Institute," which is now going through the press. The
balance-sheet showed a credit of 162/., of which Dr. Hector was
requested to expend 100/. in purchasing standard works of refer-
ence in England.— The Chairman announced that Prof. Wyville
Thomson, Prof. Newton of Cambridge, and Robert M'Lachlan,
all of whom had taken great interest in New Zealand science
and added much to its literature, had been elected honorary
members of the New Zealand Institute. Dr. Buller, F.C.S.,
F.G.S., was elected president (lor the ensuing two years. Mr.
Traver.«, F.L.S., vice-president, then took the chair, and the
following papers were read : — Further proofs of the former
existence oi the Great Cook River, by J. C. Crawford,
F.G.S.— Notes on Hutton's "Catalogue of Marine Mollusca
of New Zealand," by Dr. Ed. von Martens.— On some
additions to the collection of birds in the Colonial Museum,
by Dr. Buller.— Additional notes on New Zealand fishes,
by Dr. Hector.— Further notes on New Zealand whales,
by Dr. Hector.— Mr. Travers said that the visit of Dr. Hector
to Europe with a valuable collection of specimens of natural
history and other objects would materially advance the cause of
science in New Zealand.

Philadelphia
Academy of Natural Sciences, Sept. 15, 1874.— Dr.
Ruschenberger, president, in the chair.— Prof. Leidy made
some remarks on the moving power of diatomes, desmids,
and other Algae. While the cause of motion remains ua-
known, some of the uses are obvious. The power is con-
siderable, and enables these minute organisms, when mingled
with mud, readily to extricate themselves and rise to the surface,
where they may receive the influence of light and air. In ex-
amining the surface-mud of a shallow rainwater pool, in a recent
excavation in brick clay, he found little else but an abundance of
minute diatomes. He was not sufficiently familar with the dia-
tomes to name the species, but it resembled Navicula radiosa.
The little diatomes were very active, gliding hither and thither,
and knocking the quartz sand-grains about. Noticing the latter,
he made some comparative measurements, and found that the
Naviculse would move grains of sand as much as twenty-five
times their own superficial area, and probably fifty times their
own bulk and weight, or perhaps more. — Dr. J. Gibbons Hunt
remarked that in the vegetable kingdom it is exceedingly rare to
meet with glands which have distinct excretory ducts. Some
authors deny their existence entirely ; but in Nepenthes raffle-
siana, N. distillatoria, and N. phyllamphora, and probably in
all the species, are large cylindrical glands which pour out their
secretion through distinct excretory ducts.

Paris
Academy of Sciences, May 20. — M. Frcmy in the chair. —
The following papers were read : — Observations of the moon,
made with the meridian instruments of the Paris Observatory
during 1874, communicated by M. Leverrier. — Some remarks
on the discussion with regard to cyclones, by M. Faye. — Re-
searches on sun-spots and solar protuberances made during the
years 1871 to 1875, by Father Secchi. — Conditions of the maxi-
mum amount of work produced by heat-engines, by M. A.
Ledieu. — M. Andre read a paper on the scientific results ob-
tained at Noumea by the Transit party. — On the determination
of singularities of the left curve, at the intersection of two sur-
faces of any order that have a certain number of multiple points
in common, by M. L. Saltel. — A note by M. V. Cornil, on the
dissociation of the violet of methylaniline and its separation into
two colours under the influence of normal and pathological
tissues, particularly by tissues inclined to amyloid degeneration.
— Application of the graphical method to the study of the mecha-
nism of swallowing, by M. S. Arloing. — On a new proceeding
in the operation of the cataract (extraction by means of a peri-
pherical piece of cloth), by M. L. de Wecker. — Sulphuration of
copper and of iron by a prolonged presence in the thermal
source of Bourbon-l'Archambault, by M. de Gouvenain. — On
the wanderings of the oak Phylloxera, by M. Lichtenstein. — On
some reactions of chromium salts, by M. A. Etard. — On Cam-
phenes, by.M. J. Riban.— A note by MM. C Saint-Pierre and
G. Jeannel,' on a reaction of carbon bisulphide ; conversion of
carbon bisulphide into hydro-sulphocyanic acid. — On the influ-
ence of the pressure in the atmosphere upon the life of man, by
M. CI. Bernard. — Researches on the respiration of birds, by the
same and M. Campana.

BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

British.— The Pebbles in a Bolton Brick field. A Lecture by Rooke
Pennington, B.A., LL D. (Bolton Daily C/iro»icte).— Report of the Rugby
School Natural History Society for 1874. -Notes on the Fertihsation of
Cereals (Botanical Society of Edinburgh). — On the Graphical representation
of the movements of the Chest Wall in Respiration: A. Ransome, M.D.,
MA. (Taylor and Francis). — Arctic Papers ior the Expedition. A selection
of Papers on Arctic Geography and Ethnology. Printed and presented to
the Arctic Expedition of 1875 by the Royal Geographical Society (John
Murray). — A Compendious Statement of the Nature and Cost of certain
Sewage Processes : Major-General Scott, C.B. — Ornithology of the btraits
of Gibraltar : Lieut.-Col. L. Howard and L. Irby, F.Z.S. (R. H. Porters-
Contributions to Natural History and Papers on other Subjects : James
Simpson (Edinburgh Publishing Company). — Recreative Science : David
Page, LL.D. (Wm Blackwood). — Transactions of the Norfolk and Norwich
Naturalists' Society, 1874-75. Vol. li. Part i — The Potato Disease : Eccles
Haigh (G. Philip and Son). — Chapters on Sound : C. A. Alartineau (Sunday
School Association) — The Zoological Record for 1873 (John Van Voorst).

Colonial. — General Report on the Operations of the Great Trigono-
metrical Survey of India during 1873-74 : Col. J. T. Walker, R.E., F.R S.,
&c., Superintendent of the Survey (Dehra Dun, M. J. O'Connor). — Proceed-
ings of the Annual Meeting of the Members of the Agri-Horticultural
Society of Madras on the 24i.h and 27th of March, 1875.

American. — Centrifugal Force and Gravitation. Part I. : John Harris
(Lovell Printing and Publishing Company). — The Surface Geology of Ohio,
U. S. (Columbus, O. ; Nevins and Myers).

CONTENTS Page

The Arctic Manual 81

Lawson's " New Guinea." By Alfked R. Wallace, P'.Z.S. ... 83

Our Book Shelf: —

Green's " Vestiges of the Molten Globe " 85

Stanford's Elementary Atlases . ; 85

Letters to the Editor : —

The Meteors of November 14. — Daniel Kihkwood 85

Systems ot Consanguinity. — Lewis H. Morgan 86

The Migration of Specics.—W. L. Distant 86

Muraenopsis tridactyla. — P. L. Sclater, F.R.S 87

Hardened Glass. — James H. Logan 87

Yorkshire Exhibition " Guide." — H. Pocklington 87

Primroses and Cowslips.— H. George Fordham 87

Our Astronomical Column :—

The Melbourne Catalogue 87

The Comet of 1533 88

Occultation of Venus 88

Our Botanical Column : —

Phenomena of Plant Life 88

Physics in Germany (tVtlA lllmtration) 88

Magneto-Electric Machines. By Dr. Andrews, F.R.S. (With

I llustralions) go

Lectures at the Zoological Gardens, V.: Mr. Garrod on Camels

and Llamas 92

The Line between Highlands and Lowlands 93

The U.S. Government Board FOR Testing Iron AND Steel. . . 94

GUSTAVK ThURET 95

Notes 95

Scientific Serials 97

Societies and Academies 98

Books and Pamphlets Received 100

NATURE

JOI

THURSDAY, JUNE lo, 1875

THE METEOROLOGICAL OFFICE

Quarterly Weather Report of the Meteorological Office.
Published by the authority of the Meteorological Com-
mittee, January 1869, to September 1873. Hourly
Readings from the self-recording instruments at the
seven Observatories in connection with the Meteoro-
logical Office, January to September 1874.
T'^HPI self-recording instruments which have been in
-L operation at the seven Observatories of the Meteoro-
logical Committee since January 1869, may be regarded as
the best and most complete anywhere existing for record-
ing continuously the atmospheric pressure, temperature
humidity and rainfall, and the velocity and direction of
the wind. To ensure correctness in the work, and accu-
rate tabulation of the results, minute regulations with
respect to the officials at the outlying Observatories, the
assistant at the Central Observatory, and the director of
the Central Observatory, were laid down in the Com-
mittee's Report for 1868, p. 62, Thus, as regards the
thermograph, twenty-seven regulations were laid down,
one of the most important of these being the 25th, by
which it was provided that forty remeasurements from
each month's curves were to be made at Kew, the central
Observatory ; and a table is given (page 39 of the same
Report) of the results of measurements which were
specially designed for the detection of small errors in the
thermograph tabulations, from which it appears that re-
finements as minute as the one-hundredth of a degree
of temperature were taken cognisance of in the results.

Tracings of the curves, and five-day and monthly re-
sults of the tabulations, though not the tabulations them-
selves, have been published, beginning with ist January,
1869; and since then many and great improvements have
been made in representing the curves on the Plates, all in
the direction of greater clearness and precision, for which
the Committee deserve our best thanks. Among the
many valuable results of these curves we may point to
the high temperature at Glasgow on the 21st April, 1873,
in connection with the remarkable changes in the direc-
tion and force of the wind which occurred at the time •
to the heavy rainfall at Valencia on the 2nd July, 1873, in
connection with the changes of wind, temperature and
pressure ; and to the minute oscillations of pressure at
almost all the Observatories on the 3rd and 4th July,
1873, in connection with the changeable weather at the
time. In these connections the absence of any observa-
tions of clouds is, however, a serious defect.

One of the principal objects for which the seven Obser-
vatories were established was to furnish the data of
observation for the determination of the meteorological
" constants " for pressure, temperature, rainfall, &c., for
different parts of the British Isles. This being now the
seventh year in which this expensive system of observa-
tion is going forward, it may be well to inquire how far
the information, as published by the Meteorological Office,
meets the requirements of the problems to be solved.

Assuming that the curves are correctly traced from the
photographs, we may inquire whether the figures tabu-
lated from these, under the regulations referred to above,
Vol. XII.— No. 293

be satisfactorily accurate. No hourly values having been
printed before January 1874, the question can only be
answered by an examination of the printed monthly
maxima and minima, with the days and hours of their
occurrence, as compared with the curves. The following
Table, giving the extreme readings of the thermometer
for each of the Observatories for January 1869, is here
reprinted verbatim from the Quarterly Weather Report
for 1869, Part I., p. 34 : —

Maximum.

Day and Hour.

Minimum.

Day and Hour.

Valencia . . .

53°7

4th, 4 A.M.

37° 0

22nd, 3 A.M.

Armagh

53°-i

1 6th, 2 P.M.

3i''9

26th, 2 A.M.

Glasgow ...

50° -I

5th, 10 A. M

290-5

26th, 7 A.M.

Aberdeen ...

48= -8

31st, 6 P.M.

30° 6

26th, 8 A.M.

Falmouth ...

54''-o

30th, noon.

3600

24tb, 9 A.M.

Stonvhurst...

5i°-8

31st, noon.

28° '4

2Sth, 2 A.M.

Kew

S5°-3

30th, 6 P.M.

27°-6

2Sth, 7 A.M.

Each datum of this table we have compared with the
temperature curves for the month, measuring each obser-
vation four times, viz., by the side scales of each curve
from below upwards, and from above downwards. Setting
aside every reading which does not differ from the mea-
sured reading so much as o°-4 of a degree, and the discre-
pancies which appear to arise from the unequal shrinkage
of the paper as indicated by the results of the four mea-
surements, there are in the above Table twelve errors, the
maxima at Falmouth and Kew being doubly wrong, the
amount at the given hours being wrong, and the date of
occurrence being also wrong. The following is the Table
as corrected, the corrected readings being shown by
asterisks : —

Maximum.

Day and Hour.

Minimum.

Day .and Hour.

Valencia ...

53° 7

* 5U1, 4 A.M.

370-0

22nd, 3 A.M.

Armagh

♦530.6

i6th, 2 p.M

*32°-3

26th, 2 A.M.

Glasgow . . .

*5o-9

5th, 10 A.M.

*27°-o

* 1st, 2 A.M.

Aberdeen ...

48-8

31st, 6 P.M.

♦28° -7

* 1st, 4 A.M.

Falmouth ...

*54°-9

*3ISt, II P.M.

360-0

24th, 9 A.M.

Stonvhurst...

510.8

31st, noon.

•220-8

* 1st, 8 A.M.

Kew

*55'-8

*3ISt, I P.M

270-6

25th, *5 A. M.

It will be observed that the errors are of three sorts — (i)
errors of temperature and errors of the date of occurrence
of the maxima and minima, including (2) errors of the
day of the month, and (3) errors of the hour of the day.
Similarly the other months of 1869 have been examined,
with the result that forty-one errors of temperature varying
from o°'4 to 9°'6 f have been detected, that the day of the
month, as printed, is wrong on twenty-two occasions, and
that the hour of the day is wrong in nine cases, in which
the temperature and day of the month are correct — in all,
seventy-two errors. The Tables and curves for ten
months, taken indiscriminately from the other years, have
also been examined.

In the Tables for April and June 1870 (p. 37 of the Quar-
terly Weather Report of that year) there occur six errors in
each of these months, and in the Table for March 1871
(p. 26 of Q. W. Report for 1871) there occur seven errors.
In none of the twenty-two months examined are there

+ The minimum temperature at Glasgow for October is given as 39*'9 at
p. 109 of Q. W. Report, instead of 3o*-3 as by the curve of temperature
(Plate cxix.). -

I02

NATURE

[June lo, 1875

fewer than two errors. This is the number of errors in
the Table for August 1873 (p. 42 of Q. W. Report for
1873), being the last month for which the whole of the
curves have been published. One of these two errors has
reference to the minimum temperature for Aberdeen (39°'2)
which occurred at 4 a.m. of the nth August, and regard-
ing which the following remark is made in a footnote : —
"Doubtful; instrument out of action immediately after
6 A.M." If we turn to the Aberdeen temperature curve of
the nth (Plate xlv.), we see that the instrument was not
out of order during the whole of that day ; and by exa-
mining the curve for the whole month, we see further that
the instrument went out of action on no day at 6 a.m.^
and that on the six occasions on which it was out of
order during the month, it is highly probable that in none
of the cases did the temperature fall so low as 39°'2.

Tables of errata for 1869 have been published by the
Office from time to time, the last one appearing in
November 1874. Not one of the numerous errata refer-
ring to 1869, as well as those referring to the other years,
which have been detected in this examination, has yet
appeared in the Tables of errata published by the Office.
Furthermore, these Tables of errata are themselves re-
peatedly in error ; thus, the last one, printed on the title-
leaf of the Quarterly Weather Report for July — Sept. 1873
contains in the five lines which compose it no fewer than
three mistakes j viz., 1874 being twice printed for 1873,
and the hour of occurrence of the minimum at Glasgow
being curiously printed as o'' 2 a.m., whereas the month
began with the minimum temperature.

As the curves for 1874 are not yet published, there are
no means of checking the hourly tabulated readings from
the curves. Referring, however, to the regulations laid
down for the detection and correction of small errors.^
and to the minute refinement to which the results were to be
carried, viz., to the hundredth of a degree, we were led to
expect that the tabulated readings would be taken from
the curves with an approach to accuracy of at least the
tenth of a degree. A slight inspection of the figures of
the tabulated readings shows at once that this is not the
case, with the single exception of the Observatory at
Stonyhurst.

A word will explain our meaning. There being no
reason why any one of the ten decimal figures, viz.,
•I, '2, "3, . . . '8, '9, 'o should occur oftener than an-
other, it is evident that on the mean of, say, a month's
observations, the number of times on which a read-
ing of a whole degree occurred would be, approxi-
mately, a tenth of the whole number of readings. At
Kew, however, out of the whole 744 readings for
January 1874, 172 whole degrees were read off from
the curves and have been printed in the Tables ; in
other words, nearly 100 in excess of a due propor-
tion. Next month matters improved at Kew, and only
87 whole-degree readings are given ; in March they
rose to 127, and fell again in April to 94. In ^this
respect Kew shows the greatest irregularity of all the
Observatories, but more especially as regards the|tabula-
tions from day to day — showing in this respect a marked
contrast with the regular business-like tabulations of
Stonyhurst. Summing up all the whole-degree readings
at each of the Observatories for the nine months, and com-
paring the results with a tenth part of all the readings

tabulated, we obtain the following results ; — At Stonyhurst
the number of whole-degrees read off were 16 per cent.,
less than a tenth part of the whole ; at the other ob-
servatories the numbers are greater than a tenth part
of the whole, in the following order : Kew, 50 per cent. ;
Aberdeen, 95 per cent. ; Armagh, 112 per cent.; Fal-
mouth, 137 per cent. ; Valencia, 147 per cent. ; and Glas-
gow, 148 per cent. Every statistician will know the
meaning of these figures, and how completely they destroy
the scientific character of the work. It should moreover
be kept in mind that 1874 was the sixth year of the tabu-
lation by the Observatories of the readings taken from
the curves. The method of tabulation as carried out is
too rough for the determination even of the temperature
daily " constants "—a statement which will be self-evident
from the following hourly mean values for Valencia for the
month of July 1874, beginning with i A.M. : 57°7, 57°'5,
57°'3> 57°"2, 57°*i, 57°'6, 58°7, &c. ; the curve for the time
from 2 to 5 A.M. cannot be determined from observations
in which whole degrees so largely preponderate. Though
the instrumental arrangements for the continuous registra-
tion of the temperature at the Committee's seven Obser-
vatories may well be regarded as a triumph of science, yet
the results, as tabulated and published, can scarcely lay
claim to a higher value than eye-observations of third-rate
observers.

In view of the results of this examination, it is not easy
to see how one can makeTa scientific use of the tabula-
tions, and results deduced therefrom, as made by this
department of the Office, until (i) the tracings of the
curves from the photographs, (2) the tabulations of the
hourly values from the curves, and (3) the monthly and
five-day means, have been carefully revised.

It cannot be said that the publications have been issued
under a press of work in the Office, seeing that the
Quarterly Weather Reports have been published just when
the Office has been ready to do it. The last published
Report is for the quarter ending September 1873, and the
last quarter of 1871 only appeared in November last.
Further, at page 66 of the Report for 1873, giving a list of
persons in the employment of the Meteorological Com-
mittee, we learn that at the time of going to press the
number so employed was twenty-four, and the sum ex-
pended in the year for their salaries amounted to about
3,727/., to which, if we add 2,722/. for expenses at Observa-
tories (Report for 1873, p. 32), it is evident that there can
be no reasonable doubt that the staff available for this
work is amply sufficient.

There is a question yet remaining to be considered, viz.,
Are the thermometers at these Observatories in positions
which will fairly indicate the march of the temperature of
each place through the hours of the day ; and, above all,
are they so placed as to be comparable with each other ?
In the Introduction to the Quarterly Weather Report
for 1870, pp. iii. to vii., woodcut illustrations are given
of the thermometer screens, with their positions and sur-
roundings. No two of these are alike— the only approach
to uniformity being Stonyhurst and Glasgow. Two of the
Observatories, viz., Valencia and Falmouth, occupy im-
portant positions near the sea, and might have yielded
valuable results with regard to the influence of the sea on
climate, but they have been placed in situations so confined
that their temperature observations are of little value con-

June lo, 1875]

NATURE

103

sidered as contributions to a scientific inquiry into the
climate of these islands.

The Council of the Scottish Meteorological Society, in a
report dated 3rd July, 1872, drew attention to the positions
of the thermometers, particularly those at Aberdeen which
are forty-one feet above the ground and surrounded with
buildings ; giving it as their opinion that " observations so
made were not comparable with each other, nor with other
observations." * The publication since, by the Committee,
of the hourly readings, enables us to examine the point
from the observations themselves. One of the best marked
phases of the daily temperature, as well as one of the
most important, both for scientific and practical purposes
is the increase which takes place from 9 A.M. to
3 P.^r. At Kew the mean increase between these two
hours for January and February 1874 was 4°-8, and
for June and July 6°7— the greater increase in the
summer months being in accordance with the climatic
facts. But at Aberdeen the thermometers indicated
between the same hours a mean increase of 3°- 7 for
January and February, and i°-8 for June and'July ; thus,
instead of being larger in summer, the recorded^difference
was only half that recorded jn winter. It is needless
to remark that these results for Aberdeen cannot re-
present the temperature of this part of her Majesty's
dominions, and that for the supplying of data for tem-
perature " constants " for that part of North Britain, the
observations made there are worse than useless. The
arrangements for the thermometers at the seven Observa-
tories, both as regards height above the ground, and
exposure, call for reorganisation.

In Part I. of the Quarterly Weather Report for 1870
(App. pp. 8-10) appears a valuable Table of the mean
monthly readings of the barometer at the Committee's
telegraphic stations. If we were sure that the method
of annual inspection of these stations is a sound one,
the results for Holyhead might suggest an inquiry into
the influence of the sea on the state of the barometer.
The position of the rain-gauges above the ground at
these stations, which varies from five inches to 23 feet
(Q. W. Report for 1873, Part III., p. 44), calls also for
revision.

In all the Reports issued by the Office it will be ob-
served that no monthly mean temperatures for the tele-
graphic stations have yet been published by the Com-
mittee. With reference to these stations, Mr. Symons,
in December 1869, remarked: "Various facts brought
under our notice convince us that more remains to be
done than has yet been effected, and that in many
respects these stations [telegraphic] are unworthy of the
nation of which they are to a certain extent representa-
tive."! We have no means of knowing how far matters
have been rectified. It may therefore be doubted, if the
Office were asked to furnish meteorological information
for the use of the Registrar-General, whether they possess
in their own stations the means of supplying it.

We deeply regret the position we have been forced to
assume in reviewing the work of the Meteorological
Office, but our duty as public journalists leaves us no
choice in drawing attention to the work done in return
for the annual grant by Parliament of 10,000/.

* Journal Scot. Met. Soc-, vol. iii. p. 290.
t Meteorological Magazitte, vol. iv. p. 177.

ARCTIC GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY
A Selection 0/ Papers on Arctic Geography and Ethno-
Itgy, reprinted and presented to the Arctic Expedition
of 1875, bv the President, Council, and Fellows of the
Royal Geographical Society. (London : John Murray
1875.)

VXTHILE in absolute value the Admiralty Arctic
V V Manual must be regarded as considerably supe-
rior to the one before us, still the latter contains a
great deal of matter interesting in itself and of high
value as adding to our knowledge of the Arctic regions.
The Geographical Society deserves thanks for the present
it has made to the Arctic Expedition, and we have no
doubt that the explorers will find the Selection of real
service in enabling them to add to our knowledge in the
directions pointed out therein. The editing of the work
has been well done by Mr. Clements R. Markham.

The papers in the Geographical Society's " Collection "
are arranged under the two main divisions of Geography
and Ethnology, although under the former there is much
that might be more properly classed under the head of
Geology. The first series of papers in the geographical
section, occupying about one-half of the space allotted to
that section, and about one-fourth of the entire volume,
is by Dr. Robert Brown. These papers consist mostly of
reprints and condensations of papers by Dr. Brown, which
have already appeared in various scientific publications.
It seems to us that the value of these papers would have
been much enhanced had the author carried condensation
much further than he has done. Dr. Brown's style is
often painfully slipshod ; he frequently indulges in a great
waste of words with inadequate result, and it would only
have been courteous to those for whose behoof this com-
pilation was made to have revised his papers most
thoroughly, stating all the facts as briefly and clearly as
possible.

It is unnecessary to enter here in detail into the subjects
treated of by Dr. Brown, especially as most of the geolo-
gical facts have recently been given in Nature in the
series of papers by Mr. De Ranee (vol. xi. p. 447, et seq.)
After describing all that is at present known of the
Greenland coast-line, both east and west, Dr. Brown
gives a brief account of the few journeys that have
been attempted into the interior of Greenland. The
country has never hitherto been crossed ; if judiciously
gone about the feat might very possibly be accom-
plished. He beUeves Greenland to be "only a circlet
of islands separated from one another by deep fjords
or straits, and bound together on the landward side
by the great ice-covering which overlies the whole
interior, and which is pouring its outflow into the sea in
the shape of glaciers and icebergs." The general opinion
undoubtedly is, as one of the greatest glacial authorities,
Mr. James Geikie, puts it, that " the whole interior of the
country would appear to be buried underneath a great
depth of snow and ice, which levels up the valleys and
sweeps over the hills," though Dr. Brown believes there
are no mountains of any extent in the interior. The
statement of Dr. Rink, in his paper, reprinted here, " On
the Discoveries of Dr. E. K. Kane," seems to us, how-
ever, to be more philosophical. " The reality is," Dr.
Rink says, " that wherever one attempts to proceed up

104

NATURE

\yune 10, 1875

the fjords of Greenland, the interior appears covered
with ice ; but there is no reason whatever to assume that
this appHes to the central part of the country, in which
one, on the contrary, just as well may assume that there
are high mountain chains, which protrude partly from the
ice." Dr. Rink, moreover, thinks the " ice-fjords point
out probably the rivers of the original land, now buried
under ice." At present any statements with regard to the
interior condition of Greenland must be at best conjec-
tural, though all we know seems to point to its being one
sheet of glacial ice, the main flow of the glacier being to
the west rather than to the east.

The remainder of the geographical section is occupied
by some very valuable papers which the Society have
done well to reprint and put in the hands of the members
of the'Expedition. The paper " On the best means of reach-
ing the Pole," by Admiral Baron von Wrangell, is interest-
ing as being the first proposal to attempt to reach the
Pole^^by the route of Smith's Sound. The paper, moreover,
gives some valuable hints as to the method which ought
to be adopted in attempting an exploration by this route,
and coming as they do from one who has had so great
experience in Arctic exploration, they ought to be received
with great respect. The paper by Dr. Rink, who may
safely be entitled " one of the most eminent living autho-
rities " on many scientific subjects connected with Green-
land, on the discoveries of Dr. Kane, we have already
alluded to. While admitting the valuable contributions
made by Dr. Kane to our knowledge of the geography of
the Smith Sound route. Dr. Rink justly criticises the
scientific theories broached by Dr. Kane as to the interior
of Greenland, the "open Polar Sea," the connection
between the Greenland and American coasts, and other
points. Dr. Kane's theories are shown to have been based
on very insufficient data, and subsequent exploration has
only served to prove the justness of Dr. Rink's criticisms.
One of the most careful papers ifi this section is by
Admiral E. Irminger, of the Danish Navy, on " The
Arctic Current around Greenland." This paper is based
on a thorough examination of the log-books of a large
number of Danish ships sailing between Greenland and
Denmark. The now generally accepted conclusion he
reaches is that the current from the ocean around Spitz-
bergen, which carries so considerable masses of ice, after
it has passed along the east coast of Greenland, turns
westward and northward around Cape Farewell, without
detaching any branch to the south-westward, directly
towards the banks of Newfoundland. The current after-
wards runs northward along the S.W. coast of Greenland,
until about lat. 64° N., and at times even as far up as 67°.
Afterwards turning westwards, it unites with the current
coming from Baffin's and Hudson's Bays, running to the
southward on the western side of Davis Strait, along the
coast of Labrador, thus increasing the enormous quantity
of ice that is poured into the Atlantic Ocean.

The concluding series of papersin the geographical
section is by Admiral CoUinson. "The full results of
that distinguished officer's remarkable Arctic voyage," to
quote the words of the preface, " have never been given
to the pubUc ; and both the Fellows of the Society and
the officers of the Arctic Expedition are to be congratu-
lated on having elicited so valuable an instalment.
Admiral CoUinson gives his notes on the state of the ice,

and on indications of open water, from the mouth of the
Siberian river Kolyma, along the shores of Arctic
America, to Bellot Strait. He also furnishes a narrative
of all the expeditions that have explored the shores of
Arctic America, from Point Barrow to the Mackenzie
River, and from the Mackenzie to the Back River, in-
cluding his own voyage, and concludes with some general
observations on the ice." The contribution made by
Admiral CoUinson is really an elaborate one, and must
have cost its author much trouble. It affords insight into
a variety of points connected with Arctic navigation, but
more especially on the tides, the nature of the ice, the set
and rate of the currents in Behring Strait, and to the
east and west of that along the coasts of America and
Asia.

" On the Asiatic side we have indisputable records of
open water continuously met with during the period of
lowest temperature for a distance of upwards of 1,000
miles. On the opposite shore the ice is driven frequently
during the winter by the force of the wind from the coast
at Point Barrow, but along the American continent to
the eastward the ice, as far as we are capable of judging
from one winter's experience, it remains quiet and im-
movable. Hence comes the question, Does the effect of
the Pacific current lose itself in the expanse of the Polar
Sea, or does it take an easterly trend ? So far as expe-
rience guides us, the positions reached by the Enterprise
in 1850 prove the existence of a loose pack 100 miles to
the north-east of Point Barrow ; beyond this, until we
come to the records given by Sir R. M'Clure, nothing is
known, but we have undoubted testimony that the pres-
sure on the north face of Banks Land comes from the
westward : and here in this strait, between Melville
Island and Banks Land, occurs one of those dead locks
in the motion of the ice that are remarkably instructive.
.... So far as can be gathered from the accounts given,
it may, I think, be assumed that the pack is looser, and
open spaces of water are more frequent to the north than
they are to the south of the Parry Group. . . . Though the
Pacific current is in a great measure turned aside from
the face of the American continent by the abrupt change in
the direction of the coast at Point Barrow, the testimony
of all navigators is conclusive that it is felt, and that an
easterly set pervades to a greater extent than a westerly
one, and that this set is more noticeable to the east of the
Mackenzie."

All the papers in the second part of the Selection,
that on Ethnology, are valuable. Mr C. R. Mark-
ham contributes four papers, the first " On the Origin and
Migration of the Greenland Eskimo," being one of the
most interesting and instructive in the whole book. Mr.
Markham has evidently given the subject careful study,
and his hypotheses seem to us to be on the whole sound.
For three centuries after the Norse began to settle in
Greenland in the end of the tenth century, Mr. Markham
beUeves that no indigenous race was seen in the land ;
that all at once, about the middle of the fourteenth cen-
tury, a horde of Skroellings appeared in the extreme
northern frontier settlements of Greenland, and seem
rapidly to have stamped out the Norse colonists.
Whether this was so or not, there seem to us great proba-
bility in the theory of the migration of the Greenland
Esquimaux advanced by Mr. Markham. During the
centuries preceding the first reported appearance of the
Esquimaux in Greenland, the commotions in Central
Asia, under Tugrul Beg, Jenghiz Khan, and other leaders,
were the means of sending forth swarms of Turks and

June 10, 1875]

NATURE

105

Mongols in all directions. The pressure caused by these
invading waves on the tribes of Northern Siberia drove
them still further to the north. Horde succeeding horde
increased the pressure, until at last the Omoki, the
Chelaki, the Onkilon, and other aboriginal tribes, were
driven quite out of the country, and have long ago dis-
appeared entirely, leaving only traditions of their existence
and remains here and there of their yourts or dwellings.

Mr. Markham thinks that here we have probably the
commencement of the exodus of the Greenland Esqui-
maux, which spread over a period of one or two centuries.
He believes they must have made their way from Cape
Chelagskoi to the Parry group, probably over a chain of
islands. Still keeping northwards, by Banks Island,
Melville Island, Bathurst Island, North Somerset and
Devon, Jones' Sound, Carey Islands, on all which un-
doubted traces of Esquimaux have been found, but where
the conditions are not favourable to permanent settlement,
the Asiatic emigrants made their way to Smith Sound,
which they crossed in parties during the fourteenth, fifteenth,
and sixteenth centuries. Some established their hunting
grounds between the Humboldt and Melville Bay glaciers,
and became the ancestors of that very curious and inte-
resting race of men the Arctic Highlanders. Here the
vegetation, the constant open water, and other conditions
rendered a permanent settlement possible. Mr. Mark-
ham believes that some of these immigrants proceeded
southwards and peopled South Greenland ; not only so^
but that parties also wandered still further north than the
Humboldt Glacier, and that it is not improbable that
our new Expedition may find groups of Esquimaux up
to the very Pole itself. Nous verrofis. Meantime, we
repeat, Mr. Markham's theory seems to us a plausible
one, and to answer all the requirements of an immi-
gration into Greenland of a people such as are the Esqui-
maux. Dr. Rink, however, in a paper on the Descent of
the Esquimaux, is inclined to believe them the last wave
of an aboriginal American population driven from the
interior by the pressure of tribes behind them. This
may have been so, and the people in the north-east of
Siberia, so strongly resembling the Esquimaux in lan-
guage, physique, and customs, may have been American
emigrants ; but the reverse hypothesis appears to us much
more probable.

Another extremely interesting paper by Mr. Markham, on
the Arctic Highlanders, contains many details concerning
the country, the character, the manners, customs, language*
^c, of this curious people. Mr. Markham remarks upon
what has been noticed by several explorers, the won-
derful talent of this people for topography, and repro-
duces a most careful and accurate chart of the Greenland
Coast from Cape York to Smith Channel, drawn by the
Greenlander Erasmus York. These two papers are well
worthy the attention, not only of the explorers for whom
they have been compiled, but of all interested in Green-
land ethnography. Mr. Markham's other contributions
are a sketch of the grammar of the Esquimaux language,
with copious vocabularies, and a long list of the names of
all places on the coast of Greenland from lat. 65° 15' N.
on the eastern side, round Cape Farewell, to the entrance
of Smith Sound. Along with this most laborious list is
a chart of the south coast of Greenland from the Danish
Admiralty Survey, with Mr, R. H. Major's adaptation of

the ancient sites in the East Bygd, of the old Greenland
colony.

Dr. Rink's paper on the Descent of the Esquimaux we
have already referred to, and we have space merely to
allude to the admirable and interesting and almost exhaus-
tive .paper on the Western Esquimaux, by Dr. John
Simpson, of H.M.S. Plover, reprinted from the Parlia-
mentary Arctic Papers of 1855. The volume concludes
with the Report of the Anthropological Institute, and an
appendix containing ethnological questions for explorers,
drawn up by various eminent members of that Society,

Altogether, from the brief glance we have been able to
take at this " Selection," it will be seen that it contains
much of really intrinsic value, for having put which into
so accessible a form, all who take an interest in Arctic
matters will be grateful to the Geographical Society. It
will, we are sure, moreover, be a welcome addition to the
equipment of the members of the Arctic Expedition ; and
if carefully studied, as no doubt it will be, it cannot but
suggest many lines of inquiry that are likely to lead to
very valuable results.

VOGELS "{LIGHT AND PHOTOGRAPHY''
The Chemistry of Light and Photography in its Applica-
tion to Aj-t, Science, and Industry. By Dr. Hermann
Vogel, Professor in the Royal Industrial Academy of
Berlin, With 100 Illustrations. (London : Henry S.
King and Co., 1875.)

TO one acquainted with the very small amount of
scientific literature yearly produced by the pro-
fessional and amateur devotees of photography the name
of Dr. Hermann Vogel is one associated most intimately
with the scientific progress of the art. Dr. Vogel has
lately attracted somewhat wider notice by his researches
on the effects of coloured media in modifying the action
of monochromatic light on photographic films, and the
research is hkely to lead to important results in the
department of spectrum photography.

It was therefore in anticipation of at last finding a
scientificmanual of photography that we took up the trans-
lation of Dr. Vogel's work at present under review, hoping
that Messrs. King and Co. had been the means of bringing a
good book before the English scientific and photographic
world. Unfortunately the whole experiment has been
spoiled by the simple device of placing the translation
in the hands of a person who is totally unacquainted
with either chemistry or photography, and who is also
not given to expressing himself in clear English.

On p. 4 we are informed that argentic chloride can be
prepared by " directing chloric gas upon metallic silver ;"
and on p. 19 that "by employing iodide of bromium . . .
the process of exposure was made a matter of seconds."
On p. 35, "Archer coated glass plates with collodion in
which salts of iodide had been dissolved ; " and the same
page contains this typical specimen of English : " After
1853 paper pictures on collodion negatives came more
and more into vogue, the demands for daguerreotypes
fell off and soon vanished altogether, and were produced
only here and there in America ; " while on p. 36 we are
told that there are in Berlin " ten photographic album
manufactories, to satisfy the demand, from whence they
are exported to all parts of the world."

io6

NATURE

\yune lo, 1875

The following explanation of the reaction occurring
during the immersion of the collodionised plate in the
nitrate bath is given at p. 41 : " The salts of iodine and
of bromine that exist in the collodion film change their
properties with nitrate of silver and give birth to iodide
and bromide of silver and to 7ntric acid salts." The
italics are our own. On p. 70 a footnote is added to
explain that " I gramme = the i, 000th part of a cubic
metre, about nine solid feet of water at the ordinary
average temperature."

Under the head of " Operation of Light on the
Elements/' which commences on p. 107, we find that
chlorine is "a greenish strong-smelling gas developed
from chloride of lime," that bromine " is an unpleasantly
smelling substance of a fluid nature," and that iodine is
" a black substance also of a fluid nature and used for
friction." " Sulphur unites with oxygen and produces
the pungent strong-smelling sulphuric acid ; " " chloride
and bromide gas show a pecuhar relation to light even in
their combinations ; " and lastly, iodine again appears as
a "solid body appearing in the form of shining black
crystals, and emitting, when heated, a wonderful violet
vapour."

Under the head of " Chemical Effects {of Light on
Salts of Silver," chloride of silver forms a " cheesy " pre-
cipitate ', chloride, bromide, and iodide of silver are " very
tenacious bodies ; " when chloride of silver is exposed to
light, the "chloride is liberated, and disappears as a
greenish gas, which, from its abundance as well as its
odour, can be perceived to be chloride of silver." " Green
vitriol is greatly attracted by oxygen, and taking it up
readily, passes into sulphate of iron."

On p. 1 1 8 we have the following lucid description of the
toning process : — " The positive prints are subjected to a
further treatment styled the colouring process. To this
end it is plunged in a very diluted solution of gold. This
solute {sic) contains chloride of gold. Metal silver has
more affinity with chlorine than gold ; hence it combines
with the chlorine, forming chloride of silver, while the
gold is precipitated. It becomes separated in the shape
of a blue colour, adhering to the outlines of the picture,
and this blue, mixed with the brown of the picture, gives
a pleasant tone which does not change in the fixing-bath,
that is, in hyposulphite of soda." The latter body is, by
the way, alluded to indifferently as hyposulphite of soda,
" fixing sodium," and " fixing natrium."

In photographic apparatus the translator is equally
at sea. A dark slide is continually spoken of as a
" cassette," and a printing frame as a " copper frame."
The technical names of the processes are also as a rule
incorrect.

We have no patience to devote more time to this
wretched translation, which is only passable in portions
of the part on the physics of some of the photographic
processes.

While Dr. Vogel is held to blame for a prolixity
and discursiveness which, together with the childishly
elementary character of much of the work, render it very
dull, the editors of the " International Scientific Series "
must be held responsible for still further reducing the
value of the work. by employing a translator ignorant of
the subject.

R. J. F.

OUR BOOK SHELF
Ornithological Miscellany. By George Dawson Rowley,
M.A., F.Z.S., Member of the British Ornithologists'
Union. Part I., No. I. January 1875. (London:
Triibner and Co.)

The first number of Mr. Rowley's " Ornithological Mis-
cellany " is devoted to the illustration of some of the rarer
birds of New Zealand which have lately come into his col-
lection. The most interesting of these is perhaps the large
spotted Apteryx discovered by Mr. Potts in 1873, and
named after Dr. Haast, of which, we believe, Mr. Rowley's
specimens are the first that have reached this country.
Figures of and remarks on the other known species of
Kiwi are also given, so that we have altogether a nearly
complete account of what has yet been ascertained re-
specting the external form and habits of these singular
birds. Mr. Rowley passes on to discuss the structure of the
feathers of the Struthious birds, of which he also gives us
some admirable illustrations. A glance at these will serve to
show how very far removed in many essential points is
the genus Apteryx from the Cassowaries and others of
the order Struthiones, with which it is commonly asso-
ciated. Finally, Mr. Rowley gives us an account of a
white variety of one of the Nestor parrots of New Zea-
land, which, as all birds are subject to the occasional
influences that produce albinism, is not, perhaps, after all,
of special interest ; but Mr. Keuleman's well-drawn figure
of this bird will be appreciated by all ornithologists.

Such are the contents of Mr. Rowley's first number.
In regretting that he does not know when the next will
appear, or what it will contain, we fully sympathise with
the author. But if Mr. Rowley can produce from his
cabinets a similar series of rarities to figure, and find an
equally good artist to draw them, we are sure that his
second and following numbers will meet with equal appre-
ciation from every lover of natural history.

On Numerals in Americatt Indian Languages, and the
hidian Mode of Counting. By J. Hammond Trum-
bull, LL.D. (Hartford, Connecticut, 1875.)

From a careful examination of the numerals in various
North American languages, Dr. Trumbull adds some
interesting evidence to that already available as to the
native development of arithmetic among uncultured races.
The derivation of numeral-words from the names of the
fingers habitually used in counting numbers is well shown
in Hudson's Bay; Esquimaux eerkitkoka = "little finger"
being used as a numeral for 10, while mikkeelukkamoot —
" fourth finger " signifies 9. Other materialistic sources
of numeral-words are apparent in the Micmac language,
where tabu = " equal " has become a numeral for 2 (like
our own word "pair," from Latin par), while tchicht,
which means 3, may have originally meant " more " or
"again," and been used to distinguish the plural as
beyond the mere dual (compare Latin trans and tres).
As in the civilised Old World languages with which
philologists especially occupy themselves, the numerals
have for the most part lost the traces of their original
significance, their development, a not unimportant part
of the intellectual development of mankind, has to be
learnt from investigations like the present into savage or
barbarian tongues. E. B. T.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible Jor opinions expressed
by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return,
or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications. '\

British Rainfall, 1874

I AM much obliged by your favourable mention (Nature, vol.

xii. p. 76) of my annual volume, and am very glad to find that it

concludes with a suggestion, because, to quote from p. 138 of

ytme lo, 1875]

NATURE

107

the work under notice, "We always receive with pleasure sug-
gestions for the improvement of this publication, and within
reasonable limits never allow either trouble or cost to prevent
the adoption of all which in any way commend themselves to
our judgment."

Your suggestion is as follows : —

" The publication of the monthly as well as the annual
amounts of rain for the whole of the 1,700 stations is very
desirable, and it is hoped that in an early issue of the * British
Rainfall ' it will be done."

I shall be glad if you will allow me to supplement the data
which were before you when the above paragraph was written
by some other facts, and to learn from your pages whether or
not this fuller information induces any modification of your
views.

As I (whether fortunately or unfortunately I need not say)
have to pay my own printer's bills, I always keep them as low
as possible ; hence, the publication being an annual one, state-
ments made in one volume are rarely repeated in the next.
Therefore, probably, your reviewer was not aware of the prin-
ciples upon which the tables of monthly rainfall (pp. 140-145)
are compiled, viz., to give one station in every county in the
British Isles, and two in a few of the larger ones, such as York,
Inverness, and Ross. I may add en passant that these tables
give the monthly fall at 108 stations, while the Registrar-
General of England is satisfied with forty-four, and of Scotland
with fifty-five ; so that my table exceeds both together. That,
however, is of little moment. [For your own information, I
enclose a map with these 108 stations plotted.]

In the next place, I must refer to "British Rainfall, 1871,"
IP- I35~I38» where the question of publishing additional monthly
returns is discussed at length, and the method of computing the
monthly fall from the percentage tables (which are given every
year) is explained and illustrated by a completely worked-out
example.

To this let me add that returns from 150 other stations are
published monthly in my Meteorological Magazine, and that up
to the present time another very large series (143) has been
printed biennially in the Reports of the British Association.

If it is the opinion of yourself and of others competent to judge
that still more is necessary, more shall be done ; but it must be
borne in mind that the accurate (and without accuracy figures are
worse than useless) printing of 20,400 values involves a great
expenditure both of time and of money. I do not quite know
whence either the one or the other is to be obtained.

G. J. Symons

[It was just because of the inadequacy of one station in each
county of the British Isles, and two in the larger counties, to
represent the rainfall, even though these be supplemented by
Mr. Glaisher's forty-four stations, the Scottish Meteorological
Society's two hundred odd, and by Mr. Symons himself in his
Magazine and in the British Association Reports, that we stated
it to be very desirable that the monthly as well as the annual
amounts of rain for the whole of the 1,700 stations were pub-
lished. The method of computing the monthly (all from the
percentage tables referred to in "British Rainfall, 1871," pp.
135-138, does not supply what is desiderated. It is tile capri-
ciousness of the distribution of the rainfall and its important
bearings on many practical questions which render so desirable
a knowledge of the actual monthly amounts in particular locali.
ties. Since what is desired would be an invaluable contribution
to British Meteorology, we earnestly hope that Mr. Symons
will be induced to supply it, and that in that case he will receive
substantial support in carrying on a work so important.]

Equilibrium of Temperature in a Vertical Column
of Gas

I OBSERVE that Mr. R. C. Nichols, in his letter to Nature
(vol. xii. p. 67), admits that the mean energy of molecules " way "
remain the same at all points of a vertical column. It is not
difficult to show that it vmst do so if the velocities are distributed
among the molecules according to the exponential law.

As I have never seen any direct proof of this in English I
extract the following from Boltzmann.

In order not to take up too much of your space, we will take
the simplest case, and suppose the molecules to be equal elastic
spheres, moving in a vertical tube with elastic base and sides.
Let them be acted upon by vertical forces, the potential of which

at height x above the base is / {x). Assume first that no en-
counters take place between the molecules, and let the number
of molecules at the base, the energy of whose vertical velocity

is v^, be Ce '■-■ where C and k are constants. For each molecule
the sum of the potential and kinetic energies is constant.

And as the horizontal velocities are constant, it follows that
for each molecule the sum of the potential energy and the energy
of vertical velocity is constant. That is, the energy of
vertical velocity is diminished by/(;r) in the ascent from the
base to x.

Therefore the molecules which at height x have u^ for energy
of vertical velocity are the same identical molecules which at
the base have u^ + f{x) for energy of vertical velocity.

Their number is therefore Ce" *^ that is e a^' Ce"*^ *
Therefore the nimiber of each class at x is tl:e same as the
number of the same class at the base multipliel by the factor

Evidently the mean energy is the same at all points of the

tube, and the density only varies, and is represented by e ''" *

Again, still precluding encounters, let the velocities of the
molecules in each of two horizontal directions at right angles to
each other be distributed according to the same law as the
vertical. And further, let the chance of a molecule having given
horizontal velocity in either direction be independent of its
velocity inthe other horizontal direction or in the vertical. The
same distribution and independence will be maintained through-
out the tube. And we see that force has no tendency to
disturb it.

Maxwell has shown that among such molecules as we have
supposed encounters have no tendency to disturb the given dis-
tribution, which must therefore remain undisturbed though force
and encounters both be present. S. H. BURiiURY

Primine and Secundine

Will you allow me to avail myself of your pages as a means
of pointing out to those who have purchased the English edition
of " Sachs's Text-book of Botany" an unfortunate error which
Prof. Oliver has been so good as to point out to me ?

On p. 501 the inner coat of the ovule is identified with the
"Primine" of Mirbel, and the outer with the " Secundine."
The application of these terms is exactly inverted. The con-
fusion easily arises from the fact that the secundine is developed
first and the primine second. Mirbel, however, ignorant of, or
disregarding that fact, numbered his structures from without
inwards. The outer coat he termed the primine, the inner the
secundine, the nucleus the tercine, and so on to quartine and
quintine.

Except for the sake of accuracy the matter is of no essential
consequence. Those who study the coats of ovules may well be
indifferent to Mirbel's perplexing terms. But in these days, when
students are expected for examination purposes to know about
the names of things rather than about things themselves, it
might lead to deplorable consequences, of which I hasten to
relieve myself of the responsibiUty,

W. T. Thiselton Dyer

American Indian Weapons

In Col. Lane Fox's Catalogue of his Anthropological Collection
he quotes Schoolcraft as saying, " There is no instance amongst
the North American Indians in which the war-club employed by
them is made of a straight piece, or has not a curved head. " I
send you a drawmg (Fig. i) of a club in common use among
the Numas, or Indians of the Great Interior Basin, embracing
Shoshones, Utes, Pueblos, &c., which will no doubt interest
Col. Fox and others, not only on account of its extreme sim-
plicity of form, but also of its method of use. It might
be called appropriately a " face-masker," being grasped with
the bulb next to the little finger, and thrust into the countenance
of the foe. Major Powell sent a number of these to the Smith-
sonian Institution. They are of one piece of wood, generally
mezquite, either very rude or quite smoothly polished, and are
w»rn attached to the wrist by a leather thong. They vary in
length from eight inches to fourteen. These same tribes use a
simpler " slimg shot " tJiai^he one described in Col. Fox's Cata-

io8

NA TURE

\yune lo, 1875

logue, p. 65 (Fig. 2), the stone ball hanging loosely from the
handle in a bag of buckskin. The Moquis of this same region
use the boomerang ; two of these (Fig. 3) are in the Smithsonian

Institution. I am not sure that it returns to the hand of the
thrower.

On page 91 of Col. Fox's Catalogue he says : " In California

Fig. 1.— Pal-Ute War Club, for thrusting by a
backhanded blow into the face of an enemy.
Made from the wood of the Mezquite bean.

Fif. 2 — Pai-Ute War Club. _ Fig. 3.— Moquis Boomerang. Fig. 4. — Numa jReed Arrow, with
hardwood foreshaft. Fig. 5.— Klamath Rivtr Pointed Arrpw ; softwood shaft, hard wood
foreshaft. Fig. 6.— Klamath Fiver Arrow, without point ; soft wood shaft, hard wood fore-
shaft sharpened.

and the greater part of the North American Continent the
arrows are constructed either in a single piece or with a bone
foreshaft ; but in no case have I come across a foreshaft of hard
wood." Among the Numas of the Great Basin, reed arrows
with hard wood foreshaft are very common (Fig. 4). In Northern

California two kinds of arrows have hard wood foreshaft, those
with and those without stone points (Figs. 5 and 6). The stripes
on the feather end are rancheria marks, and the foreshaft is
moveable. Otis T, Mason

Washington, D.C., U.S., May 19

Primroses and Cowslips

Mr. Fordham (Nature, vol. xii. p. 87) is quite right in
conjecturing that it may be without foundation he has thought
that primroses are not found in districts in which cowslips are
common, and vice vena. In the north-east of Staffordshire, ior
miles round Denstone College, early in the spring, nearly all
the hedges and many of the fields are covered with primroses.
Later on cowslips abound ; I might add that oxlips are also far
from being rare.

I have watched closely, but have never found a trace of any
destruction of the flower by birds. This, perhaps, may be
accounted for by the /act that this being a pasture country, the
sparrow, finding no grain, is a rara avis about here. I have
noticed in Lord Bagot's wood, seme twelve miles from here,
where sparrows as well as many other birds are found in great
numbers, that the primroses nearly always present a very ragged
appearance. D. Edwardks

Denstone College, Uttoxeter

I COULD name half a dozen spots to the north of London
(Mill Hill) where cowslips and primroses have abounded to-
gether in the same meadow, to my own knowledge, for the past
twenty years. For at least five years I can say that neither the
primroses nor cowslips were attacked by birds, though the
crocuses were cut up by them more or less every season in the
same locality. R. A. N.

THE VISITATIONS OF GREENWICH AND
EDINB URGH OBSER VA TORIES

■\ 1 7 E have before us the Annual Reports of the Astro-
* * nomers Royal for England and Scotland, to their
respective Boards of Visitors. The Report of Sir G. B.
Airy consists mainly of the usual statements under the
various heads of the state of the buildings and instruments,
the constitution of the staff, and the amount of work done.
In all these respects the Observatory seems to be in a
satisfactory condition. One important change in the
staff during the past year has been the resignation of

Mr. Glaisher, who has for so many years been connected
with the Observatory, and which has rendered necessary
a readjustment of the duties of the various observers.

Under the head of " Chronometers, Time-signals," &c.,
the Astronomer Royal refers to the supplemental mecha-
nism which he himself has introduced into some chrono-
meters in order to correct the perceptible defect of thermal
compensation which occurs in nearly every case, even in
the best chronometers, " There is," he states, " great
difficulty in correcting the residual fault, not only because
an inconceivably small movement of the weight on the
balance-curve is required, but also because it endangers
the equilibrium of the balance. To remedy this I have
introduced small supplementary weights carried by means
of a supplementary bar (rotating with stiff friction in the
balance- staft), at whose ends are very light springs carry-
ing the supplementary weights, and constantly pressing
them to the interior of the balance- curve. When the
supplementary bar is so turned that the supplementary
weights are near the end of the balance-curve, the com-
pensation is large ; when they are near the root of the
balance-curve, it is small. The movement from one state
to the other is so simple that probably an assistant of
the Observatory will be able to manage it, and it does not
interfere with equilibrium. This arrangement has re-
ceived the approval of some able chronometer-makers,
and may perhaps with advantage be adopted generally."

The various time-signals and clocks connected with
the Observatory have been worked with praiseworthy
regularity and accuracy ; the Westminster clock has been
so well regulated, under check of automatic report to the
Observatory, that in 83 per cent, of the days of the year
its error is below one second. Proposals have been made
for galvanic determination of the longitude of the Dublin
Observatory, and the operation is delayed only for con-
venience in the arrangements to be made at Dublin.
With the aid of a grant from the Treasury three com-
puters are nov/ steadily at work on the Astronomer
Royal's New Lunar Theory.

The most novel and interesting part of Sir George Airy's
Report is his concluding " General Remarks," in which

June lo, 1875]

NATURE

109

he takes a rapid glance over the changes hi the Obser-
vatory in the forty years during which he has been at
its head. "The Observatory was expressly built," he
states, " for the aid of astronomy and navigation, for pro-
moting methods of determining longitude at sea, and (as
the circumstances that led to its foundation show) more
especially for determination of the moon's motions. All
these imply, as their first step, the formation of accurate
catalogues of stars, and the determination of the funda-
mental elements of the solar system. These objects have
been steadily pursued from the foundation of the Obser-
vatory ; in one way, by Flamsteed ; in another way, by
Halley, and by Bradley in the earlier part of his career ;
in a third form, by Bradley in his later years, by Mas-
kelyne (who contributed most powerfully both to lunar
and to chronometric nautical astronomy), and for a time
by Pond • then with improved instruments by Pond, and
by myself for some years ; and, subsequently, with the
instruments now in use. It has been invariably my own
intention to maintain the principles of the long-established
system in perfect integrity ; varying the instruments, the
modes of employing them, and the modes of utilising the
observations by calculation and publication, as the pro-
gress of science might seem to require.

" While instruments of the same class, but of increased
power, have been substituted for those which I found
here, three novel constructions have been introduced ;
the lunar altazimuth, the reflex-zenith-tube, and the
chronograph ; and, for a special investigation, the water-
telescope (now dismounted). I omit mention of auxiliary
instruments. To utilise the observations, the numerical
reductions for each current year have always been main-
tained in the most perfect state that I could devise.
From these, elaborate star-catalogues (now in frequent
demand) have been formed from time to time. And, for
connecting the observations of the moveable bodies of
our system in a complete and homogeneous series,
beginning at 1750, first the planetary observations,
and secondly the lunar observations of my prede-
cessors have been reduced, and orbital elements have
been corrected. The lunar reductions are probably
the greatest single work ever undertaken in astronomy.
This portion of our labours may be considered as
applying to the combined subjects of astronomy and
navigation. But there are also, peculiar to astronomy,
the photoheliography and spectroscopy lately intro-
duced. And, peculiar to navigation and related subjects,
there are the investigation of the laws of magnetic dis-
turbance in iron ships, and the correction of the compass
by methods now used in the commercial navies through
the world ; the maintenance of magnetic observations ;
the incessant attention to chronometers ; the extensive
dissemination of accurate time-signals ; and the daily
dropping of a time-ball at Deal.

" The subject of meteorology, which has been followed
for many years, is scarcely connected with the two great
heads of astronomy and navigation, and hardly deserves
the name of a science. It is, however, in great popular
request. Mechanical self-registration of some meteoro-
logical phenomena was introduced by me shortly after
the commencement of my residence. Since that time
the practical arts of photography and galvanic com-
munication were invented, and they were quickly made
available in many of our operations. In this increase
of occupations, the annual expenses of the Observatory
have increased, but in a much lower proportion than the
work done.

" Experiments have been made, bearing on cosmical
physics, by Maskelyne for the attraction of Schchallien,
and by myself for the vibrations of pendulums in mines.
Preparations have been made for observations of echpses
and of the Transit of Venus. Assistance has been ren-
dered to the Government in training officers lor such
services as tracing national boundaries, &c., and in refer-

ence to National Standards. The Lunar Theory, though
most intimately connected with the highest interests of
astronomy, scarcely presents itself to me as a work of
the Observatory.

" Turning now from the past to the future, I see little
in which I could suggest any change. If it should ever
be necessary to make any reduction, I should propose to
withdraw meteorology, photoheliography, and spectro-
scopy ; not as unimportant in themselves, or as ill-fitted
to the discipline of the Observatory, but as the least con-
nected with the fundamental idea of our establishment.
In the nature of addition, I will indicate one practical
point. I much desire to see the system of time-signals
extended, by clocks or daily signals, to various parts of
our great cities and our dockyards, and above all by
hourly signals on the Start Point, which I believe would
be the greatest of all benefits to nautical chronometry.
Should any extension of our scientific work ever be
contemplated, I would remark that the Observatory is
not the place for new physical investigations. It is well
adapted for following out any which, originating with
private investigators, have been reduced to laws suscep-
tible of verification by daily observation. The National
Observatory will, I trust, always remain on the site where
it was first planted, and which early acquired the name
of ' Flamsteed Hill.' There are some inconveniences in
the position, arising principally from the limited extent
of the hill, iDut they are, in my opinion, very far over-
balanced by its advantages."

We quite agree with the Astronomer Royal that a
strictly Astronomical Observatory is not the place for
such observations as those mentioned in the conclusion
of his Report ; it would be much, both to the advantage
of astronomy and of the important branches of science
referred to, that the latter should have one or more
Government estabUshments allotted solely to their inves-
tigation, establishments quite distinct from and indepen-
dent of the Greenwich Observatory.

The Report of the Astronomer Royal for Scotland is a
little more fervid than the one just mentioned, or indeed
than official documents generally are. The funds of the
northern establishment continue to be extremely in-
adequate to its requirements, and it reflects great credit
on Prof. Piazzi Smyth that he is able, year after year, to
show such a satisfactory output of work.

In reference to Zodiacal Light Spectroscopy, the
Report, referring to the results obtained by the expedition,
at Prof. Smyth's own expense, to Sicily in 1873, states
that he has another research of the same kind in pro-
gress, which will require him, for its completion, to visit
successively with the same instruments the shores of the
Arctic Ocean and a tropical mountain-peak. We hope
Government will provide him with the very small sum
necessary to carry out this important work. Prof. Smyth
is also carrying out, under great difficulties, observations in
Auroral Spectroscopy, for which he is very favourably
located ; but again he is hampered by want of the neces-
sary instruments. No doubt Mr. Cross's recent unex-
pected official visit, if it meant anything at all, will lead to
speedy attention being paid to the very reasonable
demands of the Scottish Astronomer Royal.

An appendix to the Report contains some documents
intended to show the real position of the Observatory and
of its chief, and his relation to the professorship of astro-
nomy in Edinburgh University which he holds. It seems
the University Council wish to make out that 300/. of his
not excessive salary he receives solely as occupant of that
chair, and must resign this sum with the chair. Altogether
it seems to us the duty of Government to make a speedy
and thorough inquiry into the position of the Northern
Observatory, and put it into a state of such complete
efficiency that there will be no further rooxn for com-
plaints. We regret to see that the new equatorial is still
in the contractor's hand^

no

NATURE

\yttne lo, 1875

THE PROGRESS OF THE TELEGRAPH *
VII.

IN 1 843 Alexander Bain made certain important improve-
ments in the recording and transmitting instrument
shown in Fig, 28, in which two semicircular magnets B B',
with similar poles facing, fixed to a brass bar, move through
the centres of two coils, A a', the index-hand pointing
to I or V according to the direction of the current. This
was controlled by the metallic contacts N n' n" n'" open-
ing or closing the battery and line circuits according to
the position of the handle F. The connection and direc-
tion of the current through the instrument from the bat-
tery D is indicated by the arrows, the connection R being
that of the line wire, and S that of the earth circuit.

This patent and certain others that will be brought
under notice gave rise to expensive litigation in the
early history of the telegraph. In 1846 John Nott
produced his letter-recording telegraph, which, in con-
junction with Mr. Alexander Bain's inventions, was
carried into the law courts on a question of infringement
of the Cooke and Wheatstone patent rights ; but for
reasons already given regarding patent law, the oppo-
sition was unsuccessful on the part of the Electric Tele-
graph Company.

contact drums,/,/, which regulated the direction of the bat-
tery current through the electro-magnets, by means of the
index shown in the external view (Fig. 29) being moved
to the one side or the other.

ain's I and V telegraph, 1843.

Nott's apparatus is shown in external and internal eleva-
tion in Figs. 29 and 30. It consisted of a dial showing
the letters of the alphabet and numerals repeated four
times in the circumference of the circle. The respective
letters or numerals were indicated by the step-by-step
motion of a revolving pointer or index-hand. The motion
of this pointer was controlled by successive make-and-
break contacts with the battery by means of a finger-key
dipping into a mercury cell, d. The index-pointer was
driven round by a " clawker- and- driver " action in con-
nection with the toothed wheel c, the propelling power
being derived from the attractive and repellant action of
two horseshoe electro-magnets, a, d, acting upon soft iron
armatures in connection with the '" clawker-and-driver "
motion. The electro-magnet b governed the alarum or
call- signal. Either the speaking or alarum portion of the
telegraph was brought into action by the position of the

* Continued from p. 72.

In 1846 High ton's gold leaf indicator was brought under
notice, and an important automatic chemical printer-
recording high-speed telegraph, by Alexander Bain, which
has been the germ of several of the applications in the
modern high-speed automatic arrangements (Fig. 25). In
this chemical printer, a paper strip, perforated with holes in
symbolic groups to represent the several words of the mes-

FiG. 30. — Nott and Gamble's patent, 1846. Internal arrangement.

sage, was employed to regulate the automatic sequences of
the current through the line. This paper ribbon was passed
over a metal drum in circuit with the line wire, and a fine
metal style in connection with one pole of the battery

June lo, 1875"]

NATURE

(the other pole being to earth) pressed upon the paper
ribbon. As the ribbon was drawn forward whenever a
perforation passed the point of the style, metallic contact
between the battery and line wire was momentarily made,
and a current transmitted to the distant station, the dura-
tion of the current being regulated by the length of the
perforation in the paper— thus giving the dot and dash
code. The message at the distant station was printed by
chemical decomposition. A ribbon of paper, prepared by
immersion in a solution of sulphuric acid and prussiate of
potass, was drawn over a metal cylinder in communica-
tion with the earth, and pressing upon this chemically
prepared paper was a metal style in connection with the
line wire. When, therefore, a current is received by reason
of the metal style at the
J transmitting station pass-
J ing a hole and joining bat-
tery to line, the chemical
preparation of the receiv-
ing ribbon is momentarily
decomposed by the action
of this current, and a
darkish blue mark will ap-
pear on the paper ribbon
of a length — either a dot
or a dash — corresponding
to the duration of the trans-
mitted current.

William Sykes Ward's
patent, by which signals
were indicated by the de-
flection of electro-dynamic
coils over the poles of fixed
permanent magnets, al-
ready noticed (Fig. 18),
followed in 1847. This
patent became, in common
with most others, the pro-
perty of the Electric Tele-
graph Company by pur-
chase.

Holmes's new form of
coil and needle, introduced
in 1 848, dispensed with the
inertia of the long five-
inch astatic needle com-
bination and great coil
resistances of the existing
double needle system, and
combined a greatly in-
creased speed of trans-
mission with a reduced
battery power, both results
of vital importance. This
modification of the asta-
tic needle combination is
shown at Fig. 31, drawn
' to actual size, as compared
diamond needle ar- ^ith the fivc-inch needle.

diSDensmg with the rr^, . . . -i i ^

astatic needle combination (b) and re- ^ he next patent brought
ducing the resistance of thelcoils. 1848. under noticC, that of Mr.

W. T. Henley, led to the
first serious opposition against the monopoly of the
Electric Telegraph Company. In 1848 William Thomas
Henley and George Foster brought out their improve-
ments in electric telegraphs : this patent gave rise to
the formation and establishment of a formidable rival
in public favour to the Electric Telegraph Company,
viz., the English and Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company.
The improvements under this patent consisted in acting
on a magnet, to the axis of which is attached an index or
pointer by a single electro or other magnet, having each of
its extremities converted or resolved into two or more
poles. Fig. 32 shows the magnetic needle suspended

Fig. 31. — Holmes'
rangement (a),

between the poles of an electro-magnet, a, each pole
being fitted with a piece of iron, of a segmental form,
developing two similar poles. This magnetic needle is
deflected in one direction for any length of time required
by an induced magneto-current, it being brought back to
its normal position by the reversed inductive current.
The necessary magneto-currents to actuate the needle are
produced from a magneto-electric arrangement consisting
of two coils. A, A (on an armature), which are mounted
on an axis, H, between the poles, M, M, of a permanent-
magnet, and free to move in front of those poles upon
depression of the handle, G, in such a manner that one
pole of the magnet is not released from its opposition to
the armature until the other just touches it, by which
means currents of equal power and in opposite directions
are produced. This arrangement of parts is shown in
Fig. 33. These several representative improvements,
selected out of the vast numbers that crowd the field up
to 1848, will be sufficient for the purpose of tracing the
Progress of the Telegraph,

Such were some of the instruments already invented
when electrical communication was inaugurated in this
country by the Electric Telegraph Company.

Proceeding down the cul de sac known as Founders
Court, Lothbury, a stone fagade, with the words " Central
Telegraph Station " sculptured in bold letters, and mas-
sive oak doors, arrested the attention of the visitor. On
entering, a noble and lofty hall with an enriched glass
roof presented itself to view, with two long counters, one
on either side, for the receipt and payment of rnessages.
Behind these counters glass screens were placed with the

Fig. 32.— Henley and Foster's Magneto-Telegraph, 1848. Indicator
movement.

names of the several stations open for messages painted
in black letters upon them, the instrument rooms being
behind the screens upon either side.

The west side of the hall was devoted to correspondence
with the northern and western districts, and the east side
with the eastern and southern districts. Additional instru-
ment rooms were provided on the first and second floors at
the sides of the hall ; and at the time of the opening of the
station to the public, the Company had access to about
sixty towns, with an extent of single wire along the rail-
ways of some 2,500 miles, and had a telegraph staff of
fifty-seven hands appointed to the Metropolitan Station.
The battery rooms, testing boxes, earth connections, and
the tubes for bringing the wires into the building were
situated in the basement underneath the great hall. The
various wires were brought along the streets in pipes
beneath the pavement. Twenty-seven came from the
North Western Railway, nine from the South Western,
nine from the South Eastern, nine from the Eastern
Counties, nine from the branch office, 345, Strand, in-
cluding those from Windsor, nine from the Admiralty,
which with nine spare wires completed the circuit
arrangements of the Company at the time that the tele-
graph was thrown open to the public. Many of the
railway companies continued to reserve the use of their
telegraphic lines to themselves ; the Telegraph Company
from the central station had therefore no power to forward
public messages over such districts.

It is natural to suppose that great excitement and
anxiety existed amongst the directors with reference to
the opening of the building to the public for the receipt
and transmission of messages. The disturbed state of

112

NATURE

\yune lo, 1875

London at that time, arising from the Chartist demonstra-
tion and supposed possible attempt upon the Bank of
England, by no means allayed the disquietude of the
directors ; as it was, most of the electrical staff had been
sworn special constables, and truncheon in hand had
assisted in guarding the principal buildings in the vicinity
of the Bank of England and Royal Exchange. What if
on the opening day a mob should rush in intent upon
destroying the new-fangled invention ! Such occurrences
had been witnessed before. Had not Arkwright with his
stocking loom, and Jacquard, incurred the fury of the
ignorant artisans 1 Might not the rush of relatives and
friends, merchants and bankers, all anxious to supersede
the delays of post by the lightning speed of this new inven-
tion laid at their feet for the first time, prove so incon-
venient to the clerks that all business would be inter-
rupted, and the accuracy of the payments for messages

and correctness of the transmissions be jeopardised?
Besides, another evil rumour had gone abroad : light
sovereigns and indifferent gold were in free circula-
tion. Amongst all these troubles it is not to be
wondered at, that as the eventful day drew near every
precaution was taken to meet the assumed exigency
of the occasion ; sovereign scales were ordered, one for
each counter already described. How could a clerk leave
his place of trust to weigh a suspicious-looking piece of
gold in scales situated on the opposite side of the great
hall? The uniform shilling rate to all places from
the metropolis did not at that time e xist. Messages to
Liverpool and Manchester were %s. 6d. under twenty
words, to Edinburgh 13^'., and to Glasgow i^. ; charges
at that time considered very moderate, remembering the
costly staff of clerks, the original outlay, wear and tear,
&c. The great doors in Founder's Court were ordered to

Fig. 33.— Henley and Foster's Magnett-Electric Telegraph, 1848. Plan of the magneto-coil arrangement for producing currents of equal intensity

in opposite directions.

be kept fast bolted, and two port-holes cut some six inches
square in the solid oak panels fitted with little screens
opening inwards ; so that whatever the crush in Founders
Court, messages and money could be received inside
through them and change given ; in fact, the Central
Telegraph Station was converted more or less into a fort
prepared to stand a siege. The opening day came — scales
on counter, change in tills, receiving and cashing clerks
at their posts, every instrument and circuit along the re-
spective railway lines proved for accuracy by the sending
and receipt of test signals, staff at instruments, doors
bolted. Nine o'clock strikes, port-holes opened, and,
after the manner of the stage manager behind the curtain
who surveys the patronage bestowed upon the boxes,
■ stalls, and dress circle from his mysterious peephole, so
did the expectant staff view the state of Founders Court
through their port-holes. Not a person disfigured the

symmetry of the lines of the flag pavement, save the Bank
of England porter, performing his prescribed beat against
the Bank wall. The sun marked midday, — afternoon,
— evening, — and one paid message alone was transmitted
to a station situated somewhere upon the Norwich circuit.
Empty tills, idle clerks, disappointed directors. Such was
the story of the opening day of the Electric Telegraph
Company's Central Office. No one believed in it ; it was
regarded more in the light of a clever toy than a practical
invention to be trusted or relied upon. This want of
patronage from the public damped the ardour of some of
the directors. The late Mr, Sampson Ricardo, walking
into the central station the next morning, gave vent to his
disappointment by declaiming on the extravagant expen-
diture of capital in two pairs of sovereign scales, demand-
ing that one pair should be immediately returned to the
scale-maker who had supplied the luxury.

June lo, 1875]

NA TURE

After the vast expenditure of capital in the purchase of
the Cooke and Wheatstone patents, erection of lines oyer
the kingdom, station inauguration, and the incorporation
of the Company by special Act of Parliament, naturally
the promoters of the Electric Telegraph Company endea-
voured to create a monopoly in the transmission of
messages for the public.

{To be continued)

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN
The Total Solar Eclipse of 1886, Aug. 29.— This
eclipse will be a remarkable one, on account of the length
of duration of totality, which will not fall far short of that
of the eclipse of 1868, Aug. 18, though it unfortunately
happens that its track is mainly over the Atlantic Ocean,
and there will be no land station for physical observations
while the sun is hidden for the longest interval. The
elements of the eclipse are, very approximately, as
follows : —
Conjunction in R. A. 1886, Aug. 29, at oh. 57m. 377s. G.M.T.

t57 50 51 '9
37 4-8
2 167
9 10 38-4 N.
9 17 23-9 N.
10 45'i S.
o 53'4 S.
61 20-5

R.A

Moon's hourly motion in R.A.

Sun's ,, ,>

Moon's declination

Sun's ,,

Moon's hourly motion in Dec!.

Sun's ,, >,

Moon's horizontal parallax

Sun's ,, °^

Moon's true semidiameter 1642-9

Sun's „ 15 5i'i

The central eclipse begins Aug. 28, at 23h. 12m. 32s.
G.M.T., in longitude 79° 33'W., and latitude 9° 51' N.,
and ends Aug. 29 at 2h. 36m. 28s. in longitude 47° I9 E-,
and latitude 21° Si' S., and the sun is on the meridian
centrally eclipsed in longitude 14° 13' W., and latitude
2° 58' N. The following are also points upon the central
line : — , . ^

Longitude. Latitude.

66° 47' W , II 36 N

61 I W : 12 6 N

II 9 E II 5 S

20 10 14 52

21 39 15 25
25 5 E 16 36 S

It would appear from this track that the only easily
accessible station where the sun will be at a sufficient
altitude will be at the southern extremity of the Island of
Grenada, in the West Indies ; for which point, assuming
its longitude 4b. 6m. 20s. W. and latitude 11° 59' N., we
find—

H. M. S.

Beginning of totality, Aug. 28, at 19 10 7 ) Local
Ending „ » 19 13 22^ mean times.

The duration is therefore 31"- ^Ss-, and the sun's altitude
is about 20°.

If we take for a point where the sun will be near the
meridian, longitude oh. 50m. 52s. W. and latitude 2° 8' N.,
we have —

H. M. S.

Beginning of totality, Aug. 29, at o 8 48 ) Local
Ending „ „ o 15 14 i mean times.

The duration of total eclipse, which is here nearly at its
maximum, is therefore 6m. 26s., and the sun at the time
is only f from the zenith.

From this point the length of totality diminishes, until,
during the passage of central eclipse over Southern
Africa from near St. Philip de Benguela to the Mozam-
bique, it is comparatively short. It will be seen that the
central line runs considerably to the north of the islands
of Ascension and St. Helena.

The middle of general eclipse occurs at oh. S4m. 30s.
G M.T. ; the sidereal time at Greenwich mean noon is
loh.'som. 27S-8, and the equation of time om. 46s. sub-

tractive from mean time, figures which may facilitate a
further examination of the phenomenon.

The Sun's Parallax.— Prof. Galle, Director of the
Observatory at Breslau, in a letter to M. Leverrier, gives
the definitive result of his discussion of observations of
the minor planet Flora (Hind, 1847, Oct. 18) in the
autumn of 1873, at observatories in both hemispheres,
with the view to a determination of the solar parallax.
The receipt of particulars concerning some doubtful
observations at Melbourne and other stations had en-
abled him to apply some small corrections, by which,
however, the value of the sun's parallax published in
No. 2,033 of ^^ Astronomische Nachrichteti is but very
slightly changed. Prof. Galle now finds from eighty-one
corresponding observations between the two hemispheres,
forty-one stars of comparison to the north of the planet
and forty to the south, that " the definitive result for the
solar parallax should be fixed at tt = 8"-873, with a very
small uncertainty in the hundredths of the second." He
adds, that of ninety-six corresponding observations in
all, he had excluded fifteen on account of some discord-
ances arising from imperfections in the southern instru-
ments, but even if these fifteen observations were included,
the value is only changed to 8"-878. Prof. Galle is
engaged in the composition of a memoir giving full
details of his investigation. He remarks upon the
close agreement of his result with that obtained by
the numerous and very exact measures of the velocity
of light, by M. Cornu, at the Observatory of Paris,
with the theoretical determination of M. Leverrier
from the perturbations of the planet Mars, and with
M. Puiseux's first result from observations of the
transit of Venus at Pekin and St. Paul Island. He
directs attention to the circumstance, that another
favourable opportunity of applying the method which has
furnished a value for the sun's parallax by observations
of Flora in the northern and southern hemisphere, so
nearly in agreement with values deduced in other ways,
will be afforded about the opposition of Eurydice (Peters,
1862, Sept. 22), which occurs on the 20th of September
next, when the planet will be a bright ninth magnitude.
It will be in perihelion early in the previous month, and
at its nearest approach to the earth on Sept. 1 3, will be
distant less than 0-878 of the earth's mean distance from
the sun. Prof. Galle hopes to secure on this occasion the
co-operation of the astronomers who have taken part
in the observations of Flora.

The Minor Planets.— On comparing elements of
this group as known to the present time, it appears that
Flora h&s the shortest period of revolution, 1193 days,
and of those which have been satisfactorily calculated,
Sylvia has the longest, 2374 days, the corresponding
mean distances, expressed in parts of the earth's mean
distance from the sun, being 2-201 and 3-482. The nearest
approach to the sun is mace by Pliocea, 1-787, while Freia
recedes furthest from him, the aphelion distance being
4-C02. We may add to these the following values near
the extremes of distance :—

Distance

Distance

in Perihelion.

in Aphelion

Melpomene ...

... 1-796

Sylvia

- 3757

Clio\.

... 1-805

Cybele

... 3-803

Victoria

... 1-823

Pales

... 3-810

Iris and Ariadne

... 1-835

Euphrosyne ...

- 3849

Eurydice

... 1-854

Hermione

... 3-882

Flora

... 1-856

Polyhymnia ...

... 1-890

Virginia

... 1-899

. .

Polyhymnia has the greatest excentricity, 0-33998, and
Lonna the least, 0-02176 ; Pallas the greatest inchnation,
34° 42', and Massalia the least, 0° 41'. It will be seen
that the difTerence of distance from the sun betweer
Phocea in perihelion and Freia in aphelion is 2-215, cor-
responding to about 204,000,000 miles.

M. Leverrier's Bu^fetin International of June 5 cor-

114

NATURE

{jftme lo, 1875

tains a telegraphic intimation from the Smithsonian
Institution of the discovery of a new minor planet by
Prof. Peters in R.A. lyh. 21m., and N.P.D. 113"=' 31'. It
is as bright e.s stars of the eleventh magnitude, and is
No. 144 of this group of planets.

[Since the above was in type we receive notice of the
discovery of No. 145, by Prof. Peters, in R.A. 17'^ 14'",
N.P.D. 1 1 3°-8', apparently on June 4. Motion towards
S. : twelfth magnitude.]

LECTURES A T THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS *

VJ. — Mr. Flower on Elephants.
V^T'ITH the exception of the domesticated species few
* * mammals are so well known to everyone as the
Elephant, few are more interesting from their sagacity
and usefulness to mankind, and few are so wholly
separated and isolated from all other forms which now
exist. Formerly the Elephants were grouped with the
Rhinoceroses or with the Pigs, but a better knowledge of
their structure has shown that they form an entirely
distinct order, to which the name Proboscidea has been
given, on account of the trunk, or proboscis, which is
one of their most striking features. Two well-marked
species of Elephant exist, the Indian {Elephas indictis)
and the African {E. africanus).

The former is found in a wild state throughout the
forest-lands of the greater part of India, Ceylon, Burmah,
Siam, Cochin-China, the Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra,
except where it has been driven back by the advance of
civilisation ; whether it is indigenous to any of the other
islands of the Eastern Archipelago is doubtful. The
Elephant of Sumatra and Ceylon has been separated by
Schlegel as a distinct species, E. sumatranus, but Dr.
Falconer and others have shown that their differences,
though appreciable, do not amount to specific characters.
The Indian Elephant has been domesticated from the
earliest ages— in India before historic times, and also by
the ancient Persians. It has been used in war, in
carriage, and in state pageants, and is still much em-
ployed in road-making and bridge-building, where its
strength, its sagacity, and its adroitness in piling logs,
lifting weights, and similar operations, render its services
invaluable.

The second species inhabits Africa, south of the Sahara,
from the Indian Ocean to the Atlantic, and formerly
extended its range to the Cape of Good Hope. In
ancient times it was domesticated by the Carthaginians,
and was the species generally imported by the Romans,
but no succeeding African race has had the sagacity to
make use of it. It is killed in vast numbers for the sake
of its ivory, of which an enormous quantity is annually
brought to Europe ; and in so wasteful a fashion is this
slaughter carried on, that the species will probably soon
be exterminated. Although so well known to the ancients,
it is only quite recently that live African elephants have
been brought to Europe in modern times. There was
one in Antwerp in 1863, and two years later a pair were
obtained by the Zoological Society, which are still alive
and well, the male having attained a height of ten feet.
Since this, numbers of these animals have been imported
down the Nile from the Soudan, and they are now com-
mon in menageries.

In size there is not much difference between the two
species, and the maximum height would appear to be
about eleven feet ; an Indian elephant shot by Sir Victor
Brooke reached that stature, which was not exceeded by
the tallest of eleven hundred individuals measured by
Dr. Falconer. In external appearance the two species
are easily distinguishable. The African elephant has a
lighter and more shapely head, a less protuberant fore-
head, and a larger eye, but its most striking peculiarity is
the enormous size of its ears. It also stands proportion-
ately higher on its legs, and has a more arched back.

* Continued from p. 93.

The number of nails is different, being four on the fore
feet and three on the hind, whereas in the Indian species
these feet have four and five nails respectively. Sports-
men say that the height of an elephant always equals
double the circumference of the foot, and this is confirmed
by the individuals now in the Gardens ; in the male the
proportion is absolutely correct, and in the female it is
within three inches. The mental characters of the Indian
and African elephants are different, the latter being
bolder, quicker, and more obstinate.

In considering the general structure of the Elephants,
the first peculiarity to be noticed is the trunk, which is
really an enormous prolongation of the nose and upper
lip. It is almost entirely composed of a complex mass
of muscles which give it its great power and flexibility,
and it is amply supplied with nerves. The great massive-
ness of the head is not owing to the size of the brain, but
to huge air-cells in the body of the bones, which are an
extraordinary development of the frontal sinuses. This
expansion is necessary to afford room for the attachment
of the great muscles which wield the head and proboscis.

The teeth of the Elephant are very peculiar. The
tusks, which answer to the middle incisors of man, some-
times reach a weight of 150 lbs., or even, it is said, of
200 lbs. each. They have no enamel, being entirely com-
posed of ivory — a peculiarly fine, tough, and elastic
dentine — and are persistent in growth throughout life.
Thus, if bullets happen to lodge in the pulp-cavity they
are carried down by the growth into the tusk itself, in
which they are sometimes found embedded. The molars
are six in number in each side of each jaw, and are com-
posed of alternated transverse plates of enamel, dentine,
and cement. Owing to the different hardness of these
materials they wear unequally, and produce cross ridges
on the surface of the tooth, which form it into an admir-
able grindstone for crushing the food. The molars are
not deciduous, but move forward in a curious way ; only
one (or at most a part of two) is in use at once, and each
as it is worn away is pushed forwards by its successor,
which eventually takes its place. The six teeth last
out the life of the animal, which is said to extend to a
hundred years or more. In the Asiatic species the plates
of the molars are much finer and more regularly parallel
than in the African elephant, in which they are fewer in
number and have somewhat of a lozenge shape.

It was formerly a widespread delusion that the Elephant
had no joints, and even now many people believe that
their joints move in the contrary way from those of other
quadrupeds. The explanation of this lies in the fact that
the elbow and knee of an elephant are much nearer the
ground than those of a horse or a cow, and are thus con-
fused by a casual observer with the so-called "knee " (the
true wrist) and "hock" (the true ankle) of the latter
animals.

Although the Elephants are now so isolated among
animals, it was not always so. They have many fossil
relativ^es whose range once extended all over Europe
(including Britain), Asia, North America, and part of
South America. Of these the most generally known is
the Mammoth, of which specimens have been so wonder-
fully preserved in the Siberian ice, and which was closely
aUied to the living Asiatic species. Going further back
we have the Mastodon, in which the grinding teeth were
much less differentiated and more like those of other
animals. Beyond this it is difficult to trace their relation-
ships. Possibly they may have been through the Dino-
therium, or through some of the wonderful creatures
whose remains have recently been discovered in the
Eocene formations of America. But it is clear that in the
Elephants we have the last remaining representatives of
a mighty and once numerous race which have played
their part in nature and disappeared, and it is only too
probable that the survivors also are doomed to speedy
extinction.

June lo, 1875J

NATURE

115

SCIENCE IN GERMANY
{From a Germari Correspondent^

IT 'is not only due to the quantitative increase of
scientific Avork, but also to the exigencies of the
division of labour, that the German serials dedicated
to zoological and anatomical research have been aug-
mented by two new ones this year.

The Morpholooisches Jahrbjcch, edited by Carl Gegen-
baur, Professor at Heidelberg, unites anatomy and the
history of the development of animals in their mutual
and intimate relation as animal morphology. It has for
its first object the recognition of the intimate relations
amongst different degrees of animal organisation, and
further, to consider the anatomy of man as illustrated by
the knowledge of the construction of lower organisms.
This programme evidently excludes all descriptions and
one-sided observations which cannot be used for the
above purpose. The first number contains papers on
the extreme ends of the animal world, viz., Man and
Infusoria, and thus illustrates the end in view most
perfectly. The Jahrbuch will be supplemented annually
by a yearly report of the progress of the anatomy of
Vertebrata. This serial appears quarterly in numbers of
from 6 to 10 sheets of text, with plates, at the price of
from 6 to 9 marks.

Zeitschrtft fiir Anatomie und EntwickelimgsgescJiichte
("Journal of Anatomy and History of Development"),
edited by W. His and W. Braur.e, Professors of Ana-
tomy at the University of Leipzig. The principal
object of this new serial is to be the knowledge of the
human body ; but papers will also be received which
touch upon this theme from a somewhat more distant
point of view. At the same time attention will also
be turned to the practical side of this subject as well as
the theoretical, and materials will be offered to the
medical man which will be of immediate use to him in
his sphere of action. The double number published of
this serial shows that its programme has very wide
limits and will eventually be of interest to the zoologist
and anatomist, as well as to the practical physician.
A number of this serial will be published every two
months, containing about five sheets of text and five
plates, at the price of from 6 to 8 marks.

NOTES

The Local Secretaries of the Bristol Meeting of the British
Association are doing all in their power to make it in every way
a success, and to secure the comfort and enjoyment of those
members who may attend ; and we think we may promise all
who do a pleasant time of it. Although the railway companies
have obdurately refused to grant any special concessions to those
who will attend the Bristol Meeting, we have reason to believe
that the usual complaints as to hotel charges will not have
to be made ; all the principal hotels have given assurance
that their tariffs will not be raised, except in the case of beds,
the charge for which, quite naturally, will be slightly increased.
There are many places of scientific as well as general interest in
and around Bristol ; and the Bristol Museum, one of the best
provincial collections in the kingdom, will be temporarily en-
larged for the occasion. Excursions to various places will be
arranged, and the Mayor and inhabitants of Bath have signified
their wish to receive a visit from the Association. At the soiree on
August 26 the Bristol Microscopical Society, assisted by the
Naturalists' Society and the Bath Microscopical Society, has
undertaken to give a systematic microscopic demonstration of
the natural history of the neighbourhood ; a novel feature will be
the number of living objects which will be exhibited. At the
second soiree, Aug. 31, a number of objects of great scientific
interest wUl be exhibited. \. A special Guide Book is being

compiled, and a very useful map of the country for many miles
round Bristol has been prepared.

The section of the Eclipse Expedition which went to Camorta
returned last week. No detailed news has been received from
the Siam party.

At its last private sitting, the Paris Academy of Sciences
was apprised by its Administrative Commission that the expense
for the several Transit of Venus expeditions had exceeded by
80,000 francs the sum granted by the Government. A supple-
mentary credit will be asked for from the Versailles Assembly ;
and M. Leverrier proposed to offer to the Government the
instruments' used by the several|expeditions, which now belong
to the Academy. These 6-inch and 8-inch refractors are large
enough to be utilised in the establishment of local observatories
in several provincial towns of France and Algiers. The motion
was unanimously accepted on condition that the said instruments
should be lent to the Academy for the Transit expeditions of
1882.

The number of Prof. Huxley's students in Edinburgh Univer-
sity now amounts to upwards of 350.

The gentlemen whose names we mentioned in a previous
number (vol. xi, p. 497), were, at the annual election meeting
of the Royal Society last Thursday, elected Fellows.

The Norwegian Government has granted a credit of 4,000/.
for an expedition to be sent out next yearunder the scientific
direction of Dr. Mohn, for the exploration of the sea between
Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Spitzbergen, and Jan Mayen. The
commander of this expedition will be Capt. Carr Wile, of the
Royal Norwegian Navy, who is now in England gathering
information as to the work done by the Challenger.

We take the following from the Academy .-—Under the title
of the Belgian Society of Dredging and Marine Exploration, a
society has been formed for the systematic exploration of the
North Sea, The annual subscription is to be 15 francs. The
materials as collected are to be submitted to various scientific
men who have made the different departments their special
study, and are afterwards to go to form a central collection
accessible to all the members. Duplicate specimens not required
for this purpose are to be sold each year at one of the meetings
of the Society. The circular which has been issued suggests
that, by means of such a society, Belgium may be able to con-
tribute its share to the advancement of that branch of science for
which so much has been done by our own countrymen. We
need not say that we wish it every success.

We are glad to learn that Capt. Hoffmeyer, director of the
Royal Danish Meteorological Institute at Copenhagen, intends
to continue the publication of his daily Synoptic Meteorological
Charts for the third quarter, June to August 1874. The charts
are constructed from every available source for the region em-
braced, viz., from about lat. 30° to 70° N., and from long. 40° W.
to 40" E. of Paris, The cost of subscription in this country is
I2J. 6^. for the three months, but as only a limited number is
printed, application should be made at once to Mr. R. PI.
Scott, director of the Meteorological Office, 116, Victoria Street,
London, S.W.

We understand that Prof. Boyd Dawkins, of Owens College,
leaves this week for Sydney, vid the Suez Canal. After
conducting a geological exploration in Australia, he intends
returning by San Francisco, reaching England in October,
thus making the circuit of the world in about 120 days.

At its last sitting the Council of the Paris Observatory passed
resolutions relating to the observation of intra-Mercurial planets
and the determination of the velocity of light by the sateUites

ii6

NATURE

\yune lo, 1875

of Jupiter and by aberration. These last researches are intended
for the verification of the numbers obtained by the parallax of
the sun and by Cornu's direct experiments. A beginning will be
made as soon as the necessary funds have been granted by the
Ministry. The intra-Mercurial planets are to be observed photo-
graphically when crossing the disc of the sun. These researches
will be commenced as soon as the fitting up for photographic
purposes of the great Arago refracting telescope is finished.

It is expected that the French Academy of Sciences will hold
its annual meeting for distribution of prizes on the 21st inst.

M. Laboulaye, a Professor in the College of France and an
influential member of the French Assembly, read, at the sitting
of the latter on June 5, a report, drawn up by him] in the name
of a special commission, asking the establishment in France of
Free Universities. M. Wallon, the French Minister of Public
Instruction, is said to be greatly in favour of the scheme.

A STRANGE case of poisoning is reported from Stettin. A
gentleman had bought a hat in a shop there, and, after having
worn it for one or two days, was troubled with unbearable head-
ache ; at the same time little ulcers formed upon his forehead,
his eyes were inflamed, and the whole of the upper part of his
head was much swollen. It was evident that these symptoms were
caused by the hat, and upon examination by a chemist it was
found that the brown leather ia the inside of the hat was
coloured with a poisonous aniUne dye. It appears that inflam-
mation is unavoidable when this dye is in contact with any part
of the skin.

Dr. Oscar Fraas, director of the Natural History Museum
and Professor of Geology at Stuttgart, has arrived at Beyrut,
invited by Rustem Pasha ; he intends to study the Lebanon
geologically and miaeralogically, and to work out a geological
map of that range of mountains.

The great meeting of German ornithologists took place at
Brunswick on May 20-23. Brehm, Cabanis, Homeyer, Blasius,
Reichenow, Pralle, and many other members of the two ornitho-
logical societies, were present. The first meeting led to the
union of the two societies. It was resolved to request all the
members to report to a Committee from time to time all obser-
vations of interest to science, agriculture, or the economy of
forests, that they may make, on the life, manners, use, &c., of
German birds. The Committee is to publish the materials thus
obtained, after due consideration and sifting.

In a letter dated Constantinople, May 20, the Kdlnische
Zeitung gives some details on the earthquake which took place
on the west coast of Asia Minor. On the i rth of May, at 5 A. m. ,
a severe shock was felt at Smyrna which lasted several seconds.
Two other shocks followed the same morning, and although
many houses were shaken, yet none fell. It is thought that the
centre of the earthquake was in the Sporades Islands. Accord-
ing to other reports on the dreadful earthquake of the 3rd-5th of
May in the interior, the sources of the Maeander river were indi-
cated as the centre of the volcanic action. This point is situated
in the canton of Ishikli, to the south of Ushak and Afium Kara-
hissar. The destruction was fearful at Ishikli : about 1,000
houses were completely destroyed and several thousand people
killed ; only about twenty dwelling-houses and two mosques are
now standing. In the village of Yivril not one of 300 houses is
left, and about 450 dead have been extricated from the ruins.
Not far from there an immense chasm has formed in the ground,
from which is running a stream of hot water. The village of
Yaka is likewise annihilated. In other villages, as Savasli,
Karayapli, &c., the inhabitants escaped with a violent shock.

A Reuter's telegram, dated New York, June 7, states that
- an earthquake has occurred at the Loyalty Islands, a tidal wave
at the same time sweeping over three villages.

At a meeting of the Upper-Rhenish Geological Society, which
took place at Donaueschingen on] May 23, Dr. Knop, of the
Polytechnic Institution of Karlsruhe, read an interesting paper
on the phenomenon of disappearance of the waters of the
Danube, in some rugged piece of ground over which the river flows
near Immendingen. Dr. Knop has been ordered by the Baden
Government to investigate the matter scientifically. It is sup-
posed that the little river Aach, which flows into the Lake of
Constance, and thus into the Rhine, is the result of this pheno-
menon, as there can be no doubt that the volume of the Danube
is considerably diminished after having passed over the spot in
question. The present, i.e. tke visible source of the Aach, is
near the village of the same name, and the river flows from a
cavern of several hundred feet in circumference, from underneath
overhanging rocks, with great velocity and force ; it turns several
waterwheels close to its source. A chemical analysis of its water
is now being made, with a view of ascertaining whether the
water is of the same composition, i.e. contains the same impuri-
ties as that of the Danube.

Several writers in the Belgique Horiicole have given the
results of their experience in managing marine aquariums. A
certain Mr. Bauwens says that he has possessed a marine aqua-
rium now nearly ten years, and the sea-zvater has never been
renetved. All that he does is to add fresh water as the salt
water evaporates, the same degree of saltness being invari-
ably maintained. Various species of small seaweeds and several
molluscs thrive without further care, but some species of Actinia
raised in the same medium were starved to death when the
owner was absent from home for a considerable time. He made
it a practice to feed them with a little mould, worms, or even
raw meat.

The quality ot water in relation to its fauna and flora has
been the subject of investigation by some of the French Acade-
micians. In substance the results seem to prove that water in
which animals and plants of higher organisation will thrive is
fit to drink ; and, on the other hand, water in which only the
infusoria and lower cryptogams will grow is unhealthy. If the
water become stagnant and impure, aquatic plants of the higher
order will languish and disappear, and the half-suflbcated fish will
rise near the surface'and crowd together in parts where there may
still be a little of the purer element trickling in, and if driven
from these places they soon die. Physa fontinalis will only live
in very pure water ; Valvata piscinalis in clear water ; Limncca
ovata and stagnalis and Planorbis marginatiis in ordinary water ;
and, finally, Cyclas cornea and Bithynia impura in water of
middling quality — but no mollusc will live in corrupt water.
Plants also exercise a reactive influence on the quality of water.
The most delicate appears to be the common watercress, the
presence of which indicates excellent quality. Veronicas and
the floating water-weeds flourish only in water of good quality.
The water-plantain, mints, loosestrife, sedges, rushes, water-lilies,
and many others, grow perfectly well in water of moderately
good quality. Some of the sedges and the arrow-heads will thrive
in water of very poor quality. The most hardy or least exacting
in this respect is the common reed, or Phragmites communis.

Amongst the recent additions to the Southport Aquarium are
a Sturgeon, seven-and-a-half feet in length, captured at low tide
in the estuary of the Ribble, and a large specimen of the Wolf
Fish {Anarrhichas lupus), from Norway.

The foundation-stone of an aquarium was laid at Rothesay,
in the Island of Bute, on Saturday.

To-day, at the Mansion House, a public meeting will be held
in connection with the Cambridge University Extension Scheme;
the Lord Mayor will preside.

yune 10, 1875J

NATURE

117

In last week's jfournal of the Society of Arts will be found a
very interesting paper by Mr. P. F. Nursey, C.E., on Toughened
Glass.

The Conversazione of the Society of Arts will be held on the
25th inst. at South Kensington Museum.

Mr. Watts, who visited Iceland last year, and ascended
the Vatna Jbkel to a higher point than had previously been
reached by any traveller, sailed from Granton last week for
Reykjavik. He is to resume his travels in the interior of Iceland
duruig the present summer. There is still a large portion of the
island unexplored, and, as it is very mountainous and covered in
some places with perpetual snow, the work of exploration is
attended with great danger and difficulty. "With the assistance
of some of the Icelanders, however, it is hoped that this inhos-
pitable region may be crossed over and examined, so that its
topographical and mineralogical character may be determined
more exactly than has yet been done.

A LETTER from the Secretary of the Italian Society of
Sciences to the Paris Academy, states that the Italian savants
have agreed to support a proposition issued by the Royal Society
of Edinburgh, that the large tables of logarithms calculated by M.
Prouy should be published at the common expense of all nations
wishing to contribute to an enterprise of common interest
for mankind. These tables were calculated as far back
as the beginning of the present century, at the expense of the
French Government. The manuscript, which escaped the van-
dalism of the Communists, is safe in the Archives of the Aca-
demy, and cannot be published solely for want of funds.

Dr. Nachtigall, the African explorer, has received the
commands of the German Emperor to wait upon his Majesty at
Ems. The Berlin Geographical Society gave Dr. Nachtigall an
enthusiastic reception on the 2nd inst,, at which the eminent
traveller briefly sketched his six years' work in North Africa.
The reception was followed by a banquet in the Zoological
Gardens, at which Dr. Nachtigall received an autograph letter
from the Emperor conferring upon him the Order of the Royal
Crown. On Tuesday last the traveller was received in audience
by the Imperial Crown Prince at the new Palace at Potsdam.

Preparations are being made for the erection of a handsome
new museum in Dunedin, New Zealand.

The boys and girls who assembled in the theatre of
London University on Monday for the distribution of prizes and
certificates gained in the Cambridge University local examina-
tions were particularly fortunate in having as chairman Sir W.
V. Harcourt. The address he gave was unusually pointed and
irooressive ; the criticism he made on the results of these exami-
nations, and the wholesome truths he uttered on what education
really means, must have had an excellent effect on many of
those who heard them, both old and young. "The object of
education," the chairman reminded his hearers, "was not the
immediate knowledge which it gave them, but it was the instru-
ment by which they might learn hereafter. " When parents and
teachers are universally impressed with this great truth, we may
expect to see something like a revolution take place in our edu-
cational systems. These local examinations have one excellent
result in bringing out the directions in which particular classes
of pupils are apt to fail, and ought to be of great service to
teachers who aim at makimg a science of their profession.

Owens College, Manchester, has received the first instal-
ment, 57,000 dols., of a legacy left to it by Mr. Charles Clifton,
an American engineer, a native of Yorkshire. A considerable
additional balance is expected to be handed over presently.

The Pandora, three-masted schooner, originally a despatch
vessel belonging to the Government, and which was purchased a
few months ago from the Admiralty for private Arctic explora-

tion, is now lying in the inner dock at Southampton, after
having undergone a thorough overhaul and refit. The Pandora
has been specially adapted for an Arctic cruise. She will leave
England about the i8th inst., and, as Lady Franklin is under-
stood to be largely interested in her equipment, the Pandora
will probably follow in the footsteps of M'Clintock in search of
further remains of Sir John Franklin. The vessel is propelled
by a feathering screw, is of 439 tons burden, and a quick
sailer. The Pandora will be commanded by Mr. Allen Young,
who has already seen much Arctic service, and Lieut. Lillingston,
R.N.

Just before the leaving of the Arctic Expedition a deputation
from the Bremen North Pole Society visited Portsmouth with a
view to consulting Capt. Nares regarding co-operation between
the English Expedition and a German Expedition which may
possibly be sent out next year.

The first Annual Report of the Yorkshire College of Science
at Leeds is as satisfactory as could be expected. The College
was opened in the end of last October with three professors—
A. W. Rucker, Mathematics and Physics ; Dr. T. E, Thorpe,
Chemistry ; and A. H. Green, Geology and Mining. Though
the number of day-students has been small, the professors report
in satisfactory terms of the progress that has been made. In
addition to the day lectures, short courses of evening lectures
have been given, which have been most successful. At the
request of the Wakefield branch of the Ladies' Council of the
Yorkshire Board of Education, arrangements were made for
the delivery at Wakefield of a course of lectures, by Prof. Green,
on the Geology of the West Riding ; the lectures were in every
way a success, and this field of operations is hkely to be deve-
loped. The Clothworkers' Company had endowed a Chair ot
Textile Industries; the professor, Mr. W. Walker, commenced
his lectures to a good class, but for some reason resigned his
chair in January. On the whole, this Report is an encouraging
one, and if the friends of the scheme only persevere and see that
the College is founded on a sufficiently broad basis, we have no
doubt of its ultimate complete success.

The following statistics have been published by the French
Minister for Public Instruction : — Thirty per cent, of the popula-
tion cannot read or write, but the proportion is smaller amongst
the males, as the conscription lists give only nineteen per cent,
at nineteen years of age. There are thirteen scholars for every
100 inhabitants, and one school for every 500, or 70,000 schools
for the whole of France. The expenses of primary education
are 70,000,000 fr. — about 40/. per school, or about ij'. 8(/. per
head of inhabitants, or \2s. per pupil.

We regret to learn from the Geographical Magazine that
through the omission of the French Commissioners to ask the
German Government to appoint a Commissioner to the
forthcoming Geographical Exhibition at Paris, it is not likely
to be very complete so far as maps are concerned. The absence
of the great German map -publishing firms would be matter for
regret.

The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during
the past week include a Brown Capuchin {Cebtis faiuellus) from
Guiana, presented by Mr. Charles Wilson ; a Kuhl's Deer
{Cerzius Kuhlii) from the Bavian Islands, two Victoria
Crowned Pigeons {Goura Victorice) from the Island of Jobie,
two Bornean Fireback Pheasants {Euplocamus nobilis) from
Borneo, two Great Black Cockatoos {Microglossa aterrima) from
New Guinea, a Derbian Screamer {Chauna derbiana) from S.
America, purchased ; a Chimpanzee ( Troglodytes nigef) from
W. Africa, six Argus Pheasants {Argus giganteus) from Malacca,
deposited ; four Peacock Pheasants {Polyplectron chinquis),
an Eland {Oreas canna), and a Virginian Deer {Cervusvir*
ginianus) born in the Gardens,

ii8

NATURE

\yune lo, 1875

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Poggendorf s Annalen der Physik und Chemie, Nos. 3 and 4,
1875. — These parts contain the following papers :— Remarks on
electro-dynamics, by F. Zoellner. These refer to Ampere's law
and Helmholtz's potential law. — On the proportion of temporary
magnetism to the magnetising force and its relation to the reci-
procal action of the metallic particles, by E. Boernstein. — Re-
marks on the paper of Dr. Streintz, on the torsion oscillations of
wires, by O. E. Meyer. — On the conducting resistance at the
points where metallic conductors touch, by F. C. G. Miiller. —
On the specific heats of the elements carbon, boron, and silicon,
by Dr. H. F. Weber ; this is the first paper on the subject, and
treats on the dependence on temperature of the specific heats
of the isolated elements in question. — On the path of the rays
of light in a spectroscope, by Dr. J . L. Hoorweg. — On elec-
trodes which cannot be polarised, by A. Oberbeck. — On the
conduction of electricity in electrolytes, by W. Beetz. — Supple-
ment to K. L. Bauer's paper (vol. 153, p. 572, of these Annals)
on the apparent position of a point of light situated in a denser
medium, by the author. — General theorems on the images of
spheric mirrors and lenses, by the same. — On the theory of the
process of assimilation in the vegetable kingdom, by E. von
Benkovich. — On a simple method of finding the poles of a rod
magnet, by F. C. G. Miiller. — On the determination of the
velocity of light' and the parallax of the sun, by A. Cornu.
This paper is taken from the Comptes Rendus. — On the unipolar
conduction of electricity through layers of gases of different
conducting capacity, by C. Braun. — New researches on the
currents in electric machines, by F. Rosette. — Some remarks on
Helmholtz's theory of vowels, by E. van Qvanten. — On the
theory of anomalous dispersion, by H. Helmholtz.— On an
electric fall machine, by H. Waldner. — On the experimental
determination of diamagnetism by its action of induction, by A.
Toepler. — On an optical method of studying the oscillation of
solids, by O. N. Rood. — On a new kind of variation sounds, by
V. Dvorak. — On the spectrum of the zodiacal light, by Arthur
W. Wright (from the American Journal of Science). — Some re-
marks on Thomson's electrometer, by K. A. Holmgren. —
Electroscopic note by the editor.

Geographical Magazine, May. — A long and interesting article
on the late Admiral Sherard Osborn is the first and chief
article in this number, and is followed by one on the Arctic
Expedition. Other articles are on "The Salt-farms of the
Ivoire," by Horace St. John ; an interesting account of the town
of Kulja, in Russian Turkestan, by A. Vambery ; on the Khivan
Mission to India in 1871, by Robert Michell ; a short article on
Dr. Nachtigall's travels in Africa, with a well-constructed map ;
besides reviews, reports of societies, &c.

Zeitschrift der Oesterreichischen Gesellschaft fiir Meteorologie,
April I. — In continuation of his article in the last number. Dr.
Hann proceeds to calculate from the formula (I. ) the gradients
of two storms, one of which was violent at Vienna on January 27,
1874, and the other a tropical hurricane which passed over the
island of St. Thomas on August 21, 1871. In the first case
t\B, expressed in millimetres per 50 miles, amounts to 3-125, of
which 27 is due to the rotation of the earth, and "4 to centrifugal
force. In the second, the earth's rotation causes a difference of
I "25, and centrifugal force of 8*87, the whole Aj5 being 10 "12.
A difference of pressure amounting to 9 "02 at a distance irom the
centre of 57 miles, is caused in this case by a velocity of 30 metres
per second. Thus, in storms of small diameter, the effect of
centrifugal force greatly exceeds, and in our cyclones falls far
short of, that of the rotation of the earth. If the air streams
towards or (in lofty regions) from the centre, another factor
must be introduced into equation (I. ) representing resistance to
movement. Now, in spiral gyration, the full centrifugal force is
not exerted, and we may divide the real velocity into two compo-
nents, one in the direction of the tangent, and the other at right
angles to it. Calling the angle between the direction of move-
ment and the tangent i, the first component will be represented
by V cos i, and on this depends the centrifugal force. Finally,
we have, according to Ferrel, for a spiral storm the equation —

/ B {2n sin <^ + u)v
- J,

(XL) aB =

287-4 J cost

1 ' V cos i ,

where u = — -- where r = distance from axis of rotation.

Dr. Hann remarks that that portion of the gradient derived from
2« sin ^ V is really independent of the value of i, but according
to the formula it increases with the increase of /, and this must

be an error. Besides, the second factor, representing centrifugal
force, on analysis appears to be independent of i, and so we get
too large a quantity for the gradient. With respect to the velocity
of the wind, we see that the rate cannot be proportional to A B
alone in all parts of the cyclone in the same latitude ; and further,
that in different latitudes the value of v for the same gradient is
nearly inversely proportional to the sine of the latitude. On the
subject of tornadoes. Dr. Hann says that if the earth were not
rotating, the tendency of the air to restore equilibrium would
prevent any greater disturbances than those which are now
observed at the equator. Water before at perfect rest, when an
orifice is made in the containing vessel, flows through without pro-
ducing circulation, but the least original movement causes rapid
rotation. In tornados the influence of the rotation of the earth
is small in comparison with that of the original condition of the
atmosphere. Hence the variable direction of rotation. Large
cyclones are not found near the equator. Tornadoes, having no
constant force acting to maintain them, must soon be spent.
The direction of progression of cyclones can be explained by
the inequality of centrifugal force on their north and south
sides. On the north side, that part of the gradient depending on
2« sin ([> is greater than on the south side ; the cyclone ac-
cordingly moves in the direction of least pressure, viz., towards
higher latitudes.

I?er Zoologishe Garten. — In the number for March, J. von
Fischer remarks on the habits in captivity of the common and
Mozambique Ichneumons (/i'^r/if^/^j' ichneutnon and H. ornatus);
the former is more diurnal and arborial in its manner of life, and
is much more playful and tameable than the latter. — A. Petry
gives an account of a viper {Belias berus) which gave birth in
solitary confinement to one young one, and fifteen weeks later to
three more. — E. Buck remarks on the life of various species of
Acineta in the aquarium, and Herr Director Rueff on the history
of zoological gardens. — A curious instance of the attachment of
the cuckoo {Cuculus canoms) to its egg is recorded on the autho-
rity of Herr Forster Amort by Victor Ritter von Tschusi-
Smidhofen, and Herr von Bothmer gives an interesting account
of two tame otters [Lutra vulgaris).

yahrbuch der Kais-Kon. geologischen Reichs-Anstalt. No. 3,
band xxiv., 1874. Hierzu : T>x. G. Tschermak, Mineralo-
gische Mittheilungen, band iv., heft 3. — The first paper in
this number of the Jahrbuch is one by Ludw. v. Vuko-
tinovic, on the tertiary strata in the neighbourhood of Agram
(Croatia). These are divided into two groups, the loiver,
consisting of limestone (nuUipore in part), with which is
associated sandstone, sometimes fine-grained, sometimes coarse,
and pale grey sandy marls ; the upper (brackish group) being
composed of grey and yellowish brown sandstone, yellow o
white sand, and gravel and shingle. In general, a striking'^
resemblance can be traced between these Agram tertiary deposits
and the strata of the so-called Vienna basin. This holds good
with at least the Upper Tertiary or Miocene ; but as regards the
brackish water group, some difference obtains. But this the
author believes is only what might have been expected when
consideration is had to the varying local conditions under which
the deposits must have been accumulated. An account of the
brown coal of Croatia and Slavonia is furnished by C. M. Paul.
He tells us that brown coal occurs at five different geological
horizons in the Tertiary strata of those districts. According to
the index, we should have a paper by Dr. O. Lenz, on the
ancient glacier of the Rhine, but it does not appear in this
number. — Among the Mincralogische Mittheilungen we note
specially two papers : Petrographical observations on the
west coast of Spitzbergen, by Dr. R. v. Drasche ; and on
some trachytes of the Tokay-Eperieser Mountains, by Dr. C.
Dolter, The rocks this author describes are augite andesite
(augite andesite lava), amphibole-andesite, quartziferous augite
andesite, rhyolite (quartziferous sanidine trachyte), and sani-
dine trachyte lava ; analyses of a number of these rocks are
given. There is also an interesting preliminary notice of a new
circular-polarising substance, by Dr. C. Hintze.

All^emeine Schweizerische Gesellschaft fiir die gesammten
Naturwissenschaften.—Tiie. publication of this society, vol.
xxvi (1874), contains only one, but a very elaborate treatise,
with two plates, on the ants of Switzerland. It gives their
classification, their habits, anotomical and physiological notes
regarding them, and remarks on their geographical distribution,
together with many new observations regarding their mode -of
life, &c. The author is Dr. Auguste Torel. The treatise occu-
pies no less than 480 quarto pages, and is written in French,

Jtme lo, 1 8 75 J

NATURE

il9

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
London
Chemical Society, June 3.— Prof. Abel, F.R.S., &c., in
the chair.— The following papers were read :— On the effects ot
pressure and cold upon the gaseous products of the distillation
of carbonaceous shales, by Mr. J. T. Coleman. He finds that
I oco cubic feet of the gas produced in such large quantities at
shale oil works when submitted to pressure will give about one
gallon of volatile hydrocarbons fit for improving the illuminating
power of ordinary coal-gas.— On the agricultural chemistry of the
tea plantations of India, by Dr. C. Brown, giving analyses of
the ashes of tea and the effect of fertilisers on the growth of
the plant— On the structure and composition of certain pseudo-
morphic crvstals having the form of orthoclase, by Mr. J. A.

rhiliips. Note on the sulphates of narceine and other narceine

derivatives, and On the action of organic acids and their anhy-
drides on the natural alkaloids, Part V., both by Mr. G. 11.
Beckett and Dr. C. R. A. Wright.— On the action of chlorine
on pyrogallol, by Dr. J. Stenhouse and Mr. C. E. Groves ; with
an appendix by Mr. Lewis, on the crystalline forms of maito-
oallol, one of the products.— On nitro-alizarin, by Mr. W. H.
Perkin, F.R.S. This compound, obtained by the action of nitric
acid o'n acetyl-alizarin, dyes fabrics mordanted with alumina
of an orange colour, whilst the amido-alizarin obtained from it
by reduction gives a fine purple. — On some metallic derivatives
of coumarin, by Mr. R. Williamson.— On the action of dilute
mineral acids on bleaching powder, by F. Kopfer.

Geological Society, May 26.— Mr. John Evans, V.P.R.S.,
president, in the chair.— The following communications were

read : On some peculiarities in the microscopic structure of

felspars, by Mr. Frank Rutley. The observations recorded in
this paper related mainly to some exceptional features in the
striation of felspars from various localities, involving a considera-
tion of the extent to which dependence may be placed on the
discrimination of monoclinic and triclinic felspars by the methods
usually recognised in ordinary microscopic research. Some other
peculiar structural features were likewise noticed, and the effects
which might be produced on polarised light by the overiap of
twin lamellee in thin sections of felspars, when cut obliquely to
the planes of twinning, were also considered. The paper termi-
nated with a list of conclusions deduced from the observations
recorded. These conclusions mostly related to matters of detail ;
but the general inference drawn by the author was that the pre-
sent method of discriminating between monoclinic and tnclinic
felspars by ordinary microscopic examination answers sufficiently
well for general purposes, ahhough it is often inadequate for the
determination of doubtful examples, and that such examples are
of more frequent occurrence than one would at first be led to
suspect.— On the Lias about Radstock, by Mr. Ralph Tate,
A.L. S. In this paper the author described several sections m
the Lias of the neighbourhood of Radstock, in Somersetshire,
with special reference to their palseontological contents and to
the question of the division of the Lias into zones in accord-
ance with the species d Ammonites occurring in different parts
of the series. He maintained that although the Lower Lias in
this district only attains a thickness of twenty-four feet, this is
due to poverty of sediment ; and that whilst by this means the
zones are compressed, and the species of Ammonites brought
almost into juxtaposition, the succession of Ammonite-life is as
regular in the Radstock Lias as in the most typical districts.
Much of the opposition to the doctrine of zoological zones he
ascribed to erroneous discrimination of species. The paper
included tables of sections and lists of fossils, with the argu-
ments founded upon them, in support of the above opinion. A
few new species were described under the names of Trochus soli-
tarius, Cryptana affinis, Cardita consintilis, and Cardinia
ruotdosa.—On the axis of a Dinosaur from the Wealden of
Brook, in the Isle of Wight ; probably referable to Iguanodon,
by Prof. H. G. Seeley, F.L.S. This perfect specimen, preserved
in the Woodwardian Museum of the University of Cambridge,
is 3^ inches long and 3J inches high. The odontoid process is
anchylosed to the axis, and projects forward as in the axis of
birds, so as to articulate with the occipital condyle of the skull.
The pre- and postzygapophyses are situated much as in birds ;
as are the two ovate pedicles, on the anterior part of the side of
the vertebra to which the cervical rib was articulated. But pos-
teriorly the articular surface for the third cervical vertebra is
transversely ovate and slightly concave. The neural spine is com-
pressed from side to side, more so in front than behind. Among

mammals, the nearest resemblance to lliis kind of ax's is reen
similarly in the whale ; and among reptiles the crocodile has a
two-headed rib ; but the other characters are more like those of
Hatteria, which the author regarded as a near ally of the Croco-
dilia and Chelonia, and as wrongly united with the Lacertilia. —
On an Ornithosaurian from the Purbeck Limestone of Langton,
near Swanage {Doratorkynchus validiis), by Prof. H. G. Seeley,
F.L.S. The author obtained these specimens (a lower jaw and
a vertebra) in 1868, and described them in the "Index to the
Secondary Reptilia, &c., in the Woodwardian Museum in 1869 as
Ptei'odaclylus macrnrtis. He now believed that the Ornitho-
saurian vertebrae from the Cambridge Greensand, which have
been regarded as caudal, are really cervical, and therefore that
the analogy on which this vertebra was determined to be caudal
cannot be sustained ; he proposed to adopt for his species Prof.
Owen's specific name validiis, given in 1870 to a phalange of the
wing finger from the same deposit The vertebra is five inches
long, relatively less expanded at the ends than similar vertebrne
from the Cambridge Greensand, has strong zygapophysial pro-
cesses and a minute pneumatic foramen. The lower jaw, as pre-
served, is \2\ inches long. The symphysis extends for five
inches, and is about one-eighth of an inch deep, and divided
into two parts by a deep median groove. Tlie teeth extended
for eight inches along the jaw, and about seven or eight occurred
in the space of an inch. They were directed outwatd in front,
and became vertical behind. Where the rami arc fractured
behind they measure 2^ inches from side to side.

Zoological Society, June i.— Dr. Giinther, F.R.S., V.P.,
in the chair.— Mr. Sclater made some remarks on the most
noticeable of the animals seen by him during a recent visit to the
Zoological Gardens of Rotterdam, the Hague, Amsterdam,
Antwerp, and Ghent.— Mr. Sclater exhibited the typical specimen
of his Ctntropsar mirus (P.Z.S. 1874, p. 175. I'l- xxvi.), and
stated that on a more careful examination of it he had come to
the conclusion that it was a made-up skin.— Mr. Edwin Ward
exhibited the two lower canine teeth of a Hippopotamus from
St. Lucia Bay, S. Africa, obtained by the Hon. C. Ellis, and
supposed to be the largest ever obtained. They measured from
end to end round the outer curve thirty inches.— Mr. G. E.
Dobson read a paper on the genus of Insectivorous Bats named
Chalinolobus, by Dr. Peters, and gave the descriptions of several
new or little known species of this group, which he proposed to
divide into two sections, Chalinolobus and Glauconycterts.—K
communication was read from Mr. Henry Adams, wherein he
gave the descriptions of two new land shells. These were pro-
posed to be named respectively Eurycratera farafanga, found
on a sandy plain in the S.W. of Madagascar, near the Farafanga
River, and Pupinopsis angasi, from the Louisiade Archipelago,
in the S.E. of New Guinea.— Mr. G. French Angas communi-
cated the descriptions of three new species of shells from Aus-
tralia, proposed to be called Helix forrestiana, II. broug/iami, and
Euryta brazieri.— Mr. A. G. Butler read a paper describing
several new species of Indian Heterocerous Lepidoptera. — A
communication was read from Rev. O. Pickard-Cambridge on
some new species of spiders of the genus Erigone from North
America. — Mr. Herbert Druce communicated a list of the col-
lection of Diurnal Lepidoptera made by Mr. J. J. Monteiro in
Angola, with descriptions of some new species.— Mr. P. L.
Sclater read a paper on several rare or little known mammals
now or lately living in the Society's collection, amongst which
was specially noticed an apparently new species of Muntjac, pro-
posed to be called Cervulus micrurus.—h communication was
read from Mr. E. L. Layard, containing notes on the birds observed
by him in the Fiji Islands.— Lieut.-Col. R. H. Beddome read a
paper in which he gave the descriptions of some new opercu-
lated land shells from Southern India and Ceylon. The dis-
coveries of true Diploviaiitta in Southern India and of Nicida
in Ceylon were alluded to as being of special interest.— -Sir
Victor Brooke, Bart., read some supplementary notes on African
Buffaloes, in the course of which he stated that he had come to
the conclusion that the West African Buffalo {Bos pumtlus) was
distinct from the East African form {Bos ,rqmnociialis).—UT. C.
G. Danford exhibited specimens of the Wild Goat {Capro aega-
orus, Gm.), from Asia Minor, and read some notes on the distri.
bution, habits, &c, of that species.

Royal Microscopical Society, June 2. — Mr. Charles
Brooke, F.R.S., vice-president, in the chair.— Mr. J, W.
Stephenson exhibited and explained a simple method which he
had devised for enabling any person to measure the angle of
aperture of an objectiy, and a number of copies of the engraved

I20

NATURE

\yune 10, 1875

scale employed for the purpose were placed upon the table for
distribution amongst the Fellows, —Mr, Charles Stewart gave an
interesting account of the results of an examination into the
minute structure of Bucephalus polymorphns, and illustrated his
observations by drawings, — Mr. Slack then at some length
explained the use and management of Mr. Wenham's reflex
illuminator, and pointed out the means of obviating the diffi-
culties which were found to arise when it was used in connection
with objectives of large angles.

Victoria (Philosophical) Institute, June 7. — The Pre-
sident in the chair. This was the ninth annual meeting,
and the report showed that since last year the number of
subscribing members had increased by 1 1 6, and now reached
601, two-thirds of whom were country and foreign members.
Papers had been read during the session by Professors H. A.
Nicholson, T. R. Birks, J. Challis, and others ; and the out-
side demand for the publications had doubled each succeed-
ing year since 1871. The report having ibeen adopted, the
annual address was then delivered by the Rev. Robert Main.
Radcliffe Observer. The address was of three sections : — I. A
sketch of most important discoveries in physics, chiefly astro-
nomical, which have been made during the last few years. 2.
A slight review of some of the assumptions in two recent publi-
cations, namely, Mill's " Essay on Theism," and Strauss's
"Old and New Faith." 3. A consideration of the Atomic
Philosophy in connection with Dr. Tyndall's Belfast address.

Berlin
German Chemical Society, May 24. — W. Petrieff described
the products of the decomposition by heat of dibromomalonic acid,
namely an oil, CgHBr^, and dibromacetic acid. — W. Wisth and
A. Landolt have transformed bromanilme into parabromoben-
zoic acid, by converting it into the corresponding mustard oil
CgH4Br — N = C = S, and transforming this into the nitrale
CeH4Br — CsN. — A. Weber has studied mononitrodimethylani-
line and monobromodimethylaniline. — M. Nencky has trans-
formed indol into nitrosoindol-nitrate

Ci6Hj3{NO)N2.N03H,
which sulphide ammonium converts into hydrazindol

(CieH,3N-NH)2
— H. Limpricht retracts his opinion of the existence of four
isomeric monobromobenzenesulphonic acids, the fourth being
identical with that obtained from sulphanilic acid. — F. Fittica,
however, still insists upon the existence of four mononitrc-
benzoic acids, but makes it more improbable than ever by stating
that the fourth isomeride is transformed by tin and hydro-
chloric acid into the body CJ2HJ2N2O ! — H. Hassenpflug has
been able to convert nitrobenzene into paranitrobenzoic acid,
by treating it with peroxide of manganese and sulphuric acid. —
L. Klippert has studied the action of fluoride of silicium on
ethylate of sodium. It results in the formation of sodium fluoride,
silicium fluoride, and silicic ether.

Vienna
Imperial Academy of Sciences, Jan. 7.— Prof. K. Puschl
presented a memoir on the changes in the volume of caoutchouc
by heat. The author gives as the results of his experiments,
(i) that the density of caoutchouc reaches a minimum at a cer-
tain temperature ; {2) that the temperature of this minimum
changes according to the mechanical tension, and is the lower
the greater the tension ; (3) that with caoutchouc upon which
no tension is applied, the temperature of the minimum of den-
sity is higher than the ordinary temperature ; {4) that the reverse
of this is the case with caoutchouc under strong tension. — Director
von Littrowthen made some communications regarding Borrelly's
comet.— Prof. E. Suess presented a paper on the volcano Venda,
near Padua. — Prof. Dr. Winckler then read a treatise on the
integration of two linear differential equations. — Dr. Doelter
gave a preliminary account of the geological nature of the Pon-
tinic islands. — Dr. von Littrow communicated a paper on the
relative capacity of different soils for conducting heat and the
corresponding influence of water. — Dr. Lippmann presented a
memoir on the action of iodine upon mercuric oxide. The author
shows that whenever a hot solution of iodine acts upon mercuric
oxide, an iodate always is formed besides the mercuric iodide,
and that it is indifferent whether the solution be made in alco-
-hoi, benzme, chloride of carbon, butylic alcohol, acetone, or
water.— Prof. Schlesinger then presented a memoir on a metallic
barometer without mercury.

Paris
Academy of Sciences, May 31. — M. Fremy in the chair. —
The following papers were read : — Researches on sulphides, by
M. A. Cahours. — A note by M. L. Saltel, on left curves. —
On the alterations in the level of the Seine in the environs of
Paris, from November 1874 to May 1875, t)y M, A. Gerardin, —
On a new method of preparing highly concentrated formic acid,
by means of anhydrous oxalic acid and a polyatomic alcohol, by
M. Lorin, — A note by M. J. Riban, on the isomerism of the
chlorohydrates CjoHjg . HCl. — Researches by M. E. Faivre, on
the functions of the front ganglion of Dytiscus marqinalis. — On
the organisation and the natural classification of the Acarina of
the Gamasea family, by M. Megnin. — Experimental researches
on the toxical properties of putrefied blood, by M. V. Feltz. —
On chronical aortite, by M. P. Jousset.— On a new method of
treating rheumatism of the brain by chloral hydrate, by M, E,
Bouchut. — On the improbability of an interior sea or lake having
existed formerly on the Sahara desert, by M, Pomel. — On the
influence of drought upon Cryptogamoe, by M. E. Robert. — On
the origin of Phylloxera at Cognac, by M, Mouillefert. — A note
by MM. Ph. Zoeller and A. Crete, on the use of xanthate of
potash against Phylloxera. — A note by M. Julien, on the pre-
sence of Phylloxera in the Auvergne. — A letter from M. Ville-
dieu, on the influence of moisture upon Phylloxera. — A letter
from M. Reymonct, on the possibility of grafting vines on little
trees the roots of which cannot serve as food for Phylloxera. — A
letter from M. F. Moll, on the use of a mixture of soft soap and
dead oil (as used for railway sleepers) against the larvte of cock-
chafers and snails. — A number of communications of minor
interest were then read ; most of them were competition papers
for the various prizes the Academy distributes annually. — Re-
searches on the rate of magnetisation and demagnetisation of
wrought-iron, steel and cast-iron, by M. M. Deprez. — A note
by MM. V, de Luynes and A. Girard, on the rotatory power of
crystallised sugar and on the polarimetric analysis of various
sugars, — Researches on the emissive power of leaves, by M.
Maquenne. — Remarks by M, A, Bechamp, concerning a note by
M, Gayon, read at the meeting of April 19 last, on the spon-
taneous alterations in eggs,— A note by M, A, Gautier, on the
production of blood fibrine, — A note by M. Grimaud de Caux,
on a case of psoitis.

BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

American. — Report of the Vertebrate Fossils discovered in New Mexico :
Prof. E. D. Cope (WashiDgton).— Eighth Annual Report of the Trustees of
the Peabody Museum. — Astronomical and Meteorological Observations
made during the Year 1872 at the United States Naval Observatory : Rear-
Admiral B. F. Sands, U.S.N. (Washington).— Progress Report upon Geo-
graphical and Geological Explorations and Surveys West of the looth
Meridian in 1872, under the direction of Brigadier-General A. A. Humphreys,
by First Lieut. George M Wheeler ; with Topographical Maps (Washing-
ton).—Religion and Science in their relation to Philosophy : Charles W.
Shields, D.D. (New York : Scribner, Armstrong, and Co.). — Seventh Annual
Report on the Noxious, Beneficial, and other Insects of the State of Mis-
souri : Charles V. Riley.— Bulletin of the U.S. Geological and Geographical
Survey of the Territories. No. 3, Second Series (Washington).— U.S.
Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territory of Colorado : F. V.
Hayden (Washington). — Third Annual Report of the Board of Managers
of the Zoological Society of Philadelphia, U.S.— On the Devonian Trilobites
and Molluscs of Erer6, Province of Para, Brazil : Prof. Ch. Fred. Hartt and
R. Rathbun.

CONTENTS Pack

The Meteorological Office loi

Arctic Geography and Ethnology ; , , . . 103

Vogel's "Light AND Photography" 105

OuK Book Shelf: —

Rowley's "Ornithological Miscellany" 106

Trumbull's " American Indian Numerals " 106

Letters to the Editor : —

British Rainfall, 1874.— G. J- Symons, F.M.S 106

Equilibrium ot Temperature in a Vertical Column of Gas.— S. H.

BURBURY jQ.

Primine and Secundine.— Prof. W. T. Thiselton Dyer," F.L.'s. ! 107

American Indian Weapons.— Otis T. Mason {IVtth Illustrations) 107

Primroses and Cowslips.— Rev. D. Edwardes . 108

The Visitations OF Greenwich AND Edinburgh Observatories . 108

The Progress of the Telegraph, VII. {ikith Illustrations) ... 110

Our Astronomical Column :—

The Total Solar Eclipse of 1886, Aue. 20 . . . n.

The Sun's Parallax .............. \ \ . ^^J,

The Minor Planets .',,*!.' 113

Lectures at the Zoological Gardens, VI.: Mr. Flower on Ele-
phants jj.

Science in Germany '..*.',.,'!"' m;

WOTKS ! ! ! IIS

Scientific Serials ng

Societies AND Academies ! ! . ! iig

Books AND Pamphlets Received 120

NATURE

121

THURSDAY, JUNE 17, 1875

CROLLS ''CLIMATE AND TIME"

Climate and Time in their Geological Relations j a theory
of Secular Chanties of the Earth^s Climate. By James
Croll, of H.M. Geological Survey of Scotland. (London :
Daldy, Isbister, and Co., 1875.)

MR. CROLL is well known as an original thinker of
considerable power, who has turned his attention
to the physics of geology, and has produced a series of
remarkable papers on questions of the highest interest in
that subject. His views are opposed in many respects to
those accepted by other influential thinkers, and have given
rise to a considerable amount of controversy. Hitherto
they have been scattered in papers to various periodicals,
and it has been difficult to obtain a consecutive view of
them. The work which is now issued, while not an
actual reprint of previous papers, is a complete exposi-
tion of their contents, or at least of that part of their
contents that Mr. Croll is prepared to stand by, some of
the arguments that occur in his papers being omitted in
his book. We are now therefore able to judge fairly what
truth there is in Mr. CroU's ideas, and to compare them
with those of his opponents. Even were all his ideas un-
tenable, we should still have to thank him for his
vigorous discussion of these interesting questions, but
there can be no doubt that in many instances he proves
his point.

Mr. Croll does not possess the happy faculty which
some authors have of carrying his readers with him : on
the contrary, his style is so controversial, that to agree
with him is to have the feeling of being vanquished,
and the reader is throughout set on his metal to find
out some flaw in the argument. This, as in most cases
of controversy, it would not be difficult to do ; but we
must confine ourselves to the discussion of his main
results.

One peculiarity of Mr. Croll's arguments must here be
noticed. After having assumed certain figures and
arrived by their means at definite results, he proceeds to
show that these figures are unreliable, and then to state
that their unreliableness will not affect his results ; or else,
in order to bring his results more into accordance with
received opinions and probable facts, he generously halves
them or diminishes them still more, apparently unaware
that had his arguments been correct and his first results
the true ones, he would have proved too much and
refuted himself. Examples of this peculiarity will be
seen in the sequel.

The first question discussed is the heating influence of
the Gulf Stream. To estimate this Mr. Croll uses the
method of heat units, and prides himself on doing so.
The method is an undeniable one, and is perhaps the
only one by which the influence of the high specific heat
of water can be made manifest. Mr. Croll compares the
number of foot-pounds conveyed by the Gulf Stream into
temperate regions with the number due to the heat of the
sun shining directly on those regions. The relative value
of these depends on the absolute value of each. The
volume, velocity, and temperature of the Gulf Stream
have been very variously estimated ; and as to the sun's
Vol. xii.— No. 294

heat, when we remember how much the diathermancy of
the air depends on its condition, we may not be able to
accept with such confidence as Mr. Croll, the estimates
of Pouillet ; yet with every possible allowance, when the
influence of a vast body of heated water is calculated, it
will undoubtedly be much greater than would have been
previously supposed, and actually amounts to a very con-
siderable fraction, say f\ of the whole of the sun's direct
heat on the North Atlantic. Dr. Carpenter* brings
objections against this method which render, in his
opinion, the " figures " " utterly valueless." The first of
these is that Mr. Croll does not give a correct account of
the diff"erence in temperature between the northern and
southern hemispheres in assigning it to the transport of
heated water by ocean currents ; but it is obvious that
the question as to where the Gulf Stream obtains its heat
is entirely distinct from that as to its actual amount.
The second objection, that since the temperature of the
ocean is seldom more than 82° — 86'', while the " direct
heat of radiation" may amount to 215°; and therefore
that " the heat lost by evaporation from the sea must be
far greater than that lost by radiation from the land," is
just one that shows the value of Mr. CroU's method. For,
when treated in this way, the above figures show that the
sea contains more heat units in its heated surface stratum
than the layer of land that is influenced by the variations
of surface- temperature, and that therefore the water at
the equator is, as Mr. Croll states, the best adapted for
retaining the heat of the sun, which is in reality no more
than an elementary result of its high specific heat. Mr.
Croll considers that the influence of the Gulf Stream is
indirect, being manifested by the warming of the S.W.
winds ; and to the extent that he proves that the Gulf
Stream raises the general temperature of the Atlantic he
cannot be wrong. Were he to confine himself to the
statement that the Gulf Stream and other ocean currents
have a very sensible influence on the climate of the tem-
perate regions, his position would appear to be impreg-
nable against any who should represent its thermal effect
" as very insignificant ; " but when he adds that " ocean
currents are the great agents employed " (to the exclusion
of others) " in the distribution of heat over the globe," and
estimates that the Gulf Stream alone raises the mean tem-
perature of London 40'', he stands upon less certain ground.
For these results depend on the following arguments : —
(i) There is no ocean circulation but that by sensible
currents ; (2) The internal heat of the earth has no
influence on climate ; (3) The temperature of space is
- 239° F. ; and (4), the Gulf Stream supplies \ as much
heat to the Atlantic as the direct rays of the sun. Of
these arguments we will below discuss the first at length.
The second is founded on a statement of Sir Wm.
Thomson's, that an increase of temperature as great as
2° F. per foot in descending into the earth would not have
an influence of more than 1° on the climate of the surface.
This, however, means 1° over the present mean tempera-
ture, and in no way disproves that the internal heat of the
earth does nothing in raising the temperature of its sur-
face over that of space, an effect which it most certainly
would have in a large degree. The third argument, as to
the temperature of space, is therefore nothing to the
point, and is moreover, as Mr. Croll himself admits,

» Proceedings of the Ryal Society, June 13, 1872.

H

NATURE

\yune 17, 1875

totally unreliable. We do not know the temperature
from which the sun raises the earth, except that it is
greater than that of space. The fourth argument, of
course, is nothing without the first three, and the frac-
tion \ we have seen may be much too large. We are not,
then, in a position to estimate accurately the thermal
effect of the Gulf Stream and other ocean currents ; but
we may consider it proved, as is indeed generally
acknowledged, that they have a very sensible influence?
and, as we shall see, bear a great part in the general cir-
culation of the ocean water.

We must now examine how far Mr. Croll establishes
his position that a general oceanic circulation is im-
possible under the influence of temperature and gravita-
tion alone. Dr. Carpenter has already given (Proc. of
Roy. Geog. Soc, vol. xviii.) his reasons for his beli ef in
the adequacy of these influences, and his replies to Mr.
CrolFs objections, some of which are discussed in this
volume in no less than four chapters. Although it may
be familiar to most of our readers, it will be well to give
here an outline of Dr. Carpenter's " doctrine."

The chilling of the salt water in both polar regions
renders it heavier and causes it to sink, its place being
supplied from the warmer water of lower latitu des, which
is itself supplied by the motion of the water from the two
poles towards the equator along the lower portion of the
ocean ; and these two masses meeting each other near
the equator, well up there, and bring the colder water
nearer the surface, while the heating of the surface water
in these regions keeps up the difference between the
specific gravities of the water supplied to and leaving the
polar regions, on which the whole depends. These
appear to be Dr. Carpenter's latest views (Proc. Roy-
Geog. Soc, vol. xviii., June 1874), though Mr. Croll's
objections seem, in some part at least, to be aimed at
details that do not affect the fundamental conception.
This is distinguished as a vertical circulation, because
the first origination of the motion is supposed to be in
the descent of the polar waters. Mr. Croll assents to the
facts, but ascribes the circulation to the initiation of the
winds, and denies that there is any circulation beyond
that produced by currents. We know that currents exist
on the surface, and it is generally agreed that they owe
their origin, in great part at least, to the system of prevailing
winds, and even on Dr. Carpenter's theory they must, so
far as they tend polewards, decrease by so much the
general circulation of the upper ocean ; but the known
or assumed under-currents are much more local, and the
depression of temperature at great depths is too general
to allow us to conceive that the return should be made by
circumscribed currents.

In discussing the question whether the polar cold is
sufficient to cause circulation, Mr, Croll first objects that
the sea of the tropics is salter, and therefore denser, than
that of the poles, and that this would counteract the
effect of the cold. There is in reality but little force in
this objection as against Dr. Carpenter's theory. The
excess of temperature and of salinity counteract each
other in the surface layers of the tropics, and prevent
them sinking or rising j but as they have a nearly hori-
zontal motion, according to the theory, the objection is
nothing, the lower layers which alone have an upward
vertical motion deriving it from a vis-a-tergo ; and with

regard to the polar area the lower layers cannot be more
salt than the upper, from whence they come, according
to the theory, and zxvy freezing on the surface must leave
the remaining water on the contrary salter.

The next objection of Mr. Croll is far more formidable,
though it shows that some of the proofs adduced are
untenable, rather than the theory itself. The drifting
of icebergs from Newfoundland across the Gulf Stream,
and of the Atlantic c!ible buoy which travelled six hun-
dred nautical miles in seventy-six days, adduced by Dr.
Carpenter as proving the southward motion of the deeper
layers, proves too much according to Mr. Croll, as it
proves the existence of a sensible current, which Dr.
Carpenter admits cannot be formed by differences of
gravity. This may be true, and prove that other causes
operate in the motion of large masses of water ; but while
destroying one argument in favour of, it proves nothing
in opposition to, the doctrine of general oceanic circula-
tion. This class of objections, however, are far more
forcible than theoretical ones ; and the list of phenomena
that may be accounted for on either theory, and of those
that cannot well be accounted for on the gravitation
theory, e.g. the southward currents of Davis Straits and
the east coast of Greenland, shows that neither theory
alone will satisfy all the conditions to be fulfilled. Mr.
Croll, however, gives no satisfactory account of the
greater cold of the lower strata of the South Atlantic,
nor of the surging up of cold currents on eastern shores,
nor of the cold water coming nearest the surface under
the equator ; nor does his theory give that beautiful
account of the maintenance of life in the deep sea which
is so dependent on the change of the water.

But Mr. Croll asserts that the gravitation theory is
physically faulty, and maintains the assertion in this
volume against Dr. Carpenter's last leply. In several of
his arguments it is impossible not to agree with him. In
examining them we will follow the order he takes. He
first shows that heat at the surface, as in the equatorial
regions, cannot produce circulation. But this, though
essential to Lieut. Maury's theoiy, has not been asserted
by Dr. Carpenter, who, on the contrary, states that any
effect due to^the heating at the equator may be practically
disregarded ; and why ? because the heat is here applied
at the top instead of at the bottom, as it should be to
produce convection ; but an application of cold to the top
would be equivalent to heat at the bottom, and this cold
is obtained in the polar area ; consequently Dr. Carpenter
regards polar cold as the primum mobile. Mr. Croll
objects to this that it is the difference of temperature only
we have to do with, and this may be said to depend on
either, and accuses Dr. Carpenter with confusion of ideas ;
but this is scarcely fair after arguing against the heat being
available to produce motion because apphed at the top,
showing that he perceived that not the difference only,
but where the lower temperature is found is of consequence.
Dr. Carpenter would say the temperature at the poles is
below the average, no matter how that average is obtained ;
which is a very different thing from saying the equatorial
temperature is above the average — since in the first case
the average might be obtained, as far as the theory is con-
cerned, by a nearly uniform temperature elsewhere.

The next important question raised with respect to this
theory is the amount of force which is exerted to put the

June 17, 1875]

NATURE

123

water in motion. This Mr. CroU shows to depend entirely
and only on the amount of slope of the water-surface
from the equator to the pole, and not at all upon the
amount of fall from the surface in the polar regions, to
the lowest depth at which the water of maximum density
s found beneath the equator. Dr. Carpenter says that
this " would seem irreconcilable with the simplest prin-
ciples of physics," a statement easier to make than to
prove. For, as Mr. Croll shows plainly, the work done by
gravity in the descent, is done against gravity in the ascent
at the equator, and the two counteract each ether, except
only the extra amount of gravity which is called into action
by the shrinkage of the polar column from what would
have been its size under the average amount of solar heat,
and which alone can have any continuous effect. The solar
heat is a constantly supplied moving force which is used
indirectly in the ocean circulation, and any further amount
of gravity made use of in the circuit would involve the
idea of perpetual motion. Connected with this is Dr.
Carpenter's assertion that there is no difference of level
between the equatorial and polar seas. Since, how-
ever, this is the only proximate cause for the ocean circu-
lation, its denial would seem to cut the ground from
beneath his feet. It will be found, however, that though
he denies it in one place he asserts it in another, and his
theory essentially depends on it. It is true that water
tcfids to find its level when disturbed, as it is by the
action of polar cold, which tends to alter its level; but it is
just this tendency that causes the circulation. If one of the
forces were to be powerful enough to have its own way
entirely, no motion could occur ; i.e. if the water were too
viscous, a greater permanent change of level would arise ;
if it "wtre perfectly fluid, the equilibrium would be brought
about instantaneously and no visible motion would be
perceived. We must be content, then, with the fall of
level from equator to pole to produce the circulation ; is
it sufficient ? This depends entirely on the viscosity of
water. Mr. Croll bases his argument on the experiments
of Dubuat, who showed that water would not descend a
slope of I in 1,000,000, which is much greater than the
slope under discussion, and hence the fall of level is
too small to cause any circulation. He replies to Dr.
Carpenter's objection, that these experiments had refer-
ence to water running over solids and not over itself, by
saying that one layer of molecules alone would be in con-
tact with the solid and the rest with the water surface
only. The reply is plainly beside the mark, as Mr. Croll
should have seen by reading Dr, Carpenter's statement
following his objection, that the difference between a fluid
restoring its own equilibrium, and having a sensible
motion over solid surfaces, was well known in practice to
Mr. Hawksley and other hydraulic engineers. But in
reality no chamber experiments can determine such a
point satisfactorily ; and besides this, it seems to us that
an important point has been overlooked by Mr. Croll.
No doubt it would be hard for a single pound of water to
perform its whole circuit against all opposing frictions
under the impulse of the force due to so small an amount
of slope ; but if large masses of water move together, the
moving force would be proportional to the mass, but the
friction to be overcome would be simply that of the peri-
meter of the tube of flow, and it is an essential part of the
theory of ocean circulation that the moving water is of

immense mass. This friction would not increase, like
statical friction, with the mass, since the pressure would
be the same at the same depths, and it is also more of
the nature of shearing force than friction, and therefore
nearly a constant quantity.

It does not appear, then, that anything that has been
said by Mr. Croll disproves this theory of a general oceanic
circulation, though he may have successfully attacked it
in certain respects. Nevertheless we agree with him that
" if a vertical motion follows as a necessary consequence
from a transference of water from the equator to the poles
by gravity, it follows equally as a necessary consequence
from the same transference by the winds ; so that one is
not at liberty to advocate a vertical circulation in the one
case and to deny it in the other."

This was the opinion also of Herschel in his letter to
Dr. Carpenter, that "henceforward the question of ocean
currents will have to be considered under a twofold
point of view." It would take too long to discuss the
other points [in which Mr. Croll enters into controversy
with respect to various currents, such as the Gibraltar or
the Baltic, and we must reserve for another notice the
interesting points connected with past time with which
the latter part of the book is occupied. J. F. B.

{To be continued.)

HILDEBRANDSSON ON UPPER ATMO-
SPHERIC CURRENTS
Essui sur les Courants sup'trieurs de VAtmosphhre, dans
leur Relation aux Lignes Isobarometriqties. Par H-
Hildebrand Hildebrandsson. (Upsal, 1875.)

CLEMENT LEY, in "The Laws of the Winds pre-
vailing in Western Europe," expresses his opinion,
based on observations made near Hereford on the move-
ments of the cirrus cloud, that in general the upper
currents of the atmosphere flow away from the regions of
low atmospheric pressure, and converge upon regions ot
high pressure. This being a point of the utmost import-
ance with reference to the general circulation of the
atmosphere, M. Hildebrandsson, in December 1873,
organised a systematic observation of the cirrus cloud in
Sweden. Twenty of the Swedish meteorological observers
engaged in the work of observation, the network of sta-
tions extending over nearly 11° of latitude, from Tomarp
in the south to Qvickjock in the north. The above essay
discusses these observations with great ability.

The question of the relation of the motions of the
cirrus cloud to areas of high and low pressure is cleverly
handled in the essay, and the method of discussion, illus-
trated by thirty-three charts, may be referred to as a
satisfactory and exhaustive treatment of the data of cirrus
observation, which are restricted only to one country.
Charts I. to VIII. represent well-selected instances of
storms advancing on Sweden from westward ; Charts IX.
to XVI. represent Sweden in the rear of storms ; and
Charts XVII. to XXIV. represent areas of high pressure
in various directions, S., E., &c., from Sweden. Com-
paring the direction of the upper currents with these
areas of high and low pressure, it is shown that quite
near the centre of the depression area of storms the upper
currents blow in directions nearly parallel to the isobars
and to the winds on the surface of the earth, but that in

124

NATURE

{June 17, 1875

proportion as we proceed from the centre they are turned
outwards, being deflected to the right of the surface
winds ; in other words, they tend more and more to blow
out from the area of low pressure. On the other hand,
they converge upon the centre of the regions of high
pressure, cutting the isobars nearly at right angles. This
last point is interesting in connection with the circum-
stance pointed out some time ago by Hoffmeyer, that
surface winds in blowing out of the areas of high pres-
sure cut the isobars approximately at right angles. Charts
XXV. to XXXII. are selected to represent instances in
which Sweden lies between two storms, the one following
the other with only a short interval between them. In
these cases the behaviour of the upper currents from both
storms and the manner in which they blend together at
their contiguous margins are very instructive.

The winds on the surface of the earth, as compared
with the upper currents, show, as is well known, inverse
relations to areas of low and high pressure— blowing
inwards upon areas of low pressure, and outwards from
areas of high pressure. Consequently, as the author
remarks, an area of low barometer is necessarily the
region of an ascending current, which, when it has risen
to a great height in the atmosphere, flows away from the
central space of low pressure towards regions of high
pressure, whence it sinks gradually down to the surface as
a descending current, and in this manner a vertical circu-
lation is constantly maintained between the surface of the
earth and the higher limits of the atmosphere. We very
strongly recommend that, as has been so successfully
carried out in Sweden, a thorough and systematic
observation of the cirrus cloud be generally inaugurated
in other countries, so that it may be possible to chart the
upper currents over a wide extent. Among the many
points suggested by M. Hildebrandsson's charts is the
question whether the extent and volume of the upper
currents flowing outwards from storm areas be consistent
with some of the views recently advanced on the theory
of storms and circulation of the atmosphere. We hope
meteorologists will soon take steps to occupy the impor-
tant field of observation now opened up.

OUR BOOK SHELF

The Zoological Record for 1873. Edited by E, C. Rye

F.Z.S. (London : J. Van Voorst, 1875.)
In the preface to the " Record" for 1872 Prof. Newton,
the editor, announced that having intimated to the Zoolo-
gical Record Association his intention to resign his post,
the Council had appointed Mr. Rye, Librarian to the
Royal Geographical Society, as his successor. From a
glance into the present volume it is evident that it is
Mr. Rye's intention to maintain the high standard of his
predecessors, notwithstanding the difficulties he has had
to encounter, especially in the loss of the services of Dr.
Gunther, whose increased duties, now that he has been
promoted to the post of Keeper of the Natural History
Department of the British Museum, prevent him from
undertaking the Mammalia, Reptilia, and Pisces, as he
has done for years. Mr. Rye has succeeded in obtaining
the services of Mr. E. R. Alston, F.Z.S, on the Mammals,
and of Mr. A. W. E. O'Shaughnessy on the Reptiles and
Fishes ; both which naturahsts have most creditably per-
formed their laborious tasks. Mr. R. B. Sharpe has
undertaken the Birds as before, whilst Dr. Ed. von
Martens, the Rev. O. Pickard-Cambridge, Mr. Rye, Mr.

Kirby, Mr. McLachlan, and Dr. Lutken, have devoted
themselves to their special subjects. The editor acknow-
ledges the grant of 100/. from the British Association,
50/. from the Zoological Society, and 100/. from the Go-
vernment Grant Committee of the Royal Society (this
being the first occasion that the Record Association has
been so assisted), towards the expenses of pubhcation. The
increasing necessity for the production of the volume is
yearly becoming more evident, at the same time that it s
contents are necessarily of such a nature that there can
never be a demand for it which will enable it nearly to
cover its expenses. The most important scientific results
of the year include the investigations of Leidy, Marsh,
and Cope on the fossil American Eocene Mammalia, and
Prof. Marsh's discovery of a new sub-class of fossil
toothed birds, respecting which all naturalists cannot but
regret that so little opportunity is given them of seeing
specimens or even drawings of the great number of
species now known to them by short descriptions only.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible Jor opinions expressed
by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return,
or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications. 'X

Systems of Consanguinity

I AM sorry to find that on some points I have misunderstood the
views of my friend Mr. Morgan (vol. xii. p. 86), and the more so
as, after reading his letter very carefully, I am not sure that I quite
comprehend them even now. Your reviewer is no doubt able to
reply for himself : but it certainly seems to me not remarkable
that both he and I should have been led into error. Indeed, I
do not exactly understand whether Mr. Morgan intends to say
that we have misapprehended his views in supposing that in his
opinion one of the two great systems of classification of relation-
ships is "arbitrary, artificial, and intentional." Mr. Morgan
admits that he himself used these terms in several places. There
are, he says, "three or four places, and perhaps more, in that
volume in which I speak of the system of a particular people as
'artificial and complicated,' and as 'arbitrary and artificial,'
without the qualification in each case which should, perhaps,
have been inserted." Thus your reviewer and I were, as he
himself allows, using his very own words, though I shall of
course omit them if my book should reach a fourth edition.

Moreover, these descriptive epithets are not used casually, but
form the very basis of his argument. For instance, in p. 469 he
says : —

" It may be remarked, however, that if the system is to be
regarded as exclusively natural and spontaneous, the argument
for unity of origin would be without force ; since, as such, it
would be the form to which all nations must insensibly gravitate
under the exercise of ordinary intelligence. But if to reach the
descriptive system these families have struggled out of a previous
system, altogether different, through a series of customs and
institutions which existed antecedently to the attainment of the
state of marriage between single pairs, then it becomes a result
or ultimate consequence of customs and institutions of man's
invention, rather than a system taught by nature." *

But then, as I understand, he alleges that a different theory is
given in his concluding chapter. So far, however, from findLig
in that chapter any indication of a change of opinions, I see that
he reiterates the same view. After discussing the classificatory
system, he says : " There would seem to be but four conceivable
ways of accounting for the joint possession of this system of rela-
tionship by the Turanian and Ganowanian families ; and they
are the following : —First, by borrowing from each other ;
secondly, by accidental invention in disconnected areas ; thirdly,
by spontaneous growth in like disconnected areas, under the
influence of suggestions springing from similar wants in similar
conditions of society ; and fourthly, by transmission with the
blood from a common original source." f

After negativing the two first hypotheses, he proceeds to dis-
cuss the third, namely, that of " spontaneous growth under the
influence of suggestions springing from similar wants in similar

* Morgan's " Systems Of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human
Family," p. 469, t Ibid. p. 500.

June 17, 1875J

NATURE

125

conditions of society," This possible theory, he says, "has
been made a subject of not less careful study and reflection than
the system itself." But after a patient analysis and comparison
of its several forms, he comes to the conclusion that it is insuffi-
cient to account for the facts.

Thus, as it seems to me, he clearly repudiates the theory of
spontaneous growth.

Mr. Morgan thinks that his solution of the problem of rela-
tionships must have escaped my notice, because I did not discuss
it in my paper read before the Anthropological Institute ; but in
that memoir I quoted from the chapter in question, and went on
to say —

' ' Mr. Morgan admits that systems of relationships have
undergone a gradual development, following that of the social
condition ; but he also attributes to them great value in the
determination of ethnological affinities. I am not sure that I
exactly understand his views as to the precise bearing of these
two conclusions in relation to one another ; and I have else-
where given my reasons for dissenting from his interpretation of
the facts in reference to social relations. "

Thus I expressly pointed out that Mr. Morgan, while charac-
terising the "classificatory " system, to use his own terms, as
"arbitrary and artificial," nevertheless also regards it as having
"undergone a gradual development following that of the social
condition." Surely Mr. Morgan must have written his letter
without having my book by him, for it seems to me that the
above passages, taken together, represent his own theory, as
given in his letter. Mr. Morgan hints that the conclusions con-
tained in his last chapter had escaped my notice. He appears
to have overlooked the fact that I quoted from that very chapter.
I was not, however, reviewing his work, and differing funda-
mentally, as I do, from the conclusions adopted by him, while
feeling deeply also the great obligations to him under which
ethnologists lie, I preferred to state my own views rather than
to dwell on the differences between the conclusions at which he
and I have arrived. John Lubbock

Down, Kent, June 7

Attraction and Repulsion caused by Radiation

I DID not intend to reply to Prof. Osborne Reynolds' letter
in Nature, vol. xii, p. 6, but some persons expect me to say
something about it. If the Professor would be careful not to
answer me with the' ideas that occur to him as he is " on the
point of sending off the paper" (see Phil. Mag., Nov. 1874),
he would save himself the trouble of many explanations. After
my thousand experiments it is scarcely respectful to try to over-
come all by his few, and, after three years of my thought, rather
hasty to tell me that he explained it all so suddenly with perfect
certainty, and that I am unable to comprehend him. It is also
scarcely wise to lead us to infer that probably he cannot explain
the whole, but that he knows somebody who will soon do it.

Prof. Reynolds seems to base his calculations on some of my
experiments which dealt with a perceptible amount of gas, and
has not taken notice of those where there is no amount of gas
known to be present ; for example, in a chemical vacuum.

Prof. Reynolds must show that there is gas or vapour re-
maining, and he must also show that there is enough to produce
the mechanical results. He tells us that the forces vdll increase
as the density of the gases diminishes. The speed will, but if
the force does, that can only be up to a certain point, when it is
equally certain that a change will take place, and the motion of
the particles or molecules will be attended with less force accor-
ding as they diminish in number. The opposite to this involves
something not intended. I suppose he does not intend to speak
of forces without matter. The analogy with sound is not quite
happy, as that is so readily diminished by lower pressure ; al-
though the speed is the same, the power is small. Besides this,
what will he say to the case where there is no heat and only
light ? I am abundantly willing to allow molecules and forces,
but I see no place for such as I have beenacquainted with.

I am working at the subject and shall be glad to come to a
true conclusion. Scientific men need not be so very much afraid
of a new law of nature, for some are wanted, and there are cer-
tainly many yet waiting to be discovered before nature becomes
intelligible to us.

I by no means deny that the phenomena are connected with
molecular movements, but I believe that Prof. Reynolds has
neither explained this nor proved it by experiment. His expla-
nation suits only a part of my work ; and so does the saying that
the "experiments stand in much the same relation to the kinetic

theory of gases that Foucault's pendulum occupied with regard
to the rotation of the earth." This is an analogy showing much
acuteness, viewing the matter from what I consider the unproved
side.

Prof. Reynolds goes far when he says that my experiments
are " the only direct proof that has ever been obtained of the
kinetic theory of gases." It may be, but if so, physicists must
have been too easily pleased with their theories.

I might .say much more, but I prefer to wait. There is but
little good done by short notes when such a large and important
subject waits for elucidation, William Crookes

London

American Indian Weapons

The Pai-ute weapon, described by Mr. Mason in your last
number (p. 107), although extremely interesting and quite new to
me, appears scarcely sufficiently characteristic of a war weapon
to form an exception to the statement of Schoolcraft, that the
clubs of the North American Indians as a rule are curved. It
would be interesting if it could be ascertained how such a peculiar
instrument as that described by your correspondent came to be
used as a weapon of war. Its form precludes the possibility of
its having been designed for such a purpose. The mode of
holding it suggests the idea of its having originally been used as
a pounder, the thick end having perhaps been employed for
pounding grain, beating out grass for cloth, or for preparing
skins. It somewhat resembles the instrument used for making
bark cloth in some of the Polynesian Isles, and it corresponds to
the Beatle (Battelle) still used by Irishwomen for beating flax,
and occasionally, I have no doubt, as a weapon of war ; but
these are used with the flat side, not the end. The only weapon
I know of that is used like the Pai-ute club is the New Zealander's
Merai or Pattoo-Pattoo, the sharp end of which is thrust
into the back of the head of the offender; and I have
suggested elsewhere that this peculiar and awkward mode of
using it arose from its having been originally what its form
resembles, a stone axe blade (celt), used as the Australians now
use it sometimes, in the hand without any handle. The
sharp edge at the end of the Merai shows its original inten-
tion, in the same way that the flat end of the Pai-ute club could
never have been designed as an offensive weapon, but would
have been useful as a pounder ; it may be, in fact, a " survival "
converted to other uses. There exists, of course, no law of
nature to prevent North American Indians from using straight
clubs as well as curved ones, but my observation of their
weapons confirms the statement of Schoolcraft, that as a rule they
do not. Amongst races in a more primitive state of culture, as
amongst the Australians, we find that nearly every form of club
that is made straight is used also in a curved form, the curvature
arising merely from the natural bend of the branch out of which
it was constructed ; when these natural curves were found useful,
they appear to have been retained and systematised. But the
North American weapons are of a more advanced and conven-
tionalised description, and we cannot trace their origin and
grnvth so clearly as amongst lower savages. The description ot
the Moquis boomerang by Mr. Mason is an interesting fact,
which, combined with the mention of it by Bancroft amongst
the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico, points to the probability of
a connected area of distribution. Drawings of weapons such as
those given in your journal are of the utmost value in assisting
to trace the distribution of like forms. A, Lane-Fox

Guildford, June 12

Hardened Glass

Perhaps the following short and preliminary account of some
observations on the optical and mechanical properties of De la
Bastie's toughened, or, as I think more correctly, hardened glass,
may interest your correspondent Mr. James H. Logan (vol. xii.
p. 87).

Immediately after the publication of M. Dela Bastie's specifica-
tion I prepared specimens of the glass, I submitted them to
careful optical examination by polarised light. Perhaps the best
experiments are those made by means of short cylinders and
small cubes and parallelepipeds carefully "hardened." A small
cube with half-inch sides thus prepared has its sides ground
plane and polished. The operation of polishing may be dis-
pensed with if a small microscopical thin cover be cemented on
the ground surface with Canada balsam. The cube is then
mounted between strip^f blackened cork, and examined in the

126

NATURE

{June 17, 1875

usual way by means of Nicol's prisms, glass plates or other
appropriate polariscope. The beautiful chromatic phenomena
thus brought out at once indicate that amongst the causes which
operate to produce the hardness of glass, powerful compression
of the interior by the contracting exterior must be one. The
phenomena are, in fact, essentially those of compressed glass,
and the curves of colour, or black and yellow, seen when the
glass is examined by white or monochromatic light, indicate suc-
cessive curves of tension and balanced, or no-tension. In a care-
fully prepared glass rod of half-inch length these curves are
rings traversed by a well-marked black cross. In an oval the
rings assume the cliaracter of those seen in biaxial crystals.
"When plates are examined, the light being transmitted from
back to front, they appear to act essentially as bi-refracting plates,
but with crosses and bands somewhat irrCijularly distributed,
and capable of being referred to the angles of the plates or to
centres of unequal heating.

My experiments on the mechanical properties of the glass have
chiefly been confined to testing its hardness and the possibility of
grinding it. So far as I have gone at present I make it to be
nearly twice as hard as ordinary glass, which it scratches with
ease. It can be cut with a good file well moistened wdth tur-
pentine, and can be ground on a stone with sand, without
fracturing, if great care be taken and the glass be well prepared.
One piece, which manifested when under the polariscope evi-
dences of ill-balanced tension, the neutral line lying near one
surface, submitted to transverse grooving, but disintegrated on
being ground on one surface as soon as the outer surface had
been ground away to near the neutral line. There appears to
be an easily reached limit beyond which the surfaces must not
be unequally removed, but as my friend Mr. Thos. Fairley,
F.R.S.E., has been good enough to show me, there is practically
no limit beyond which both surfaces may not be simultaneously
removed. This result, foretold by me from polariscopical analysis,
Mr. Fairley has kindly shown by dissolving the opposing surfaces
away by hydrofluoric acid. The least hard portions dissolved
much more readily than the thoroughly hardened, and the etched
surfaces show wavy lines closely following the tension lines
shown by the polariscope. There is further this remarkable
feature, that the inner portion of the glass proves to be essentially
common glass, which fractures in the ordinary way. Further
experiments are necessary for the complete elucidation of the
subject, and are in progress, but the preceding may be useful to
fellow-workers on the subject.

Leeds, June 12 Henry Pocklington

The House-fly— A Query

In one of the roems in the Science Schools lately built here,
I have noticed, in the last week or so, great numbers of the large
house-fly [Musca domestica) lying dead on the floor. Last Tues-
day I saw one fall dead, but this is the only one. This morning
I counted thirty-two in a space of about three square yards. I
examined one under a microscope, and found that most of the
small hairs on its body were covered with a yellowish powder.
Can any of your readers give me any explanation of this ?

Harrow, June 8 Harrovian

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN

Variable Stars,— Mr. J, E, Gore (Umballa, Punjab)
writes, under date May 5, that he believes 27 Canis Ma-
joris to be a variable star. It is 4 in Harding's Atlas,
but at present about 5| or 6, and much inferior to 28 in
the same constellation, which Harding rates at 5, The
change of brightness was first noticed in 1874, This star
is 4*5 in the Radcliffe Catalogues, 5 in Arg. Zones, 5^ in
Lacaille, and 6-5 in Heis's Catalogue ; Behrmann has 6,
and the lowest estimate of magnitude is 7, in Flamsteed's
Catalogue, with respect to which Baily remarks that there
is no magnitude recorded in the original observation-book,
and that modern observations make it 4^, Mr, Gore states
he has also " suspected some variation of light in the red
star 22 Canis Majoris (between 8 and e) ; it is usually rated
as of .magnitude 3 or 2,1, but for some time past it has
seemed rather fainter than an ordinary star of the fourth
magnitude," Bradley and Piazzi have this star 3-4, Flam-
steed, Brisbane, and Heis, 4, the Washington General

Catalogue 5, and it is so rated once by Argelander ; in
Behrmann it is 4*5,

We will take this opportunity of directing the attention
of our astronomical readers in the southern hemisphere
to Behrmann's valuable Atlas and accompanying Cata-
logue, which, pending the publication of Dr, Gould's
Cordoba " Uranometria," is the only real authority for
recent magnitudes of the naked-eye stars of the southern
heavens. It is entitled " Atlas des Stidlichen Gestirnten
Himmels, von Dr, Carl Behrmann" (Leipsic, 1874), and
contains the stars in forty-six constellations between 20°
of south declination and the south pole, and is arranged
upon the plan of Argelander's well-known work. The
number of stars included in the Atlas is 2,344. It was
formed by Behrmann in the short space of from nine
to ten months, beginning in the autumn of 1866, and
on that account, as the author remarks, there may pro-
bably be some omissions and errors, but it is nevertheless
a very meritorious and important work. It appears, from
Dr. Gould's report to the Minister of Public Instruction
of the Argentine Republic, that his " Uranometria " has
undergone the intended revision, and is now completed,
and that steps are being taken for its publication. It is
only one of the extensive scientific undertakings which
will mark the residence of this distinguished and energetic
astronomer at Cordoba,

The Binary Star r^ Corona Borealis,— Mr*
Wilson, Temple Observatory, Rugby, has published some
remarks upon the tendency of recent measures of this
star to shorten the period ot revolution assigned by com-
puters hitherto, and refers to Winnecke's careful dis-
cussion of the measures to 1856, Winnecke's orbit, how-
ever, is not the latest that has been calculated, that of
Wijkander including measures to 1870, and the period he
finds, 41 '58 years, is not much different from that which
Mr. Wilson considers to be required by the more recent
measures. Still, these later observations point to a further
diminution of the period, the exact amount of which may
probably be soon determined. The following angles and
distances are calculated from Wijkander's orbit, and on
comparison of the former with the results of observation,
it will be found that the computed value is now about 3°
behind the true one,

18720 Angle 48° -07 Distance o"'9o
73-0 „ 51 "98 „ o -86

74-0 „ 56 -35 ,,0 -81

75.0 „ 61 -32 „ o 76

76.0 „ 67 05 „ o 70

This orbit gives the angle too small by 5°-3 for Sir W.
Herschel's measure in 1782, and also too small by 4°*3 for
his measures in 1802, or, if these differences are expressed
in the form A sin. d P, - o"-o9 and - o"'04 respectively.

Sir W. Herschel's description of his experience with
this star is fouad in Philosoph. Trans. 1804. On Sept. 9,
1 781, the position was 59° 19' n./., and on Sept, 6, 1802,
by "a mean of two very accurate measures" it was
89° 40' fi.p. (This is now found to require correction of
180°) Herschel further states "the distance of the two
stars has not been subject to any sensible alteration.
Sept, 9, 178 1, a very small division might be seen with
460. Aug, 30, 1794, they were so close that with a lo-feet
reflector and power of 600 a very minute division could
but just be perceived, April 15, 1803, with a lo-feet re-
flector, a very small division was also visible, with 400,
though better with 600. And May 15, 1803, I saw the
separation between the two stars with the same 7-feet
reflector and magnifying power of 460, with which I had
seen it twenty-two years before," We have from
Wijkander's orbit for comparison with this account : —
1781-69 Angle 25' -4 Position o" -98
1794-66 „ 80 -2 „ o -6©

1802-68 „ 175 -5 „ o -57

1803-37 „ 181 -6 „ o '59

Except in 1781, it will be remarked, the distances at the

jMte 17, 1875]

NATURE

127

dates of Herschel's^ observations are given sensibly the
same.

Proper Motion of B.A.C. 793.— Prof. C. P. Smyth
has lately drawn attention to an apparent variation in
the amount of proper motion of the star B.A.C. 793,
shown by the Edinburgh observations between 1837 and
1868, involving a diminution in the motion in R.A. and
an increase in that in N.P.D. The star is No. 31 of the
list included in Argelander's Unterstichun£;en iiber die
Eigenbewes^ungen von 250 Sterne?t, Bonn Observations,
Vol. viL, Part I., where, from a rigorous discussion of
seventy years' observations, the proper motion in R.A. is
found to be +012455, and that in N.P.D. , - i'''"456.
The comparison of the normal place for i 855*0 with the
whole course of published observations to 1865, in which
every refinement of calculation is introduced and the
above proper motions employed, with Bessel's precession-
constants, does not afford any indication of the variability
of proper motion suspected by Prof. Smyth. The last
Edinburgh observations in 1866 and 1867 show a dif-
ference from Argelander's formula of only — o*o8s. in
R.A, and agree exactly with the N.P.D. The Wash-
ington position, depending upon two observations
towards the end of 1870, is in close agreement with
Argelander in R.A., and differs — 2"'o in N.P.D. If
a position of the star depending upon a good number
of observations should be obtained during the present
year, the point may be definitively settled, but thus far
variation of the proper motion appears to be at least
questionable. Upon this subject see Bonn Observations
as above, pp. 20, 54, and 109.

Minor Planet No. 146.— The number of small
planets is rapidly approaching otte hundred and Ji/ly.
M. Borrelly, of the Observatory at Marseilles, announces
his discovery of No. 146 on the evening of June 8. At
10 P.M. its place was in R.A. I7h. 20m. i6s., and N.P.D.
111° 20' 15" ; it is as bright as stars of the eleventh mag-
nitude, and therefore for the present should be readily
identified by means of Chacornac's Chart No. 52.

SCIENCE IN GERMANY
{From German Correspondejiis.)]

HERR VON BEZOLD, of Munich, has published
some interesting researches on the periodical
changes in the frequency of thunderstorms during long
periods of time. These researches are particularly note-
worthy for the original manner in which the author has used
the statistical materials on thunderstorms which he could
obtain (principally within the kingdom of Bavaria). As
the character of our reports will not permit us to give
details with regard to the manner of treatment, we pass
at once to the results which Herr von Bezold has
arrived ,at.

First'of all it was found that the frequency of thunder-
storms during a long period is generally either on a con-
tinuous increase or decrease, and that these variations are
periodical.

If we ask on which other meteorological phenomena
these variations could possibly depend, the first thing to
be considered is the temperature. It is further advisable,
on account of the numerous relations that have lately
been discovered to exist between sunspots and meteoro-
logical phenomena, to turn attention also in this direc-
tion. It has been found in reality, that if we represent the
variations of the frequency of thunderstorms by a curve
and compare the same with the curve of the frequency
of sunspots, the minima of the thunderstorm curve
coincide exactly with the maxima in the sunspot curve.
On the other hand, the thunderstorm curve forms, to a
certain extent, the mean between the sunspot curve and
the curve of the deviation of the average yearly ten^pe-
rature for our latitudes.

We must observe here that although the path of the
thunderstorm curve shows a general and unmistakeable
connection with that of the sunspot curve (so that, for
instance, for the period from 1775 to 1822 the maxima of
the thunderstorm curve coincide almost completely with
the minima of the sunspot curve), yet the details of the
thunderstorm curve coincide better with the details of the
curve of temperatures, so that nearly every rise or fall in
the latter can be distinctly traced in the former. This
connection between thunderstorms and the deviations
of the yearly temperatures from the total average, shows
itself still clearly, even where that between the thunder-
storm and sunspot curves is less apparent.

Herr von Bezold recapitulates the results of his inves-
tigations as follows .-—High temperatures, as well as a
solar surface free from spots, cause a greater number of
thunderstorms during a year than the reverse. Now, as
the maxima in the frequency of sunspots coincide with
the maxima of the intensity of aurora borealis, it follows
that both groups of electrical phenomena, thunderstorms
and aurorae, complement each other, as it were, so that in
years with many thunderstorms aurorae will be rare, and
vice versd.

From this connection between sunspots and thunder-
storms an immediate electric action between the earth
and the sun does not necessarily follow, but it may be
simply a consequence of the magnitude of insolation,
which depends on the frequency of spots. These changes
in the insolation are not felt simultaneously but successively
in the different latitudes. The phenomena of thunder-
storms, however, do not only depend on the conditions of
temperature at a given locality, but also on the state of
the atmosphere at far distant points, belonging to another
zone ; and this is most evident with thunderstorms accom-
panying strong currents of wind or tempests. In this
manner the peculiar intermediary position which the
thunderstorm curve occupies between the curves of tem-
perature and sunspots might perhaps find its explanation
eventually.

In zoological investigations experiments are rare, and
therefore the results obtained by them are all the
more valuable. The latest work of this kind— " Re-
searches on the Theory of Descent : I. On the Season-
dimorphism of Butterflies," by Dr. August Weismann,
Professor at Freiburg — will, however, interest not only
the narrower circle of entomologists, but also the amateurs
in this branch of science, as it will furnish them with a
sort of guide for the pursuit of their hobbies in such a
manner as to do great service to science. Weismann
bases his researches on the fact, which has been known
for some time, and which has been called "season-
dimorphism " by Wallace, that certain butterflies, when
issuing from their winter chrysalis in the spring, show a
different coloration and design upon their wings than do
those which appear in the following summer ; so that until
this fact was discovered, the two forms were thought to
be two distinct species of butterflies. We will only men-
tion one of many examples, as it refers to one of the
commonest kinds of day-butterflies. Vanessa levana is
only the winter form of Vanessa prcrsa, which is the
summer form produced by the former ; the latest offspring
of the latter, which survive the winter, reappear as
Vanessa levana in the following spring. Weismann ex-
posed the caterpillars produced by V. levatia in May, which
in the normal state should have produced the imago of V.
frorsa, to a continuous temperature of o" — i°C., after
they had changed to nymphae. The result was that they
yielded the winter form V. levana, with few exceptions.
The same result was obtained with the second summer
generation, which under ordinary conditions would still
have appeared as V. prorsa. On the other hand, Weis-
mann succeeded only very rarely in forcing the last
generation in the yeariagain to take the Prorsa form, by
keeping the nymphae in hothouses at 15°— 30° C, instead

128

NATURE

{June 17, 1875

of in the ordinary winter temperature. Most of the
nymphas passed the winter even in hothouses or in
heated rooms, and produced V. levana in the spring.
Similar researches were made by Weismann with another
common day-butterfly species, Pieris napi.

Weismann thinks that the winter form of these butter-
flies was the original one, which existed alone and in a
single annual generation in Europe, during the so-called
ice period. As the summers became longer and warmer,
a second and finally a third annual generation could be
produced, and these were changed to the Prorsa form by
the higher temperature. The return of the colder season
then always caused a return to the original form
{Afavuin), just as it occurred in the experiments. To
confirm this view, Weismann quotes the fact that in Lap-
land and in the upper Alps only a winter form of P. napi
exists. As with an incomplete return to the original form
intermediate forms result, the varying aspects of which
prove that the change of the original form always takes
place in a certain direction, Weismann thinks that the
change of temperature might certainly have given the
impulse for a change of form, but that the particular
direction of the same lies in the constitution of the animal in
question. We may certainly consider as a result of these
investigations, that a change of climate, together with
other causes, may have directly produced a great number
of different species of butterflies.

Another fact m.entioned by Weismann refers to the
above, and is no less interesting. There is one of the
lower Crustaceae, Leptodora hyalina (Siebold's and Kol-
liker's Zeitschrift Jiir Wissenschaftliche Zoologte, 1875),
which is remarkable in many ways. This animal, ac-
cording to the observations of the Norwegian Sars, shows
similar phenomena, as the winter breed is differently
developed from the summer breed, although the perfect
forms are not so widely different as those of the butter-
flies.

N'

ZOOLOGICAL NONSENSE
OT many months since a controversy which had
been raging for several weeks in the columns of the
so-called " leading journal " was suddenly and completely
put an end to by a well-known writer in a contemporary
calmly and dispassionately pointing out that both dis-
putants had been uttering what was absolute nonsense,
" I use the word nonsense," he went on to say, " not as it
is often used as a vague term of disapproval, but with a
strict specific meaning, as contradistinguished from sense.
All words — all articulate words- — must be either sense or
nonsense. They are sense if their meaning can be ima-
gined, conceived, represented in some way or other to the
mind. They are nonsense if their meaning cannot be
imagined, conceived, or represented in any way to the
mind. When a man says, ' I saw six men and two women
walking down such a street, dressed in such a way, and
heard them talking on such a subject,' anyone can under-
stand, whether he believes it or not. The speaker is
talking sense, whether truly or falsely. If he were to say
he saw two crooked straight lines standing in the five
corners of a square, you would say he was talking non-
sense, that his words were neither true nor false, and that
he might as well keep silence, or utter any other unmeaning
sounds. The difference between these two examples
consists solely in this, that the first assertion can, whereas
the last cannot, be pictured to the mind. Each particular
word by itself is as clear in the one case as in the other."
_ What the question then under discussion was, does not
signify. Enough that it was nothing which had to do
with natural science. But we are sorry to say that non-
sense is still occasionally spoken or written by those who,
if they do not exactly profess to be scientific, yet pretend
to treat of things that clearly belong to the domain of
science, and so make some approach to that character.

Moreover, they are looked up to by some well-meaning
though imperfectly instructed persons as authorities
worthy of consideration. There was a time when there
was a good deal of nonsense written by naturalists, and
especially by zoologists, but we had been in hopes that
the practice was entirely given up. It seems, however,
that we are disappointed. Here is a melancholy instance
to which our attention has lately been called : —

" I have never seen any reason to doubt, yfrj/, that the
Vertebrata, or more properly * Endosteata,' are the
central group of the animal kingdom, the others being
the Exosteates (or Articulates), the Anosteates (or Mol-
luscs), and the Actiniates (or Radiates) ; secondly, that
the Sucklers are the central group of Endosteates, the
other groups being Birds, Reptiles, and Fishes ; the
Sucklers are connected with Birds through the Bats, with
Reptiles through Pangolins and Armadillos, and with
Fishes through Porpoises and Whales. The pectoral
sucklers (Primates) are central, and Man is the centre of
these — not a mere unit on the circumference of the
system."

There is no need to name the writer of this passage or
the publication in which it appeared within the last few
weeks, because our business is with the matter, not with
the man, though we can hardly do otherwise than marvel
at his style of easy assurance — " I have never seen any
reason to doubt." We at first almost fear a platitude,
then catching a glimpse of what is coming, we begin to
think we are on the verge of a great discovery, or per-
haps shall be brought face to face with intelligence itself.
Sad is our disappointment as the sentence proceeds. The
unwonted word " Endosteata " jars our bones within us,
but we recover as we best can, and so far suppose it is all
right ; the expression of a " central group " may pass as
a metaphor, and we feel a sense of relief and obligation
at having the extraordinary names of the other groups
translated for us ; but then we thought we had somewhere
been taught the Radiates had no existence. However,
we hail a friendly semicolon, and find that we are arrived
at the end of the author's first article of faith, which,
though obscured by the metaphor, is yet intelligible.
Now, then, for his " secondly." The word " Sucklers "
strikes us as singular, but we discover that whatever it
means forms another " central group," this time of
" Endosteates " ; so, to meet metaphor by metaphor, we
exclaim " wheels within wheels," and it is a comfort to
find that the surrounding groups are our old friends
Birds, Reptiles, and Fishes ; Amphibians, we suppose,
being packed between the two latter. The next part of
the sentence, however, is absolutely shocking : " Sucklers"
connected with Birds through Bats, with Reptiles through
Pangolins and Armadillos, and so on. Why, what is a
zoological connection "i Is it of affinity or analogy ?
Can the author have ever seen or examined the structure
of the animals he mentions .? We are taken back to the
dark ages of zoology, if not to ages almost prehistoric.
Needless to say that our confidence is gone. Then we
have the concluding sentence with the old metaphor once
more, and a new one ; or is it that no metaphor is
intended after all ? that these concentric circles forming
a system with a circumference on which man is not a unit
— we wonder who ever said he was — exist in the author's
mind ? In our own we are free to say they do not.
We are sure that they do not exist in nature, and we are
so unimaginative that we cannot picture a representation
of them to ourselves. Accordingly there is no help for it
but to conclude that all this is clear, unmistakable, imde-
niable nonsense, as much so as the two crooked straight
lines standing in the five corners of a square. These
" circles," with their unit-tearing circumference, are, in
the words of the writer from whom we first quoted, "the
nonsensical shreds of exploded metaphysics " — rehcs of
that silly " circular system " with its mystical numbers, its
fives or its sevens — the will-o'-the-wisp of fancy that once

Jtine 17, 1875]

NA TURE

129

led men's minds astray from the path where only they
could find the truth they were earnestly seeking.

Those who desire to believe nonsense at all hazards
and in the face of the clearest possible proofs, and indeed
hke it rather the better because it is so, can of course
continue in their fool's paradise. Who can doubt that
they see the paragon of animals in the author of the pas-
sage we have been criticising, and that he sits at the
centre — the "focal point" is the choice expression, we be-
lieve— of a select circle of admiring " pectoral sucklers "
the very " hub of the universe," as our American friends
might say ? The Report of the last Local Examination
Syndicate of one of our Universities speaks of Zoology as
follows :— " The general character of the work in this sub-
ject is, perhaps, even worse than it was last year. In
many cases the teaching appears to have been faulty or
defective ; there was a general ignorance of the principles
of zoological classification ; and a great number of candi-
dates sent up answers so full of confusion and error as to
lead to the opinion that they had only prepared for the
examination by a hurried attempt to learn portions of a
text-book by rote." Who can wonder at this prevalent
" ignorance of the principles of classification " when a
zoologist in a position to give instruction to youth and
encourage their devotion to the study of nature utters
absurdities such as we have just been noticing ? We
fear that he is not alone in his mischievous folly,

LECTURES AT THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS*

VII.

yiine 10. — Pro/. Mivart on Kangaroos.

AFTER pointing out the external and osteological
characters of the Kangaroo, the lecturer pro-
ceeded to consider the question, What is a Kangaroo ?
what its place in the scale of animated beings ; as
also its relations to space and time ? At birth the
Kangaroo is strangely different from what it ulti-
mately becomes. It is customary to speak of the
human infant as exceptionally helpless at birth and
after it, but it is at once capable of vigorous suck-
ing, and very early learns to seek the nipple. The
great Kangaroo, standing some six feet high, is at birth
scarcely more than an inch long. Born in such a feeble
and imperfect condition, the young Kangaroo is not able
to suck of its own accord. The mother places it on one
of the nipples and squeezes its own milk-gland by means
of a muscle which covers it, in such a way that the fluid
enters the mouth of the young one. In most animals,
man included, the air-passage opens into the floor of the
mouth behind the tongue, and in /ro?ii of the opening of
the gullet. Each particle of food as it goes towards the
gullet passes over the entrance to the windpipe, but is
prevented from falling in by the action of the epiglottis,
which stands up in front of the opening and closes over
it when food is passing. But in the young Kangaroo, the
milk being introduced, not by any voluntary act of the
recipient, but by the action of the mother, it is evident
that some special mechanism is necessary to prevent
choking. This is found in the elongation of the upper
part of the windpipe, which projects up into the nasal
passage, and is embraced by the soft palate in such a
manner that the food passes on each side of it, whilst the
air does not enter the mouth at all.

The Kangaroo browses on the herbage and bushes of
more or less open country ; and, when feeding, commonly
applies its front limbs to the ground. It readily, how-
ever, raises itself on its hind limbs and strong tail, as on
a tripod, when any sound, sight, or smell alarms its
natural timidity. Mr. Gould tells us that the natives
sometimes hunt them by forming a great circle around
them, gradually converging upon them and so frightening

* Continued from p. 114.

them by cries that they become an easy prey to their
clubs. The Kangaroo is said to be able to clear even
more than fifteen feet at one bound. It breeds freely in
the Society's Gardens, many being reared to maturity.
They have been also more or less acclimatised in the
grounds of Glastonbury Abbey, in the parks of Lord Hill
and the Duke of Marlborough, and elsewhere.

It is just upon one hundred and five years since the
Kangaroo was first distinctly seen by Englishmen. At the
recommendation and request of the Royal Society, Capt.
(then Lieutenant) Cook set sail in 1768, in the ship
Endeavour, on a voyage of exploration, and for the
observation of the Transit of Venus of the year 1769. In
the spring of the following year the ship steered from
New Zealand to the eastern coast of New Holland, visit-
ing, among other places. Botany Bay. Afterwards, when
detained in Endeavour River, an animal as large as a
greyhound, of a slender make, a mouse colour, and
extremely swift, was seen more than once. On July 14,
" Mr. Gore, who went out with his gun, had the good
fortune to kill one of these animals," adding, "This
animal is called by the natives Kangaroo." Kangaroos,
however, had been seen by earlier travellers, and these
may even be the animals referred to by Dampier when
he tells us that on the 12th of August, 1699, "two or
three of my seamen saw creatures not unlike wolves, but
so lean that they looked like mere skeletons."

The whole animal population of the globe is termed
the Animal Kingdom, in contrast with the world of
plants, or Vegetable Kingdom. The highest sub-kingdom
of this is that of the Vertebrata, of which the Mammalia
form the highest class, to which class the Kangaroos
belong. Of these animals there are many species
arranged in some four genera ; the true Kangaroos
forming a genus, Macroptis, which is very nearly allied to
three others, namely, Dorcopsis, with a very large first
grinding tooth ; ' Dendrola^iis (Tree Kangaroo), which
frequents the branches of trees, and has the fore limbs
but little shorter than the hind ; and Hypsiprymnus (Rat
Kangaroo), which has the first upper grinder compressed
and vertically grooved. The species all inhabit Australia
and the adjacent islands. They all agree in having the
second and third toes slender and united in a commoa
fold of skin ; the hind limbs longer than the fore limbs ;
no inner metatarsal bone ; all the fore toes provided with
claws ; and six upper together with two lower incisors.
These five characters coexist in no other animal.

The family Macropodida; is one of six which, together
with it,make up the larger Kangaroo Order,the exTCt rela-
tions of which necessitate a cursory view of the others
being taken. The Bandicoot plainly differs from the
Kangaroo in external appearance, but resembles it in
having the hind limbs longer than the fore, and also in
the structure of the hind feet, which are similarly modi-
fied, but to a less degree, a rudimentary inner toe being
present. It is an example of the family Peramelidic,
one member of which, Cha'ropus, is very exceptional, in
that the hind toes, except the fourth, are exceedingly
reduced and functionless, at the same time that its
anterior digits are only two in number. The Pha-
langer is a type of the Phalangistidi?>, arboreal, noc-
turnal animals, in which the limbs are of nearly equal
length, with the second and third hind toes united, and a
large opposable thumb. Some have prehensile tails,
others expansions of the skin in the flanks to act as a
parachute in leaping. The Koala {P/iascolarctus) and
Tarsipes are aberrant members ; the former without a
tail, the latter with minute and few teeth. The genus
Citsais is found in New Guinea and Timor. The Wom-
bat {Phascolomys) forms a distinct family. It is a
burrowing, nocturnal animal, the size of a badger, with a
rudimentary tail, as well as peculiar feet and rodent-like
teeth.

The Dasyuridc-e, or family of the native cat, wolf, and

I30

NATURE

yjtme 17, 1875

devil, are so called from their predatory and fierce
nature. They have large canine teeth and sharp molars.
The second and third toes are no longer bound together,
whilst the great toe is absent or small. Myrmecobius is
a peculiar genus, remarkable for the great number of its
back teeth. The Tasmanian Wolf is confined to that
island, and will very probably soon become quite extinct,
because of its destructiveness to the sheep of the colonies.
It differs from all other members of the Kangaroo
order in that cartilages represent the marsupial bones
found in every other member of the order. The last family
consists of the true Opossums, which differ from all
above referred to in inhabiting America only, not Aus-
tralia. They are called Didelphidas ; one species is
aquatic in habit, and web-footed.

Such are the verv varied forms composing the six
families which together make up the Kangaroo order.
"What is its relation to those of the other Mammalia ?
Very noticeable in it is the very great diversity of form,
dentition, and habit found in the order, some being
arboreal and vegetarian, others terrestrial and carni-
vorous, &c. ; nevertheless, these so varied marsupial
forms possess in common important characters by
which they differ from all other mammals. These
characters, however, relate mainly to the structure
of their reproductive organs, as to the great importance
of which characters naturalists are agreed. The angle
of the lower jaw is also peculiar. Almost every
mammal which has marsupial bones has the angle of its
jaw inflected, or else has no angle at all, whilst every
animal which has both marsupial bones and an inflected
jaw-sngle, possesses also those other special characters
which distinguish the marsupials from all other mammals.
We have, therefore, at least two great groups, one non-
marsupial, containing man, the apes, bats, cats, hoofed
beasts, &c. — the Monodelphia ; the other containing t'le
marsupials only — the Didelphia. There is a third group
containing only the Ornithorhynchus and Echidna, which
lorm by themselves alone a third group, Ornithodelphia.

As to its zoological relations, we may therefore say that
the Kangaroo is a peculiarly modified form of a most
varied order of Mammalia (the marsupials), which differs
from all ordinary beasts (and from man) by very impor-
tant anatomical and physiological characters, the sign of
the existence of which is the coexistence in it of mar-
supial bones with an inflected angle of the lower jaw. As
to the geographical relations of the Kangaroo, a study of
their distribution over the world shows that the Kangaroo
is one of an order of animals confined to the Australian
region and America, the great bulk of the order, in-
cluding all the Macropodidse, being strictly confined to
the Australian region.

The lecturer concluded by explaining the geological
relations of the Kangaroo and its order, pointing out that
in Australia we have an instance of zoological " survival "
connecting the existing creation with the triassic period.

MA GNE TO-ELECTRIC MA CHINES *
II.
T N 1 871 M. Jamin communicated to the French Academy
■*■ of Sciences a short note by M. Gramme, on a magneto-
electric machine which gave electrical currents always in
the same direction by the revolution of an electro-magnetic
ring between the poles of a permanent magnet. The
construction of the electro-magnetic or ring armature in
Gramme's machine differs in some mechanical details
from that of the transversal electro-magnet of Pacinotti,
and the serious mistake of applying the rubbers which
carry off the current at the wrong place is avoided. We
must therefore regard the Gramme machine as the first

■dI?'^^ •r'^'^f-^^^ of a Lecture, with aUditions, delivered at the Belfast
Philosophical Society, March 17, by Dr. Andrews. F.R.S., L. & E, (Con-
iiuied frcm p. 92.)

effective magneto-electric machine constructed to give
continuous currents all flowing in the same direction.
Before entering into the details of its construction it may
be useful, even at the risk of some repetition, to describe
as briefly as possible the principles on which the action
of the electro-magnet or ring armature depends.

In its simplest form this armature consists of a ring of
soft iron, round which is wound a single closed coil of
copper wire or other metallic riband, covered with silk,
except at a single point in each loop of the coil, which is
left exposed in order to make contacts. In Fig. 4 such a
ring is shown, placed between the poles of a permanent
magnet. The parts of this ring contiguous to the poles
N s of the fixed magnet will acquire respectively polarity
of the opposite kind to that of the neighbouring pole,
while the parts of the ring o o', at the end of a diameter

Fig. 4. — Ring Armature.

at right angles to the line joining the poles, will be neutral.
If the ring; is made of homogeneous metal, this statement
will be strictly exact so long as it is at rest, but if it be
made to revolve rapidly on an axis perpendicular to the
plane of the fixed magnet, the poles of the ring, as well
as the neutral points, will be slightly displaced, as M.
Gaugain has shown, in the direction of the motion. This
arises from what is called the coercive power of iron;
that is, from the circumstance that even the purest iron
will not acquire or lose magnetism in an inappreciably
short period of time. The change in the distribution of
the magnetism in the ring from this cause is, however,
inconsiderable, and may easily be allowed for.

To make the explanation clearer, let us suppose that
there is only one loop of wire, a (Fig. 5),''upon the ring,
and that this loop is moveable and in connection with a
galvanometer g. If now the ;loop:'is moved along the
ring (assumed to be at rest) from^ the neutral line O
towards s', a current will be developed in a certain direc-

Jtim 17, 1 875 J

NATURE

131

tion, the intensity of which will increase till the loop
reaches s', after which the current, always preserving the
same direction, will diminish till the loop arrives at o',
when the current will for a moment fall to zero, to be
succeeded by a current in the opposite direction as the
loop leaves o'. This current will in like manner increase
during the advance of the loop to n', when it will attain
a maximum, and afterwards diminish till it arrives at o,
where, after passing through zero, the direction will again
change. There will thus be a current always flowing
in one direction as the loop moves from O through s' to
o', and in an opposite direction as it moves from o'
through n' to o. Now if the loop, instead of being
moveable upon thejring, be firmly attached to it, and the
ring itself carrying the loop be rotated on its axis in the
plane of the fixed magnet N M s, it will be tound that the
currents developed will correspond both in direction and

intensity with those produced in the moveable loop, pro-
vided we allow for the small displacement in the position
of the poles of the ring arising from its motion.

The foregoing statement may be extended from a single
loop to any number of loops forming part of a coil ex-
tending over the whole of the iron ring (Fig. 4). Each
loop of such a coil, during one-half of every revolution,
will tend to give a current in one direction, and during
the other half, a current in the opposite direction, and the
electromotive force thus produced will augment with the
number of loops in the coil. If, then, metallic conductors,
c €,</ c', are applied to the loops (whose surfaces must be
exposed at one point for this purpose) as they pass through
the positions O and o', continuous currents, all in the
same direction, will be obtained on rotating the ring with-
out the use of a commutator, unless we apply that term
(as Pacinotti has done) to the system of conductors or
rheophori by which the currents are carried off.

In order to obtain currents of high intensity, the single
coil must be replaced, as in similar machines, by a num-
ber of coils of thin wire rolled one above the other and
carefully insulated. To carry oft the current, these coils
must be divided into separate helices, with the adjacent
terminals of the 'wires of the helices in metallic connec-
tion, so that the iron ring may be always surrounded by
an endless conductor of great length. I have already
described the arrangements adopted in the transversal
electro-magnet of Pacinotti. The construction of the
ring armature in Gramme's machine will be readily un-
derstood from Fig. 6, in which it is represented in diffe-
rent stages of its construction, so as to show the manner
in which the principal parts are connected.* At A a sec-
tion of the iron ring itself is shown, composed of a bundle
of iron wires ; at B B the helices, or bobbins, are seen
both in section and detached ; and at R r the form is
shown of one of the insulated copper conductors, to
which the contiguous ends of the wires of the helices are
attached, and from which the current is drawn off by
means of rubbers or brushes formed of flexible bundles of
copper wire. These brushes are so applied at the neutral
positions of the ring that they begin to touch one of the
conductors R, before they have left the preceding one. In
this way no actual break or interruption occurs in the
current. The permanent magnets employed in the smaller

Fig. 6.— Gramme Armature.

Gramme machines are on the improved construction of
M. Jamin.

With a small machine, on the Gramme construction,
very remarkable electrical effects may be obtained. I
will give the results of a few experiments which I recently
made with one of the two machines exhibited at the late
meeting of the British Association, and which are now in
Queen's College, Belfast. This machine was able to heat
to full ignition in daylight a platinum wire one foot in length,
and weighing 12 grains. With a voltameter formed of two
slips of platinum foil, exposing each a surface of 1*25
square inches, and at the distance of half an inch from
each other, immersed in dilute sulphuric acid, water was
freely decomposed. For 100 turns of the machine, the
volumes of the mixed gases collected at different rates of
turning were as follows : —

In 34 seconds 260 cubic inches

„ 45 » 2-53

» 75 » i'45

„ 135 » o"35 »

From these observations it appears that, under the con-
ditions of this experiment, the quantity of water decom-
posed for the same number of revolutions of the ring
increases quickly with the rate of the motion till a certain

• I take this opportunity of expressing my obligations to M. A. Niaudet-
Breguet for his kindness in enabling me to give the admirable figures of the
Gramme Machine which illustrate this paper. They first appeared in a
short work on the Gramme Machine, recently published by M. Breguet, to
which I beg to refer for more detailed information regarding its practical
applications (" Machines Magneto-electriques Gramme." Par M. A. Niaudet-
Brcguet. Paris, 1875).

132

NATURE

{Jtme 17, 1875

rapidity is attained, after which little^ further change
occurs.

An interesting experiment may be made with these
machines, which illustrates a well-known dynamical prin-
ciple, by turning the machine at a steady rate, with the
wires for transmitting the current disconnected, and
observing the great additional force required to maintain
the motion on connecting the wires.

The machine may be converted into an electro-mag-
netic one by transmitting the current from a voltaic pile
through the helices of the iron ring, which will then rotate
upon its axis. If the current be supplied by another
magneto-electric machine, the same result will be pro-
duced, and we shall thus have mechanical force, after
assuming the form of current electricity, reappearing, but
with some loss, in the form of mechanical force. In an
experiment on the large scale described by M. Breguet,
the loss amounted only to thirty per cent. If during this
experiment the machine which supplies the current has
its motion reversed, the other machine will soon come to
rest, and afterwards begin to turn in the opposite direc-
tion. The intensity of the current, M. Breguet remarks,
augments with the velocity of the rotation, the electro-
motive force having been proved by experiment to be
proportional to the velocity. At first view it might appear
that the resistance would remain constant ; but as the
intensity is found not to be proportional to the velocity
of an invariable circuit, we are led to the conclusion
that the resistance of the machine is not constant. This
important point has been established by M. Sabine, but
the details of his experiments have not been published.
The increase of resistance is, however, so small, that a
machine which gives with a velocity of 100 turns per
minute a current equal to that of one small Bunsen's
element, will give with a double velocity a current equal
to two such elements a little larger, and with a quadruple
velocity a current equal to four still larger elements of
Bunsen. It is certain that this increase of electromotive
force cannot be indefinite, but must tend towards a limit ;
but this limit does not appear to have been reached even
with a velocity of 3,000 turns per minute.

{To be continued^

ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE HUMAN

BODY DURING MOUNTAIN-CLIMBING
T N the year 1869 both Dr. Wm. Marcet, of Nice,* and Dr.
■•■ Lortet, of Lyons,f published the results of thermo-
metric experiments prosecuted by themselves on them-
selves during the ascent of Mont Blanc. Both physio-
logists discovered that during the act of ascent, if it were
rapid and prolonged for any considerable time, the tem-
perature of the body fell considerably, as much as 3"6° F.
in the case of the English, and even 8*6° F. of the French
observer. The temperature was taken in the mouth, and
read off by means of a small reflector attached to the
thermometer, which is a much more satisfactory manner
of recording reducing temperatures than the employment
of maximum registering instn.iments. Dr. Marcet tells
us that in order to assure himself that the cooling of the
body during the ascent was really due to the muscular
effort, and not to the effect of the rarefaction of the air,
he made one ascent (from Cormayeur to the plateau of
Mont-Frety, about 2,440 yards high) partly on mule-back.
After having gone two-thirds the distance, his tempera-
ture was 97*5° F., when, leaving the mule, he performed
the rest of the journey on foot as quickly as possible.
Just before arriving at the end, his temperature was not
above 95° F., or 2-5° below what it was thirty-five minutes
before, at the lower level. Another peculiarity observed
by this author is that the body-temperature, after having

sene, t. xxxvi.

* " Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles.'
p. 247. (Geneva.

t " Recherches Physiologiques sur le Climat des Montagnes" (Paris.)

diminished during an ascending walk, rapidly rose again
upon rest being taken, or on the speed being reduced.

All these unexpected results have, from the absence of
fresh facts to throw light upon them, been but little dis-
cussed. It has been asked whether the above-described
fall of temperature depends on the transformation of the
energy of muscular action into work instead of, as usual,
into heat in the body. The answer to this question is,
however, not so easy as it might at first sight appear. If
the exalted temperature of warm-blooded animals in a
state of rest is the index of the amount of internal work
done by the heart and the respiratory muscles, then extra
muscular work will produce a proportionately greater rise
of body-temperature, as it is employed in doing less ex-
ternal work, and the reverse ; from which consideration
it is rendered theoretically probable that the rise in tem-
perature attending a rapid ascent of an incline would be
much less considerable than that accompanying a similar
effort which is attended by no external effect. In fact, the
temperature of an individual in the act of throwing
oranges forcibly away in all directions should be scarcely
above the normal, whilst if he continually throws one up,
again catching it, his temperature should rise consider-
ably. In the one case the muscular effort is employed in
heating the ground against which the moving oranges
come in contact whilst being brought to rest ; in the
other case the energy lost to the body in the upward pro-
jection of the mass is regained in the form of heat when
the muscles of the limbs resist its downward movement
in catching it.

At this stage of the inquiry the elaborate investigations
of Prof Forel, of Lausanne,* prosecuted with indefati-
gable industry during the last four years, form an impor-
tant addition to the literature of the subject. This
physiologist, in a most painstaking and thorough manner,
has investigated the whole problem, together with all the
minor details associated with it : the results he has
arrived at have consequently a wider interest than the
simple solution of the question which originally led to
their being commenced.

In his earlier series of experiments. Dr. Forel, whilst
staying at the Rhone Glacier, at Zermatt and at the Lake
of Geneva, ascended the Grimsel, the Riffel, and to
Chigney, as well as to other neighbouring heights, in the
end arriving at the following conclusions :— firstly, that the
method of measuring the body-temperature in the mouth
is not sufficiently precise for the study of the influence of
muscular exercise on the general temperature of the body ;
and, secondly, that the act of ascending normally pro-
duced an elevation of the temperature of the body to the
extent of several tenths of a degree, which diminishes
during the subsequent repose, in tending to regain the
normal standard.

These results, obtained in 1871, being directly at
variance with those of Doctors Marcet and Lortet, Dr.
Forel repeated his experiments with greater precision
during the years 1873 and 1874. He commenced by
determining the relative values of the different regions of
the body in which it is possible to employ the thermo-
meter for the estimation of the general temperature.
More than a hundred observations in the floor of the
mouth led him to reject that position for the thermometer,
chiefly because it is next to impossible, during muscular
exercise, to retain the mouth closed for any considerable
time in a cold, dry, rarefied air. The palm of the hand,
the arm-pit, and the external auditory meatus were re-
jected as being even less advantageous. The rectum was
the last resource, and its advantages were found to be so
great that all the most important results, to be mentioned
directly, were arrived at from temperatures obtained in
that situation.

The author commenced by forming a curve which repre-

* "Experiences sur la Temperature du corps Humain danS I'acte de
I'ascension sur les Montagnes." (Geneva and Bale, 1871 and 1874.)

June 17, 1825]

NATURE

133

sents the average temperature of his own body at the
different hours of the day, in order that he might ehmi-
nate this factor as a disturbing cause in his special obser-
vations. The curve represents an elevation of the
temperature between the hours of 3 and 9 a.m., and a fall
between 9 p.m. and 2 A.M., with an elevated temperature
during the day, the undulations of which are far from
constant and are difficult to characterise. In employing
these results practically, Dr. Forel has introduced a
method of turning them to account, which is as useful as
it is precise and ingenious. In any special experiment,
calling t the temperature, and T the normal temperature
at the time of observation as found from the tabulated
curve, then

• t- T= f
i' being the difference between the observed temperature
and that which, under ordinary circumstances, it would
be, either above or below it. As examples, we will take
two given by the author : —

At 12 o'clock, noon, T = 9909° F. On one particular
occasion / was found to be 99*5° F., and therefore
/- T=t' = +0-41° F.

On a secord occasion, at the same time of day, the
temperature observed was 9878° F., from which it is
evident that

/' = — o'3i.

By the employment of this very simple means, there-
fore, the ccmplications dependent on the time of day at
which an observation is made may be immediately eli-
minated ; all comparisons being between the different
values of /', and not of /. Whether the assumption that
the daily curve of body-temperature-change depends on
the time of the day at which the observation is made, and
on the time only, is a question into which the author does
not enter, notwithstanding that such is the case has been
by no means proved.

Turning now to the results arrived at from the investi-
gation, the position in which the subject was left by
Marcet and Lortet may be thus summarised : —

1. The temperature of the body, as a rule, falls during
the act of ascending an incHne.

2. During the time of the " mountain sickness," which
so frequently accompanies the ascent of lofty heights, the
body-temperature falls in a very marked manner.

Dr. Forel's earlier experiments, conducted in 1871, in
which the thermometer was retained in the mouth, as was
done by Marcet and Lortet, being directly opposite in their
tendency, led him to commence the whole subject in 1872,
as he remarks ab ovo, under his improved conditions.

As to the effect of an uncomplicated ascent, two in-
stances are given in full, in both of which a consider-
able rise in temperature accompanied a rapid ascent of
about an hour's duration. In one of these, at the end of
the journey, the thermometer registered 102-5° F., whereas
it was slightly below 100° F. on starting.

In a second series, three illustrations are given of the
effect of well-marked fatigue, just short of exhaustion.
The following are the deductions drawn from them : —

1. Even in conditions of great fatigue, the human body
rises in temperature upon the muscular effort of ascending
a height.

2. It is impossible for the author to determine if the
elevation of animal heat due to the movement of ascension
diminishes in proportion to the increase of the muscular
fatigue.

Next as to the influence of an empty stomach on the
temperature curve ; and it must be noted, with regard to
this point, that both Marcet and Lortet have stated that
the fall in temperature accompanying an ascent is more
marked during a fast than shortly after a meal. On him-
self. Dr. Forel, however, again proves that a fast of twelve
or even twenty-four hours is no obstacle whatever to the
rise of temperature which attends the muscular effort of
ascending a hill.

By collecting and comparing the temperature-curves
produced in ascending and descending inclines, the author
is enabled to verify the theoretical necessity that the body-
temperature is raised more by a descent than by an ascent.
From twenty-one experiments, the average rise in tempe-
rature attending the act of ascending is found to be
2'4i2° F., whereas the mean of seven descents is found to
be 2772° F. The difference, o'36° F., is small, it is true.
If this fact is reliable, we find that a certain amount of
heat is transformed into mechanical work during the act
of ascent, a certain quantity being returned to the organism
from without, under the opposite condition.

There are several minor points which Dr. Forel dis-
cusses in a particularly instructive manner, amongst
which are the time of cooling after muscular exertion, the
effect on the pulse and respiration of mountain climbing,
and the cause of mountain sickness. He terminates his
very interesting observations by the account of an ascent
of Mont Rosa in July 1873 (15,217 feet), in which, not-
withstanding that he suffered from mountain sickness,
the body-temperature never showed any tendency to fall
throughout, and was ioi*5° F. on his reaching the highest
point.

From this summary of Dr. Forel's results, when taken
in connection with those of Dr. Allbutt,* it is evident that
the temperature-fall observed by Drs. Marcet and Lortet
during mountain climbing requires re-verification, and
cannot be accepted as a physiological fact until a fallacy
has been shown to exist in the method of investigation
adopted by the Swiss experimenter. A. H. G.

NOTES

At Cairo, on the 2nd inst., the inaugural meeting took place
of the Societe Khtdivale de Geographie, tender the presidency
of the eminent traveller Dr. Schweinfurth and the patronage
of H.H. the Khedive, who has shown special favour to the
young society, having placed at its disposal a handsome suite
of apartments furnished in suitable style, and also pre-
sented a valuable library, besides subscribing 400/. a year to the
funds. This cannot but be gratifying to the friends of science
and progress, and is a hopeful sign for the future of Egypt and
of the extensive region from which it claims allegiance. Let us
hope that like results will follow the , intercourse between this
country and the Sovereign of Zanzibar. With these two African
potentates on the side of progress, the advantages to knowledge,
as well as to Africa, could not but be great. At all events,
under the powerful patronage of the Khedive, this Egyptian
Geographical Society is bound to make valuable contributions to
our knowledge of North Africa. Dr. Schweinfurth, in his
inaugural address, which was characterised by great fervour,
spoke of the domain and progress of geography. "It has
become," he said, "an immense domain, the meeting-place of all
branches of human science. The geography of the present does
not aim at merely describing the external form of the earth, the
vesture which it has assumed ; it seeks to show the chain of
hidden causes of which this form is the expression." lie then
spoke of Africa and the great interest attaching to it, and espe-
cially to the Nile, the sources of which he believes contain the
key to all the mysteries of Africa. Dr. Schweinfurth then
referred to the history of Egypt and its progress under its present
ruler, by whose special desire the Society has been organised.
The motto of the Society, he said, should be Nusquam otiosus,
and its duty CentraUur et encourager. After pointing out to
those who take a "utilitarian" view of science, that all the
comforts and commodities of modern hfe are due to researches
which, though purely theoretical in their origin, have yielded
magnificent practical results, Dr. Schweinfurth indicated the
benefits to be gained from the increase of geographical know-
• y our ttal 0/ Anatonty attd Physiology, yo\. xi. p. io6.

134

NATURE

\yune 17, 1875

ledge, and described the organisation of the new Society and
the task which lies before it. He showed what advantages a
Society so situated had over European societies for extending our
knowledge of Africa, and pointed out what yet remained to
be done ere the topography of North Africa could be considered
anything like completely known. We notice that the principal
geographical societies of Europe and Americ a have sent their
congratulations to Dr. Schweinfurth on the founding of this
Society ; England's name, however, is not mentioned.

Mr. Macleay, who has organised the expedition to New
Guinea, our readers may remember, has already liberally endowed
Sydney University. The ship he has fitted out for exploring
New Guinea is a 400-ton man-of-war. His chief object is to
enrich his Natural History collection, and he intends to do
deep-sea dredging ; he takes also a steam launch for ascending
the rivers. There is one immente river, named the "Fly" River,
after H.M.S. Fly, about which nothing is known. Mr. Macleay
thinks that he will be able to ascend some 200 miles.

M.'POLJAKOW, commissioned by the Russian Geographical
Society, undertook a journey last year into the region of the
Upper Volga, chiefly for zoological purposes, though he also
obtained some important geologico geographical results, an
account of which appears in Heft vi. of Petermann's Mittheil-
ttngen. From the observations which he made, Poljakow con-
cludes that the Scandinavian Finlandic glacier which once held
in its fetters the government of Olonez and the neighbouring
governments, must have stretched far into the basin of the Volga
and over the boundaries of the Waldai plateau ; and that by the
unequal levels of the lakes formed by the melting of the glacier, the
slender remains of which are seen in the existing lakes, undoubt-
edly a connection existed between the basin of the Volga and the
Arctic and Baltic seas. Judging from the fauna, Poljakow concludes
that the present upper course of the Volga must have been joined
to the middle and lower course at a recent period and in a man-
ner accidentally. The upper river has an entirely different and
indeed a more northern water fauna than the middle and lower
river. In this respect is the Scheksna to be considered the natural
upper part of the Volga, for it contains the very same fishes as that
river as far as Bjelosero.

Dr. Forel, of Lausanne, has for several years been investi-
gating what are known as the Seiches of the Lake of Geneva.
Seiche is applied locally to certain oscillatory movements which
are occasionally seen to occur on the surface of the lake. The
phenomenon had been investigated by previous observers, among
others by Saussure and Vaucher, who attributed the pheno-
menon to variations in atmospheric pressure; in this, Forel, who
has most minutely investigated the phenomenon, agrees with
them. The phenomenon is found to occur on other Swiss lakes,
and Forel believes it will be found in all large bodies of water.
Indeed, he recognises in the Seiche probably the most con-
siderable and the grandest oscillatory movement which can
be studied on the surface of the globe. His investiga-
tions have led him to the conclusion that the Seiche on the
Swiss lakes is an oscillatory undulation {ottdnlaiion de balance-
ment), having a true rhythm, and that the phenomenon
is not occasional, but constant, though varying in degree.
The duration of a Seiche is a function of the length and depth of
the section of the lake along which it oscillates j this duration
increases directly with the length and inversely with the depth
of the lake. The instrument he has devised for the investigation
of the phenomenon he calls a plemyrametre ("tide-measurer").
A detailed account of Forel's investigations will be found in two
papers in the Bull, de la Soc. vaud. des Sciences Naturelles,
tomes xil and xiii. Both papers have been republished sepa-
rately.

Heft vi. ' of Petermann's Mittheihmgen contains a valuable
paper by Vice- Admiral B. v. WitUerstorf-Urbair on the Meteo-
rological Observations made by the recent Austro- Hungarian
Arctic Expedition, with an analysis of the ship's course. The
paper is accompanied by a chart showing the drift of the ice, the
course of the ship, ^ the depths of soundings, the direction of the
wind, and various other data.

At the meeting of the Geographical Society on Monday, a
lecture was delivered by Admiral Sir Leopold M'Clintock on
"Arctic Sledge Travelling." After an account of the expedi-
tions of former Arctic travellers, from Parry downwards. Sir
Leopold gave a description of the appliances required for Arctic
travelling, and of the difficulties to be encountered. To sledging,
he said, we are indebted for almost all our Arctic experiences,
and to sledging we shall owe the principal share of whatever
work may be done by the brave men now going out. The
greatest bar to their progress would be ice too thin to sledge
over ; sledge-bearing ice or open water their equipments will
enable them to traverse.

An opportunity will occur of sending letters for the Arctic
ships Alert and Discovery by the exploring yacht Pandora, which
will leave Portsmouth about the 23rd instant, Mr. Allen
Young, commanding that vessel, having consented to receive
letters, newspapers, &c., upon the chance of their being delivered
to or deposited for those ships. No articles of value should be
sent, and letters, &c., should be addressed to the General Post
Office, and marked " Per exploring yacht Pandora."

A VERY full and interesting resume of the progress of geo-
graphical discovery and of the sciences connected with geography,
by M. Charles Maunoir, appears in the April number, just
issued, of the Bulletin of the French Geographical Society ; it is
illustrated by a series of small maps. The same number contains
the plan of a scientific journey into the interior of Indo-China,
by Dr. J. Harmand.

New York telegrams of June 12 report a terrible earthquake
in the Cucuta Valley, Republic of New Grenada. Cucuta, it is
stated, has been entirely destroyed. Five other towns were
nearly destroyed, and 16,000 persons are reported lost, out of a
population of 35,000.

A telegram dated Barcelona, June 10, states that some
shocks of earthquake had been felt there and in the neighbouring
villages.

The U.S. Hydrographic Office,'of which Commodore R. H.
Wyman, U.S N., is superintendent, has commenced the sys-
tematic establishment of secondary meridians by telegraphic
exchange of time-signals. Lieut. -Commander F. M. Green,
U.S.N., is at present in charge of the work, and has during the
past winter made observations at Panama, Colon, Kingston,
Santiago di Cuba, and Havana. The starting-point used for
the determination of longitude has been the meridian of Key
West, Florida, established with great care by the U.S. Coast
Survey. In addition to longitude observations, the latitude of
each station has been determined with the zenith telescope. The
work will be continued next winter through the Windward
Islands to Guiana and Brazil. The liberal conduct of the com-
panies owning the cables has much facilitated the successful
prosecution of the work.

We may see from the following extract from the New York
Nation how very closely our doings on this side of the water are
watched. The appointments referred to we have already an-
nounced in Nature, but the comments upon them by the
Nation indicate what we hope will be the method pursued by
England in the course of time, though we fear the course will
be a very long one. "Two recent appointments," the Nation

June IT, 1875]

NATURE

135

says, " in the University of Zurich seem to merit notice, as signs
of the times. One is that of Prof. W, Wundt to the Chair of
Philosophy, the other that of Prof. E. Hitzig to the Chair of
Psychology. Wundt has long been occupied at Heidelberg,
first as Assistant, then as ' Ordinary ' Professor of Physiology,
whilst Hitzig has been a medical practitioner and lecturer on
electro-therapeutics in Berlin. So far as we know, the latter
has written nothing on purely mental science. His discovery of
the irritability of the surface of the brain is his chief title to
fame ; all that he has written shows erudition, great experi-
mental thoroughness, and conscientiousness in drawing infer-
ences. Wundt is one of the most learned of German investigators.
His own special work has lain most in the line of the senses and
the nervous system, the territory common to mind and matter ;
and all the elements of his training hitherto unite to make him
an eminently well-qualified teacher oi mental science. Indeed,
we doubt not that his long apprenticeship in physiology was
accepted by him merely that he might be the better educated for
philosophy. In this country such appointments would probably
provoke a good deal of orthodox alarm. But in Germany not
only is thought more fearless of consequences, but ' camps ' in
opinion are much less clearly defined, and materialistic and
spiritualistic tendencies keep house together most amicably in
the same professional brains. We cannot help regarding such
appointments as these as hopeful tokens of a new era in philo-
sophical studies — an era in which the old jealousy between the
subjective and the objective methods shall have disappeared,
and in which it shall be admitted that the only hope of reaching
gentral truths that all may accept is through the co-operation of
all in the minute investigation of special mental processes. We
may then see solid philosophical conclusions gradually emerging
from the mass of discoveries of detail, just as happens in the
sciences more especially recognised as 'induc'.ive.'"

We take the following from the Atheticrtim : — Mr. William
Davis, who has been an attendant at the British Museum since
1843, but has practically fulfilled, for a long time past, duties
requiring considerable scientific acquirements for a salary which,
after the lapse of thirty years, had risen to the magnificent
sum of some twenty-five shillings a week, was on Wednesday
appointed by the Trustees an assistant in the Department of
Geology. Mr. Davis was the first recipient of the Murchison
Medal of the Geological Society, and is a well-known authority
upon vertebrate fossils, especially fishes and mammalia.

The series of papers on Portuguese Travel by Mr. John
Latouche, which have appeared in the Nrw Quarterly Magazine,
are shortly to be published by Messrs. Ward, Lock, and Tyler,
under the title of "Travels in Portugal," with illustrations by
the Right Hon. T, Sotheron-Estcourt.

A TELEGRAM, dated " Strangway Springs, April 17," has
been received from Mr. Ernest Giles, who has been exploring
to the north of Fowler's Bay, Australia. He had had one long
stretch of 220 miles without water ; all the horses died, and he
was only saved by^ his two camels. Mr. Lewis's expedition
to Lake Hope, South Austraha, has proved successful. Lake
Hope he found perfectly dry. Before completing his work, Mr.
Lewis purposes endeavouring to discover a route between the
south-west portion of Queensland and the north-west of New
South Wales, with a view of establishing direct overland com-
munication with the former colony.

The annual meeting of the Palestine Exploration Fund was
held last Thursday. Since the Society was founded in 1865,
four expeditions have been made, and surveys and excavations
effected. The surveys have extended from Mount Carmel in the
north to Beersheba in the south, and from Askelon in the west
to the Dead Sea.

The death of the lamented Remusat has created a majority in
favour of M. Dumas in the election which will take place at
the Academie Fran^aise five months hence. It was owing to
the prospect of a vacancy that the election was postponed when
the Academicians were unable to agree after three successive
meetings.

The death is announced, on June 9, at the age of seventy- nine
years, ol M. Deshayes, Professor in the Paris Musum of Natural
History.

La Revue Scientifique records the death, on May 11, at the age
of thirty-two years, at Algiers, of a distinguished Mussulman
chemist, Abdallah ben Mohammed. His mission was to instruct
in the physical sciences, and especially in chemistry, the native
Algerians ; for this purpose he had to devise an Arabic ter-
minology.

The death is announced of Senhor Joaquim Henriques Fra-
desso da Silveira, director of the Meteorological Observatory of
the Infanta Don Louis at Lisbon.

The Professorship of Chemistry at Munich, we learn from the
British Medical Journal, which has remained vacant since the
death of Liebig, has been accepted by Prof. Baeyer of Stra&burg,
who will commence his duties next winter session.

The jury of the Exhibition of the French Central Society of
Horticulture has awarded a large gold medal to M. De la Bastie
for his discovery of hardened glass, on account of the services it
is hkely to render to horticulture.

The Annual Report of the United [States Geological and
Geographical Survey, describing the explorations of the year
1873, which has just reached us, contains, besides the descriptive
letter-press, several valuable illustrations of some of the more
recently discovered, genera and species ofMammaha belongmg
to genera closely allied to Dinoceras (Marsh). These include
Symborodon bucco (Cope), 8. Saltirostris, and .S". ater, all very
pecuUar forms.

We have received the [thkd Annual Report of the Zoological
Society, oi Philadelphia, just^pubhshed, which tells very strongly
in favour of the institution. The additions by presentation and
purchase are numerous, including six Giraffes, an Elk, an African
and an Indian Elephant, and a Ka-Ka Parrot. We may judge
that the Gardens are constantly kept in view by the citizens in
their travels, from the fact that not less than twenty-three alliga-
tors were presented within three months.

The President of the Italian Geographical Society has re-
ceived favourable intelligence of the expedition sent to examine
the possibility of conducting the waters of the sea into the hollow
basins of the Sahara. The expedition will be divided into two
parties at Gares. ^ One is to explore the Oasis of Gerid, and carry
out some interesting collateral researches among the ruins of
Carthage, particularly the remains of the aqueducts and the
remarkable lead mountain of Gebel Drucas.

An attempt which has just been made to introduce living
humming-birds into the Paris Jardin d'Acclimatation has failed,
although a traveller managed to bring six alive to Paris by feeding
them with honey. The only other humming-birds which have
reached Europe alive were those brought by M. Delattre in 1855
from Central America, , but these died a fortnight after their
arrival in Paris.

" Nuragghi Sardi, and other Non-historic Stone Structures
of the Mediterranean Basin," is the title of an illustrated pampli-
let by Capt. S. P, Oliver, who offers it "as a slight contri-
bution towards the constantly increasing knowledge of those
pre-historic remains which are scattered in mysterious groups
throughout the Old Worid." Carson Brothers, of Dublin, are
the publishers.

136

NATURE'

\yune 17, 1875

The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during
the past week include a Grant's Gazelle {Gazdla granti) from
East Africa, presented by Dr. Kirk ; a Beccari's Cassowary
{Casuarius heccarii) from New Guinea, presented .by Sir James
Fergusson ; an Owen's Apteryx {Apieryx cnoeni), two Weka
Rails {Ocydromus australis), a Black Wood Hen {Ocydromus
fuscus), from New Zealand, presented by Dr. G. Hector ; two
Australian Cranes [Grus australaiiana) from Australia, pre-
sented by the Acclimatisation Society of Wellington, New Zea-
land ; a Brown Indian Antelope ( Tdraceros subquadruornidus)
from India, a Dufresne's Amazon {Chrysotis dufresniand) from
South-east Brazil, four Vulturine Guinea Fowls {Nuniida vultu-
rind) from East Africa, an Anaconda {Eunectes murinus) from
South America, purchased.

RECENT PROGRESS IN OUR KNOWLEDGE

OF THE CILIATE INFUSORIA"^
T BELIEVE that the object contemplated by the addresses
which it has been the custom of your Presidents to deliver year
after year to the Fellows of the Linnean Society will be best
fulfilled by making them as much as possible the exponent of
recent progress in biological science. The admirable addresses
with whicti my distinguished predecessor has during his long
tenure of office so greatly enriched our journal, afford an example
as regards the exposition of botanical research which may well be
followed in biology generally. The field, however, which thus
offers itself is so wide, the activity in almost every department so
intense, that the necessity of restricting the exposition within a
limited area becomes imperative if it be expected to produce
anything like a definite picture instead of a vast assemblage of
images confused and ill-defined by their very multiplicity and by
the condensation which would be inseparable from their
treatment.

While thus imposing on myself these necessary limits, it is
almost at random that I have chosen for this year's address some
account of the progress which has recently been made in our
knowledge of the Ciliate Iisfusoria— a group of organisms
whose very low posiiion in the animal kingdom in no way lessens
their interest for the philosophic biologist, or their significance in
relation to general morphological laws.

To enable you to form a correct estimate of the value of recent
researches, it may be well to bring before you in the first place,
as shortly as possible, the chief steps which have led up to the
present stand-point of our knowledge of these organisms.

It is scarcely necessary to remind you that the first important
advance which during the present century was made in our know-
ledge of the Infusoria dates from the publication of the great
work of Ehrenberg, * whose unrivalled industry opened up a new
field of research when, by his expressive figures and well-con-
structed diagnoses, he made us acquainted with the external
forms of whole hosts of microscopic organisms of which we had
been hitherto entirely ignorant, or which were known only by
such figures and descriptions as the earlier observers with their
very imperfect microscopes were able to give us.

Ehrenberg, however, as we all know, did not content himself
with pourtraying the external forms of the microscopic organisms
to whose study he had devoted himself, but sought also to deter-
raine their internal structure, of which scarcely anything had
been hitherto known. In this direction, no less than in the other,
the perseverance of the celebrated microscopist never flagged ;
but, unfortunately, at the very commencement of his researches
he slid into a misleading path, and was never again able to find
the right one.

Everyone knows how Ehrenberg, in accordance with precon-
ceived notions of the high organisation of all animals, attributed
to the Infusoria a complicated structure ; how, while he rightly
distinguished them from the Rotiferse with which they had been
confounded by previous observers, he yet regarded them as
intimately related to these representatives of a totally different
type ; and how, in attributing to them a complete alimentary
canal with numerous gastric offsets, he took this feature as their
most important character, and designated them by the name of
Polygastrka. And it is probably a matter of surprise to many
of us, that with the overwhelming mass of evidence which sub-
- sequent research has brought to bear against the truth of the

T * Anniversary Address to the Linnean Society, by the President, Dr. G.
J. Allman, F.R.S., May 24.

t " Die Infusionsthierchen als voUkommene Organismen." Leipzig, 1838,

polygastric theory, the great Prussian observer should still adhere
with undiminished tenacity to his original views.

Among the authors who, since the publication of the " Infu-
sionsthierchen " have contributed most to a correct estimate
of the morphology, physiology, and systematic position of the
Infusoria, the names of Von Siebold, Stein, Balbiani, Claparede,
and Lachmann, and most recently, Haeckel, stand out con-
spicuous.

The first who from a strong position offered battle to the
authority of Ehrenberg was Carl f heodor von Siebold. * Von
Siebold rejected in toto the polygastric theory, and, so far from
admitting a complexity in the organisation of the Infusoria, he
regarded them as realising the conception of almost the very
simplest form of life, and attributed to them the morphological
value of a cell.

Let us see what is involved in this most significant comparison.
The essential conception of a cell is, as you know, that of a more
or less spherical mass of protoplasm with or without an external
bounding membrane, and with an internal nucleus or differen-
tiated and more or less condensed portion of the protoplasm. It
was to a form of this kind that Siebold compared the body of an
Infusorium. He called attention to the soft protoplasmic mass
of which the body mainly consists ; to the external firmer layer
by which this is surrounded ; and to the variously-shaped body
differentiated in the protoplasm, to which Ehrenberg had gra-
tuitously attributed the function of a male generative organ.
Here then were, according to Siebold, the protoplasm body sub-
stance, the bounding membrane, and the nucleus of a true cell.

The morphological value thus attributed to the true Infusoria
— under which were included the Flagellatse — was extended by
Siebold to Amoeba and its allies, and to the whole assemblage
so constituted he assigned the position of a primary group of
the animal kingdom to which he gave the name of Protozoa,
whose essential chiracter was thus that of being unicellular
animals. He then divided his Protozoa into those which had the
faculty of emitting pse-.idopodial prolongations of their protoplasm
(Amoeba, &c.), and those in which the place of the pseudopodia
v/as taken by vibratile cilia or by lash-like appendages. To the
former he gave the name q{ Rhizopoda ; to the latter he restricted
that of hifiisoria ; and lastly he divided the Infusoria into the
mouth-bearing, Stomafoda (Ciliata), and the mouthless, Aiiomata
(FJagellata). From every point of view Von Siebold's concep-
tion of the morphology of the Protozoa, and his sketch of their
classification, however much this may have been subsequently
modified, must be regarded as marking out an epoch in the
history of zoology.

Shortly after this the unicellular theory was strongly supported
by Kolliker,t and received further confirmation from the re-
searches of Stein,J who, however, was unable to accept it to its
full extent. With an industry almost equal to that of Ehrenberg,
Stein had the advantage of the more philosophic views of organi-
sation which had emanated from the newer schools of biology,
and to him we are indebted not only for more accurate views of the
structure of the Infusoria, but for the first important contributions
to our knowledge of their development ; and though the opinion
which he at one time entertained, that the true Acinette are only
stages in the development of the higher Infusoria, has been aban-
doned by him, he has nevertheless demonstrated the presence in
an early period of the development of certain species, of peculiar
pseudopodial processes resembling the characteristic capitate
appendages of the Acinetse, an observation of importance in its
bearing on the relations of these last to the true Infusoria. No
doubt can remain, after Stein's observations, that the Infusoria
in their young state have the morphological value of a simple
cell, and it is only after their development has become advanced,
and that a marked differentiation has begun to manifest itself in
this primordial condition, that there can be any difficulty in
accepting their absolute unicellularity.

About this time Balbiani drew attention to some very im-
portant phenomena in the life history of the Inftisoria.§ It had
been known even to the early observers that the Infusoria multi-
plied themselves by a process of spontaneous fission. They had
been frequently observed in the act of transverse cleavage, and
had also been noticed in what appeared to be a similar cleavage
taking place in a longitudinal instead of a transverse direction.
Balbiani, however, showed that this apparent longitudinal

* Siebold, "Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie," 1845.
t i^eitschr. f. Wissens. Zool., 1849.
t Stein, "Der Oreanismus der Infusionsthiere," 1867.
§ Balbiani, " Recherches sur les organes generateurs et la reproduction
des Infusoires." Comj>tes Rendus, 1858, p. 383.

yune 17, 1875]

NATURE

137

cleavage had in many cases an entirely different significance ;
that it was, in fact, not the cleavage of a single individual, but
the conjugation of two distinct ones; and he connected this
phenomenon with what he regarded as a true sexual act.

It was then known that besides the nucleus which occupied a
conspicuous position in the protoplasmic mass, there existed in
many Infusoria another differentiated body similar to the nucleus
but smaller, and either in close contact with it or separated
from it by a greater •r less interval. To this body the
ill-chosen name of " nucleolus" had been given. Now, Bal-
biani's observations led him to believe that under the influ-
ence of conjugation this so-called nucleolus underwent a
change and developed in its interior a multitude of exceedingly
minute filaments or rod-like bodies, to which he attributed the
significance of spermatozoa ; while at the same time the nucleus
became divided into globular masses, which Balbiani regarded
as ^gs, and in which he believed he could recognise a germinal
vesicle and germinal spot. We should thus, according to this
interpretation, have in the Infusoria the two essential elements
of sexual differentiation, the spermatozoa and the egg.

Stein, though differing from Balbiani in certain details,
accepts in its general facts the sexual theory, and maintains the
spermatic nature of the rod-like corpuscles to which the nucleolus
appears to give rise. But however real may be the phenomena
described by Balbiani and by Stein, the correctness of assigning
to them a sexual significance may be called in question ; and it
is certain that subsequent observation has not tended to confirm
the hypothesis that we have in the Infusoria true eggs fecundated
by true spermatozoa.

Claparede and Lachmann, two able and indefatigable ob-
servers fresh from the school of the great anatomist Johan
Miiller, now entered the field, and their joint labours have given
us a great work on the Infusoria.* In this an entirely new view
of the morphology of the Infusoria has been introduced. Re-
ceding widely from the unicellular theory of Siebold, they
approximate towards the views of Ehrenberg in assigning to the
Infusoria a comparatively complex structure ; but instead of
adopting the polygastric theory of the Prussian microscopist,
they attribute to the Infusoria a single well-defined gastric cavity
occupying the whole of the space hmited externally by the outer
firm boundary walls of the softer protoplasmic mass ; while this
mass is regarded by them as nothing more than a sort of chyme
by which the gastric cavity is filled. According to this view,
the nearest relations of the Infusoria would be found among the
zoophytes, and their proper systematic seat would be in the
primary group of the Coclenterata.

Though few zoologists will now be prepared to accept the
conclusions of the Genevan naturalists, the ccelenterate relations
of the Infusoria has recently found an advocate in Greeff.f In
an elaborate memoir on the Vorticellse, Greeff sees in the very
well-marked distinction between the external or cortical layer
and the internal soft body-substance, a proof of the views main-
tained by Claparede and Lachmann ; a»d he considers this
position still lurther confirmed by the presence in Epistylis
flavicans of numerous oval or piriform, brilliant, well-defined
capsules, which are generally distributed in pairs below the outer
layer, and which, under the influence of a stimulus, emit a long
filament, thus closely resembling the thread-cells so well known
as characteristic elements in certain tissues of the Ccelenterata.

It must be here remarked that the presence of similar bodies
in the Infusoria, where they have been described under the
name of trichocysts, has long been known. Though varying in
fcrm, they all possess a more or less close resemblance to the
thread-cells of the Coclenterata. Their presence undoubtedly
indicates a step upwards in the differentiation of the organism,
but, as we shall presently see, it offers no valid argument against
its unicellularity.

In his admirable " Principles of Comparative Anatomy,"!
Gegenbaur expresses doubts as to the sexual nature of the
reproductive phenomena of the Infusoria, and is disposed
to regard the so-called embryo-sphere, to which the nucleus
gives rise, in the light of a proliferous stolon, from which
several zooids are in some cases thrown off. Arguing from the
Acineta-like form of the young in the higher Infusoria, as
shown by Stein, and comparing the transitory condition of
this with the permanent condition of the true Acineta;, he

* Claparede et Lachmann, " Etudes sur les Infusoires et les Rhizopodes."
Geneve, 1858-61.

t Greeff, " Untersuchungen iiber den Ban und die Naturgeschichte der
Vorticellen." Archiv fur Naturg., 1870.

X " Grundsiige der Vergleichenden Anatomic," 1870.

believes that we are justified in regarding the Acineta; z.% the
ancestral form from which the proper Infusoria have been
derived. He further compares the contractile vesicle and its
canals in the Infusoria with the water vascular system of the
worms, and believes that a parentage with these higher forms
is thus indicated. Gegenbaur, moreover, expresses himself
strongly against the unicellular theory. He regards, however,
the absence of distinct cell nuclei in the substance of the Infu-
soria as affording evidence of their composition out of several
" Cytodes" or non-nucleated protoplasm masses rather than out
of true nucleated cells.

Still more recently Biitschli has given us the results of obser-
vations on the conjugation of Paramc^cium aurelia. * He is led,
however, to doubt the vaUdity of the sexual interpretation of
the conjugation. He found that in certain cases in Paramcccium
aurclia and in P. colpoda the so-called spermatic capsule into
which the nucleolus had become converted, had entirely dis-
appeared without any evident change in the nucleus ; and he
concludes that fecundation of the bodies regarded by Balbiani
as eggs cannot be here entertained. Indeed, he will not allow
that we have evidence entitling us to regard the appearance of
filaments in the interior of the nucleolus as aftording any indi-
cation of true spermatozoa. He offers no explanation of this
appearance, but he calls attention to the fact that both Balbiani
and Stein noticed that in transverse division of the Infusoria — a
phenomenon with which conjugation can have nothing to do — the
nucleolus frequently enlarges and acquires a longitudinal striation
like that of the nucleolus in the supposed production of sperma-
tozoa during conjugation. Balbiani maintains that this striation
during cleavage is only superficial, but it nevertheless affords an
argument against assigning any more important significance to
the very similar appearance in the case of conjugation.

On the whole it would appear that the spermatozoal nature ot
the stria; visible in the nucleolus of the conjugating individuals
— even admitting that these striae represent isolatable filaments —
has not by any means been proved, while the phenomenon of
conjugation in the Infusoria would seem to correspond rather
with the conjugation so well known in many lower organisms,
where it takes place without being in any way connected with
the formation of true sexual products.

In the same memoir the results of observations on some other
points in the structure and economy of the Infusoria have also
been given by Biitschli, He records the occurrence of minute
crystal-like lamina; in the interior of a marine Infusorium (Slrovi-
biduan sulcatum) rendered remarkable by a conspicuous girdle
of trichocysts which surround its body. The crystal-like cor-
puscles seem to be of the nature of starch, for on the application
of iodine they assume a beautiful violet colour. It does not
appear from Biitschli's account of these bodies that they have
not been introduced from without, and the chief interest of the
observation seems to be in the discovery of an amyllaceous body
assuming a crystalline form. He had previously met with
similar bodies in a parasitic Infusorium (Nyctotherus oralis), as
well as in a Gregarina {G. blattarum).

He also describes, under the name oi Polykricos S-cuartzii, a
new Infusorium which he frequently found in the fjords of the
south coast of Norway and in the Gulf of Kiel, and which he
regards as especially interesting, from the fact that with a true
infusorial organisation it contains, irregularly distributed in the
outer layer of the body, numerous capsules indistinguishable
from the true ccelenterate thread cells. These bodies, however,
are never included in a special investment, and he justly regards
their presence as affording no argument against the unicellular
nature of the Infusoria, He lays it down as a probable distinc-
tion between the trichocysts of the Infusoria and genuine thread-
cells, that the former have the power of ejecting their contained
filament from both ends of the capsule, while we know that in
the thread cell it is only one end which gives exit to it. This
double emission of a filament appears to have been observed by
Biitschli in the trichocysts of a large Nassula, but the distinction
is certainly not a generally valid one. There is no doubt that in
the majority of cases the trichocyst emits its filament from only
one end of its capsule, exactly as in the thread cells of the
Coclenterata, and it is hard to see in what respect the bodies
noticed by Biitschli in his Polykricos Swartzii essentially differ
from true infusorial trichocysts. In conlusion, he declares him-
self strongly in favour of the unicellularity of the Infusoria.
(To ie contintud.)

* O. Biitschli, "Einiges fiber Infusorien." Archiv i. Microscop. Ailat.,
»873. «

138

NATURE

[June 17, 1875

SCIENTIFIC, SERIALS

The current number of the Journal of Anatomy and Physi-
ology contains much valuable scientific work, together with its
excellent Reports on the progress of Anatomy and Physiology,
by Prof. Turner and Dr. Stirling. The first paper is one on the
freezing process for section- cutting, and on various methods of
staining and mounting sections, by Mr. Lawson Tait. The
author prefers the non-employment of chromic acid, picric acid,
and other chemically-interfering agents. His section-cutter is a
modification of Stirling's, a freezing tank of considerable size
being added. The air- bubbles are removed from the sections by
the action of boiled water. Logwood and litmus are preferred
as staining agents, and their operation is given in proof of the
nuclei of cells being, contrary to ordinary ideas, alkaline. — Prof.
Flower, in a note on the construction and and arrangement of
anatomical museums, makes several very valuable suggestions,
which should be specially studied by those who have anything
to do with the establishment and construction of biological mu-
seums. He shows how that in lofty rooms, with galleries, lighted
at the ceiling-wall junction, the preparations have to be arranged
according to their manner of preservation ; dry, in bottles, and
otherwise ; which involves the separation of those illustrating any
single subject. A series of small side-lighted rooms allows of
all the specimens illustrating any single subject, however pre-
served, being placed in juxtaposition, whilst it separates off the
subjects. — Dr. HoUis remarks, with several interesting historical
references, on lopsided generation. — The next paper is by Mr.
Walter Pye, entitled observations on the development and struc-
ture of the kidney. The relation of the capsule to the Mai.
pighian tuft is explained upon the peculiarities observed in the
developing organ in a manner differing from the results of Riedel.
The characters of the ascending limbs of Henle's loops are de-
scribed in detail. A plate accompanies tlie paper. — Mr. Lowne,
in a note on the mechanical work of respiration, desires to prove
that the amount of work performed in the respiratory act is much
less than is usually stated, from calculations based on the relation
between the velocity of moving gases and the pressure producing
motion. — Dr. Howden describes a case of atrophy of the right
hemisphere of the cerebrum attended with the same condition of
the left side of the cerebellum and the left side of the body, in a
woman aged 30. — Prof . Turner figures and describes the Spiny
Shark {Echinorhinus spinosus) from a specimen captured near
Bass Rock, six-and-a-half feet long. The ureters were found to
open into the cloaca by a single orifice. There was no cement
gland in the oviduct, from which it is evident that the ova have
no horny case. The stomach is succeeded by a pyloric tube ;
pyloric caeca are absent. In comparing Lccinargus and Echmo-
rhinus, which are supposed to be closely related, it is found
that the former possesses two large duodenal caeca and no ovi-
ducts, whilst in the latter caeca are absent and oviducts deve-
loped. Prof. Turner also proves, from a specimen caught off the
mouth of the Frith of Forth, that the Postbeagle Shark {Lanma
cornubica) possesses a spiracle, contrary to the opinion of most
authorities. — Mr. D. J. Cunningham gives notes on the Great
Splanchnic Ganglion. In twenty-six cases, he failed to detect its
presence in six ; it is situated on the body of the twelfth dorsal
vertebra ; it is variable in shape and size. The same author
describes a case of lateral curvature of the spine in connection
with hypertrophy of the sympathetic nervous system in the lum-
bar and sacral regions. — Mr. Dwight makes remarks on the
position of the femur and on its so-called "true neck." — Drs.
Kronecker and Stirling describe in detail experiments on the
characteristic sign of cardiac muscular movement. The funda-
mental fact on which the investigation is based is the law of
Bowditch, that "the induction current of the weakest strength
which produces a contraction of the heart does not produce the
weakest of possible contractions." The fact that afiera pulsation
has been developed in the heart of a frog, by a certain stimulation,
the organ can be made to continue its beating with a diminished
stimulus, is compared to the difference between the effort first
required to sound a big bell and that necessary to maintain it
ringing. The effect of temperature on the cardiac irritability is
shown, the heart reaching its maximum mobility at 25° C. After
the discussion of the difficult phenomenon of cardiac tetanus, the
authors prove that "the cardiac muscles can only act equally
with the help of continually new nutrient fluid." The paper is
deserving of the attention of all physiologists.— Dr. Kronecker
also describes a new digestion-oven with a diffusion apparatus.—
Mr. J. C. Ewart has a note on a large organised cyst m the sub-
dural space.— Mr. J. Reoch writes on the decomposition of urea,

adducing evidence to show that in urine the urea is changed into
carbonate of ammonia by the action of a fungus the germs of
which are contained in the atmosphere.— Mr. M. Simpson de
scribes the existence of two precaval veins in a dog, a condition
constant in the kangaroo and some other animals.

Report of the Rugby School Natural History Society for the
Year 1874.— We are glad to be able to say that this Report is a
satisfactory one ; all the sections have done a fair quantity of
good work, and a large proportion of the papers read has been
the work of actual members or associates. The papers are all
highly creditable to the authors, and many of them give evidence
of well-trained powers of observation. Mr. J. M. Wilson con-
tributes three interesting papers. One, "On the construction of a
geological model of the neighbourhood of Rugby," contains some
queries and suggestions as to how such a work should be gone
about, and we are glad to see that the model has actually been
commenced and has already made considerable progress. This
is really most profitable work on which to employ the members
of the Society. Other papers by Mr. Wilson are, " On the com-
panion of Sirius," a note of an observation on the comes of
Sirius, from which Mr. Wilson infers that it has performed
twenty-three degrees of its revolution in ten years ; and " On
the Geology of Hillmorton." The following titles of papers by
members will give an idea of the work done by the Society :—
"On Mounting for the Microscope," by E. J. Power; "On
the Will-o'-the- Wisp," by H. W. Trott ; "On Owls," by H.
Vicars; "On the Sub-Wealden Explorations," by R. D. Old-
ham ; " On an Entomological Expedition," by H. F. Wilson,
who also contributes a paper "On the Great Spotted Wood-
pecker ;" "On Migrations," by W. C. Marshall; " On Bees,"
by H. Vicars ; " On Roman Remains near Church Lawford,"
by L. Knowles ; "On Drops of Liquid," by H. F. Newall, a
very interesting paper, giving evidence of some faculty for ori-
ginal research ; " On Cuckoos," by W. Larden. Mr. Newall's
paper on drops is illustrated by some carefully executed drawings.
The same member has constructed an ingenious compound pen-
dulum machine, an illustration of which is given, as also illus-
trations of some most delicate curves executed by the machine.
Among other illustrations we may mention a heliotype copy of a
drawing by J. H. Patry of fifteen various observations of the
planet Mars, taken at the Temple Observatory. Very full sec-
tional reports are appended, and under the head of " Statistics" .
a variety of information is given. Altogether this is one of the
most satisfactory reports published by this Society.

Zeitschrift der Oesterreichischen Gesellschaft fiir Meteorologie,
April 15.— This number contains an article by Prof. Buys-Ballot
on the climate of Buenos Ayres, and another on the hailstones
which have occurred in Wiirtemberg during the. forty-six years
1828-73.

Bulletin de VAcademie Roy ale des Sciences de Belgique, 2 Sen
t. xxxix. No. 3. — This number contains a note on Pecopteris
odontopteroides (Morris), by M. Francois Crepin. There is a
fossil from the coal measures of Hobart Town among those sent
by Mr. Allport to the museum, which M. Crepin refers to the
same species as that named by Prof. Morris. He doubts, how-
ever, whether Prof. Morris has assigned his specimen to its true
relationships, believes it is nearer to Odontopteris alpina (Gein),
and provisionally proposes Odontopteris Morisii as its name. —
On the calcaire carbonifere between Tournai and the environs
of Namur, by M. E. Dupont ; a description of forty-seven
pages, with two coloured folding plates of sections. — Researches
on the structure of the corda dorsaUs of Amphioxus, by M.
Camille Moreau. The work was carried on in the microscopical
laboratory of the University of Liege, under the direction of
Prof. E. Van Beneden. The paper consists of a description
with a plate. To complete the working out of the homologues
of the layers, further embryological observations, M. Moreau
says, are necessary. — No. 4. The communications in this num.
ber are : — Note on the temperature of the winter of 1874-75, by
M. Quetelet. The winter is compared with that of 1859-60,
and a table showing the resemblance is given. — Note on the
halo with mock moons of March 23, 1875, by M. Chas. Hoore-
man.— On the theory of the use of hot air in furnaces, by M. H.
Valerius.— On some fossil plants from the " Psammites du
Condroz," by M. A. Gilkinet. This paper is partly of criticism on
the work of M. Crepin, and is partly descriptive. Three folding
plates of illustrations are given.

Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles, vol. 51, No.
207 (March 15, 1875). — This part contains many papers trans-

yune 17, 1875J

NATURE

139

lated and reprinted from othtr serials, besides several original
ones. We note the following :— On the fossil vertebrata of the
State of Nebraska, by M. Delafontaine. On the measurement
of altitufles in Switzerland, executed by MM. Hirsch and Planta-
mour. On the action of galvanic currents upon alloys or amalgama,
by M. Eugene Obach. On some experiments with Hollz's
machine, by F. Rossetti. Researches on the spectrum of chloro-
phyll, by J. Cbautard.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

London
Linnean Society, June 3.— Dr. G. J. Allman, F.RS ,
president, in the chair.— The President rommated the fol-
lowinc pentlemen as Vice-presidents for the ensuing year,
viz. :-^Mr. G. Bentham, F.R.S. ; Mr. G. Busk, F.R.S. ;
Dr. J. G. Jeffreys, F.R.S. ; and Dr. J. D. Hooker, P.R.S.—
Prof. Thiselton Dyer exhibited, under the microscope, some
specimens of the very rare Alga Stephanosphara pluvialis, known
to occur only in a single locality in Britain, a pool on Bray
Head, in Ireland.— Dr. Trimen exhibited specimers of two
recert additions to the British flora, Zannickellia polycarpa,
found by Dr. Boswell-Syme in the Orkney Islands in 1847, and
Carex ornii/iopoda, discovered by two working men in Derby-
shire.—Mr. Pascoe exhibited a very fine collection of Crustacea
from the Bay of Naples. The following papers were then
read :— On the Barringtoniaceos, by J. Miers, F.R.S. The pur-
pose of this paper is to show that the Barringtoniaceas consti-
tute a distinct order, forming an extremely natural group with
peculiar and uniform characters, differing from the Myrtaceaj in
their alternate leaves without pellucid dots, and in the nature of
their inflorescence and fruit. They are trees, frequently of
large size, rarely low shrubs, all delighting in running
streams, some growing in estuaries or along the sea-shore.
The author describes the characters of the order in consi-
derable detail, and gives the diagnosis— in many cases re-
drawn from actual examination — of each genus and species.
The number of genera he makes to be ten. The paper was
accompanied with drawings illustrating the floral and car-
pological characters of each genus.— Note on the occurrence
of fairy rings, by Dr. J. H. Gilbert, F.R.S. This paper
was founded on the observations made by the author and
Mr. Lawes on their experimental plots at Rothamstead.
After some particulars as to the effect of different manures
in varying the proportion of different kinds of vegetation
in permanent pasture, especially grasses and Leguminosa?, the
author suggests that the determination of the source of the nitro-
gen in the fungi that constitute the fairy rings which frequently
make their appearance on the plots would throw some light on
the much-disputed question of the source of the nitrogen of the
Leguminos^. It is remarkable that although, according to
published analyses of various fungi, from one-fourth to one-t*.ird
of their dry substance consists of albuminoids or nitrogenous
matter, and 8 to 10 per cent, of mineral matters or ash, of which
about 80 per cent, is potassium phosphate ; yet the fungi develop
into "fairy rings" only on the plots poorest in nitrogen and
poorest in potash. The questions which appear still to require
solution are these :— (i) Is the greater prevalence of fungi under
such circumstances due to the manurial conditions themselves
being directly favourable to their growth? or (2) Are the lower
orders of plants— in consequence of other plants and especially
grasses growing so sluggishly under such conditions — better able
to overcome the competition and to assert themselves ? (3) Do
the fungi prevail simply in virtue of the absence of adverse and
vigorous competition, or to a greater or less extent as parasies,
and so at the expense of the sluggish underground growth of the
plants in association with them ? or (4) Have these plants the
power of assimilating nitrogen in some form from the atmo-
sphere ; or in some form or condition of distribution within the
soil, not available, at least when in competition, to the plants
growing in association with them ?— On a possibly wild form
of hibiscus Kosa-sinensis, by Prof. Oliver, F.R. S.

Mathematical Society, June 10.— Prof. II. J. S. Smith,
F.R.S., president, in the chair.— Prof. Cayley, F.R.S., made a
brief communication on some figures of airves in 3-bar motion.

Prof. Sylvester, F.R.S., spoke on "James Watt's parallel

motion," and on an apparatus for regulating the motion of a
train of prisms.— Mr. T. Cotterill read a paper on the correspon-
dence of points coUinear with a fixed origin. In the paper S

and yare taken homogeneous functions of any number of vari-
ables (say three, x y z): the degree of S being one lower than
that of 7] and are supposed to be connected with another set,
x' y z', of the same number of variables by the equations

:! = I = --!^. If the variables x y z, x' y' z", denote the co-
X V T

ordinates of two points in a plane, a correspondence is established
between them depending on the forms of S and T. The object
of the paper is to explain the relations between the corresponding
curves and to give examples.

Physical Society, June 12.— Prof. Gladstone, F.R.S., pre-
sident, in the chair. — Lord Lindsay, Sir W. Thomson, and Prof.
Sylvester were elected members. — Mr. Wildman Whitehouse
described some experiments he had made on the electric conduc-
tivity of glass. He employed pieces of thermometer tube about
an inch in length, into the bore of which two platinum wires
were inserted in such a manner that there was an interval between
the points. In some casts one wire of platinum occupied the
entire bore of the tube, and this tube was surrounded on its
external surface by a helix of wire of the same metal. In each
case the arrangement was introduced into a circuit in which were
also placed a Thomson galvanometer and a set of resistance coils.
It was shown that at the ordinary temperature there was no deflec-
tion, but that the current passed freely when the glass was heated
to redness. The difficulty of making contact with the glass led
Mr. Whitehouse to use two test-tubes, one inside the other, both
containing mercury, with which wires of platinum freely commu-
nicated. The flame of a Bunsen burner was applied to the outer
test-tube and the temperature of the metal noted by the aid of a
thermometer. In one series of experiments the diameter of the
internal tube was | inch, the length in contact with the mercury
about 3I inches, and the thickness of the glass yjjjlh of an inch.
A current was first observed to pass at 100° C, and, as the tempe-
rature rose, the amount of deflection increased. The following
are approximate measurements of the resistance of the glass at
different temperatures : —

At 165° C. Resistance = 229,500 Ohmads
,, 185 ,, ,, = 100,000 ,,

,, 210 ,, ,, = 69,000 ,,

„ 255 „ „ = 22,500 ,,

,, 270 ,, ,, = 9,000 ,,

,, 300 ,, ,, = 6,800 ,,

Prof. Gladstone drew attention to the necessity for ascertaining
the nature and composition of the glass. — Prof. Guthrie alluded
to the fact that electricity of high tension is freely conducted by
glass at a red heat. He also asked whether, as the temperature
was raised, a point was reached at which the conductivity began
to decrease.— Prof. M'Leod pointed out that the thermometer
tubes used by Mr. Whitehouse were of lead glass, and that
the lead had in most cases been reduced by exposure to the
flame of the Bunsen burner, and he urged that these facts should
not be overlooked in measuring the resistances. He stated that
lead glass is better than other kinds ot glass for insulation. —
Prof. G. C. Foster asked whether an increased capacity due to the
heating might not introduce an error into the measurements of
resistance. Mr. Whitehouse replied that he had only recently
commenced the experiments, and promised that the sugnesiions
which had been made should receive due attention. — The Pre-
sident then read a paper on the time required for double decom-
position of salts. It is well known that if, on mixing solutions
of two salts, MJi and A/'J\', an insoluble body can be produced
by an inteichange of metals and radicals, that body is produced
to the fullest extent possible. The only explanation of this fact
which has been given is founded on the theory of Bertholet, that
in all cases of mixture there is a redistribution of the constituents
according to their relative affinity and mass, with the production
of more or less A^A" and A/'J^. Now, if one of these, say MA",
be insoluble, it will remove itself at once from the sphere of
action, but this will necessitate a fresh distribution of the consti-
tuents with the production of more insoluble salt, and so on until
the whole of the A/ has entered into combination with A". Dr.
Gladstone commenced this research twenty years ago, and added
in a note to a paper in the Phil. Trans. : " It is easily conceivable
that when the affinity for each other of the two substances ihat
produce the insoluble compound is very weak, the action may
last some time and become evident to our senses. Is not this
actually the case when sulphate of lime in solution is added to
nitrate of strontia, or carbonate of soda to chloride of calcium,
or an alkaline carbonate to tartrate of yttria, or oxalate of

I40

NATURE

[June 17, 1875

ammosia to sulphate of magnesia, &c. ?" — The President gave
several experimental illustiations of the time required for double
decomposition. He showed that ferric chloride and sulphocyanide
of potassium react instantly, that citrate of iron and meconic
acid, chloride of platinum and iodide of potassium, react gra-
dually. The rate of change really depends on the degree of
rapidity of the inter-difiusion of the salts. It is also affected to
a very great extent by temperature. The following numbers
illustrate the rate at which sulphate of strontium is deposited on
the addition of sulphate of calcium to a solution of nitrate of
strontium. : —

Cloud in 4 minutes

0'07i grms. ,, 20 ,,

0-130 „ ,, 60 ,,

0303 ,, ,, no ,,

0-497 „ „ 170 „

o'659 „ ,, 1270 ,,

The total amount of salt which could be formed being i"5 grms.

Astronomical Society, June 11. — Prof. Adams, president,
in the chair. — Mr. Lecky explained the use of two ancient
instruments he had given to the Society. The smaller one was
known as a night dial ; it was used about the end of the sixteenth
century for finding the time at night by the position of the
pointers of the Great Bear. The observer stood with his face to
the north, and the instrument was held in one hand, so that a
line upon it was by estimation vertical to the horizon ; and with
the other a moveable arm like a clock hand was turned until it
was parallel to the direction of the pointers. The time was then
read upon the circumference of a boxwood circle, which had to
be set afresh for every night of the year. The other instrument
was a Backstaff, which was used at sea until the invention of the
sextant for determining the sun's altitude. The observer in using
it stood with his back to the sun (whence its name), and he
measured the arc between the sun's place and the opposite horizon
through the zenith. The instrument which was in use before this
was a very simple contrivance, being merely a pole along which
a moveable bar at right-angles was shifted, until the cross-bar
subtended the same angle when looked at by the observer with
his eye at the end of the pole as the sun's altitude. Such
contri'/ances were called Forestaffs, and were in use at sea until
1591, when Capt. Davis invented the Backstaff. — Mr. Marth
exhibited a drawing of the orbits of the satellites of Saturn as
they will be seen from the earth about the middle of August
next, Avheu there will be a conjunction of the satellite lapitus
with the ring and ball of Saturn. Mr. Maith was anxious that
observations of this conjunction should be made by the possessors
of large telescopes, in order to afford data for the improvement
of the theory of the satellites of Saturn. — A paper was read by
Mr. Knobel on an instrument for determining the magnitudes of
stars. — Mr. Christie said that the probable error in determin-
ing the magnitude of a star with his photometer amounted to
only the twentieth of a magnitude, but that the probable error
varied for stars of different colours, owing to the effect of con-
trast with the light of the sky, which caused a red star to be
more easily distinguished when its light was diminished than a
star with a blue tinge.

Anthropological Institute, June 8. — Col. A. Lane-Fox,
president, in the chair. — Capt. Richard F. Burton, H.M.
Consul at Trieste, read two papers on Ancient Remains in
Dalmatia, viz., " The Long Wall of Salona" and "The ruined
cities of Pharia and Gelsa di Lesina." Salona was the Roman
metropolis of Dalmatia, of which southernmost province of
Austria, Spalato was at present the natural, and Zara the arti-
ficial and political capital. The ' ' long wall " was of doubtful
and debated origin, and a reference to numerous ancient and a
few modem writers on it was made to show the obscurity in
which it still remains. The author gave an account of his
explorations, with detailed measurements of the ancient struc-
ture, called by some " Cyclopean," and especially pointed out
the great variety of stone dressing it presented, which would
afford valuable evidence in determining the style and perhaps the
date of the work. His conviction that the long wall of Salona
was Greek and pre- Roman rested very much upon the fact that
similar constructions exist in the neighbourhood. In the island
of Lesina the two ruins visited and described by Capt.
Burton presented a remarkable resemblance, amounting almost
to identity, to the long wall of Salona, and suggested that
-they were all the work of a single people, and that people
not the barbarous Illyrians, but the comparatively civihsed
Creeks. Only two flint implements had been found, and those

were discovered at Salona, near Spalato. The exploration of
the Dalmatian Islands was attended with much difficulty ; the
scarcity of water was an evil to be met, and a Slavic guide
was necessary unless the traveller could himself speak Slavic, for
the inhabitants all belong to that race. The islands never
having been previously explored (as far as the author was aware)
by Englishmen, there was a large field of research for the anti-
quarian as well as the more general anthropologist
Paris
Academy , of Sciences, June 7. — M. Frdmy in the chair. —
The following papers were read : — On the different effects pro-
duced by the same temperature upon the same species of plants,
in the north and in the south, by M. A. de Candolle. —
Researches on magnetic rotatory polarisation, by M. Henri
Becquerel. — On a new method and a new instrument for tele-
metry (quick measurement of distances), by M. Giraud Teulon.
— On the transformation of the camphor of Laurima into cam-
phene, and reciprocally of the camphenes into camphor, by M.
J. Riban.— -A note, by M. J. Ponomareff, on thiammeline, a
new derivative of persulphocyanogen. — On the dissociation of sul-
phocarbonate of potassium in the presence of ammonia salts, by
M. Rommier. — On the theory of revolution surfaces which, by
way of deformation, can be superposed on one another, and each
on itself in all its parts, by M. F. Reech.— Communications on
Phylloxera, by several gentlemen. — Several papers of minor
interest, competing for the prize of Medicine and Surgery.
—On the geographical position of the island of St. Paul, by
M. Mouchez ; he finds the latitude to be 38° 42' 50" 796 S.
(with a probable error of o" 03), and the longitude, 5h. om. 49s.
(probable error, 4s.).— On fluorcne and the alcohol derived from
the same, by M. Ph. Barbier. — Researches on taurine, by M. R.
Engel. — On the bibromide of angelic acid, by M. E. Demarcay.
— On three observations of accidents fromj lightning, by M.
Passot. — Analysis of the mineral coal of the Suderoe Island
(one of the Faroes), by MM. Bechin and Ch. Mene. — Remarks
by M. Tresca, on a projected atmospheric post between Paris
and Versailles. — A note by M. Emm. Liais, on the parallax
of the sun. — M. Vibraye then drew the Academy's attention to
the apparition of a destructive hemipterous insect in the vine-
yards of the Loir et Cher Department. The insect is very
similar to Phytocoris gothicus. — Remarks by M. J. de Cossigny,
on waterspouts. — On a new propeller of steamships, by M. E.
Lehman.

BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

BRiTisH.-;-Encyclopffidia Britannica, 9th edit., vol. ii. (A. and C. Black).
— On the Principles and Management of the Marine Aquarium : Wm. R.
Hughes, F.L.S. (John Van Voorst).— The Life and Growth of Language.
International Series : W. Dwight Whitney (Henry S. King and Co.)— First
Annual Report of the Yorkshire College of Science, Leeds.— The Positive
Philosophy of Auguste Comte : freely translated and condensed by Harriet
Martineau. 2 vols. (Trukner) —The Geological Evidences of the Antiquity
of Man reconsidered— an Essay by Thos. Karr Callard, F.G.S. (Elliot
Stock).— Corals and Coral Islands : Jas. D. Dana (Sampson Low and Co.)-^
An Introduction to the use of the Mouth-Blowpipe : Scheerer and Blandford
(Frederic Norgate).

CONTENTS PxoB

Croll's "Climate AND Time" i^i

Hu.DEBRANDssoN ON Ui'PBR Atmospheric Currents 123

Our Book Shelf: —

" The Zoological Record " 12^

Letters to the Editor :—

SystemsofConsanguinity.— Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S. . 134
Attraction and Repulsion caused by Radiation —William

Crooke-s, F.R.S. .. . J25

American Indian Weapons.— Col. A. Lane-Fox ' 125

Hardened Glass.— Henry Pocklington 125

The House-fly— A Query.— Harrovian 136

Our Astronomical Column :— ■

Variable Stars ^g

The Binary Star n Coronse Borealis '. .* 126

Proper Motion of B. A. C. 793 127

Minor Pl.anet No. 146 '. ! .' 127

Science in Germany ".!!.! i .'! 127

Zoological Nonsense !...*'.! ii8

Lectures at the Zoological Gardens, VII. : June 10.— Prof. Mivart

on Kangaroos j2g

Magneto-Electric Machines, II. By Dr. Andrews, F.'r.'s. 'nVit'h

Illustraiions) j,q

On the Temperature of the Human Body during Mountain-
climbing ,^2

Notes '. I *..*..'.!'. 133

Recent Progress in our Knowlkdge of the Ciliatk Infusoria.

By Dr. G J. Allman, F.R.S 136

Scientific Serials 138

Societies and Academies .. i ,,..,. \ ,'.'.. ', 139

Books and Pamphlets RkcbiVkd . . . ; 140

NATURE

I4X

THURSDAY, JUNE 24, 1875

CROLLS ''CLIMATE AND TIME"*
Climate and Time in their Geological Relations j a theory
of Secular Chatiges of the Earth's Climate. By James
Croll, of H.M. Geological Survey of Scotland. (London :
Daldy, Isbister, and Co., 1875.)
II.

MR. CROLL'S own theory about the distribution of
heat by means of ocean currents is in intimate
connection with his ideas as to the variation of climate in
past time. His theory may be summarised as follows : —
The Gulf Stream and 'other warm or cold currents are
due entirely to the prevailing system of winds, which
force the water along the surface, or even make it take a
lower course ; the return of the colder water from the
Arctic regions being assisted by the difference of level
caused by driving up the waters into a narrow basin, such
as he supposes those regions to be. The result of this
theory is, that if one hemisphere is colder than the~ other,
the trades on that hemisphere will be strongest, and the
resulting warm current will flow into the warmer hemi-
sphere ; any difference, therefore, in the mean temperature
of one hemisphere from that of the other is augmented
according to this theory by ocean circulation, whereas on
Dr. Carpenter's theory the latter would have a counter-
acting influence. When, however, we take both theories
into account, and also the effect of the distribution of land
and sea, which is remarkably manifested by the two facts
of the South Atlantic being coldest and the North Pacific
also coldest, we see that we are not in a position to
estimate the effect, if any of much consequence, of the
different forms of ocean circulation on the occurrence of
a glacial epoch, but must look for the causes of the latter
independently.

Now what are the known facts to be explained ? They
are well described in various parts of this book, and the
proofs of the less known are carefully given. We have first
the widespread indications of a sheet of land ice in the
northern hemisphere, reaching in some parts far down
into temperate, if not into tropical regions ; secondly,
similar indications in the southern hemisphere during the
same geological period, but without any proof of their
being contemporaneous even in centuries with those in
the northern ; thirdly, a much milder climate than at
present prevailing in very high latitudes in comparatively
modern geological periods, though anterior to the glacial
epoch ; fourthly, that these changes from more intense cold
to more intense heat have been going on throughout the
whole of geological time ; and lastly, that in the midst
even of the glacial epoch, warm interglacial periods oc-
curred. No satisfactory theory of the cause of the glacial
epoch can leave any of these facts unaccounted for, still
less contradicted. Sir Charles Lyell's theory, referring it
to an alteration of the distribution of land and sea, does
not well adapt itself to the magnitude of the phenomena
indicated above in the first and second facts, and requires
very sudden and violent changes to account for the fifth ;
and, moreover, it is shown by Mr. Croll that the distribu-
tion he indicates would have the very opposite effect to

* Continued from p. 123.

Vol. XII.— No. 295

that supposed ; geologists are therefore driven, however
reluctantly, to consider the action of cosmical causes.
Four theories founded on such causes have been pro-
posed.

The first, that the solar system was passing through a
cold region of space, may be dismissed at once ; the
second is that the sun is a variable star, and therefore
the amount of heat received from him is variable ; the
third is, that the glacial epoch was due to a great obliquity
of the ecliptic ; and the fourth, Mr. CroU's, is that it
depended on an increased eccentricity of the orbit com-
bined with aphelion winters. We will discuss the last
theory first, and examine Mr. Croll's proofs of it. In order
to show how the eccentricity has varied in past time, and
to find the periods at which it was a maximum or minimum,
Mr. Croll has calculated by means of Leverrier's formula
what its amount has been or will be, from 3,000,000 years
past time to 1,000,000 years in the future, for intervals of
50,000 years, and has given a diagram and tables to
illustrate the result. This must have been a most labo-
rious task, but we are sorry to say that the results re-
quire confirmation. We have repeated the calculations
for two of the most remarkable dates, near which the
change is represented by Mr. Croll as very rapid from a
maximum to a minimum, viz., 850,000 and 900,000 years
ago respectively, and find that at the former date the
eccentricity was "0697 instead of '0747, and at the latter
date was '0278 instead of "0102 as expressed in the table.
To satisfy ourselves that the mistakes are Mr. Croll's and
not ours, we have recalculated also one of Mr. Stone's
and one of M. Leverrier's results which have been used
by Mr. Croll for the completion of his table, and in both
instances have exactly verified them. The fact that the
eccentricity was large when he represents it so, and small
when he makes it small, seems to indicate that some
approximating progress has been followed, and that pos-
sibly his diagram may give a rough idea of the changes
of eccentricity for past time, provided of course that we
agree to Leverrier's formula being used for such remote
periods.

Assuming, however, that at some past date the eccen-
tricity of the earth's orbit approached its maximum value,
and that at the same time the winter of one hemisphere
occurred in aphelion, what would be the result ? In the
first place the total annual heat received from the sun,
which varies inversely as the minor axis of the earth's
orbit, would be 'slightly increased, but not sufficiently to
have much, effect upon chmate. The more important
result would be that the hemisphere whose winter was in
aphelion would have it very rigorous, and its summers
would be very hot, while the other hemisphere would be
enjoying a perpetual summer. It is on this that Mr. Croll
relies for producing a glacial epoch, and we see that it
involves the statement that the two hemispheres were 7iot
glaciated at the same time, while the other theories
assume that they were.

Our question therefore is : Will an extreme difference
between the winter and summer temperature produce a
glacial epoch ? The actual amount of heat received by
either hemisphere may easily be shown to be the same,
whether there are great or little differences between
summer and winter, whether as to their length or their
intensity, so that a glacial epoch could not be the direct

142

NATURE

\yune 24, 1875

result, and we must look to the indirect effects. While
agreeing in the existence of many of those pointed out by
Mr. CroU, we cannot think it quite so settled a matter as
he does, as they do not all act in the same way. In the
first place, though the total amounts of summer and
winter heat together are equal in the two hemispheres,
yet, since a larger proportion of the greater summer heat
is available than of the smaller winter heat, the more
unequal these are, it follows generally that more heat
must be obtained, and therefore the more uniformly
heated hemisphere will be coldest ; but secondly, as Mr.
CroU states, we must consider the formation of snow, i.e.
take into account the latent heat of water and other physi-
cal properties. Some of his arguments on this point are
rather circular, for whatever amount of heat is rendered
latent in the melting of ice, as much will be supplied to
radiation in the freezing ; and no increase of ice would
arise from this. There are, however, two points that
seem to be made out. First, that snow and ice are better
reflectors of light than almost any other substance, and
therefore less heat enters into them ; and, secondly, that
moist air is much less transparent to heat than dry, so
that the vapour raised by the sun in summer would be an
opposing influence, whereas the frozen vapour in winter
when fallen as snow would leave the air above freer for
radiation. This result would overbalance that spoken of
in the first place, and be a powerful influence in the pro-
duction of a glacial epoch. The vapour, too, that was
raised in summer would come in a large degree from the
warmer tropics, and therefore continue to add each
winter to the mass of the snow and ice in the more polar
regions.

These seem to us to be among the most convincing of
Mr. Croll's arguments, and they are in agreement, as he
shows, with the condition of the earth at the present time
as regards the more glaciated condition of the southern
hemisphere, and they agree with what has been pointed
out by Prof. Tyndall, that heat, to bring the snow in form
of vapour, is just as necessary for a glacial epoch as cold
to freeze it when brought. It has been argued by Mr.
Murphy that under exactly the same circumstances it
would be the more equally heated hemisphere that would
be glaciated, as the cool summer would melt less snow ;
but according to the above theory the summer of the
other hemisphere, though naturally hotter, would also be
rendered cool at the earth's surface. We see that the
whole of this argument depends on the relation of the
atmosphere to heat rays, and what has been stated
above has been experimentally verified ; yet we are far
from being fully informed on this point, and the example
of the planet Mars, which is almost exactly under the
circumstances of great eccentricity and winter aphelion
supposed above, and yet has not much glaciation, teaches
us that this may depend on other combinations of cir-
cumstances beyond those we have considered above.

The glaciation, Mr. CroU thinks, would be assisted by
the deflection of ocean currents, on which he accordingly
spends his strength ; but the vertical circulation of Dr.
Carpenter, no less proved than the influence of the Gulf
Stream, would be antagonistic to this, and we may safely
leave the unknown residuum out of consideration.

Such is Mr. CroU's theory of the cause of the glacial epoch,
to the illustration of Which he brings forward many interest-

ing facts. Among these are the proofs he gives of the occur-
rence of warm interglacial periods. Some of these proofs
are coUected from other writers, but many are from his
own observations, and consist of the intercalation of beds
of fossiliferoussand between two masses of boulder clay, the
fossils being often of a southern rather than of a northern
type. He also refers to the records of borings collected
by him and already published, which showed, in several
instances, three, four, or even five boulder clays in
succession, separated by stratified sands. These inter-
glacial periods are certainly more easily accounted for on
Mr. CroU's theory than on any other, as, owing to the
numerous terms on which it depends, the eccentricity of
the earth's orbit is hable to rapid changes. Many of the
instances, however, of interstratified fossiliferous sands
seem too insignificant to require so vast an apparatus as a
cosmical cause to account for them ; rather are they evi-
dences of the dependence of temperature on the atmo-
sphere, whose changes are much more comparable to
those of limited beds. Another set of facts adduced by
Mr. CroU in illustration of his theory is the evidences we
have of glacial conditions in former geological periods,
of which he gives a very useful summary, though it seems
to us he goes too far in taking proofs of a warm cUmate
to indicate glacial epochs preceding and succeeding it, on
the ground that all warm periods imist be interglacial —
this is Incus a non lucendo truly. Indeed, the warmth of
North Greenland in the Miocene period seems to us one
of those facts which are not satisfactorily accounted for
by the theory — for the eccentricity has seldom been much
less than now — and our northern winters are in peri-
helion.

He thinks he can identify the glacial period proper,
and those of the Eocene and Miocene periods, with por-
tions of past time when the eccentricity has been great
and yet rapidly changing to small ; and attempts thus to
get a measure of the length of a geological period, and
hence with the aid of other theories and supposed mea-
surements to arrive at the total length of past geological
time. These speculations may be ingenious, but they
can give no assistance to the solution of a problem of
which we reaUy have not yet the data. The title of the
book leads us to believe that all the discussion about the
glacial epoch is engaged in only to lead up to this, but
we must regard that as a much more manageable and
therefore interesting problem, and turn now to examine
the other theories that have been broached to account
for it.

The theory of the sun being a variable star is not in
such an advanced state as to warrant a complete discus-
sion from this point of view, and we have seen that mere
absence of heat can never cover the land with snow and
ice, and this theory therefore may be dismissed.

The only remaining one is that which accounts for it
by increased obliquity of the ecUptic. This theory, which
has recently been broached in different lorms by Lieut.-
Col. Drayson and Mr, Thomas Belt, has been espoused
by Mr. Woodward in his address to the Geologists' Asso-
ciation, whose paper has been deemed worthy of insertion
in the " Arctic Manual." Col. Drayson's form of it, which
imagines that the whole mass of ice was formed every win-
ter and melted every summer, may be dismissed as ab-
surd. Not so Mr. Belt's. There can be no doubt that an

yune2^, 1875]

NATURE

143

increase in the obliquitj'of the ecliptic would cause a greater
. difference in the seasons, and this difference we have seen
to be the very basis of Mr. Croll's own theory; the
results must be the same (and they are rightly seen by
Mr, Belt), whatever may be the cause of the difference
between summer and winter temperature. If this theory
were the true one, it is plain that both hemispheres were
glaciated at the same time, so that both theories cannot
be true ; but the matter of fact as to the synchronism
or otherwise of the glaciation of two hemispheres can
never in the nature of things be determined. But we
have still left the question. Has there been or can there
be any great change in the obliquity ? Astronomers say
no. Mr. Belt, however, thinks that the distribution of
sea and land and similar causes may make it possible for
greater changes to occur — a gratuitous supposition that
Mr. CroU shows to be groundless. This cause, then,
though it may have the general effect of lowering the
temperature of temperate and Arctic regions, is not suf-
ficient to cause a glacial epoch.

On the whole, then, there appear to be several indepen-
dent cosmical causes which affect climate in a greater or
less degree, and the probable truth is that a glacial epoch
occurs when they all conspire to bring about the same
result.

So far, by going from chapter to chapter, we have
endeavoured to bring Mr. Croll's arguments into some-
thing like logical order. The remainder of the book
scarcely admits of this ; indeed, we think the author
might well have bestowed more care in arranging his
matter if it was intended to form a consecutive whole ;
as it stands, there is much that can only be called a mis-
cellaneous collection of essays without any obvious con-
nection. Among these are his accounts of observations
on the North of England ice- sheet, and his specula-
tions as to the direction of its motion. There are also
two theoretical questions of [great interest discussed —
"The physical cause of the submergence and emer-
gence of the land during the glacial epoch," and " The
physical cause of the motion of glaciers." With regard
to the first of these questions, there are undoubted proofs
that great oscillations of the relative level of land and sea
have taken place in recent geological times, and the ques-
tion arises, Was it the land which sank and rose, or the
sea which changed its level ? It was rightly considered
one of the grand discoveries of geology when it was first
taught that the changeable sea was that which retained its
constant level, and that the " eternal hills " had been but
as yesterday beneath the waters ; and this principle is
not likely to pass away. By it all alterations of level
have been ascribed to the motion of the land, and none to
the rising of the sea. While agreeing, however, to the
principle, we may doubt its universality, and may be pre-
pared to entertain the question whether causes of limited
extent may not operate to raise the level of the sea, and
thus enable us to account more naturally for such rapid
changes as are sometimes indicated. There can be no
question but that any considerable amount of water which
by the fact of freezing should be retained in either polar
region, and form an ice-cap there, would correspondingly
shift the earth's centre of gravity and draw the remaining
water more over to the side on which the ice- cap lay ; and the
amount of elevation of sea-level might easily be calculated

for any latitude, if we knew the extent of the cap and its
manner of deposition, i.e. its shape ; and the amount
would be doubled if the ice-cap were first on one hemi-
sphere and then transferred to the other. This calcula-
tion Mr. CroU attempts to make on the very ingenious
method of approximation that supposes the ice-cap such
as shall make the earth with the cap on one side a per-
fect sphere. The question can be worked out more
directly, as has indeed been done, though with varying
results, the^mean of which indicates that the rise at one
pole due to this cause would be about one-fifteenth of the
thickness of the ice melted off the other. If, therefore,
we want to account for an alteration of level of 500 feet
in England, corresponding to about 600 feet at the pole,
we should require to have somewhat less than two miles'
thickness of ice on the antarctic regions now. While
these figures represent data too far removed from the
truth to be at all reliable, and there are, moreover, other
causes that may affect the result, they serve to show the
kind of thickness required— that it is not twenty miles,
for instance. Are we prepared, then, to admit that there
may be two or three miles of ice on the south pole?
This does not appear to us at all an extravagant assump-
tion, when icebergs have been met with 700 or 800 feet
out of water, and which must therefore have been con-
siderably more than a mile in total height. We do not
think it therefore unreasonable to suppose that during the
glacial epoch, or indeed at other times, when there was
less ice at the south pole than now, the sea in our latitudes
may have stood at a higher level, and that many of the
elevated marine deposits and raised sea beaches are due
to this cause, and not to depression of the land ; for the
latter we have no other evidence, and it would involve such
vast changes in so recent times that we can scarcely
believe would leave all the main valleys and hills as they
were before the glacial epoch, and afford no evidences of
post-glacial faults. This argument of course does not
deny that there have been land oscillations during the
period, but only that they are not the only ones.

This leads us to the last of the theoretical questions
discussed by the author of this work — the physical cause
of the motion of glaciers, the answer to which appears to
depend upon what is the amount of the shearing force of
ice. The remarks which Mr. CroU makes on the theory
and experiments of Canon Moseley are very forcible.
There is no doubt that the element of time enters largely
into the amount 'of force required to shear ice, and that
during this time heat is acting on the ice also, and conse-
quently that satisfactory experiments can only be made
on a glacier itself; and also that the theory of the
dependence of glacier motion on change of temperature
wiU not account for the greater descent in summer than
in winter. But what is Mr. Croll's own theory 1 He, like
Canon Moseley, calls in the agency of heat, and indeed,
since heat obviously makes a difference in the amount of
motion, we have only to find out hoiv it makes this differ-
ence to determine the cause of the whole motion. He
considers the motion of a glacier molecular, that the heat
entering at one end melts the first molecule, which then
descends by its weight and leaves room for the molecule
above it to descend, when it melts. This may look very
pretty at first sight, but the first molecule would never
descend and leave a vacuum behind itj so the second

H4

NATURE

\yune 24, 1875

molecule must melt at the same instant, and so on to the
other end of the glacier, which is absurd ; and besides,
what is there in this theory to distinguish a glacier from a
common piece of ice ? which on this principle ought to
flatten out and not retain its shape as it does. Why also
are we to suppose the molecule alternately to melt and
crystallise when the heat is continuous ? The mistake
on which this explanation is founded seems to be the
confounding of radiation with conduction. It is radiant
heat that passes through ice, which is a very bad con-
ductor. Ice at 32° F., heated by conduction, would cer-
tainly melt on the outside ; the interior can only melt by
the absorptiofi of radiant heat. We cannot either under-
stand the statement "that ice at 32° cannot take on
energy from a heated body without melting," unless it is
the exact equivalent of what we have just said ; but then
no heat could be transmitted, as it would be consumed in
melting the ice, and if it were otherwise, still any amount
of heat short of the latent heat of water might be " taken
on " by a molecule without melting it.

We fear, then, that the complete account of the descent
of a glacier is still a desideratum. The various theories
may contain elements of truth, but none are entirely satis-
factory.

As far as definite results are concerned, it will appear
that Mr. CroU's book does not do all he hopes it may, yet
we welcome heartily his attempts at reducing complex quer.
tions to arithmetical issues, for we thereby gain clearer
ideas as to whereabouts the truth may lie, and certainly
have the questions put before us in a more definite form.
The vast problems with which he deals, and for the
suggestion and discussion of which science is so largely
indebted to him, are waiting for solution, and every
attempt is valuable, both as showing us where to look
and where not to look for help.

J. F. B.

SPR AGUES ELECTRICITY
Electricity J its Theory, Sources, and A'bplications. By
John T. Sprague. (London : E. and F. N. Spon,
1875.)

THE author tells us in his preface that this book is
"written chiefly for that large and increasing class
of thinking people who find pleasure in the study of
science, and seek to obtain a full and accurate scientific
knowledge for its own sake, or as part of the necessary
mental preparation for many of the departments of modern
life." Our examination of the book itself would lead us
to an opposite conclusion. We very much question
whether any one of the class to whom the author refers
will ever have the patience to read through this volume.
Certainly they will have but sorry pleasure and any-
thing but full and accurate information. The book
abounds in foolish conceits advanced with a show of
knowledge that cannot but repel every intelligent reader.
That we are justified in these strictures will be seen
from one or two quotations. Here, for example, are some
statements taken from chapter ii. in this book. At the
outset the author asserts that the fundamental facts
relating to frictional electricity given in " one of our
standard electrical works (and it is just what all say) . . .
are received as absolute truth by electricians . . . and

yet there is scarcely a truth in them which is not over-
weighted by an error, and the simplest facts even are
erroneously stated " (p. 17). Mr. Sprague, so far as we
are aware, has never done anything to prove that he is
able to sit in judgment on the intellectual giants among
modern men of science. Mere off-hand condemnation
of the laborious work of men like Sir W. Thomson and
Prof. Clerk-Maxwell cannot for one moment be tolerated.
Mr. Sprague seems to us to be like a child trying
to turn one of the pryamids of Egypt upside down
because he imagines it has been built the wrong way
up. The best teaching is to let him try. This is
how the author proceeds in his bold attempt. It is not
true, he states, that bodies similarly electrified repel
each other ; " the repulsion is only apparent ; the real
cause of the motion is to be found in the attraction
exerted by surrounding bodies." (p. 19). And with regard
to the electrophorus, " that the dish forms the conductor
from the dielectric to the earth, as all electrical books tell
us, is an error which will come up for examination by
and by" (p. 15).

According to Mr. Sprague the common explanation of
induction is all wrong ; " the real explanation is " given by
him (p. 49). The rubber of an electric machine " is seldom
made upon true principles " (p. 33) ; and as for the earth-
connection to an electric machine, we are assured that it
is merely imaginary ; what we must do is to lead a chain
to the floor or gas-pipe, and " hence the idea that we
make a connection with the mass or surface of the earth "
(p. 29). And further on (p. 40) we read— still concerning
the machine — that " because both the poles are insulated
and the circuits limited, we are freed from the ignis
fatmis of the earth-connection." We presume the
author does not mean the earth-connection is an ignis
fatuus, but that the usual explanation is such ; it is
evidently so to him, for it has landed Mr. Sprague in a
quagmire of crudities where we will not attempt to follow
him. In these early chapters everything is attributed to
" polarisation," a word which has for the author a con-
soling sound like that " blessed word Mesopotamia." We
are told that it is for a similar cabalistic reason elec-
tricians employ the term " potential." Not understanding
the term, and yet finding it necessary to say something
about it, this is how the author discusses the subject :
" The word [potential] is always used in place of tension
or electro-motive force, because there is something full
and smooth sounding about it ; but the idea which really
does belong to it is a pure mathematical abstraction
which only highly trained minds can apprehend" (p. 154).

In another part of this book we meet with dark hints
upon " Sprague's patent universal galvanometer," an in-
strument that is to " do for many purposes, without other
instruments and without calculations, the work which at
present requires the Wheatstone's bridge and expensive
resistance coils, as well as many calculations." But, be-
yond exciting our curiosity, the author declines to go
further, and so we cannot give our readers the benefit of
this wonderful galvanometer, which combines " Pyscho "
and " George Bidder " in one.

Notwithstanding the grave defects that quite spoil the
early chapters in this book, it is only just to the author to
point out that the latter part of the volume has conside-
rable merit. Much useful practical information is to be

June 24, 1875]

NATURE

145

found in the chapters on electro-metallurgy, a subject
that is discussed with great detail, too much so, however,
for a general treatise. The author has evidently been at
no little pains to collect the numerous tables he gives,
and in some instances they are the results of his own
experiments. There is also a freshness and originality in
the treatment of the sections on resistance and electro-
motive force that make us regret Mr. Sprague did not
submit his theoretical views to some scientific friend
before sending his work to the press. If the author had
confined himself to the practical part of current electricity
we should gladly have recommended his book to our
readers.

OUR BOOK SHELF

Anales del Museo Publico de Btienos Ayres para dar a
conocer los objetos de Hisioria A atural nuevos o poco
conocidos conservados en este establecimento. Por
German Burmeister, M.D., vol. ii. (Buenos Ayres and
London : Taylor and Francis.)
In previous numbers of Nature (vol. iii. p. 282, and
vol. vii. p. 240), we have given some account of the im-
portant work which the well-known German naturalist,
Dr. Burmeister, is now carrying on at Buenos Ayres.

The number of the Anales now before us completes the
second volume of this remarkable work, and gives us
additional proof of the extraordinary richness of the
extinct Mammalian Fauna of the Argentine Republic, to
which Dr. Burmeister has devoted so much attention.
The Monograph of the Glyptodonts, or extinct gigantic
fossil Armadillos, which is raw brought to a conclusion,
is certainly one of the most valuable contributions to
palaeontological science that has been produced of late
years, and deserves the hearty commendation of all natu-
ralists. This is more especially the case when we con-
sider the difficulties under which the work has been
carried on — in a new country, where every man avidus lucri
is striving to advance his own material interests, and sci-
ence and all that pertains to it are at an utter discount. On
one occasion , we have been told, when one of the most per-
fect of these Glyptodont skeletons came into the market, the
authorities of the National Museum were unwilling or un-
able to raise the necessary funds to secure it, and it would
have left the country and been lost to Dr. Burmeister
and his Monograph, had not an English friend found the
money. Then, again, the necessity of having the plates
lithographed in Europe must add greatly to the difficulties
of the undertaking. Under these circumstances we may
fairly congratulate Dr. Burmeister and science on the
occasion of the second volume of the Annals of the
Public Museum of Buenos Ayres having been brought to
a successful conclusion.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
\l^he Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
^gjlrc by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return,
or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts,
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.]

Peculiarities of Stopped Pipes, Humming-tops, and
other Varieties of Organ-pipes

The peculiarities of a stopped organ-pipe as compared with
an open organ-pipe are many and suggestive, and are of the
utmost importance to the investigator both to know and to
interpret. W'ithcut entering deeply into the principles of the
craft of organ-building, there are certain matters of lact very
necessary to be known before the full bearing of a theory can be
estimated or its consistency be judged with true understanding.

By far the greater portion of an organ consists of pipes of the
s nicture called "flue-pipes," or, as here named, "air-reed"

pipes, and thes^ are of two classes, the open and the stopped ;
also they are of two kinds, wood and metal. We have to notice
how differently these two kinds are constructed to attain the same
ends. In the metal pipe every part is to all appearance immove-
able. In the wooden pipe the under-lip, or technically the
"cap," is the only adjustable part, end is fixed in position by
two or more screws. Within the mouth there is a platform
filling the space beyond the windway ; it is called the " languid,"
and it is by varying relatively the level of the edge of the cap to
the edge of the languid that the direction of the stream of air is
determined ; if the cap is set low the angle of flow outward is
increased, contrariwise it is lessened, and the art of the voicer
decides to the finest degree what is requisite for the quality and
speech of each particular pipe. If the wind is much thrown
outwards, the speech is slow ; if more inward, the speech is
quickened ; if too much inward, the octave sounds instead of
the ground-tone ; if too much outward or inward, the pipe will
not speak at all. One more power of adjustment remains — the
width of the narrow slit through which the wind issues is
capable of being varied by alteration of the inner surface of
the cap ; a wide windway gives a stiffer air-reed, a fine windway
gives a thinner one. In a metal pipe we have precisely the
same capability of variation, only that we effect our purpose by
pressure; the languid is moved higher or lower, not the cap.
By means of a rod introduced at the foot or at the top of the
pipe, we tap or press the languid into the desired relation to the
edge of the underlip. We can also press the upper lip forward
or backward ; we can, by a like process, reduce the windway or
enlarge it as easily. Very simple, yet very beautiful, compensa-
tions. In the variations of construction, nothing is done without
purpose, nor can you make any one of these minute changes
without causing at the fame time a flattening or sharpening of
the pitch, or a diversity in intonation or quality.

The above details all tend to one point, which I wish to press
upon your attention ; one distinctive feature belongs to the
stopped pipe : the languid is lower than in an open pipe, else
the pipe does not attain its proper speech. Consider ii: well, for
it is a fact full of meaning. A necessity of an opposite kind exists
in the nature of an open pipe ; its demand is that the current
f.hall have determination more to an outward flow. The cause
of so essential a distinction between the two classes of pipes will
be explained in another paper.

Stopped pipes when they are deep-toned are called "Bour-
dons," the name the French give to the Humble Bee for its
" drowsy hum." Our plaything, " the humming-top," is a true
bourdon, is a revolving organ-pipe, has a vibrating air-reed, its
principle of action is "suction by velocity," the abstraction of
air particles by velocity of rotation causing a partial vacuum just
as in the stationary organ-pipe by velocity q{ passage of a current
of wind.

Bearing in mind the working power of the air-reed, we are
brought to consider the effects of the dimensions of the pipe
and consequently of the form as well as the extent of the air-
column whereon this power is impelled to act, and it is neces-
sary to recur in passing to the question of length. Scientific
writers affirm that the length of an organ-pipe for a given note
corresponds to the length of the wave in air with an absolute
relation, thus expressed. Prof. Tyndall says : " The length of a
stopped pipe is one-fourth that of the sonorous wave which it
produces, whilst the length of an open pipe is one-half that of
the sonorous wave." Prof. Balfour Stewart says, in his "Ele-
mentary Lessons in Physics" : " In an organ-pipe of this kind,
the upper end closed, the primary note is that of which the wave
length is twice the length of the pipe ... the wave length of
the sound produced by an open pipe is equal to the length of the
pipe, so that it is only half of that produced by a shut pipe of
the same length." (One is curious to know why there is this
difference of statement from two leading teachers of men ; per-
plexing to the student in want of a leader). Prof. Tyndall
demonstrates his affirmation, showing that a stopped tube re-
sounds to the note mid C of 256 vibrations per second ; the wave
length in air of this note he states to be fifty-two inches ; then in
proof he measures the jar or tube, and says, " by measurement
with a two-foot rule I find it to be thirteen inches, precisely a
fourth of the wave length." He then proceeds to affirm the same
of organ-pipes, and proves it by tuning-forks and by sounding
the pipes to the same note, and believes he has justified his asser-
tions. His hearers do him that justice, and go home believing
also. The proof is, however, altogether illusive. No speaking
organ-pipe of that length ever gave the note of that pitch. Let
us put the assertion to^he test. My object hes beyond the recti-

146

NATURE

\yune 24, 1875

fi cation of a philosopher's misapprehension, and is meant to show-
not only that an organ-pipe behaves itself in a manner different to
that with which it is accredited, but also why it does so ; to show
ho\v important a matter in the nature of its action is this neglected
difference, and how wide its bearing on the whole system of mu-
sical instruments. Here at my hand is a stopped pipe sounding
mid C. I measure it interiorly from languid to stopper ; it is
eleven inches in length, and has a diameter of one-and-a-half
inches. Here is an open pipe, same pitch, same diameter, and
its length is twenty-three inches. Observe, our stopped pipe is
half an inch less in length than half that of the open pipe ; yet
again notice, it is longer than that pipe would be if severed at
the trae nodal distance from the languid. How can we read
eleven as precisely thirteen, and twenty-three as twenty-six
inches ? Under the strange notion that it is no matter if there
is a difference, this has been done, and the truth of facts lost
sight of or disguised in the convenient phrase, "approximately
correct." The phrase assumes that there is a standard claiming
nature's allegiance. We want to know, not what is correct, but
what is true ? Further, remark that if you stop the same open
pipe at the top, the note obtained will not be an octave deeper,
it will be nearly a tone sharper than that ; if you stop the pipe
at the centre, the note will not be the same as the open one, it
will be considerably flatter ; in neither case a good tone, since
for its proper sounding in such condition the lip would require
to be cut higher, mouth a little narrower, perhaps curved, and
languid lowered. Every detail we come upon tells plainly of
the working power of the reed affecting variably the results in
pitch, and I think the reason for these distinctive sounding
lengths will be discerned when we reach the consideration of
the question of 'periods of vibration in pipes as tempered by
rests.

The fundamental importance of the recognition that pipes of
the same pitch varied between themselves as to lengths, was not
perceived, nevertheless a qualifying condition was admitted that
pitch was " affected by a'l?//// of the pipe, that is, its distance
from front to back, but width does not affect pitch. " As regards
" depth, "rin no work whhin my knowledge does there exist any
attempt at a solution of the problem how such a result ensues
that depth interferes with pitch. It seems to be taken account
of only as a disturber of the harmony of things, yet see how sig-
nificant it is under the new theory of the working abstracting
reed. The actual law operating admits of most precise state-
ment when this generating power is acknowledged, viz., the
difference of pitch in pipes of varied diameter (other things being
equal) is proportional to the difference existing between the area
of the cross- section of the pipe and the area of the mouth ; the
difference in pitch is greatest when the depth from front to back
is greatest. It should be observed that increase of depth always
flattens pitch, and tends to deprive the pipe of harmonic force.
As regards the further assertion that "width" is without effect
on pitch, this also is inexact and misses the very point which
should have led to closer investigation. It is not true, because
the same amount of wind acting over a wider area cannot do the
larger extent of work with the same energy. The pitch of every
pipe is affected by the width of mouth 7-elatively, that is to say,
its proportion to the diameter of the pipe. Apart from the
ordinary rectangular and cylindrical pipes there are others of so-
called "irregular shapes," which are' usually viewed as monstro-
sities, out of the pale even of law padded with exceptions ; yet
these we shall find are the best evidence to us of the uniformity
of the principle of action set forth in these papers, and of the
consistency of a theory which recognises no exceptions.

Cylindrical pipes, notwithstanding their symmetry, differ
greatly among themselves. The law by which flue-pipes differ
has never yet been noticed, which is singular, since it is very
striking when the pipes are thoughtfully observed, and gave the
first clue to the theory of an areo-plastic reed. A student well
read in all that the best text-books in acoustics can teach, coming
to the practical study of organ-pipes, and seeing in a grand
organ so multitudinous an array of pipes, the unison pipes of the
several stops conspicuous for diversities of diameter as well as
of length, would naturally expect that here, if anywhere, he
would find confirmation of Reynault's law, "The velocity of
propagation of a wave of the sam.e intensity in straight lines
is less according as the section of the tube is less." No ! this
small comfort is denied him ; he is in a world of contrarieties; the
law is abrogated ; he will find the organ world de facto governed
on prmciples the exact opposite, " llie velocity is greater as the
section ts less." Investigating further, he will find that, although
in length the octaves of particular flue-stops^ examined are each

very closely upon half the length of the other, yet their diame-
ters do not follow a similar rule, for instead of octave or double
octave being in that ratio, he must from the pitch note count to
the seventeenth pipe before he will arrive at a pipe half its
diameter. For other seeming anomalies, let him proceed to the
stops called bassoon, trumpet, and tuba, and he will find that
here increase of diameter demands not less length, but greatly
increased length, to accompany increase of scale. Books of
latest authorities will tell him that in an organ-pipe with a
metallic reed "the note produced depends upon the length of
the pipe rather than upon the length of the reed. In fact, when
the note is established the reed obeys the impulses it receives
from the air in the tube. Its use is accordingly rather to econo-
mise air and to give certamty and percussion to the striking of
the note." Alas, it is inference by theory without test. Remove
the whole of the eight or nine feet of the tube, leaving but the
few inches of cup or socket, _and you will have altered the pitch
not more than a semitone.

All organ -pipes having metallic reeds act in conformity with
Regnault's law, and the same holds good of wind instruments-
trumpets, bassoons, and the like. All organ-pipes possessing
air-reeds, flutes also, and some whistles, not all, display an
opposite law. The musical tones of all in both these systems
are the result of " suction by velocity," and the distinction is that
in the former the intermittence is produced by suction under a
propulsive current, and in the latter by suction under an abstracting
current. The fact announces the law and leads to its explanation.

Hermann Smith

Faults and the Features of the Earth

My attention has been drawn to an article in Nature, vol. xii.
p. 93, on an exploring party of the Geological Class of the
University of Edinburgh to trace out a long fault in Scotland.
In this it is stated that particular attention was devoted by the
party to the connection between dislocations and valleys, and
tbey came to the conclusion that not a single main valley ran
along the fault they were tracing out. As an advocate of the
theory that faults or other breaks greatly induced the present fea-
tures of the earth, perhaps you may allow me to say a few words
on the subject.

Fault-rock may be friable or hard ; the first is inclined to
induce valleys, the second peaks or ridges. Faults are of
different ages, and therefore the features due to them are liable
to be obliterated. Pre-Silurian features may be obliterated by
the subsequent deposition of Silurian rocks, and so on upwards
until we find many preglacial features obliterated by the glacial
drift. In Ireland and Scotland we find more faults in the meta-
morphic rocks than in the overlying Silurians, in the Silurians
than in the overlying Carboniferous and Old Red Sandstone, and
in the Carbonilerous than in the drift, while each newer accumu-
lation obhterated, or perhaps, more properly, obscured the
features in the older.

The fault examined by this party, from the brief description,
seems, first, to have had a hard fault-rock, and second, its age
to have been far from recent. Consequently, by the first, if the
fault induced any features at all in the present surface, they
ought to have been peaks or a ridge like that formed by the
great Slieve-muck fault in Tipperary, Ireland ; while if the second
is correct, this fault ought not to form surface features, as any
features due to the original fault were long since obliterated ;
also, the fault has been cut up and displaced by the more recent
movements. If a valley chances to run along the line of an
ancient fault, it probably was not induced by that fault, but by a
much more recent break that for a greater or less distance coin-
cided with the line of the older fault. G. H. KiNAHAN

Wexford, June 18

Salaries in the British Museum
Among your notes of last week is a favourable announcement
of my promotion as an assistant in the Geological Department
of the British Museum ; but whilst thanking you, allow me to
point out that it contains a grave misstatement as to the amount
of remuneration I receive for my services (as a reference to the
Parliamentary Returns will demonstrate) ; a misstatement alike
unjust to the trustees and to myself.

May I venture to ask you to insert this, and so correct the
erroneous impression which the paragraph conveys, as to the
small amount of the pay received by myself and others in a
similar position on the establishment.

British Museum, June 15 Wm. Davies

June 24, 1 875 J

NATURE

147

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN
The Double Star 2 2120.— In the notes to the last
catalogue of measures of double stars of the late Rev.
W. R. Dawes, he remarks with reference to 2 2120, or, as
it has been frequently called, Herculis 210 (Bode) : "This
object discovered by Strove is undoubtedly a binary
system— the position varying in a retrograde sense, and
the distance diminishing." Notwithstanding this positive
opinion as to physical connection of the components by so
high an authority in this department of practical astro-
nomy, an examination of the path of the companion up to
the latest published measures of the Baron Dembowski
towards the end of 1870, or, it should be stated, through
a period of observation fifteen years longer than that upon
which the above opinion was expressed, does not support
the presumed binary character of the object, but on the
contrary, when the apparent fixity of the principal star is
considered, shows pretty decidedly that the variation of
angle and distance must be owing to proper motion of
the smaller one. In fact we may represent the measures,
from Struve's earliest in 1829, to Dembowski's in 1870,
by the following expressions : —

rtTsin P = — i""68o6 - o"-i2044 (/ — 1850-0)
^/cos P = + I 7259 - o -10250 (/ - 1850-0)
which formula; imply a secular proper motion of the
small star amounting to i4"-75 in the direction 226°-o;
they may doubtless be somewhat improved by complete
discussion of all the measures, and perhaps some one of
the astronomical readers of Nature may be able to say
how measures in the present year are represented.

D'Agelet, Bessel, and Struve have meridionally ob-
served this star.

The "Mirk-Monday" Eclipse, 1652, April 7--8.—
The following elements of this long-remembered eclipse
are founded upon the same system of calculation which
furnished so satisfactory an agreement between compu-
tation and observation in the eclipse of 17 15, lately detailed
in Nature : —

Conjunction inR.A. April 7, at 23h. 4m. 33s. g.m.t.

R.A

17 42

14

Moon's hourly motion in R. A.

33 0

Sun's ,, „

2 18

Moon's declination

8 24 17 N.

Sun's „

7 31

40 N.

Moon's hourly motion in Decl.

17

5 N.

Sun's ,, ,,

0

56 N.

Moon's horizontal parallax

60

16

Sun's ,,

9

Moon's true semidiameter

".'.. 16

25

Sun's ,,

15

57

The sidereal time at mean noon April 8 was ih. 9m, 20s.,
and the equation of time im. 38s. subtractive from mean
time. The middle of general eclipse April 7, at 22h.
2im. 30s.

Hence the following points upon the central line in its
track over the north of Ireland and Scotland : —

Long. 8 25 W., Lat. 50 21 N. Long. 4 8 W., Lat. 55 3 N.

,, 7 50 51 o „ 2 47 ,. 56 28

,,63 53 o „ I 20 „ 57 54

„ 5 26 53 42

At Carrickfergus, where Dr. Wyberd observed the
eclipse as described in the " Philosophical Transactions,"
totality began at 22h. 8m. 34s. according to the above
elements, and continued only forty-four seconds. At
Edinburgh it commenced at 22h. 22m. 555., the duration
being 2m. 47s. with the sun at an altitude of 39° ; and at
Arbroath at 22h. 26m. 23s. with the same duration, these
being local mean times. Probably there may be other
accounts of this eclipse in existence than those commonly
quoted when " Mirk Monanday " is referred to.

Diameters of the Planets.— We give the following
values of the apparent diameters of planets reduced to
the mean distance of the earth from the sun and of their

true diameters in English miles, as being perhaps as
reliable as any that can be assigned from existing data.
They are founded in every case upon the measures which
from observational circumstances appear to deserve the
greatest weight, and in the reduction to true values the
solar parallax is taken 8"-875, and Clarke's diameter of
the earth's equator is adopted. It would of course be idle
to attempt to offer final numbers, where the difficulties
attending observations and the differences between the
results of the most experienced and favourably- circum-
stanced observers are so considerable.

/; Miles.

Mercury 6*35 ... 2,850

Venus 16-95 ... 7,550

Mars 9-305 ... 4,150,

Jupiter, Equat... 197-47 ••. 88,200 Compression -1-
,, Polar ... 184-76 ... 82,500 i ^ 15-54

Saturn, Equat. ... 166-82 ... 74,1:00)^ . i

„ Polar ... 148-50 ... 66,300 i ^^^"^P'^^^^'^^ ^gVio

Uranus 68-57 ... 30,600

Neptune 67-26 ... 30,050

In fixing upon .the apparent diameters of the bright
planets it has been desired to adopt values which shall
represent the actual arc values that are presented by the
true diameters at the earth's mean distance. Many
observations would assign larger values, but undoubtedly
less trustworthy for computing real dimensions. As is
well known, preference in such case is to be given to
double-image over wire-micrometer measures, yet even if
we confine ourselves to the former mode of observation
we by no means secure great consistency of results.

SOLAR HEAT AND SUN-SPOTS
n^HAT the rainfall of certain parts of the earth tends
-*■ to vary periodically with the sun-spots has been
shown with considerable probability by Messrs. Meldrum
and Lockyer, and Prof. Koppen * has detected a similar
tendency in the temperature of the atmosphere, most
distinctly shown (as might have been anticipated) at
stations in the tropical zone, f These discoveries indi-
cate that there is at least some ground for the truth of
Sir W. Herschel's surmise, that the heat emitted by the
sun undergoes a periodical increase and decrease, con-
currently with the varying disturbance of the solar
atmosphere, as evidenced by the number of spots and
prominences on his surface. ,But except Mr. Joseph
Baxendell, who has published two papers on the subject
in the fourth volume of the Transactions of the Literary
and Philosophical Society of Manchester (new series), I
am not aware that anyone has attempted to investigate
the more direct evidence afforded by observations of the
black-bulb thermometer.

Mr. Baxendell's work was based on the observations
of the Radcliffe Observatory at Oxford, and a series made
at Eccles by Mr. Mackereth ; the tv^o series extending
over the years 1859-66. He did not attempt to institute
a direct comparison of the recorded radiation tempera-
tures with the number of the sun's spots, a proceeding
which would probably have failed to lead to any definite
result in English latitudes and in so cloudy a climate ;
but took as the first term of his comparison the ratio
existing between the excess of the maximum radiation
over the maximum air-temperature in the shade, and
that of the mean air-temperature over that of the wet
bulb, or the dew point deduced therefrom. His conclu-
sion was to the effect that the sun's heat undergoes a
distinct periodical variation, coinciding with and directly
as that of the spots.

* Zeitschrift der Oesterr. Gesellschaft fur Meteorologie. Vol. viii. Nos. 16
and 17.

t It is to be noticed as a remarkable fact that Prof. Koppen finds the epochs
of maximum and minimum temperature to correspond (not .-is might be
expected from the results of the present investigation with the maxima and
minima of sun-spots respectively), but approximately with the opposite
phases; iht tnaximum of temperature (in the Uopics) preceding the mini-
mum of the sun-spots by o'^of a year, and the minimum of the former the
maximum of the latter by o'l year.

148

NATURE

[June 2^, 1875

It is evident that India offers far greater advantages
for investigating the variations of the solar heat than
any European country can do, and as observations of the
black-bulb thermometer m vacuo have now been registered
at several stations during the last six or seven years,
I have lately examined a portion of these, to see if they
afford any direct evidence of a periodical graduated varia-
tion in the intensity of the radiation. The result is to me
very striking, and if not absolutely conclusive as to the
direct variation of the sun's heat with the number of
the spots and prominences, certainly, as far as it goes,
strongly confirms Mr. Baxendell's conclusions, drawn
from indirect evidence.

It is unfortunate that owing to the fragility of the
instruments employed and the necessity of exposing them
freely, they are very frequently broken ; and, as a conse-
quence, the longest series of observations made with one
and the same instrument extends over only five years.
This is at Silchar in Eastern Bengal. The place is
situated in lat. 25°, therefore beyond the tropic ; and the
climate being very damp and more cloudy than most
parts of Bengal, it is not, perhaps, so favourably circum-
stanced for the present purpose as some other stations.

The means of the maximum sun-temperatures registered
on clear days (that is, on days when the proportion of
clear sky estimated at 10 a.m. and 4 P.M. did not average
less than three-fifths) are given in the following table.
The months of the S.W. monsoon are omitted, since in
some cases they do not furnish a single clear day accor-
ding to the above definition, and as a rule such days are
too rare to contribute much evidence of value. I give
for each month the number of clear days that have contri-
buted to the mean.

Table I. — Average maximum temperature of solar radiation on
clear days at Silchar.

u

ui

<«

m

fi

1870

1

1871

Q

1873

1873

ft

1874

January . .
February .

24

1248

25

127-1

37

122

21

121

19

121

iq

i30'4

20

130-9

125-8

iq

128-2

8

128-2

March . .

i.S

137-2

iq

1357

23

I33-8

17

1324

134'3

April . . .

12

142 6

17

i39'i

13

140-5

12

1345

5

139-8

May . . .

10

1 44" 7

i.S

142-8

14

143-8

5

140-6

6

I4b-.S

October . .

16

1407

IQ

i^b-7

<)

I4I-3

7

140

5

146-4

November .

2^

1322

27

1263

IS

I3i'7

20

127-7

I43'i

December .

20

1247

2,'i

I2I-3

i«

121 5

23

J2I-2

14

i3b-7

Year . .

148

.34.

ib7

.325

139

132s

-4

I30-7

77

.37

Did this table stand alone, the evidence of any periodical
variation would be very doubtful. But we shall presently
see that the irregularities that it exhibits are all but com-
pletely neutralised by the registers of other stations.
It is easy to suggest their explanation, grounded on the
fact to which all the registers testify, that the highest sun-
temperatures occur, not on days registered as cloudless,
but on those on which there is a considerable proportion
of cloud, and frequently rain. Such days were numerous
in 1874 ; while in 1871 (the year of sun-spot maximum)
days without visible cloud predominated. Leaving the
discussion of this question, however, as unnecessary in
this place, I will give the combined results of Silchar and
eight other Observatories variously situated, some in, and
others beyond the tropical zone. These are :—

Port Blair, in the Andamans lat. 11° 41' N.

Cuttack, in Orissa ... ... ... ,

Chittagong, on the Arakan coast ... ,

Jessore, on the Gangetic delta ... ,

Dacca, also on the delta ... ... ,

Hazaribagb, * elev. 2,000 ft. in Western Bengal ,
Berhampore,* on the Gangetic delta ...
Roorkee, elev. 900 ft. in the N.W. Prov.
Since the radiation- thermometers originally i

* The registers of these two stations taken alone give a curve nearly
approximating to the resultant of all the stations, but it is of doubtful
validity o-wing to the thermometers having been twice renewed at both
stations.

20

29 ,,

21

39 „

23

9 „

23

43 »

24

0 ..

24

6 „

29

52 „

ly in use

at

most of these stations have been broken and replaced by
other instruments, and since these thermometers (fur-
nished by the best London makers) sometimes differ to
the extent of many degrees when placed under the same
conditions of exposure, it would be only misleading to
compare together the registers of different years recorded
with different instruments at the same station. In order
to avoid this source of error, and at the same time to
bring in evidence as much as possible of the registers, I
have taken for each station separately the difference (rise
or fall indicated respectively by + and - ) of each pair of
homonymous months in consecutive years, omitting all
cases in which the instrument has been changed in the
interval ; and then the mean of all the differences thus
obtained for the same pair of months. The results are
given in the following table, additional columns being
added to show how many stations have contributed to the
mean of each pair of months. As in Table I., the mean
temperatures compared are those of clear days only ; but
with the exception of Port Blair, I have admitted as
clear days those only on which at least four- fifths of the
sky on an average was estimated as unclouded at 10 a.m.
and 4 P.M. In the case of Port Blair it was necessary to
admit days with only one half of unclouded sky.*

Table II. — Annual variation of mean maximum readings of
black-bulb thermometers on clear days.

9

1868

§

i86q

§

1870

§

1871

§

1872

J '873

f1

1869

rt

1870

«

1871

ri

1B72

1873

2 '874

w

c«

t/o

Si

6

- 3 7

7

■ji\

January. .
February .

2

- 0-9

3

+ 0-S

4

+ 0-4

+ 0-4

8 1-5-3

2

+ 1-9

3

— i'5

4

-I- 0-6

6

- 3-6

4

+ 2-1

8-3-6

March . .

+ 3-8

3

-f- 12

4

+ 2-6

- 2-4

5

- 0-7

8 - 1-7

April . . .
May. . .

+ 7-1

3

-f i-.s

7

-05

5

+ 0-7

6

- 2-6

8 -0-2

+ 14-2

3

•f 09

7

- i'9

4

+ 2-6

7

- 0-7

8-2-5

October . .

- 4'3

-1-8-2

6

+ 4-0

8

- 47

8+2-7

November .

- 2-7

4

+ 0-4

6

-0-6

4

+ 3-S

8

- 3-6

8 1+0 8

December .

4

+ 1-8

6

- i'3

4

->r 2-2

8

- 2-9

8 + 09

Year . .

+ 2-3

-f 1-6

-0-3

+ 0-4

-1-6

j-x-x

If these differences be plotted as the increments of a
series of ordinates. and the curve thus marked out be
corrected for its small irregularities libera vianu, its
resemblance in general character to the sun-spot curve
will be distinctly apparent. (See figure.)

I have been unable to ascertain (here in Calcutta) the
number of spots observed during the last few years ; but
this datum can readily be suppUed at home.

Calcutta, May 28 Henry F. Blanford

LECTURES AT THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS^
VIII.

Mr. Sclater on the Pheasants.
T N that Birds possess a high temperature of the blood,
■*■ they agree more with the mammalian than with other
vertebrated animals ; the balance of anatomical evidence

" * I ha-ve ascertained by direct comparison that any difference thus intro-
duced is inappreciable, the results beinj; treated comparatively, and not for
absolute values.

t Continued from p. 130.

June 20,, 1875]

NATURE

149

is,however, in favour of their more intimate reptilian affini-
ties. They are characterised externally by their covering of
feathers, and by the fore limbs being developed to form
wings. These wings, though primarily constructed for
flight, in some birds perforiji other functions. In the
Penguins they are employed for swimming, in the Ostrich
to assist in running, whilst in the Apteryx and the Casso-
wary their condition is so rudimentary that they can be
of no service to their owners. In the Night Parrot and
the Weka Rails the wings are very much diminished.

Birds are divided into from seventeen to twenty well-
marked groups, of which the Gallinas, the order which
contains the Pheasants, forms one which is more im-
portant in an economical point of view than any of the
others, as it contains most of the domesticated species of
birds, the ducks and pigeons being exceptions. The Game
Birds, as the Gallinse are commonly termed, may be divided
into the following seven sections : — i. The Pteroclida,
or Sand Grouse, birds which inhabit Africa and Western
Asia, By some naturalists they are grouped with the
Pigeons ; they, however, differ from them and agree with
the fowls in laying coloured eggs, at the same time that
the young ones run about directly they are hatched.
There is one species, found in the steppes of Tartary, in
which, unlike its allies, the hind toe is absent. In the
year 1863 a flock of Sand Grouse spread over all Western
Europe. Prof Newton tell us, in the " Ibis," that not less
than seven hundred individuals must have appeared. A
few stragglers were seen for a short time afterwards.
2. The Meleagridce, or Turkeys, are unfortunately so
called, as they are in their wild state confined to Northern
and Central America. Only three wild species are known,
the most northern of which is said to be the parent stock
of our domesticated form, although some of the evidence
is in favour of the latter having sprung from the Mexican
species. The Ocellated Turkey, from Honduras, is
a particularly handsome bird. 3. The Numididce, or
Guinea Fowl, are represented in Guinea by one spe-
cies. The four or five others are all confined to
Africa ; of these, the elegant Vulturine Guinea Fowl,
of which several specimens have been presented to
the Zoological Gardens by Dr. Kirk, comes from
Zanzibar. 4. The Cracida, or Curassows, are the repre-
sentatives of the Game Birds in Central and South
America. They will not nest in captivity here, perhaps
because, as they are arboreal in their habits, it is not
possible to give them suitable abodes. They are said to
have been first introduced into Europe by the Dutch,
from the island of Curassovv, in the West Indies. In
some species the cock and hen are identical in plumage ;
in others very dissimilar. 5. The Megapodida:, or Mega-
podes, are confined almost entirely to the AustraHan
region. They are nearly allied to the Cracidaa. Their
eggs are laid in the middle of a mound composed of
earth and grass, where they are left to be hatched. Many
eggs are laid, and the young ones are able to fly within
twenty-four hours of leaving the egg. Their breeding
habits have been well described by Mr. Bartlett, from
examples which have laid in the Society's Gardens. By
one species the mound constructed is as much as 15 ft.
high and 60 ft. in circumference. The habits of one
peculiar species, the Maleo of Northern Celebes, have
been well described by Mr. Wallace. 6. The Turnicidce,
or Hcmipodes, much resemble quails. They are mostly
African, one species occurring in Andalusia, Their
anatomy is somewhat peculiar, 7. The Phasianidce, or
Pheasants, are constituted by {d) iYitTeiraotizdce, or Grouse,
inhabitants of the mountainous regions of Europe and
Northern Asia. In all the species the legs, and in some
the toes, are feathered. They do badly in captivity. The
best known of them are the Prairie Fowl, Capercailzie,
Black-cock, and Ptarmigan, {b) The Pcrdicidce, or
Partridges, are found in every part of the Old World.
The Snow Pheasant of the Himalayas is one of the

largest species. The Impeyan Pheasant, from the
same locality, is a closely allied form. These birds are
represented in America by {c) the OdontophoridcB, or
Colins, sometimes called toothed Partridges, because the
bill is slightly toothed. They are much more arboreal
than their Old World representatives, and none of them
attain a great size, {d) The Phasia7iidcE, or Pheasants
proper, form about forty species, arranged in seven genera.
The story runs that the common Pheasant was first
brought from Colchis by the Argonaut, whence its scien-
tific name, P. colchicns. The genera include the Crosso-
ptilojis, or Eared Pheasants of Northern Asia, of which
there are four species : the true Pheasant, preserved in
this country ; the Thamnalea, or Gold Pheasant, with its
superb ally, the Amherst Pheasant of Central Asia, first
made known from a specimen brought over by the Lady
Amherst when returning from an embassy to the King of
Ava, Further facts respecting its distribution have been
obtained by Dr, John Anderson and Mr. Stone. The
Euplocami, or Kaleeges, are represented by twelve
species. They are intermediate between the Pheasants
and the Fowls. A new species has been quite recently
obtained by Mr. Gould from the interior of Borneo
{Lobiophasis). Gallus is the name given to the genus
which includes the Fowls, of which there are four species.
The Jungle Cock of India is the wild ancestor of the
domesticated bird ; others are inhabitants of Ceylon and
Java. Ceriornis includes the Tragopans, which are
peculiar in having homed appendages to the head.
There are five species in this beautiful group, ie) The
Pavonidce, or Peafowls, are natives of the forest jungles
of India, and such being the case it is strange that they
so well resist the winters of our own country. Poly-
pleciron, or the Peacock Pheasant, is an allied form ; it is
aberrant, however, in that it is monogamous and lays
only two eggs. The Argus Pheasant also belongs to the
same family.

THE PROGRESS OF THE TELEGRAPH *
VIII.

MORE daring inventors, as we have seen, entered the
field — Nott and Gamble, with a letter- showing tele-
graph ; Edward and Henry Highton, who produced an array
of signal apparatus, in some cases evading the Cooke and
Wheatstone patents by the use of nickel for the electro-
magnet in place of soft iron. But formidable beyond all
other competitors was the talented Alexander Bain, the
Edinburgh watchmaker, who has contributed largely
to the improvement of the telegraph by his singularly
beautiful adaptations and chemical printing arrange-
ments. Expensive litigation speedily followed, and the
directors in most cases compounded with their opponents.
Alexander Bain was made a director of the Company,
and at the same time received 12,000/. for his chemical
printer, and most of the other opposing patents became
the property of the Company by special arrangements
with the inventors. By means such as these a monopoly
for a time was secured, even though it was purchased at
an exorbitant price. Monopoly at that time represented
commercial gain, and every aspiring inventor was sooner
or later run off his feet by the powerful and wealthy cor-
poration. Such is the early history of the introduction
and opening of the Electric Telegraph as a means of the
transmission of inland intelligence. The telegraphic con-
nection of Great Britain with the Continent of Europe at
this time was scarcely developed, the extent of electrical
communication by the continental land lines being cir-
cumscribed.

This, however, thanks to further applications of
science, is no longer the case. The planet is now girt
by telegraphs. First, there is the " Great Northern,"

* ConAued from p, 113.

I50

NATURE

\y7me 24, 1875

stretching from London, the telegraphic centre of the
world, by land and submarine circuits into Denmark,
Norway, Sweden, and Russia in Europe, thence across
the wilds of Siberia in Asiatic Russia to the Japanese
Sea, and on to Japan, terminating within the tropics,
at Hong Kong. Secondly, the " Eastern Telegraph,"
which, crossing the Bay of Biscay, reaches Lisbon,
and thence threading its way under the dark blue
waters of the Mediterranean Sea to Suez, reaches India
by the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, and on to Ceylon
(Point du Galle), joining the " Great Northern " at Hong
Kong vici Singapore. Thus by means of these two great
systems a complete circuit of the continents of Europe and
Asia is effected, the one within the limits of the tropics,
the other bordering upon the Arctic circle, reaching as
it does to 62° of north latitude. At Singapore the circuit
is divided, a branch extending south to Sumatra, Java,
and the continent of Austraha,— Sydney, Melbourne, and
Adelaide being reached ; New Zealand being about to be
included. Thirdly, there is the vast stretch of the South
Atlantic Ocean traversed by the circuits of the " Brazilian
Submarine," connecting Great Britain, via Lisbon, with
Madeira, St. Vincent, and the continent of South America
to Pernambuco. There it joins the coast submarine cir-
cuits of the " Western and Brazilian," extending north to
Para and south to Bahia, Rio Janeiro, Rio Grand do Sul,
and Monte Video in the River Plate, at which station, in
connection with the local lines of the River Plate Com-
pany, it reaches Buenos Ayres, thence by means of the
wires of the Argentine Republic, crosses the Andes into
Chili and Peru. From Para the electric circuit is ex-
tended (Para and Demerara being now under comple-
tion), by way of the West India Isles, Jamaica, and Cuba,
to Florida, there joining the extensive system of the
United States Trunk lines ; to San Francisco, west, and
Newfoundland, east ; and thence, by the circuits of the
"Anglo-American" and "Direct United States" cable,
crossing the Atlantic Ocean to Great Britain. Thus the
New World is also encircled by two great systems, the
one almost equatorial, the other within the higher degrees
of northern latitude.

In dealing with submarine circuits the electrician
has several matters to consider and accurately adjust,
some of which will be more fully considered hereafter.
First, there is the copper-conducting wire, its capacity
according to the length of the circuit. Too small a con-
ducting wire on a circuit of a given length would offer too
great a resistance ; too large a conductmg wire would be
equally faulty, induction increasing in greater proportion
from its large superficial surface than its increased
sectional area augments the speed. The exact sectional
area of the wire has therefore to be determined ; then
for insuiaiion, the best relative proportion in weight,
and sectional m.easurement between the wire and that of
the insulating material. Insulation, as is well known,
may be obtained by a mere film of a non-conductor sur-
rounding the wire. This is illustrated by the simple
experiment of passing a weak voltaic current of electricity
through an extended fine metallic wire immersed in a
trough of water. Under ordinary circumstances it is but
natural to suppose (water being a conductor) that there
would be no insulation ; not so ; by the action of the
current through the wire decomposing the water, a fine
non-conducting film of hydrogen is developed surround-
ing the wire, which, with a strength of current ad-
justed to the resistance of the wire, will separate the
water from the metallic conductor, perfect insulation being
maintained. Destroy the balance between the current
and the wire, and the hydrogen, evolved too rapidly by
reason of electrical decomposition, accumulates upon the
surface of the wire and, passing off in the form of small
bubbles, destroys the insulation. This simple experiment
demonstrates that insulation in the abstract sense may
be obtained by a very thin covering of a non-conductor.

It is, however, in practice mechanically" unsafe to rely
upon mere tissues of insulating material surrounding the
conducting wire ; a certain thickness is absolutely neces-
sary for security. Every insulated core to be used for
submarine purposes, to ensure integrity of manufacture,
should be tested under pressure, so as to break down all
mechanical imperfections in the coating of the insulating
medium, before the cable is submerged. The determina-
tion of the dimensions of the insulator influences also

Fig. 34.— First Atlantic Cable, 1S57 ^natura■ bi/c;.

materially the inductive effect ot the circuit ; and when
it is remembered that the best insulating material repre-
sents a cost of about 6^-. per pound weight upon the wire,
the close connection between science and pounds shil-
lings and pence becomes at once apparent. The varia-
tions in weight per nautical mile of copper and insulation
in some of the recent important cables are here given.
The Atlantic main cables of 1865 and 1866 : copper
300 lbs., insulation 400 lbs. ; lengths each about 1,900
nautical miles. French Atlantic mam cable, 1869 : copper
400 lbs., insulation 400 lbs. ; length about 2,600 nautical

1865. 1866.

Fig. 35.— Atlantic Cables laid in 1865 and 1866, between Valentia and
Newfoundland (natural size), weight per naut. i"7S tons.

miles. Falmouth and Lisbon, 1870 : copper i2ollbs.,
insulation 175 lbs. ; length about 800 nautical miles!
Anglo- Danish Cable, 1868 : copper 180 lbs., insulation
180 lbs. ; length, 365 nautical miles. Hong- Kong-
Shanghai, 1870 : copper 300 lbs., insulation 200 lbs. ;
length, 1,100 nautical miles. China Telegraph, 1870:
copper 107 lbs., insulation 140 lbs. ; length, 1,632 nautical
miles. British India Extension, 1870 : copper 120 lbs.,
insulation 175 lbs. ; length, 1,448 nautical miles. ■. Eight
important submarine circuits have here been summarised,
and in six it will be found that the proportions in the
weight per nautical mile between the copper and insula-

June 24, 1 875 J

NATURE

15

\'

tion vary in an extreme degree. Thus there is found
copper and insulation in the respective proportions by
weight of I to I, also 3 to 4, also 3 to 2, also 2 to 3, and
also in the irregular proportion of 11 to 14. By these
figures it appears that there is no accepted ratio, and
every new cable seems to be constructed according to
the electrical views of the designer, in some cases at an
enormous cost, as compared with others of similar length
and equal efficiency in transmitting power. Thus, by re-
ducing the weight of material per nautical mile into an
average money value, assuming for copper \s. id. per lb.,
and insulation bs. per lb., we obtain the following ratios :—

I ICO nautical miles : copper ;,^i6 o insulation ;^6o

1,632 „ ,,65 „ 42

2,600 ,, ,,23 ID „ 70

2,000 ,, ,, 16 o „ 70

With such indiscriminate specifications there is certainly
something left to discover, and the next few years may

Intermediate. Main.

Fig. 36.— French Atlantic Cable laid between Brest and Island of Saint-
Pierre, 1869.

determine with some degree of accuracy the true propor-
tions by weight to ;be adopted between the conducting
wire and the external thickness of the insulator, to obtain
the best practical results at the least expenditure of
capital on a circuit of given length, worked with one of
the sensitive recording instruments already brought under
notice. As an example of the augmentation of speed
upon a submarine circuit, according to the delicacy of the
recording instrument employed, upon the Great Northern
cable between England and Denmark, 365 nautical miles
in length, with the most improved submarine morse, an
average of seventeen words per minute was obtained ;
with the Wheatstone's automatic thirty words, and with
the Thompson syphon recorder fifty words per minute are
practically reached.

For many years there has existed a divided opinion as

to whether a light submarine cable, combining economy
of construction with mechanical facilities of laying, is
not the right system to adopt as against the heavy
and more expensive form of iron covered cable. The
light cable theory may be said to be based upon the
opinion of the late Lieut. M. F. Maury, who through
every opposition adhered in principle to light cables.
His argument may be expressed in his own words : " \'ou
may snap a taut rope, but you cannot break a slack
line." This remark may nautically be quite true, but
electrically far from correct, for the following reasons. In
submerged cables, speed is greatest upon the shortest line.
Now, in deep-sea telegraphy, in the only circuits upon
which a light cable could possibly be employed with any
security against mechanical interruptions, two or three
points come into play. Supposing a light cable were to
be used over, say, a circuit of 2,000 miles, with an average
depth of 1,500 fathoms, or about if miles. First, take
the specific gravity of the light cable as compared with
water, at what rate will it sink to the bottom ? if not
so adjusted as to sink at about one mile per hour
(looking to the enormous sweep between the paying out
steamer and the bottom of the ocean at the depth of if
miles), it is more than probable that although you cannot
break a " slack line," it may be so twisted and contorted
by surface-currents and under-currents moving at various
velocities or even in opposite directions as it slowly sinks
to the bottom by reason of low specific gravity, that a
very great length of cable may be paid out (as a slack
line). Secondly, the cost of this increased mileage must
be taken into account as compared with that of the heavier
iron-sheathed cable upon which a mechanical strain
can be placed to ensure more or less a " Bee " line.
Thirdly, the speed of transmiission through a submarine
cable is inversely as the square of the length. Now, if this
is practically correct, it is easy to determine whether the
best commercial results will be obtained from alight cable
with increased electrical resistance, although it may be
carried out at a less original outlay, or from a shorter
cable more costly per mile from increased strength
and weight of iron, but with greater transmitting speed,
and in consequence dividend earning capacity. But
of equal importance with any of the previous points
is the impossibility of grappling a light cable from any con-
siderable depth in cases of injury affecting the insulation.
To raise a cable from a depth of i| miles involves a
great strain upon the cable, and unless the breaking strain
has been calculated to meet such an emergency, any suc-
cessful attempt at restoration must be abandoned, and the
entire line is rendered useless and the capital lost. Every
submarine cable should be laid with a certain percentage
of slack, regulated according to depth of water and sur-
rounding circumstance. The average slack is from 8 to
14 per cent.

The first Atlantic cable, 1857, between Valentia and
Newfoundland, is shown in elevation and section at Fig. 34.
This cable, from imperfect construction, remained electri-
cally sound for a very limited period, and very few
messages were successfully passed through the con-
ducting wire. It, however, became the pioneer to suc-
cess, and elucidated several important points in connection
with the design of the 1865 and 1866 Atlantic cables shown
at Fig. 35. The covering of these cables consists of ten
strands of Manilla hemp, each containing a homogeneous
steel wire. The French Atlantic iron-sheathed cable
between Brest and Saint-Pierre, laid in 1869, is shown at
Fig. 36.

Tons.

The weight of the main cable.'per naut is ... 1-652

,, intermediate ,, ... 6-246

„ shore ends „ ... 20-447

{To be continued^

152

NATURE

\yune 24, 1875

SCIENCE IN GERMANY
{From a German Correspondent^

SINCE Darwin first gave the signal for a complete
rupture with the old tradition of the morphology of
animals, Germany has zealously continued working in the
new direction, trying to bring anatomical, embryological,
and biological facts into causal connection with each
other by the comparative method. Darwin's theory re-
mains the basis, and it has been principally Haeckel who,
in advance of all its supporters, deduced further important
consequences ; the antagonists of the theory have confined
themselves to a purely negative criticism. At one time
the whole theory with all its suppositions and deductions
was rejected by them ; at another, the theory of descent
was accepted in principle, but the further representation
of its connection with the anatomy and the development
history of animals was refuted ; in all cases they either
returned to the old views openly or they were satisfied
with simple contradiction, leaving it to the future to fill up
the gaps thus produced in the theory. In a work that
has lately been published, the attempt has been made to
consider the whole science of the morphology of animals
from a different point of view. This work is : " Die
Entwicklungsgeschichte der Unke als Grundlage einer
vergleichenden Morphologie der Wirbelthiere " (the His-
tory of Development of Bombinator igneus as the basis
of a Comparative Morphology of Vertebrata), by Dr.
Alexander Gotte, Professor of the University of Strass-
burg.

I From a careful examination of the individual his-
tory of the development of Vertebrata and comparative
consideration of the lower types, Gotte tries to determine
the morphological laws for the individual species, and
from this to deduce their causal connection ; he thus
arrives at certain general theorems which, according to
his view, form the basis for a conception of the origin of
new animal species, totally different from Darwin's view.
On the one side Gotte does not look upon the animal
ovum as a cell, nor in fact as a living organism at all ;
this of course is different from all other theories hitherto
published. According to his view the cells, which are the
basis of the formation of the ovum, only produce a con-
glomeration of a certain material (yolk) in a certain
arrangement, but are themselves dissolved sooner or later,
so that the complete ovum is a peculiar body, not living,
but endowed with properties that enable it to be con-
verted into a living organism under certain conditions.
He maintains that this capacity for development is not
the simple consequence of the chemical composition of
the yolk, but that it only contains the motive force which
is freed by chemical processes, and can do very different
work according to the physical conditions under which it
happens to be. The result may therefore as likely be the
destruction of the ovum as its further development. For
the latter, perfectly certain conditions of form are neces-
sary, which have already been initiated during the forma-
tion of the ovum, and cause the force in question to work
in a direction just as determined and certain as they are
themselves. The results in that case are self-divisions of
the yolk, when the parts are either of equal or of different
sizes, and produced at different intervals. The former
separate very soon and form separate individuals, which
therefore consist only of one element and represent the
lowest type (Protozoa) ; the ova of Matazoa, which are
unequally divided according to a certain law, remain
whole. Their coarser formation is brought about in a
purely mechanical way, each division causing a displace-
ment.

Thus Dr. Gotte finds the basis of the fundamental
- structure, the type of each animal species, in the differ-
ences originatmg through the laws regulating the first
divisions of the yolk.

NOTES

An Exhibition of 50/. a year, tenable for four years, was
recently devoted by the Endowed Schools Commission 'for an-
nual competition between the four schools of Taunton, Tiverton,
Exeter, and Sherborne. The details of the competition were
left entirely to local trustees, whose names we do not know, but
whom we understand to be gentlemen of the county of Somerset.
The regulations issued by the trustees are before us. They very
properly order that the examination shall be conducted by the
Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination Board. The sub.
jects proposed by that Board include four groups, of which
Science is one, and all candidates, whether choosing to take
up Science or not, are permitted, if they please, to substitute
Botany for Latin Verse, and Physical Geography for Greek Prose
Composition. The scheme of the Somersetshire ^trustees includes
all the subjects named by the Universities except those which come
under the head of Science, refusing to permit any branch of science
to form part of the examination, whether as an independent topic
or as an alternative. We content ourselves for the present with
the statement of a fact likely to interest all our readers, those
more especially who are aware of the efforts that have been
made during the past six years to establish in the county ot
Somerset a centre of first-rate scientific teaching.

Among the additional estimates recently voted by the House
of Commons is one for the^alary of an Assistant- Director to the
Royal Gardens at Kew. Everyone will be rejoiced to hear that
the arduous duties of the Director are likely to be lightened by
this appointment, which has been filled up by the selection of
Prof. Thiselton Dyer.

In connection with the Commission appointed by the President
of the United States to experimcntand report upon the metals used
in construction (Nature, vol. xii. p. 94), Mr. R. H.Thurston, the
Secretary, has issued circulars expressing his desire to secure the
assistance of all who are interested in this great work, and through
them to obtain all information available as the result of the
labours of earlier or of contemporaneous investigators and oh-
servers. The circulars indicate the scope of the labours under-
taken by this Commission, and request aid from all in a position
to render it, in the collection of all information which may be
accessible, relating to either the general work of the Commission
or to the special subjects assigned to its committees. Data col-
lected in the course of ordinary business practice, and the records
of special researches previously made or now in progress, are par-
ticularly desired. It is expected that the Commission will receive
valuable information and useful suggestions, both from business
men and from men of science, and it is hoped that the work un-
dertaken by the Commission may be supplemented by original
investigations made by both these classes. The great importance
of this work justifies the expectation of an earnest and effective
co-operation. Part of the work of the Commission is the inves-
tigation of the methods and effects of Abrasion and Wear of
metals in engineering and mechanical operations. Valuable data
for the purpose could be furnished by railway engineers and
others in regard to the wear of rails, wheels, axles, journals
under heavy loads or at high velocities, the wear of tools, and
other points, and we hope that all in this country who have it in
their power will lend what aid they can to this important Com-
mission. Another part of the Commission's work is a series of
determinations of the effects of carbon, phosphorus, silica, man-
ganese, and other elements, upon the strength, toughness, elas-
ticity, and other quaUties of iron and steel. Mr. A. L. Holley,
Chairman of the Committee on Chemical Research, issues a cir-
cular giving detailed instructions as to the specimens and kind
of information wanted. We should advise all interested to
apply t* Mr. R. H. Thurston, Stevens Institute of Technology,
Hoboken, N.J., for detailed information; and we think the

June 20,, 1875]

NATURE

153

Board would do well in sending circulars to the engineers of our
principal railways, as well as to all others who are likely to be
able to give them help in their laudable and valuable work.

' We are informed that H.M.S. Challenger will have com-
pleted her cruise and be back in this country by April of next
year.

The library of Audubon, the ornithologist, was destroyed by
fire in April last. It was in the house of Mrs. Bakewell, the
sistar-in-law of Audubon, at Shelby ville, Ky.

The twenty-fourth annual meeting of the American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Learning will be held in Detroit,
Mich., beginning on "Wednesday, August ii next, under the
presidentship of Mr. J. E. Ililgard, of Washington.

Dr. Horner, the medical officer on board the Pandora,
which left England yesterday for the Arctic seas, will
take upon himself all the meteorological duties of the expe-
dition. Lieut Banyan, of the Dutch navy, will act as
scientific officer, it being intended that botanical and marine
research will form a prominent duty of the expedition. Hall's
Esquimaux Joe also accompanies the expedition, and altogether
there are thirty-two souls on board. Capt. Allen Young topes
to get as far north as Carey Island, at the entrance of Smith's
Sound. On this island a "post-office" or cairn has existed for
many years, and, accordingly, all the letters Capt. Allen Young
takes with him for the Alert and Discovery will be deposited
here, unless he falls in with one of those vessels. The com-
mander of this new expedition will push to the north-west after
leaving Carey Island, and if tlie Pandora succeeds in forcing a
way through the north-west passage, as Capt. Allen Young
hopes, she will be the first steamship to accomplish the mar-
vellous feat. She may possibly return in November next.

In Part X. of the Deutsche Rundschau there is an excellent
review of Capt. Lawson's wonderful book, " Wanderings in the
Interior of New Guinea " (which we noticed in our issue of the
3rd inst., vol. xii. p. 83). The review is by Prof. A. B. Meyer,
director of the Zoological Museum at Dresden. Like' every
sensible man, Prof. Meyer points out the absurdities with
which this book is crammed. Indeed, he owns that he
was almost of opinion that it was the author's intention to
write a satire on modern narratives of travel, and that on
the last page of the book the reader would be told of this ;
*' but, unfortunately, Capt. Lawson is constantly in earnest ;
indied, he left no stone unturned to make the book attractive,
and to pass off its contents as real facts." Prof. Meyer dwells
at some length on Capt. Lawson's marvellous mountain ascents,
on his wonderful hunting feats, and his most surprising disco-
veries in the animal and vegetable world. He points out that
with regard to the quadruped fauna it is well known that tigers
are not found further eastward than Java, monkeys not further
than Timor, and deer not further than Halmahera, and that it
is incredible that these species, besides buffaloes, foxes, and
hares, [exist in New Guinea. Prof. Meyer, in conclusion,
thinks it rather surprising that shortly after the publication of
this wonderful book of fiction a deputation led by the Duke of
Manchester should have waited upon the Colonial Secretary with
a view to induce the Government to annex New Guinea. He asks,
" Was this a consequence of the marvellous description of the
distant country, or has the sensation novel been manufactured to
order ? "

A NEW steering balloon by Smitter is being exhibited, sus-
pended in the middle of the Alcazar in Paris. The measure-
ment is only 6,000 cubic feet, but ^the balloon is so light,
that when filled with pure hydrogen it must float. A consider-
able sum of money has been invested in it, and great ability

has been displayed in the construction. Although no practicable
result in open air may be hoped for, it is a wonderful piece of
clockwork. In connection with this subject it is stated that for
several months past a firm of engineers have been experimenting
privately at the Crystal Palace with an aerial steamer of a novel
and promising character, weighing 160 lbs. Experiments are
stated to have proved the capability of two vertical screws, each
12 feet diameter, to raise a weight of 120 lbs. ; the steam-engine,
with water and fuel, forming part of the weight so raised to the
extent of 80 lbs. The power exerted by it is equal to two-and-
a-half horses. The communication of motion is given by a
vertical axis emanating from the car.

At a Congregation held on Friday, the report of the Cambridge
Syndicate recommending the purchase by the University of the
collect-on of models, instruments, and tools used by the late
Prof. Willis was confirmed.

~Capt. R. F. Burton writes to the Times stating that the
Italian African Expedition, under the Marchese Antinori, is
reported to have for its ultimate object the wholly unvisited
section to the south-west of Christian Abyssinia and the Abai
River, " coimecting known countries^with the so-called Victoria
Nyanza Lake."

We regret to announce the death of M. Le Besgue, oldest
Correspondent to the^Geomttry Section of the Paris Academy
of Sciences. He died on June 12, at Bordeaux.

On Tuesday a deputation from the Highland and Agricultural
Society of Scotland waited upon the First Commissioner of
Works, to ask the Government to proceed with the Survey of
Scotland, which had been for some years in abeyance, and also
to allow it to be done on a 25-inch scale of maps. A memorial
was handed in to show that the opinion of the Scotch people
was that the Survey should] be at once carried out. Lord Henry
Lennox promised to give the subject his best consideration, and
remarked that the applications for the same object from different
parts of the United Kingdom made it difficult to obtain from the
Treasury any grants for the purpose.

An important Report of a Committee of Council appointed
to consider the requirements of Oxford University, as amended
and adopted by Council, has been circulated for the information
of members of Convocation. The " Requirements of the Univer-
sity" may be conveniently divided into Provision for Buildings and
Institutions, and Provision for Professors and Teachers. Under the
head of Buildings and Institutions, it is stated th* with reference
to the Botanic Garden, if it is to remain where it is, the lease
being renewed, considerable amount of ^reconstruction is re-
quired, estimated at 4,000/. If it is to be removed to the
Parks, a much larger outlay will be required. With regard to
the University Museum, the heads of the three chief depart-
ments (Chemistry, Biology, Physics) report that additional
buildings are required in each of the three, roughly estimated in
all at 30,000/. Under the head of Provision for Professors and
Teachers, the Committee find many demands which it is diffi-
cult to meet at once ; one of their principal suggestions is the
appointment of a Board for the following purposes:—!. To
appoint lecturers from time to time to deliver lectures in the
University on any subject that may seem to the Board to claim
attention, and to assign payment to such lecturers. 2. To make
occasional grants to individuals for the purpose of carrymg on
special work in connection with the studies or institutions of the
University. 3. To appoint Readers for limited periods, not
exceeding ten years, in subjects in which public teaching within
the University may seem to the Board to be desirable ; and to
assign the stipends to such Readers ; such appointments and the
stipends being subject to the approval of Convocation. The

154

NATURE

\7une 24, 1875

Board also, under certain conditions, might be entrusted
with the duty of appointing Professors for life. It appears,
however, that several additions to the permanent staff of
Professors will be required. These must be provided for,
the Report states, from time to time, by statute. Thus, for
example, the following suggestions have been made with regard
to the chief departments of study pursued in the Museum : — i. In
the department of Chemistry it is stated that an additional pro-
fessorship is required. 2. In the department of Physics also it
is stated that an additional professorship is required. 3. In the
department of Biology it is proposed — {a) That the present
Linacre Professorship should become a Professorship of Human
Anatomy and Ethnology. (J)) That the Hope Professorship of
Zoology should become a Professorship of Zoology and Com-
parative Anatomy, {c) That the Clinical Professorship of
Medicine should become a Professorship of Physiology and
Public Health.

A CORRESPONDENT sends us the enclosed cutting from Le
JPrattfais as an illustration of how they do things in France : —
"On salt que sur la proposition de M. de Cumont, ministre de
I'instruction publique, des cultes et des beaux-arts, I'Assemblee
a vote, le 18 juillet dernier, une pension annuelle et viagere de
12,000 fr. a M. Pasteur, membre de I'Institut, professeur a la
Faculte des sciences de Paris, a titre de recompense nationale.
Un nouveau decret, rendu par M. le marechal de Mac-Mahon
sur le rapport de M. Wallon, contre-signe par M. Leon Say, vient
d'accorder une nouvelle pension de 6,000 fr. a M. Pasteur, inde-
pendamment de celle de 12,000 fr. qui, lui avait ete donnee
precedemment. De telles mesures ne peuvent qu'encourager
nos hommes de science et stimuler I'esprit de decouverte. Cette
pension permettra done d'assurer d'une maniere digne de lui les
jours d'un homme qui compte pres de trente-trois annees de
services devoues, et que les fatigues d'un travail assidu ont mis
dans I'impossibilite de continuer b. exercer ses fonctions de
professeur."

Last Thursday, in the House of Commons, in reply to a ques-
tion by Sir John Lubbock, the Chancellor of the Exchequer said
he would be ready to consult with his colleagues in the course of
the autumn to see whether the object of preserving the ancient
monuments of the country could in any way be carried out.
Sir J. Lubbock, considering this a favourable answer, said he
would withdraw his Ancient Monuments Bill.

A SPECIMEN of a sturgeon, eight feet in length, has been
added to the Manchester Aquarium. Several examples of the
Wolf, or Cat Fish, and three of the Monk, or Angel Fish, each
five feet long, are also to be seen in the same building.

During this season the Morning Post has made a speciality
of noticing the proceedings of some of the learned societies.
The lectures at the Royal Institution have generally occupied
half a column, and some of the popular lectures of the Zoological
Society have been given at equal length. In a notice of one of
the ladies' lectures of Prof. Bentley at the Botanic Society is
this passage : — " Future historians of the social condition of the
people of England at our period will have to make constant refer-
ence to the daily press, and it is therefore but right, alongside
of the notices of the culture of music and the sister fine arts,
to record each attempt to spread the knowledge acquired by men
of science." We are glad the Morning Post has set so good an
example.

Prof. Nordenskjold's expedition left Tromso for Novaya
Zemlya on June 8. The expedition is undertaken on board the
Norwegian Arctic sea-yacht Proven, Capt. J. N. Isaksen, who
has been to Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya a great many
times previously. On the southern coast of the latter island the

party expect to meet with Samoyedes ; they intend then to
move in an easterly direction, towards the rivers Obi and Yenesei.
Prof. Nordenskjold will then leave the ship to continue the expe-
dition by boat.

The so-called tobacco-meal, the Kolmsche Zeitung says,
has been successfully used in agriculture for the destruction
of noxious insects, but it has not yet been applied largely on
account of its high price, which is caused by heavy import duty.
The Prussian Minister for Agriculture has jubt addressed a letter
to the Minister for Commerce with a view to reduce this duty or
to take it off entirely. The only obstacle lies in the fact that
the meal might be used for the manufacture of snuff. A
Hamburg firm is said to have a stock of over thirty tons of this
meal.

We regret to learn that Mr. Alexander Agassiz, director of the
Anderson School of Natural History, has been unable to make
arrangements for a third session of this establishment during the
present summer. He announced some time ago that, in view of
the expense of the enterprise and the limited funds at his com-
mand, it would be impossible for him to proceed unless a suf-
ficient number of students could be found willing to pay fifty
dollars for the course. This appeal not proving effectual, he has
given notice that the school will not be opened during 1875.

The French Minister of Public Instruction has established a
new commission to report on the state of meteorology and the
improvements to be introduced in the system of observations, as
hitherto practised at the Observatories of Paris and Montsouris,
and other public establishments.

Col. Montgomerie, the representative at the International
Geographical Congress of the Royal Geographical Society and
the Indian Survey Office, has arrived in Paris. A representative
of the English Admiralty is expected very shortly. It is hoped
that the Admiralty will send to Paris one of the magnificent
yachts of the English navy for exhibition during the Congress.
An immense quantity of goods for exhibition is stated to have
already arrived from London.

The death of Mr. Thomas Baines, the African traveller, is
announced.

At the last meeting of the Edinburgh Botanical Society, the
British Medical Journal states. Dr. T. A. G. Balfour reported
some interesting experiments on the Dioncea muscipula, which
he considered a carnivorous plant. He showed that the irrita-
bility under which the leaf contracts is resident in six delicate
hairs, so placed on the surface of the leaf that no insect could
avoid touching them in crawling over. Chloroform dropped on
a hair caused the leaf to close immediately ; water had no such
effect. Contraction only lasted for a considerable time when
any object capable of affording nutrition was seized, when it
lasted for about three weeks, and the interior of the leaf gave
out a viscous acid secretion. A number of interesting points were
made out with regard to the secretion, digestion, and absorption
performed by the plant.

The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during
the past week include two Dorsal Squirrels {Sciurus dorsalis)
from West Mexico, presented by Mr. John G. Haggard ; a
Yellow-shouldered Amazon {Chrysotis ochroptera) from South
America, presented by Miss Amelia Grove Grady; a Grison
{Galictis wV^afo) from South America, a Yio\i\iy {Hyfotnorchis sub-
buteo), European, a Humboldt's Lagothrbc {Lagothrix humboldti)
from the Upper Amazon, purchased ; ten Summer Ducks {Aix
sponsa), seven Spotted-billed Ducks {Anas facilorhyncha), four
Temminck's Tragopans {Ceriornis temminckii) bred in the
Gardens.

June 20,, 1875]

NATURE

155

RECENT PROGRESS IN OUR KNOWLEDGE
OF THE CILIATE INFUSORIA*
II.
'T'HE reproductive process was lately followed by myself
•*• through some of its stages in a very beautiful Vorticellidan
obtained abundantly from a pond in Brittany, t The zooids which
form the colonies in this Infusorium are grouped in spherical
clusters on the extremities of the branches. They present near
the oral end a large and very obvious contractile vesicle, and
have a long cylindrical nucleus curved in the form of a horseshoe.

In the internal protoplasm are also imbedded scattered green
chlorophylloid granules. No trace ef the so-called nucleolus was
present in any of the specimens examined.

Among the ordinary zooids there were usually some which had
become encysted in a very remarkable way, and without any
previous conjugation having been noticed. These encysted forms
were much larger than the others and had assumed a nearly
spherical shape ; the peristome and cilia-disc had become entirely
withdrawn, the contractile vesicle was still obvious, but had
ceased to manifest contractions j brownish spherical corpuscles
with granular contents, probably the more or less altered chloro-
phylloid granules ot the uncncysted zooid, were scattered through
the parenchyma, and the nucleus was not only distinct, but had
increased considerably in length. Round the whole a clear
gelatinous envelope had become excreted.

In a later stage there was formed between the gelatinous enve-
lope and the cortical layer of the body a strong, dark -brown,
apparently chitinous case, the surface of which in stages still
further advanced had become ornamented by very regular hexa-
gonal spaces with slightly elevated edges. In this state the chi-
tinous envelope was so opaque that no view could be obtained
through it of the included structures, and in order to arrive at any
knowledge of these it was necessary to rupture it. The nucleus
thus liberated was found to have still further increased in
length, and to have become wound into a convoluted and com-
plicated knot. Along with the nucleus were expelled multi-
tudes of very minute corpuscles with active Brownian movements.

In a still lurcher stage the nucleus had become irregularly
branched, and at the same time somewhat thicker and of a
softer consistence ; and finally, it had become broken up into
spherical fragments, each with an included corpuscle resembling
a true cell nucleus in which the place of a nucleolus was taken
by a cluster of minute granules.

In this case the original nucleus of the Vorticellidan had thus
become broken up into bodies identical with the so-called eggs
of Balbiani, but this was unaccompanied by any conjugation or
by the formation of anything which could be compared to
spermatozoal filaments.

What I believe we may regard as now established in the
phenomena of reproduction in the Infusoria is, that besides the
ordinary reproduction by spontaneous fission of the entire body,
the nucleus at certain periods, and after more or less change of
form has occurred in the Infusorium body, becomes broken up
into fragments, each including a corpuscle resembling a true cell
nucleus ; and that this takes place without necessarily requiring
the influence of conjugation or the action of spermatozoa ; that
these fragments after their liberation from the body of the In-
fusorum become developed— still without the necessity of sper-
matic influence — directly or indirectly into the adult form.

Whetlier proper sexual elements ever take part in the life
history uf the Infusoria remains an open question.
\.. Everts t has given an account of observations which, with the
view of testing the statements ot Greeff, he made on Vortkella
nebulijera. Greeff, as we have seen, followed Claparcde and
Lachmann in attributing to the Vorticellae a true ccelenterate
structure j and Everts, by his own investigations, has convinced
himself of the untenabltness of this view, and has been led to
regard the Vorticellse as strictly unicellular.

He recognises the distinction between the cortical layer (which
forms not only the periphery of the body but the whole of the
stalk on which this is supported), and the central mass in which
the nutriment is deposited, collected into pellets and digested ;
but instead of regarding this central mass as chyme, he looks
upon it as an integral constituent of the entire body, like the
cential portion 01 an Amceba. The nucleus is imbedded in the

* Anniversary Address to the Linnean Society, by the President, Dr. G,
J. AUman, t.K.S., May 24. Continued from p. 137.

t British Association Reports, 1873.

i Everts, Untcrsuchungen an Vorticella nebuli/era. Sitzungsberichtc
der Physikalisch-Medicinischen SocieUt zu Erlangen. 1873.

inner side of the cortical layer, which Is itself differentiated into
certain secondary layers. He describes the deeper part of the
cortical layer as exhibiting a rotation of its granules independent
of the rotation which occurs in the central parenchyma, and
moving in a direction opposite to that of the latter. Everts's
account of the structure of Vorticella is thus in accordance with
the conception of it as a cell with a parietal nucleus ; a cell,
however, in which differentiation is carried very far without the
essential character of a simple cell being thereby lost.

Everts regards the external wall as corresponding with the
ectoderm, and the internal softer body-substance with the endo-
derm of higher animals. If by this the author meant to indicate
a honiological identity between the structures thus compared, it
is plain that he would have taken an entirely mistaken view
based on a misconception of the essential nature of an ecto-
derm and endoderm. These membranes are essentially multi-
cellular, and are always results of the segmentation of the vitellus
in a true ovuin. They can therefore never be attributed to a
unicellular animal, in which no true segmentation process ever
takes place. In his rejoinder, h»wever, to an elaborate criticism
of his memoir by Greeff, he explains that he intended to com-
pare the two layers of the Infusorium body analogically, not
morphologically, with an ectoderm and endoderm.

The same author has further made some interesting observations
on the development of Vorticella. He has noticed that reproduc-
tion is here ushered in by a longitudinal cleavage, in which after
division of the nucleus the body of the Vorticella becomes cleft
into two halves, still seated on the common stalk. Each of these
develops near its posterior end a wreath of vibratile cilia, while
the peristome and the cilia-disc over the mouth are entirely with-
drawn, and then breaks loose from its stem and swims freely
away. These free-swimming Vorticella; now encyst themselves,
the cilia disappear, and the contents of the encysted animal
acquire a uniform clearness with the exception of the nucleus,
which persists unchanged. In the next place the nucleus breaks
up into eight or nine pieces, and then the wall of the cyst
becomes ruptured and gives exit to these fragments, which now
appear as spontaneously moving spherules. These increase in
size, develop on one end a cilia wreath, within which a mouth
makes its appearance, and the free-swimming nucleus-fragment
becomes gradually changed into a form which entirely agrees
with the Trichodina grandmdla of Ehrenberg.

These Trichodinas now multiply by fission, first developing a
posterior wreath of cilia, and then dividing transversely between
the anterior and posterior wreaths. After this each fixes itself
by the end on which the mouth is situated ; a short stem
becomes here developed, and the cilia wreath gradually dis-
appears. Then upon the free end the peristome and cilia disc
make their appearance, and the growth of the stem completes
the development.

Everts remarks that in this process we have an example 01
alternation of generations. There is one point, however, in
which he has overlooked its essential difference from a true
alternation of generations, namely, the absence of any intercala-
tion of a proper sexual reproduction.

Ray Lankester * has subjected to spectrum analysis the blue
colouring matter of Stenior carulens. This occurs in the form of
minute granules in the cortical layer of the animal, and Lan-
kester finds that it gives two strong absorption bands of remarkable
intensity, considering the small quantity of the matter which can
be submitted to examination. He cannot identify these bands
with those of any other organic colouring matter, and to the
peculiar pigment in which he finds them he gives the name of
sUniorin.

He has also examined the bright green colouring matter ot
Stentor Mulleri, and finds that instead of giving the steptorin
absorption bands, it gives a single band like that of the chloro-
phylloid matter of Hydra viridis and of Spongilla.

Ray Lankester t has also described, under the name of Tor-
quatella typica, a remarkable marine Infusorium, which, though
quite destitute of true cilia, can scarcely be separated from the
proper Ciliata. With the general structure of the ciliate
Infusoria, the place of a peristomal cilia wreath is taken by a
singular plicated membrane, which forms a wide, frill-like, very
mobile appendage, surrounding the oral end of the animal, and
projecting to a considerable distance beyond it. The author
regards 'Jorquatella iypica as the type of a distinct section of the
Ciliata to which he gives the name of Calycata.

Of all the authors who since Von Siebold have applied themselves

* Quart. Joum. Mic.Sci., 1073. f Ibid. 1874.

156

NATURE

\yune 24, 1875

to the investigation of the Infus6ria, Haeckel must be mentioned
as the one who has brought the greatest amount of evidence to
bear on the question of their unicellularity. In a very elaborate
paper which has quite recently appeared,* and which is remark-
able for the clearness and logical acuteness with which the
whole subject is treated, Prof. Haeckel, resting mainly on the
observations of others, and partly also on his own, argues in favour
of the unicellularity of the Infusoria from the evidence afforded
both by the phenomena of their development and by the struc-
ture ot the mature organism. He confines himself chiefly to
the Ciliata — which, indeed, he regards as the only true Infu-
soria— while he considers the unicellularity of the Flagellata as
too obvious to require an elaborate defence. The value of this
paper will be obvious from the analysis of it which I now pro-
pose to give.

In stating the argument derived from development, Haeckel
does not accept as established the alleged sexual reproduction of
the Infusoria, and he believes it safest to regard as non-sexual
*' sporee " the bodies {Keimkiigeht) which result* from the break-
ing up of the nucleus, and which Balbiani regarded as eggs.

These bodies consist of a little mass of protoplasm usually
destitute of membrane, and including a nucleus within which
one or more refringent granules admitting of comparison with
a true nucleolus may sometimes be witnessed — characters which
are all those of a simple genuine cell. From this spore the
embryo is developed by direct growth and differentiation ot
parts ; but however great may be the differentiation, there is
never anything like the formation of a tissue.

The development of the Infusoria is thus entirely in favour of
the unicellular theory. This theory, however, is just as strongly
supported by the study of their mature condition ; and here
Haeckel gives an admirable exposition of the structure of the
true or Ciiiate Infusoria.

The parts which are common to all Ciliata and which first
differentiate themselves in the ontogenesis or development of the
spore, are the cortical layer, the medullary parenchyma, and the
nucleus, which is situated on the boundary between the two.
The differentiation of the protoplasm of the naked spore into a
clearer and firmer cortical substance, and a more turbid, granular,
and softer medullary substance, corresponds entirely with what
we see in the parenchyma cells of higher animals. These two
products of differentiation are designated by Haeckel "exoplasm"
and "endoplasm."

The exoplasm is originally a perfectly homogeneous and struc-
tureless, colourless hyaline layer distinguishable from the turbid
granular soft protoplasm of the internal body mass, by containing
in its composition less water, by absence of included granules, and
by Us high independent contractility. All the mobile appendages
ot the body, trie cilia, bristles, spines, hairs, hooks, &c., are
nothing but structureless extensions of this exoplasm and partici-
pate in its contractility. In this respect they entirely correspond
to the cilia and llagelia; of the cells which form the ciliated epi-
thelium ot multicellular animals.

In many Ciliata we find this cortical layer or exoplasm itself
subsequently differentiated into distinct strata. In the most
highly differentiated Ciliata lour layers may be distinguished as
the result of ths secondary differentiation of the exoplasm.
These are : (i) the cuticle layer, (2) the cilia layer, (3) the
myophan layer, (4) the trichocyst layer.

The ciUicle is nothing but a lifeless exudation from the surface.
In the majority of Ciliata there is no true cuticle, and in those
which possess it, it presents itself under various forms, as seen
in the thin, chitine-iike, hyaline homogeneous pellicle of Para-
mKCum and Trichodina, the outer elastic layer ot the stem o£ the
Vorticellinre, the protective sheath of Vaginicola, the chitin-like
cases of the Tiaiinnodeaa and Codonellida^, the beautiful lattice-
like siliceous shells of the Uictyocystidae, and many other shells,
case?, and shitll-like protections.t

* Haeckel, "Zur Morphologie der Infusorien." Jenaische Zeitschr.,
Band vii. heft 4, 1873.

t In the same number of the Zeitschrift, Haeckel (" Ueber einige neue
pelagische Infusonen ") describes some highly interesting Infusoria which
spend their lives in the open sea and are distinguished by the possession of
variously formed shells. His attention was first directed to them by finding
their elegant empty shells in the extra-capsular sarcode of Radiolarise.
These pelagic Infusoria appear to belong to two different groups, which stand
neareit to the TiniinnodeEe of Claparede and Lachmann. He designates
them as Dictyocyitida: and Codoneliidte.

The family of the Dictyocystida; is based on Ehrenberg's Dictyocysta,
and is characterised by the possession of a siliceous perforated laince-like
shell so closely resembling that of many Radiolarise, that Haeckel at first
mistook it for the shell of one of these. The shell is in all the species bell-
shaped or helmet-shaped, and the body of the animal, which is fixed to the

The cilia layer occurs in all Ciliata ; it lies immediately beneath
the cuticle where this is present, and the whole of the cilia and
other mobile appendages are its immediate extensions. These
must therefore perforate the cuticle or its modifications when
such protective coverings exist.

The 7nyophan layer is identical with that which most authors
describe as a true muscular layer. It has been demonstrated in
most of the Ciliata. It appears as a system of regular parallel
fine strice in the walls of the body, and in the Vorticellida; occu-
pies also the axis of the stem, where it forms the characteristic
' ' stem-muscle " of these animals. There can be no doubt that
these striae represent contractile fibrils, which, by their contrac-
tion, effect the various form changes of the animal. They are
thus physiologically analogous to muscles. From a morphological
point of view, however, we must regard them as only differen-
tiated protoplasm filaments. In the morphological conception
of true muscle, its cell nature is absolutely indispensable. The
so-called muscle-fibrils of the Infusoria never show a trace of
nucleus. They can be viewed only as parts of a cell due to the
differentiation of the sarcode molecules of its protoplasm ; and
as they are thus only sarcode filaments, Haeckel designates them
by the term "myophan," as indicating a distinction from proper
muscle.

The trichocyst layer occurs also in many Infusoria, but not in
all. It is a thin stratum of the exoplasm lying immediately on
the endoplasm, and including in certain species the trichocysts.
The presence of these bodies, which possess a striking resem-
blance to the thread-cslls of the Ccelenterata, has, as we have
already seen, been urged as an argument in favour of the multi-
cellularity of the Infusoria. But, as Haeckel argues, no evidence
of muliicellularity can be derived from this fact. The thread-
cells of the Ccelenterata are themselves the products of a cell,
and we often find many of them originating in a single formative
cell quite independently of the nucleus ; the formative cell may
in this respect be compared with the entire body of the
Infusorium.

It is the endoplasm, or internal parenchyma of the Infusoria
that has given rise to the most important differences of opinion,
and in his account of this part of the Infusorium-organism Haeckel
chiefly directs his criticism against the views advocated by
Claparede and Lachmann, and by Greeff.

These authors, as we have already seen, compare the Infu-
soria with the Ccelenterata, and regard the endoplasm not as a
real part of the body, but merely as the contents of the alimentary
canal — as a sort of food mash or chyme contained in a spacious
digestive cavity whose walls are at the same time stomach wall
and body wall, and into which the mouth leads by a short gullet.
As Haeckel urges, however, it needs only a correct conception
of the intestinal cavity throughout the animal kingdom and of its
distinction from the body cavity, in order to show the tintenable-
ness of this position. The main point of such a conception lits
in the fact that the intestinal cavity and all extensions of it
(gastro-vascular canals, &c.) are always originally clothed by the
endoderm or inner leaflet of the blastoderm, while the body cavity
is always formed on the external side of the endoderm, and
between this and the ectoderm or outer leaflet of the blastoderm.
The body cavity and intestinal cavity of animals are thus essen-
tially different ; they never communicate with one another, and
always arise in quite different ways.

Again, the contents of a true intestinal cavity consist only of
nutritious matter and water, in other words, of chyme ; while
the fluid which fills the body cavity is never chyme, but is
always a liquid which has transuded through the intestinal wall,
and which may be called chyle, or blood in the wider sense of
the word.

Haeckel has thus taken, I believe, the true view of the intes-
tinal and body cavities of animals. He had already advocated
it in his work on the Calcareous Sponges. It necessarily in-

fundus of the bell, and can be projected far beyond its margin, lias a wide
funnel-shaped peristome on whose edge are two concentric wreaths ef strong
cilia. He describes four species, distinguishing them by characters derived
from their siliceous latticed shell.

The family of the Codonellidae, based on the genus Codouella, Haeckel, is
also provided with a bell-shaped case, but this, instead of being formed of a
siliceous lattice work, consists of a chitine-like organic membi-ane, through
which siliceous particles are scattered. The family is, however, chicHy
characterised by the peculiar form of its peristome. This is funnel-shaped
and provided on its margin with a thin collar-like expansion. The free edge
of this collar is serrated, and each tooth carries a stalked lobe of a piriform
shape, regarded by Haeckel as probably an organ of touch. At some dis-
tance behind the circle of piriform lobes is situated a ring of long, strong,
whip-like cilia, which form powerful swimming organs. The three species
described are distinguished by the form of their chitinous cases.

■ifte 24, 1875]

NATURE

157

es a belief in the homological identity of organisation
veen very distant groups of the animal kingdom, a belief

,.„;oh all recent embryological research has only tended to

confirm.

{To be continued.)

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

American Journal of Science and Arts, June. — The original
articles in this number are : — Results of dredging expeditions of
the New England Coast in 1874, by A, E. Verrill. More
than 100 species new to the launa of southern New Eng-
land were secured. Most of these are northern species,
but many are undescribed. A table giving nature of bottom
and temperature at the surface and bottom of the sea is
given. — Mr. Fontaine's paper on the Primordial Strata of Vir-
ginia is continued and concluded. At the end is given a
comparison with the metamorphic crystalline rocks of the Blue
Ridge. — On the occurrence of the Brown Hematite deposits of
the Great Valley, by Frederick Prime, jun. — Note on some new
points in the elementary stratification of the Primordial and
Canadian rock of south central Wisconsin, by Roland Irving.
The order for the Lower Silurian strata of Wisconsin has been
generally accepted as (beginning from below) i. Potsdam sand-
stone ; 2. Lower magnesian limestone ; 3. The St. Peter's sand-
stone ; 4. The blue and buff limestones ; 5. The Galena lime-
stone ; 6. The Cincinnati group. The succession as now made
out is (beginning from below) i. The Lower or Potsdam sand-
stone ; 2. The Mendota limestone ; 3. The Madison sandstone ;

4. The main body of limestone ; 5. The St. Peter's sandstone.
A table of correlation is given with the Mississippi Bluffs and
the Minnesota River. — On the application of the horizontal pen-
dulum to the measurement of minute changes in the dimensions
of solid bodies, by Prof. O. N. Rood. — On diabantite (a chlorite),
by G. W. Hawes. — Re-discovery of double star H.I. 41, by

5. W. Burnham. It is about 46' north of the well-known double
star »|/' Draconis, and is easily found without an equatorial
mounting. — On the distnbution of electrical discharges from
circular discs, by C. J. Bell. — Examination of gases from the
meteorite of Feb. 12, 1875, by A. \V. Wright.— On limonite
with the colour and transparency of golhite, by Prof. Mallet. —
Under the head "Scientific Intelligence," the original notes
are : — On the surface geology of Ohio ; On the Prototaxites of
Dawson ; On the Crustaceans of the caves of Kentucky and
Indiana, together with several reviews.

Fourth and Fifth Annual Reports of the Wellington College
Natural History Society, Dec. 1872 to Dec. 1874. — We are
gratified to see that this Society is in a much more hopeful con-
dition than it was when we noticed its last Report, the tone of
which was almost despairing. The attendance has been very
much better, and the interest taken in the Society by the boys is
evidently increasing. Judging from the lists a fair amount of
field-work in natural history has been done, and the Society is
gradually forming good collections. But, as the preface to one
of the Reports hints, there is still much room for improvement in
the subjects and character of the papers read at the meetings.
Except in the case of lectures by outsiders, the majority of the
papers are the result of reading and not of observation or experi-
ment, and not many of them can strictly be called scientific.
Now, however useful such exercises as these may be to the boys,
this is scarcely the sort of work one looks for from members of a
Natural History Society, We think this Society might well take
a leaf out of the Rugby Society's Report, and go in much more
extensively for organised field-work, encouraging the boys to use
their eyes and their hands on nature as well as on books, and to
bring forward papers embodying the results of their observations,
papers of a character similar to the interesting one of the presi-
dent, the Rev. C. W. Penny, on " Natural History in the
Christmas Holidays." Not only would the members thus reap
much benefit, both in the way of discipline and instruction, but
M'e are sure a greater interest in the Society would be created in
the School. The Society has evidently got a good second start,
and we trust that the next Report will show as great an advance
on the two under notice as these do on the previous one.

Riga Society of Naturalists.— Hos. 8 and 9 of this Society's
publications contain three papers of importance, besides meteoro-
logical reports and notes of smaller interest. The more im-
portant papers are : On some theories of earthquakes, by Prof.

Schweder.— On the changes in the Dlina estuary, by M. Gott-
fried. — On the fauna of Spitzbergen, by Prof. Nordenskjbld,
showing that this fauna consists of 15 species of quadrupeds, 23
of birds, 23 of fishes, 64 of insects, 100 of CrustaceJE, and 130
of sea molhiscs. — There is also an obituary notice of the late
Dr. Ernst Nauck, who died at Riga on Jan. 26 last.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

London

Royal Society, June 10.— "Experiments on Stratification
in Electrical Discharges through Rarefied Gases," by William
Spottiswoode, M.A., Treas. R.S.

In the stratified discharges through rarefied gases produced by
an induction-coil working with an ordinary contact-breaker, the
striae are often unsteady in position, and apparently irregular in
their distribution. Observations made with a revolving mirror,
which the author hopes to describe on another occasion, have
led him to conclude that an irregular distribution of strise does
not properly appertain to stratification, but that its appearance is
due to certain peculiarities in the current, largely dependent
upon instrumental causes.

The beautiful and steady effects obtained by Mr. Gassiot with
his Leclanche battery, and also more recently by Mr. De la Rue
with his chloride-of-silver battery, have abundantly shown the
possibility of stratification free from the defects above men-
tioned ; but it must be admitted that the means employed by
those gentlemen are almost gigantic. The present experiments
were undertaken by the author with the view of ascertaining,
first, how far it was possible to approach towards similar results
with instruments already at his command ; and secondly, whether
these would afford other modes of attack, beside the battery, on
the great problem of stratified discharges.

The induction-coil used was an "18-inch" by Apps, worked
occasionally by six large chlcride-of-silver cells, kindly lent the
the author by Mr. De la Rue, but more usually by ten or by twenty
Leclanche cells of the smallest size ordinarily made by the Silver-
town Company. He has also, in connection with the same coil,
120 of the latter cells, connected in twenties for quantity, and
forming six cells of twenty times the surface of the former. These
work the coil with the ordinary contact-breaker very well, giving
ii-inch sparks whenever required. A "switch" affords the
means of throwing any of the three batteries in circuit at
pleasure.

Having reason to think that the defects in question were
mainly due to irregularity in the ordinary contact-breaker, he
constructed one with a steel rod as vibrator, having a small
independent electromagnet for maintaining its action. The
details of construction of this contact-breaker are described.

With a contact-breaker of this kind in good action, several
phenomena were noticeable ; but first and foremost was the fact
that in a large number of tubes (especially hydrocarbons), the
striae, instead of being sharp and flaky in form, irregular in dis-
tribution and fluttering position, were soft and rounded in out-
line, equidistant in their intervals, steady in proportion to the
regularity of the contact-breaker. These results are, the author
thinks, attributable more to the regularity than to the rapidity of
the vibrations. And this view is supported by the fact that,
although the contact-breaker may change its note (as occasionally
happens), and in so doing may cause a temporary disturbance in
the stratification, yet the new note may produce as steady a set of
striae as the first. And not only so, but frequently there is heard,
simultaneously with a pure note from the vibrator, a strident
sound, indicating that contacts of two separate periods are being
made, and yet, when the strident sound is regular, the stria: are
steady. On the other hand, to any sudden alteration in the
action of the break (generally implied by an alteration in the
sound) there always corresponds an alteration in the striae.

The author then attempts to show the extreme dehcacy in
action of this kind of contact-breaker, or "high break," as it
may be called.

The discharges described above are usually (although not
always) those produced by breaking contact ; but it often
happens, and that most frequently when the strident noise is
heard, that the current produced by making contact is strong
enough to cause a visible discharge. This happens with the
ordinary as with the high break ; but in the latter case the double
current presents the very remarkable peculiarity, that the striae of
one current are so arranged as to fit exactly into the intervals of

158

NATURE

\yune2A,, 1875

the other. And further, that any disturbance affecting the
column of striaa due to one current affects similarly, with refer-
ence to absolute space, that due to the •ther, so that the double
column moves, if at all, as a solid or elastic mass. And this
fact is the more remarkable if we consider, as is easily observed
in a revolving mirror, that these currents are alternate, not only
in direction, but also in time, and that no one of them is pro-
duced until after the complete extinction of its predecessor.
And it is also worthy of note that this association of striae is not
destroyed, even when the two currents are separated more
or less towards opposite sides of the tube by the presence of a
magnetic pole. There seems, however, to be a tendency in that
case lor the stria: of one current to advance upon the positions
occupied by those of the reverse current, giving the whole
column a twisted appearance. But as there is no trace, so far as
the author's observations go, of this association of alternate dis-
charges when produced by the ordinary break, we seem led to
the conclusion that a stratified discharge, on ceasing, leaves the
gas so distributed as to favour, during a very short interval of
time, a similar stratification on the occurrence of another dis-
charge, whether in the same or in the opposite direction. An
explanation of the fact that the stride of alternate discharges
occupy alternate and not similar positions is not obvious, and
probably demands a better knowledge of the nature of the striae
than we possess at present.

The column of striae, which usually occupy a large part of the
tube from the positive towards the negative terminal, have
hitherto been described as stationary, except as disturbed by
irregularities of the break. The column is, however, frequently
susceptible of a general motion, or "flow," either from or
towards the positive pole, say a forward or backward flow. A
similar phenomenon was observed by Mr. Gassiot in some tubes
with his large battery, but the author is not acquainted with the
exact circumstances under which it was produced. This flow
may be controlled, both in velocity and in direction, by resist-
ance introduced into the circuit, or by placing the tube in a mag-
netic field. The resistance may be introduced in either the
primary or the secondary circuit. For the former arrangement
the author successfully employed a set ot resistance-coils, sup-
plemented by a rheostat. For the secondary current, as well as
for the Holtz machine, he has used an instrument devised
and constructed by his assistant, Mr. P. Ward, to whose intelli-
gence and skill he is much indebted throughout this investiga-
tion, intended for fine adjustment. Wherever the resistance be
introduced the following law appears to be established by a
great number and variety of experiments, viz., that, the striae
being previously stationary, an increase of resistance produces
a forward flow, a decrease of resistance a backward flow. The
author has generally found that a variation of 3 or 4 ohms,
or, under favourable conditions, of i or 2 ohms, is suffi-
cient to produce this effect. But as an alteration in the
current not only affects the discharge directly, but also reacts
upon the break, the effect is liable to be masked by these indirect
causes. The latter, so far as they are dependent upon a sudden
alteration of the resistance, may be diminished by the use of the
rheostat ; but when the striae are suiBciently sensitive to admit
the use of this delicate adjustment, some precautions are neces-
sary to ensure perfect uniformity of current, so as to avoid dis-
turbances due to uneven contact in the rheostat itself.

When the striae are flowing they preserve their mutual dis-
tances, and do not undergo increase or decrease in their numbers.
Usually one or two remain permanently attached to the positive
electrode ; and as the moving column advances or recedes, the
foremost stria diminishes in brilliancy until, after travelling over
a distance less than the intervals between the two striae, it is lost
in darkness. The reverse takes place at the rear of the column.
As the last stria leaves its position, a new one, at first faint and
shadowy, makes its appearance behind, at a distance equal to
the common interval of all the others. This new one increases
in brilliancy until, when it has reached the position originally
occupied by the last stria, when the column was at rest, it
becomes as bright as the others. The flow may vary very much
in velocity ; it may be so slow that the appearances and disap-
pearances of the terminal striae may be watched in all their
phases, or it may be so rapid that the separate strias are no
longer distinguishable, and the tube appears as if illuminated
with a continuous discharge. In most cases the true character
- of the discharge, and the direction of the flow, may be readily
distinguished by the aid of a revolving mirror. In some tubes,
especially in those whose length is great compared with their

diameter, the whole column does not present the same phase of
flow ; one portion may be at rest while another is flowing, or
even two conterminous portions may flow in opposite directions.
This is seen also in very wide tubes, in which the striae appear
generally more mobile than in narrow ones. But in all cases
these nodes or junctian-points of the flow retain their positions
under similar conditions of pressure and current ; and it therefore
seems that, under similar conditions, the column in a given tube
always breaks up into similar flow-segments.

These nodes will often disappear under the action of a mag-
netic pole. Thus, if the first segment, measured from the positive
terminal, be stationary and the second be flowing backwards
{i.e. from - to -(- ), a magnetic pole of suitable strength, placed at
the distant end of the latter, will stop its flow, and the whole
column will become stationary throughout. An increase in the
strength of the magnet, or a nearer approach of it to the tube,
will produce a general forward flow of the column.

The phenomena of the flow, as well as others of not less inte-
rest, are capable of being produced with the Holtz machine. It
is well known that stratified discharges, similar to those produced
by an induction-coil working with an ordinary break, may be
produced by such a machine, provided that it be furnished with
the usual Leyden jars, and a high resistance (usually a piece o.
wetted string) be interposed in the circuit. The absence of
either of these conditions was supposed to destroy the striae and
to render the discharge continuous. Experiments which the
author has recently made, but do not describe on the present
occasion, tend in part, but only in part, to confirm this view.
They show that for the production of stria both quantity and
resistance are necessary, that the discharge must occupy a certain
short, perhaps, but finite time, or, as it may also be expressed,
that a continuous current is an essential element.

Now, seeing that every tube must offer some resistance, and
also that by adjusting the height of the vertical condensors of
the machine (or length of air-spark interposed in the circuit) we
had the means of altering the quantity in the discharge, it
seemed worth while to try whether, by a suitable adjustment of
the parts, phenomena similar to those brought out by the coil
and high break might not be produced by the machine. And
this proved to be very easy of attainment in tubes which had
been successfully used by the coil ; and not only so, but the
character of the flow therein shown confirmed in a very striking
and simple manner the effects of resistance described above.

The connections being made in the usual way, and no air-
spark being admited into the circuit, a vacuum-tube of carbonic
oxide, about 60 centims. in length and 4-5 centims. in outside
diameter, gave, when the plates of the machine revolved at about
six times per second, a rather confused discharge. As the speed
was increased a rapid forward flow of the stria was readily dis-
cerned ; and on a still further increase to about ten revolutions
per second, the flow, first in one part and then throughout nearly
the whole length of the tube, slackened its pace and stopped,
and ultimately reversed its motion. An increase of speed is
equivalent to an overcoming or a diminution of resistance in the
circuit, a diminution of speed to an augmentation of resistance.
Hence the phenomena of flow produced by the machine agree
with those produced by the coil.

The author concludes by referring to the effects obtained with
sulphurous acid and other tubes, and by describing the resist-
ance-coil used for the secondary current.

Chemical Society, June 17. — Prof. Abel, F.R.S., in the
chair. —Notes on the chemistry of tartaric and citric acid, by Mr.
R. Warrington, gives many important particulars connected with
the manufacture of these acids : and also detailed accounts of
the methods of analysis — many of them novels of the various raw
materials from which they are made. — After this the Secretary
read a communication on the action of nitric acid on copper,
mercury, &c. , especially in the presence of metallic nitrates, by
Mr. J. J. Ackworth. — Dr. Gladstone then gave a short account
of the decomposition of water by the joint action of aluminium
and aluminium iodide, bromide, and chloride, including instances
of reverse action, by himself and Mr. Tribe. — The other papers
were on nitrosyl-bromide and on sulphuro-bromide, by Mr.
M. M. P. Muir. — On achrematite, a new molybdo-arseniate of
lead from Mexico ; and on certain new reactions of tungsten,
both by Prof. J. W. Mallet ; and on the action of chlorine on
acetamide, by Dr. Prevost.

Geological Society, June 9.— John Evans, V.P.R.S., pre-
sident, in the chair. — The following communications were read :

yune 24, 1875]

NATURE

59

48

—On Prorastomus strenoidesy Owen. (Part II.), by Prof. Owen,
F.R.S. The author has submitted the skull of a Sirenian from
Jamaica, described by him in 1855 under the name o\ Prorastomus
siroio'ides, to a careful re-examination ; and in this paper
notices the characters revealed by further removal of the matrix,
and discusses the bearings of the facts thus ascertained upon the
relations of the animal and of the Sirenia generally. The parts
■which have been brought to light are the base and roof of the
cranium, the zygomatic arches, the hind half of the mandible,
with the articular part of the condyle, and the greater part of the
atlas. The characters presented by these parts are described in
detail, and the characters of the genus are compared with those
presented by other genera of Sirenians, both living and fossil,
especially Manaiits and Felsinotherium. The dent^ formula of
Prorastomus is given as —

/. 3-3 d. or c. 1=1, p. 5l=S ^,. 3z:3
3—3? I— I ^ 5—5 3-3

thus, as in Manatus, showing an excess in the molar series over
the type of the terrestrial herbivorous mammalia, whilst the
incisors and canines retain the common type as to number and
kind, and have not been subjected to so great a degree of sup-
pression or of individual excess of development as in existing
Sirenians. The presence of these small subequal incisorsin both
jaws of P7vrastotnus is the most marked feature in which Proras-
tomus adheres to the normal mammalian type, while showing
the essential characters of the marine Herbivores ; but a similar
tendency is shown in other parts of the skull. The author regards
the Sirenia as essentially monophyodont. Halicore and Felsino-
therium depart further from the type than Halitherium and
Manatus, a.ni\.htse Xhz.x\ Prorastomus. Rhytina, with a better
developed brain and with the jaws edentulous when adult, is an
extreme modification of the Sirenian type. The rudimentary
femur in Halitherium is to be regarded as the result of degenera-
tion through lack of use, from better-limbed prototypal mammals.
AVith respect to the genealogy of the Sirenia, the author remarks
that Hackel derives the Sirenia, Zeuglodontes, and Cetacea, to-
gether with the Artiodactyla, from the branch Ungulata, and the
Perissodactyla from the branch Pycnoderma of the Mammalian
trunk ; but that while Halitherium and Felsinotherium show the
molar pattern of Hippopotamus, Prorastomus exhibits that of
Lophiodon and Tapirus, to which Manatus also adheres rather than
to any Artiodactyle type. The author suggests that both Ungu-
lates and Sirenians diverged at some remote period from a more
generalised (cretaceous ?) mammalian gyrenceplialous type ? and
that the marine Herbivora in the course of long Eocene and
Miocene eons were subjected to conditions producing modifica-
tions of their molars, leading on one side to an Artiodactyle and
on the other to a Perissodactyle character. As Prorastomus by
its more generalised dentition and shape of brain represents a
step nearer the speculative starting-point than any other Sirenian,
it acquires a great interest, and the determination of the precise
age of the (supposed Eocene) bed from which its remains were
derived is very much to be desired. — On the structure of the
skull of Khizodus, by L. C. Miall, F.G.S. In this paper the
author described a large skull of Khizodus from the coal-shale of
Gilmerton, near Edinburgh. The characters described show
that Rhizodus is a Ganoid fish, and that its position in the
order is not far from Holoptychius and Megalichthys. The
author referred it to the cycloidal division of ihe family Glypto-
dipterini. — Appendix to a note on a modified form of Dinosaurian
Ilium, hitherto reputed Scapula, by Mr. J. W. Hulke, F.R.S. —
This paper contained a notice of the pubis of Iguanodon, which
proves to be identical with the smaller of the two specimens
figured by the author in a former paper (Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc xxx. pi. xxxii. Fig. i). When inverted, its long slender
process is easily identified with that of the pubis of the nearly
allied Hypsilophodon, and this slanted downwards and back-
wards parallel to the ischium, the little process of its posterior
surface, meeting a corresponding process of the ischium, and con-
verting the upper end of a long narrow obturator space into a
foramen. The pubis of Iguanodon contributed largely to the
formation of the acetabulum, thus resembling that of existing
Lacertilia, as also in its possession of a broad ventral extension,
probably united with that of the opposite side by a median
symphysis. The specimens described in this paper were col-
lected in the Isle of Wight by the Rev. W. Fox. — Notes on the
Paleozoic Echini, by Mr. Walter Keeping, of the Woodwardian
jMuseum, Cambridge; communicated by Prof. T. M 'Kenny
Hughes, F.G.S. The author alluded to the interest excited by
the discovery of Echinoderms with flexible tests ; and having

pointed out the dSficrcnce between the more modern and the
Paloeozoic forms (their plates imbricating in opposite directions),
gave a description of the following forms :— (i) Perischodomus*;
(2) Ra:chtnus, g. n. , sp. K. irregularis (Keeping) ; (3) Pal.cchinus (?)
intermedius (Keeping) ; (4) Palachinus gigas (McCoy) ; (5) Pa-
hcchinus sphcericus (McCoy) ; (6) Archaocidaris Urii (Fleming).
In conclusion, the author proposed a new method of classification
for the Echinoidca. He also noticed the existence in the Mu-
seum of the Royal School of Mines of a British fossil which
appears to belong to the group of Echinoidea with numerous
ranges of ambulacral plates, represented in America by the
genera Melonites, Oligoporus, and Lepidesthes.— On some fossil
Alcyonaria from the Australian Tertiary deposits, by Prof.
P. Martin Duncan, F.R.S. In a former communication
in 1870 the author described some fossil corals from the
Tertiary strata near Cape Otway, in the province of Victoria.
In one, which he called the " Upper Coralline bed," the equiva-
lent of the Polyzoan limestone of Woods, he found specimens
which he did not then describe, as they were not true corals.
Belonging to the Isidinae, and not being of great interest, he
retained them until the receipt of some similar specimens from
New Zealand, described m the following paper. The Austra-
lian forms described by the author were shown to be nearly allied
to the recent Isis Iiippuris and the fossil /. corallina. — On some
fossil Alcyonaria from the Tertiary deposits of New Zealand, by
Prof. P. Martin Duncan, F.R.S. The New Zealand fossils re-
ferred to in the preceding paper were sent to the author by Capt.
F. W. Hutton, F.G.S. ; they were derived from the Awawoa
Railway cutting, and were from the upper part of the Oawaru
formation. They consisted of fragments of species of the genus
Isis and of Corallium. These were compared with those from
the Australian Tertiaries, and the author inferred that both
deposits were formed under similar conditions, and that they
were at least homotaxial, whatever their precise geological age
might be. — On some fossil corals from the Tasmanian Tertiary
deposits, by Prof. P. Martin Duncan, F.R.S. The author de-
scribed a new species of Dendrophyllia possessing very unusual
characters, the epitheca replacing the true wall, and giving the
specimen a marked Palaeozoic appearance. The fossil was ob-
tained from a Tertiary deposit, and was associated with Place-
trochus deltoideus, a well-marked coral, characteristic of a definite
geological horizon in Victoria, namely, the lower beds of the
Cape Otway section, belonging to the Lower Cainozoic period.
For this coral he proposed the name oi Dendrophyllia epithecata.
A much worn reef-coral was found associated with the above.

Meteorological Society, June 16.— Dr. R. J. Mann, presi-
dent, in the chair. — The following papers were read :— On a
white rain or fog bow, by Mr. G. J. Symons. — On a proposed
form of thermograph, by Mr. Wildman Whitehouse, F.R.A.S.
— On the rainfall at Athens, by Prof. V. Raulin (translated by
Mr. R. Strachan). These observations were made by M. Julius
Schmidt, director of the Greek Observatory, and embrace a
period of twelve years and a half, viz., from August 1859 to
December 1871. The average yearly fall is 15 83 inches, and
the average number of wet days ninety-three. The wettest year
was 1864, when 28*30 inches fell, and the driest 1862, with 9 63
inches. — On the barometric fluctuations in squalls and thunder-
storms, by the Hon. Ralph Abercromby. There are two classes
of storms in this country : in one the barometer rises, in the other
it falls. The author in the present paper only refers to the
former. After mentioning some of the phenomena which accom-
pany storms of this class, he proceeds to give two instances as
typical of their general character. In conclusion he makes the
following remarks on their origin : — Though in this country
squall-storms are almost always associated with primary or
secondary cyclones, those in India and Africa are not connected
with cyclones, and hence the source of the barometric rise
cannot be due to any special phenomenon of cyclone motion.
Since the rise is always under the visible storm, it is propagated
at the same rate and in the same manner as thunderstorms.
Enough is known of the course of the latter to be certain that
they art not propagated like waves or ripples, and hence these
small barometric rises are not due to aerial waves, as has some-
times been suggested. Since the general character of the rise
is the same whether there is thunder or not, it is evident that
electricity, even of that intensity which is discharged disruptively,
is not the cause of the rise. If we look at a squall from a dis-
tance, we always see above it cumulus, which is harder and
more intense in the front than in the rear of the squall. Since
cumulus is the condensed summit of an ascensional column of

i6o

NA TURB

[ytme24, 1875

air, it is evi'lent that the barometric rise taVes place under an
uptake of air. If we consider furthier that a light ascensional
current would give rise simply to an overcast sky, a stronger one
to rain, while a still more violent one would project the air
sudJenly into a region so cold and dry that the resulting elec-
tricity would be disckarged disruptively as lightning, the fore-
going observations show that the greatest rise is under the
greatest uptake. Some meteorologists attribute the low pres-
sure at the equator to the ascending current formed at the junc-
tion of the trades ; while others attribute the 10 a.m. maximum
of the diurnal range of the barometer to the reaction of an
ascending column of air due to the increasing heat of the day.
The above observations tend to strengthen the view that an
ascending column of air gives rise to a reactionary pressure
downwards, and more generally to the idea that though the
total pressure shown by the barometer is principally statical, or
due to the weight of a definite column of air, a small portion is
dynamical, or due to the reaction of air motion in that column.
— Notes on solar radiation in its relation to cloud and vapour,
by Mr. J. Park Harrison.— Mr. Scott also exhibited and de-
scribed Lowe's graphic hygrometer.

Zoological Society, June 15. — Prof. Newton, F.R.S., V.P.,
in the chair. — A letter was read from Dr. A. B. Meyer, of
Dresden, stating that having inquired into the statement made
by Mr. Bruyn (P.Z.S., 1875, P- 3o)» that he had specimens of
four species of Birds of Paradise alive in his possession at Ter-
nale, he had ascertained that the foundation for this statement
was that Mr. Bruyn expected to receive specimens of other
species, but had only actually obtained examples of one of them
{Paradisea papuana). — Mr. George Dawson Rowley exhibited
and made remarks on some specimens of two diminutive Parrots
from New Guinea {Nasiterna geelvinktana and N. pygmaa). —
Sir Victor Brooke exhibited and made remarks on two original
drawings by Mr. Wolf of the two species of Koodoo, Tra-
gdaphus strepsiceros and T. itnberbis. The latter was taken from
a specimen received direct from the Juba River, Somali. The
exact habitat of this species had not before been determined. —
Prof. Owen, C.B., read a tjaper in which he gave the description
of some bones of Ilarpagornis moorei, sent to him by Dr. Haast,
which had been found in the turbary deposits of Glenmark, a
locality about forty miles from Christchurch, New Zealand.
This paper formed the twenty-first part of Prof. Owen's series of
memoirs on the extinct birds of the genus Dinornis and its allies.
— Mr. G. E. Dobson communicated the descriptions of some
new species of bats of the genus Vesperugo. — A communication
•was read from Mr. George Gulliver, F.R.S., containing observa-
tions on the sizes and shapes of the red corpuscles of the blood
of Vertebrates. These observations were accompanied by a
series of drawings of these objects, and by extended and revised
tables of measurements. —A communication was read from the
Rev. S. J. Whitmee, of Samoa, respecting the changes he had
observed in the habits of feeding, roosting, and building of the
Didunculus strigirostris. — A second paper by Mr. Whitmee gave
an account of the times of appearance of the Edible Marine
worm {Palola. viridis) in the islands of the Samoan group,
together with observations on its habits. — A communication was
read from Dr. J. S. Bowerbank, containing the fourth of a series
of memoirs on the Siliceo-fibrous sponges. — Sir Victor Brooke,
Bart., and Mr. A. Basil Brooke read a joint paper on the large
Asiatic Wild Sheep or Argalis. Of these animals they recog-
nised eight species, viz. : Ovis amnion, from the Altai between
the Sea of Baikal and Thian Shan ; O. karelini, from the Thian
Shan ; O.poli, from the Pamir; O. hemsii, from the Alexandrian
Mountains ; O. nigrimontana, from the Karatau ; 0. hodgsoni,
from Little Thibet ; Ovis nivicola, irom the Stanovoi Moun-
tains and Kamschatka ; and Ovis brookei, of which the habitat
was unknown. — Mr. Sclater read a paper on the Rhinoceroses
now or lately living in the Society's Menagerie.

Victoria (Philosophical) Institute, June 21. — The Rev.
Isaac Taylor, M.A., read a paper on the Etruscan language.
After stating the causes which had made this language so long a
mystery, the lecturer gave an account of the origin of the Etruscan
alphabet, and of the information as to the nature of the language
which is supplied by the bilingual inscriptions. He then gave
an account of the inscribed dice, which he held to be the key to
the Etruscan secret. He fully explained the Etruscan system of
numeration, and showed that the numerals, the vocabulary, the
grammar, and the mythology of this people all pointed to a
Turanian origin.

Paris
Academy jOf Sciences, June 14. — M. Fremy in the chair. —r
The following papers were read : — On the discovery of the two
minor planets (144) and (145) by Director Peters, and (146)
by M. Borrelly.— A note by M. Chevreul, on the explanation
of numerous phenomena which appear as a consequence of
old age. — Researches on solar radiation (continuation) by
M. P. Desains. — On the synthesis of camphors by the oxida-
tion of camphenes, by M. Berthelot. — On the water-spout
which occurred near Caen in 1849, by M. P'aye. — Some
remarks, in complement to his note read before the Academy in
May 1873 by M. Weddell, on the part played by the substra-
tum in the distribution of Lichens inhabiting rocks. — A note by
MM. E. Belgrand and G. Lemoine, on the probable decrease of
flowing water in the basin of the Seine during the summer and
autumn of 1875. — Report of the Commission which was ap-
pointed to examine a proposed new method in the construction
of lightning conductors for powder magazines. — On the theory of
revolution surfaces which, by way of deformation, can be super-
posed on one another, and each on itself in all its parts (second
paper), by M. F. Reech. — A note by M. Sekowski, on a system
of distribution in steam-engines. — On the synthesis of terpilene
or carburetted camphene, by M. G. Bouchardat. — A note by M.
Barthelemy, on a process to measure the co-efficient of the abso-
lute dilatation of mercury. — A note by M. A, Riviere on the
appearance of sedimentary formation in the granitic rocks now
used for the pavements in the Paris streets. — A note by M. E.
Jourdy on the shape of bays in the Algerian district. — A memoir
by M. L. V. Turquan, on the integration of the equation with
partial derivatives of the third order, and two independent vari-
ables.— A note by M. Lccoq de Boisbaudran, on the theory of
dissolution and of crystallisation. — Report of the falling of two
meteoric stones in the United States, by M. J. Lawrence Smith,
of Louisville (Ky.). The author gives a minute description and
an analysis of these two meteorites. — On the influence of forests
upon the climate, and on the variation of temperature with the
phases of vegetation, by M. L. Fautrat.

BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

Foreign.— Annales del Museo Publico de Buenos Aires. — Annalen des
Physikalischen Central Observat»riums for 1873: H. Wild (Russia).— Mor-
phologisches Jahrbuch. Kine Zeitschrift Air Anatomic und Entwickelungs-
geschichte : C. Gegcnbaur (Leipzig, W. Engelmann). — Die Neue Schop-
tungsgeschichte : Arnold Dodel (Leipzig, F. M. Brockhaus). -Handbuch der
ZoDlogie. 3 vols. : J. Victor Carus and C. E. A. Gerstaeker (Leipzig, W.
Engelmann)J — Boleiin de la Academia Nacional de C'iencias Exactus exist-
ante en la Universidad de Cordoba, Buenos Aires. — Jahrbucher fiir Wissen-
schaftliche Botanik : Dr. N. Pringsheim (Leipzig, Wm. Engelmann). — bie
Alcundi Principj di Elettrostalica. Serie di Esperienze del Prof. G. Cantoni
(Milan, F. Vallardi). — Salla Polarizzione dei Coibenti : Prof. G. Cantoni. —
Efficacia dei Vapori nell 'Interns dei liquidi : Prof. G. Cantoni. — Sul limite
di resistenza nei Coibenti Elcttrica : Prof. G. Cantoni. — Importante Osser-
vazioni di C. B. Beggaria sui Condensatori Elettrica : Prof. G. Cantoni. —
Sie Talune particolari Forme di Cirri : Prof. G. Cantoni. — Spen'enze d' Elet-
trostalica (two parts) : Prof. G. Cantoni. — Nuvoa Scrie di Sperimenti su
TEtevogenia : Prof. G. Cantoni. — Verdhandlungen des Vereins fiir Natur-
wissenschaftliche Unterhaltung zu Hamburg, 1871-74: J. D. E. Schmelz
(Hamburg, L. Friederischen und C«.)— Jahrbuch der k. k. Geologischen
Reichsanstalt. No. i, 1875 (Wien).— Uber die Palaeozoischen Gebilde Podo-
liens und deren Versteinerungen : Dr. Alois v. Alth (Wien). — Uber die
Triadischen Pelecypodea : Gattungen, Daonella und Halobia : Dr. E. M.
V. Mojsvar (Wien).— Die Culm Flora des Mahrisch Schlcsischen Dache-
chieffers : Dr. Steer (Wien).

Pagk
141

CONTENTS

Croll's "Climate AND Time," II

Spraguh's Electricity

Our Book Shelp ; 145

Letters to the Editor : —

Peculiarities of Stopped Pipes, Humming-tops, and other Varieties

of Organ-pipes. — Hermann Smith 145

Faults and the Features of the Earth —G. H. Kinahan .... 146

Salaries in the British Museum. — Wm. Daviks . 146

Our Astronomical Column : —

The Double Star 2 2120 147

The " Mirk-Monday " Eclipse, 1652, April 7-8 147

Diameters of the Planets 147

Solar Heat and Sun-spots. By Henry F. Blanford (JVith

Illustration) 147

Lectures at the Zoological Gardens, VIII.: Mr. Sclater on the

Pheasant.-! 148

The Progress OF the Telegraph, VIII. (*fjV>4///«j/rai;,w«j) . . 149

Science in Germany 152

Notes 15a

Recent Progress in our Knowlkdge of the (Filiate Infusoria,

11. By Dr. G J. Allman, F.R.S 155

Scientific Serials 157

Societies and Academies 157

Books and Pamphlets Received t6o

NATURE

i6i

THURSDAY, JULY i, 1875

SIR WILLIAM EDMOND LOGAN

BY the death of this illustrious geologist and most
genial man, science has been deprived of one of her
bravest and best soldiers, while those who personally
knew him have lost a true, warm-hearted friend.

One by one the magnates by whose toil geology rose
during the first half of this century are taken from us.
Link after link is broken in the chain of living men who have
served to bind us personally with the birth and infancy of
that science. Few were left to us, and of these few none
more honoured and beloved than the veteran who has just
been called away. Of Scottish parentage (his father
having been a landed gentleman in Stirlingshire, who
had emigrated to Canada), W. E. Logan was born at
Montreal in the year 1798. He was sent home to the old
country for his education, and studied, it is believed, both
at the High School and the University of Edinburgh.
Eventually, having developed an ardent love for geo-
logical pursuits, he settled in South Wales and began to
study the structure of the great coal-field of that region.
It was there that he fostered that habit of patient and
exact observation, combined with quickness of eye in
seizing the salient points in the geological structure of a
region, which stood him in such good stead in later life.
During a series of years he carefully followed the outcrops
of the various coal-seams, tracing the positions of the nume-
rous faults by which they are traversed, and putting all
his data upon the .one-inch sheet of the Ordnance Survey.
These maps of the South Welsh coal-field were probably
the first in this country, on so large a scale and of so
extensive a district, where the details of geological struc-
ture were depicted with such minuteness. They were
generously handed over to Sir Henry de la Beche when
he began the Geological Survey in that region, and he
found them so admirable that he adopted them for the
Government Survey, on the early sheets of which the
name of W. E. Logan is engraved in conjunction with
those of De la Beche, Ramsay, Phillips, and Aveline.
He worked on the staff of the Survey as an enthusiastic
volunteer, lending invaluable assistance in the South
Welsh region, and among other services introducing
horizontal sections on a true scale of six inches to a mile,
which served as models for the large sections of the Survey.

One of the most important observations made by Logan
during this early part of his career was one relating to the
origin of coal. He pointed out, what is now so universally
recognised and yet does not seem ever to have struck
anybody before, that each coal-seam rests upon an under-
clay or fireclay in which rootlets of Stigmaria branch
freely in all directions. This association of coal and
Sti^maria-clAy he found to be so general that it could not
be regarded as accidental. He suggested that the clay
represented an ancient soil or mud in which the Stigmaria
grew, and that the coal stood now in place of the matted
vegetation which grew upon that soil. The value of this
contribution to our knowledge of the history of coal and
of the changes in physical geography to which the strati-
fied rocks bear witness, can hardly be over-estimated.

In the summer of 1841 Mr. Logan went to America and
Vol. XII.— No. 296

spent the autumn of that year in explorations of the coal-
fields there. He examined the Pennsylvanian region,
which had been studied by Rogers, and afterwards went
through the coal-districts of Nova Scotia, where he made
some original observations. He spent the winter of 1841-
1842 in Canada, devoting himself among other things to
watching the behaviour of ice as a great geological agent
on the rivers. In the spring of 1842 he took his place
again at the Geological Society of London, and gave
there some interesting details regarding what he had
seen during his absence on the other side of the Atlantic.

About this time (1842) there arose in Canada a desire
to know something more about the mineral resources of
the colony, and the Legislature went so far as to vote a
sum of 1,500/. for a geological survey. The Canadian
authorities consulted the Home Government as to a suit-
able person to take charge of the undertaking, mentioning
at the same time Mr. Logan's name, and requesting
information as to the estimation in which his scientific
qualifications were held in this country. Murchison
happened at the time to be President of the Geological
Society, The official request being forwarded to him, he
recommended the proposed appointment in the warmest
terms, as one that would " render essential service to
Canada, and materially favour the advancement of geolo-
gical inquiry." This testimonyand doubtless the warm
support of his old friend, De la Beche, led to Mr. Logan's
appointment as organiser and director of the survey of
the rocks and minerals of his native country.

From the commencement of this work in 1843 Mr.
Logan's whole energies were given to the task which had
been assigned to him, and never did a public servant toil
more earnestly and disinterestedly for the attainment of
the great purpose of his office. He had to struggle on,
with little encouragement, in the face of difficulties which
only a brave and devoted nature could have faced. First
of all, his official position was for many years a most pre-
carious one. Though the Legislature, in a fit of patriotic
fervour, had sanctioned the equipment of a geological
survey, and had voted a slender sum for its maintenance,
yet it soon naturally enough began to ask what value it
received for the money thus expended. The Ministers of
the day could not always satisfy utilitarian legislators,
and indeed Ministers themselves were not infrequently
lukewarm friends if not avowed enemies to the young
Survey. Mr. Logan's tact in steering his bark through all
these obstacles, and finally gaining the haven of popu-
larity both for it and for himself, is above all praise. Yet
this was done without the surrender of any of the tho-
roughly scientific spirit in which his labours were at first
conceived. He and his associates worked steadily as
true men of science, but they never forgot that in a young
country, with resources not only undeveloped but un-
known, the exploration of its mineral wealth was a matter
of primary importance. Hence year by year, in the
reports of progress presented to the Canadian Parliament,
he was able to give fresh information regarding commer-
cially important rocks and minerals, while at the same
time putting forward facts of the highest interest to
students of geology all over the world. It is in these
official reports that the chief work of Sir William Logan's
life is embodied, includi]^ of course the admirable maps
on which the field-work nas been published.

l62

NATURE

\ytdy I, 1875

But his difficulties lay not only in official quarters. He
had to go forth into the forest and ascend unvisited
rivers without a track or a map. He had to make his
own map as he went along, camping out with Indian
attendants for months together, and forcing his way as a
true pioneer of civilisation, through solitudes which in a
few years later were to become scores of active industry.
Through all such hardships he carried a devotion which
not only brought him cheerily to the end of them, but
inspired his officers with much of his own energy in the
common cause. And not his own small'staff merely, but
farmers, country doctors, and settlers of all kinds whom
he enlisted into his service for such work as he found
them able and willing to undertake. He used, for in-
stance, to describe graphically and with much quiet
humour how in this way he got a number of utterly un-
scientific colonists to aid in tracing a band of limestone
through a district where no rock could be seen for the
covering of soil and drift. He provided them each with
a long iron-pointed stick and an acid-bottle, and instructed
them to thrust the stick well down through the soil till
they struck it against the solid rock underneath. There-
upon, pulling it out, they were to apply a drop of acid to
the bruised grains of stone adhering to the point of the
stick. If they saw a brisk effervescence, they were to
mark the place as lying on hmestone.

The organisation of the Canadian Geological Survey
was admirably adapted for the work to be done, and shows
Sir William's skill as an administrator. Directing the
whole operations himself, working personally in the field
at original observation as well as visiting and superin-
tending the field-work of his staff, he had to get the ut-
most amount of work done for the smallest amount of
money. He secured some excellent assistants in the
field-work, whose names have long been familiar to geolo-
gists— Alexander Murray, now ably directing the New-
foundland Survey, James Richardson, and, in later years,
Robert Bell and others. He early saw that the field-work
required to be aided in two important directions — mine-
ralogical and chemical analysis, and palseontological
determination. Accordingly, he obtained for the former
subject the services of Dr. Sterry Hunt, whose reports on
Canadian rocks and minerals and contributions to che-
mical geology have since become so well known ; while
for the latter he fortunately found and retained Mr.
Billings, who has done such good work among the inver-
tebrate fauna of the older palceozoic rocks of British
North America. Ever ready himself to give information
and assistance, he everywhere solicited and obtained it
from others for the advancement of the Survey.

Of the benefits which the Survey has conferred on
Canada, perhaps the best proof is furnished by the firm
footing and comparatively liberal equipment which it has
now obtained from the Provincial Legislature, The Sur-
vey has opened up in a systematic and trustworthy way
the mineral structure and resources of the colony. It has
formed a museum and laboratory in which the minerals,
rocks, and fossils of the country are examined and illus-
trated with special reference to the industrial develop-
ment of the country. It has been the means of creating
reliable topographical maps over wide regions which had
not previously been depicted on any map.

It would take longer to enumerate the many services

which Sir William Logan's Survey has rendered to Geo-
logy. Foremost among them we should probably place
the great additions which it has made to our knowledge
of the stratigraphy of the older formations. The exist-
ence of the vast Laurentian system with its twofold set
of rocks and its Eozoon hmestone was a fact first made
known by Logan and his associates. The position of the
Huronian system was likewise recognised and its name
given by them. The northward development of the well-
subdivided North American Silurian series with its abun-
dant and characteristic fauna has been most diligently
followed out and described by the same band of obser-
vers. They have, moreover, given the Survey a European
reputation for their chemical and mineralogical work, and
for their contributions to our knowledge of some of the
older forms of palaeozoic life.

These various and admirable labours were in large
measure inspired by the genial enthusiasm of the direc-
tor. The official narrative of them contains the record
of the main work of his life. During more than a quarter
of a century, while constantly engaged in active and
successful exploration, ;he hardly ever pubHshed any
papers except in the parliamentary blue-book, in which
his annual report was ordered to appear. He seldom
came before scientific societies with an account of his
discoveries, but cheerfully accepted the more restricted
circulation and flimsy appearance of the Yearly Report
to the Government. The geneValised summary which he
published in 1863, in a thick volume, on the progress of
the Survey during the first twenty years of its existence,
contains the gist of his work, as well as a luminous
account of all that was then known of the geology and
mineralwealth of the province.

In the year 1856, after his. successful representation of
the mineral productions, of Canada at the Paris Exhibi-
tion of 1855, Sir William Logan received the honour of
knighthood in recognition of his long and unwearied
exertions in the task which he had undertaken. He met
with abundant tokens of appreciation from scientific socie-
ties both in Europe and in America, and he had the great
gratification of seeing that this widespread testimony to
the value of his labours and those of his associates
was [not without its influence upon society in Canada.
By impressing his fellow-countrymen with the idea that
after all there might be something useful and even to be
proud of in their Geological Survey, it probably in no
small measure helped to secure the position of the Survey
as an institution deserving of support and extension.

In the year 1869 Sir Wilham, finding at last that the
duties of his office were becoming too heavy for his
advancing years and faihng health, resigned his appoint-
ment, and was succeeded by Mr. A. R. C. Selwyn, who
had served in the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and
afterwards directed the Survey of Victoria. His unabated
interest in his favourite science, however, was shown by
his donation of $20,000 towards the endowment of the
Chair of Geology in M'Gill College, Montreal.

Sir William's collected papers and reports would make
several, stout volumes. They were always written clearly
and for the sole purpose of telling what he had seen and
believed or inferred. They did not in the least address
themselves to the general or popular audience. Indeed,
he used to confess himself wholly at sea when called upon

July I, 1875]

NATURE

163

to address such an audience, either with the pen or the
voice, and gave as an illustration a great meeting con-
vened by his fellow-citizens to welcome him back to
Canada after he had been knighted. He was, of course,
expected to say something of himself and of his visit to
Europe. He tried his best, he said, but soon grasping a
long pointer, turned round to some maps and diagrams
illustrative of the geology of Canada, and only recovered
his peace of mind and command of language when he
found himself once more among Laurentian, Huronian,
gneiss, limestone, and the rest of his beloved rocks.
Nevertheless, he kept copious journals of his various
expeditions, and illustrated them with most admirable
pen-and-ink sketches. A selection from these could
hardly fail to be of great interest, both in relation to the
man himself and to the way in which geology has to be
carried on amid the wild life of the backwoods.

By those who were privileged with his friendship. Sir
William Logan will be affectionately remembered as a
frank, earnest, simple-hearted man, ever gentle and help-
ful, enthusiastically devoted to his profession, and never
happier than when discussing geological questions in a
Ute-d-tcte, full of quiet humour, too, and showing by
many a playful sally in the midst of his more serious talk,
the geniality and brightness of his sunny nature. Peace
to his memory ! He has done a great work in his time,
and has left a name and an example to be cherished
among the honoured possessions of geology.

Arch. Geikie

TREVANDRUM MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS
Observations of Magnetic Declination made at Trevan-
druin and Agustia Malley in the Obsei vatories of his
Highness the Maharajah of Trava?icore, G.C.S.I, in
the Years 1852 to 1869. Vol. i. Discussed and edited
by John Allan Broun, F.R.S., late Director of the
Observatories. (London : Henry S. King and Co.)

WE have heard a great deal lately about the native
rulers of India, and the worst features of one of
them have been brought very prominently before us ; but
it|is a pleasing reflection that they are not all like the poten-
tate of Baroda, while some of them might even read a
lesson to the paramount power. Let us hear what Mr. J.
Allan Broun, a magnetician of great eminence, has to say
of the late ruler of Travancore.

" The Trevandrum Observatory," he tells us, " owed its
origin in 1836 to the enlightened views of his Highness
Rama Vurmah, the reigning Rajah of Travancore, and to
the encouragement given to them by the late General
Stuart P'raser, then representing the British Government
at Trevandrum. His Highness, desirous that his country
should partake with European nations in scientific inves-
tigations, sanctioned the construction of an observatory,
named Mr. Caldecott its director, and gave him power to
furnish it with the best instruments to be obtained in
Europe."

The peculiar position of Trevandrum, not far from the
magnetic equator, induced Mr. Caldecott, with the Rajah's
permission, to procure from Europe a complete equipment
of the best instruments for magnetic and meteorological
observations, and to build a magnetic observatory, which
was completed in 1841.

Mr, Caldecott died at Trevandrum in 1849, and the

observatory was in January 1852 placed under the direc-
tion of Mr. John Allan Broun, who had previously directed
with well-known success the observatory of Sir T. Bris-
bane at Makerstoun, in Scotland.

Mr. Broun began his office with the conception of an
interesting and important problem in terrestrial magne-
tism, which he was determined as far as possible to work
out. This would render it necessary that the observations
should not be limited to a single station. He wished,
among other things, to determine how far the physical
constants of terrestrial magnetism and their various
changes depend on differences of height, of latitude, and
of longitude.

The Agustia Malley, the highest mountain in the neigh-
bourhood, was chosen as affording the best means for
determining the effect of height, and accordingly Mr.
Broun resolved to erect an affiliated observatory on this
nearly inaccessible rocky peak, surrounded by forests, the
inhabitants of which were elephants and tigers. These
and all other difficulties connected with this formidable
undertaking were, however, completely vanquished, and
the Agustia Observatory was completed in 1855.

We learn from Mr. Broun that his labours were not
entirely confined to these two observatories. "Other
observations," he tells us, especially of magnetic declina-
tion, were made simultaneously " during short periods at
different stations in Travancore, as nearly as possible on
the magnetic equator, 90 miles north of Trevandrum, and
also 40 miles to the south. Observations connected with
meteorological questions were also made simultaneously
to the east and west, and about 5,000 feet below the
Agustia peak, on the peak itself, and at Trevandrum ;
while on one occasion hourly observations were made
during a month at five different stations, varying gradually
in height from the Trevandrum Observatory (200 feet) to
6,200 feet above the] sea-level, in which fifteen observers
were employed."

In this first volume Mr. Broun has confined himself to
the magnetic declination, and one of the chief objects
sought has been to determine every possible action of the
sun and moon upon the magnetic needle. The observa-
tions extend from 1852 to 1870, and embrace in all nearly
three hundred and forty thousand readings.

A considerable portion of the introduction is devoted
to the discussion of a question which has, we think, been
somewhat too much overlooked. When a magnet is
suspended by a thread and enclosed in an appropriate
box, it does not necessarily follow that all its movements
are due to magnetic causes, for changes in temperature and
humidity may affect the zero of torsion of the thread, and
thus cause slight changes in the position of the suspended
magnet. It is perhaps unlikely that such changes could
seriously affect the character of the daily variation, but it
has been [thought that they might perceptibly affect the
annual variation, since in this case the magnetic change
is comparatively small, while the range of temperature
and humidity is generally great.

Mr. Broun overcame this source of error by obser-
vations of an unmagnetic brass bar suspended in the
same way as the magnet, which thus afforded him the
means of estimating, and hence eliminating, the error
due to these causes. ^

Besides all this, several declinometers were used and

164

NATURE

\_yuly I, 1875

compared together, and the result of all these comparisons
tends to impress the reader with the fact that we have in
this volume a series of observations of the magnetic decH-
nation of a thoroughly accurate and trustworthy nature.

The following passage from Mr. Broun's magnetic
diary may be quoted as exhibiting the sources of error to
which magneticians are exposed, as well as the care be-
stowed in avoiding them —

"1855, Dec.4d.9h. A sudden vibration of Grubb's mag-
net through thirty scale divisions was observed, and the
difference of Adie's and Grubb's instruments, which had
previously been — o''o5, became suddenly -j- 3''5o. It was
supposed that either the suspension thread was breaking,
or that a spider had got within the box.

" Dec. 4d. 22h. The boxes were removed, and an
exceedingly small spider was discovered and removed.
This was the only occasion in which a spider succeeded
in entering Grubb's declinometer boxes between 1852
and 1870. Every care was taken when the boxes were
removed, before replacing them, to hold them for some
time over the flame of a lamp, so that spiders, even invi-
sible to the naked eye, must have been dislodged or
destroyed."

It remains now to give our readers a summary of the
most important results obtained by Mr. Broun from the
reduction of his observations.

In the first place, the secular variation is found to be
irregular, but the observations seem to indicate that after
a certain interval the acceleration or retardation of the
secular movement has equal values. This interval is
estimated at 10*5 years. In order to find the annual
period, the variations which form the secular and decen-
nial inequalities have been eliminated. The observations
then indicate a twofold inequality, one of which corre-
sponds to a single oscillation in a year, with a minimum
in March or April, and a maximum in September or
October, while the other represents a double or semi-
annual oscillation with maxima in March and September.

Mr. Broun was also led to suspect a. period of forty-four
months, which was repeated four times successively in
his observations, although no cause is known which
could produce an inequality of this duration.

The next inequality noticed is the twenty-six day period,
which Mr. Broun is inclined to attribute to solar action
with more confidence than the longer period of ten or
eleven years. Our readers will remember that the period
was re-discovered by Dr. Hornstein, director of the
Prague Observatory. Mr. Broun thinks that there are
traces of a double oscillation of the twenty-six day period.

Coming next to the important solar dijirnal variation,
the chief features of which are tolerably well known, Mr.
Broun finds this to consist of one marked maximum and
one marked minimum of easterly declination in each
month of the year, and of one or more secondary maxima
and minima.

The principal maximum occurs in the six months of
April to September at about 7 A.M., and the principal
minimum about twenty minutes past noon in the same
months. Nearly the inverse of this happens in the four
months of November to February, The results obtained
by Mr. Broun appear to him to indicate the action
of opposite forces belonging to the two hemispheres,
which mainly destroy each other in March and October
at Trevandrum, but one of which is preponderant in

the other months of the year ; and of these forces he
remarks that those of the northern hemisphere seem to
have a greater effect on the variations of the whole globe
than those of the southern hemisphere.

The daily range was a minimum in 1856 and a maximum
in i860. It is a minimum in March and October, and a
maximum in August and December.

In considering the lunar diurnal variati0n, Mr. Broun
begins by showing that the results relating to the varia-
tion to be obtained by him are really due to the lunar
action, and not to any portion of solar perturbation re-
maining uneliminated.

The following very singular results have been ob-
tained : —

1. The mean lunar diurnal variation consists of a
double maximum and minimum of easterly declination
in each month of the year.

2. In December and January the maxima occur near
the times of the moon's passages of the upper and lower
meridians ; while in June they happen six hours later, the
minima of easterly declinations thus occurring near the
times of the two passages of the meridian.

3. The mean of the ranges of the lunar diu rnal varia-
tion shows (like the solar diurnal range) a minimum in
1856 and a maximum in i860.

4. The action of the moon on the declination needle is
greater in every month of the year during the day than
during the night.

5. There appears to be a remarkable change in the
lunar action connected with the rising and setting of the
sun, especially with the former.

We now come to a part of the reductions where we feel
compelled to differ from the eminent magnetician as to
what may be termed the scientific policy which he has
pursued. We allude to the question of disturbances.

There can, of course, be no doubt that a strictly mathe-
matical discussion of a series of observations will indicate
the various periods of action of the influential forces. We
know that this method served to indicate many impor-
tant astronomical periods long before the mechanical
nature of the astronomical forces was recognised.

We might, for instance, take a body of meteorological
observations and treat them in a strictly mathematical
manner, and we should no doubt be led to a yearly and
to a daily period, even if we were not acquainted with the
existence of the sun. But who would pursue this method ?
We take advantage of the knowledge derived from other
sources of the exact length of these two periods to begin
with, and do not think of endeavouring to obtain these by
means of the observations themselves.

Furthermore, in meteorology, with the general consent
of all engaged in it, we have gone even further than this.
There is unquestionably a distinct daily and yearly fluc-
tuation of the meteorological elements brought about by the
sun, but besides this there are other phenomena ultimately
due to the sun, though not in the same way, which
meteorologists have agreed to consider apart by them-
selves.

We allude to cyclones, which, when examined sepa-
rately, are found to obey very different laws from those
which regulate ordinary atmospheric changes. Thus
these laws have been discovered by agreeing to separate
certain observations which were unmistakably abnormal.

July I, 1875]

NATURE

165

and to discuss those by themselves, and the result has
been the most interesting and important discovery of the
law of storms. And if it be asked what right meteoro-
legists had to separate a body of disturbed observations,
the reply will obviously be that they are justified by their
success. Deny the right, and a cyclone becomes an
altogether false and illegitimate scientific conception.

Now, a large and increasing number of magneticians
are of opinion that the phenomena of terrestrial mag-
netism can bear a similar treatment. They believe that
the sun has a daily and yearly influence on the magnetism
of the earth just as it has upon its meteorology, and they
also believe that it is the cause— the indirect cause, it
may be— of an abnormal magnetic influence, just as in
meteorology it is the indirect cause of the cyclone.
Some even go so far as to say that these two abnormal
influences, the one in magnetism, the other in meteoro-
logy, are intimately, connected together. This assertion,
however, is not now the point in question. The point is
that we have in magnetism certain abnormal distur-
bances which may be compared to abnormal meteoro-
logical disturbances. Now, it is held by Sir E. Sabine
and those who share his views, that it is expedient to
separate out these disturbed magnetical observations, just
as we] separate out the meteorology of a cyclone. This
school assert'that we may thus arrive at a series of pheno-
mena obeying very different laws from those of the un-
disturbed observations, and that we are therefore justified
in making the separation, inasmuch as we are thereby
led to a clearer knowledge of the various ways in which
the sun affects the magnetism of the earth. And they
insist very strongly upon the point that both these mag-
netic actions of the sun have diurnal and annual varia-
tions different from one another, so that if treated to-
gether we obtain a result much more complex than if they
be treated separately.

We have little doubt of the policy of this method of
treatment, and we cannot, therefore, but regard it as a
misfortune that Mr. Broun has not unmistakably adopted
it. He has, however, given us all the individual obser-
vations, so that, if it be thought desirable, those magne-
ticians who advocate a somewhat different method of
reduction may make it for themselves. We need only add,
in conclusion, that the appendices will be found to be
very interesting reading, and that all who are interested
in terrestrial physics must look with great interest to that
magnificent series of researches of which the volume
before us forms the first instalment. B. Stewart

OUR BOOK SHELF

Chapters on Sound, for Beginners. By C. A. Martineau.
(London : The Sunday School Association ; Man-
chester : Johnson and Rawson, 1875.)

We have read this little book with great pleasure. Its
object, the author tells us, is to teach a few of the simpler
facts in acoustics in such a way that the learner shall not
be deterred by unnecessary difficulties, either in the use
of technical language or in having to provide expensive
apparatus. Most successfully has the author attained the
end he had in view. It is just what a child's book on
science should be. Written in a simple attractive man-
ner, without any silly childishness, it conveys a great deal
of ir.foimation, and that in the best kind of way. For
the learner, by a series of simple experiments, is made to

lay firmly the groundwork of his knowledge on this sub-
ject. All the apparatus the author requires is a toy fiddle,
one or two small tuning-forks, a couple of finger-glasses,
a clamp, a square and a round piece of glass, a gimlet, a
tall jar, silk thread, and some solitaire balls. With such
homely instruments really go»d elementary teaching is
given. The chapter on strings made to vibrate in
time with tuning-forks is capitally done, and will give
the learner more knowledge than he could gain from
many a pretentious text-book. We should like to suggest
to the author a few additions to his simple experiments,
but in the limits of this notice we cannot do more than
direct his attention to the Instructions in practical physics
given to the science teachers at South Kensington, and
printed for their use by the Science and Art Department.
There is of course nothing new in the way of experi-
mental illustration in these chapters on sound ; it is the
good use the author has. made of what has been done by
others that is the merit of this little book. We gladly
recommend it to all girls and boys who will honestly go
through what is to be done as well as what is to be read.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible Jor opinions expressed
by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return,
or to correspond with the -writers of, rejected manuscripts,
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.'^

On the Temperature of the Human Body during
Mountain Climbing

The account of Dr. Ford's laborious and carefully conducted
observations on the temperature of the body during mountain
climbing, given in Nature, vol. xii. p. 132, has recalled to mind
the results of a few observations which I made shortly after the
publication of Dr. Lortel's and Dr. Marcet's experiments. As
my results are in the main confirmatory of those of Dr. Forel,
they may not be without interest as a contriliution to what,
until the appearance of Dr. Forel's memoirs, was regarded as
the heterodox side of the question.

Before joining the parly of observers sent out to Sicily to see
the solar eclipse of 1870, I provided myself with a set of delicate
clinical thermometers with a view of repeating the observations
of Drs. Marcet and Lortet, should any opportunity occur of
getting up Etna during our stay in the island. On Christmas-
day a number of us attempted to make our way up the moun-
tain, and with the aid of Mr. Fryer I made a number of obser-
vations of body-temperature on myself during the ascent. The
temperature of the mouth was taken, as in the observations of
Marcet and Lortet. The thermometer employed was carefully
selected so as to get the maximum amount of displacement in
the column for a thermal disturbance with a minimum bulb-
capacity. As regards sensitiveness, it left little to be desired.
Some weeks before the start a number of preliminary observa-
tions were made with the view of ascertaining the best manner
of placing the thermometer and of determining the length of
time required for the column to attain a position of rest. By
repeated trials it was found that fully five minutes werej needed
after placing the thermometer in position before the level of the
mercury became approximately constant, both during repose and
after a rapid run. Any subsequent variation seldom exceeded
Vu of a degree F. The following readings taken from among a
number of similar observations will serve to show the extent of
the changes from minute to minute after placing the thermo-
meter i)i situ: — Time, 7"30 r.M. ; condition, rest. After first
minute : Temp., 96°*4 ; second, 97"'9 ; third, 98"*4 ; fourth, 98°'5 ;
fifth, 98"-5. Tiiat there is nothing m the rate of change peculiar
to the individual is evident from the results of a similar series
made at the same time upon another person : first minute, 96°'4J
second, 97°*o ; third, 97"5; fourth, 97""8 ; fifth, 97°'8.

On the day of the attempted ascent we set out from Catania
at 5-30 A.M., and drove to Zaffarana. Mouth-temperature
before starting, 98''-4. In the carriage, 98°-3 ; time, gh. lom. %
pulse, 78. At Zafiarana, 98° "4 ; pulse, 83. As Zaffarana lies at a
considerable elevation above the sea-level, the observations so far
serve to confirm Dr. Marcet's statement that the rarefaction of
the air is without influeAe on the temperature of the body.
After a stiff walk of thirty-five minutes, during which the

i66

NATURE

\7uly I, 1875

aneroid fell 0*49 inch, the temperature was again found to be
98° '3 ; pulse, 116; time, loh. 42m. Twenty-three minutes
later, after rapid walking (barometer 0-48 inch lower than
previous reading) the observations were : First minute, 96° "3 ;
second, 97° "4 ; third, 97°"6 ; fourth, 97°7 ; fifth, 97° "8 ; pulse,
11 6. At I2h. 4m., after continuous walking at a good speed,
the observations were : First minute, 94 '2 ; second, 96°'2 ;
third, 97° -4 ; fourth, 97° '8 ; fifth, 98°-! ; pulse, 128. The pace
was now quickened almost to exhaustion, and at 2-30 p.m.,
when greatly fatigued, the observations were : First minute,
93°'9 ; second, 95° 6; third, 96° "8; fourth, 97° "4 ; fifth, 98' 'O;
pulse, 90. These last observations were made with some diffi-
culty, and under such circumstances that I am disposed to attach
less weight to them than to the former readings. My exhaustion
was doubtless 'partly due to hunger, for I purposely fasted in
order to test the correctness of Lortet's statement that the fall in
temperature is specially marked during an ascent made when
hungry.

These observations were all I could obtain, as I was too much
fatigued to carry on the work. They are scarcely numerous
enough to enable any very definite conclusions to be drawn ; but
so far as they go, they certainly are not confirmatory of the con-
clusions arrived at by Drs. Marcet and Lortet ; they at least
prove that if any decrement does occur during climbing, it is
never so great as 8° (Lortet), or even as much as 3° (Marcet).

It may be thought that the low readings obtained in the later
observations on first placing the thermometer in the mouth, are
indicative of a decrease in body-temperature. It must be borne
in mind, however, that, especially in the later observations, we
were facing a keen wind sweeping down a mountain partially
covered with snow ; it is perfectly obvious from this cause that
the first minute's observations can afford no reliable indication
of the temperature of the mouth, or otherwise the body must
recover its normal temperature with a rapidity which would be
perfectly extraordinary. From repeated trials made on myself
and others, I have come to the conclusion that observations of
the temperature of the mouth taken even after the end of the
second minute give no trustworthy indication of the temperature
of the body ; such indications are of no value even as compara-
tive measurements.

As it seems quite certain that any variation which may occur
is a matter of tenths and not of whole degrees, it may be
well to point out a source of error in the method of observation
which seems to have escaped the attention of observers hitherto,
but which in any case is too considerable to be neglected,
although it would specially affect the results obtained at high
altitudes. In taking the temperature of the mouth on a moun-
tain, surrounded by. a rapidly moving atmosphere at a tempera-
ture often but little higher than that of melting snow, it is obvious
that the mean temperature of the mercurial column must be
considerably lower than that of the mouth, since the greater
portion of the stem is in the cold air. The correction to be
added to the readings is readily calculated if we know the
length of the exposed column, its mean temperature, and the
apparent expansion of mercury in glass. If we suppose the
length of the exposed column in the observation taken at
2.30 P.M. to be forty times the length of a degree, and its mean
temperature that of melting snow, the correction to be added
to the last reading would amount to a quarter of a degree.

The whole subject unquestionably merits reinvestigation. A
much larger number of observations is needed ; these should be
made under similar circumstances on different persons, for it
may well happen that the bodily idiosyncrasy of the individual
may affect the result. Possibly some Alpine party may under-
take the solution of the problem during the present season. It
is doubtless not so simple as it may at first sight appear. From
my experience during the ascent of Etna, and from what I have
been able to glean of the manner in which other observations
have been made, it seems clear that the conditions necessary to
obtain perfectly comparable results have yet to be determined.
Should any variation be observed, either in the direction observed
by Drs. Marcet and Lortet or in that indicated by the experi-
ments of Dr. Forel, it would be specially interesting to deter-
mine how quickly the human body recovered its normal tem-
• perature on re»ting. T. E. THORPE

Arctic Marine Vegetation

In Nature, vol. xii. p. 55, an interesting article on the
Arctic marine vegetation, (juotes Ruprecht (with doubt as to

his accuracy) in regard to an asserted absence of Algse in Behring
Sea and the waters north of it.

That doubt is well founded, as I can testify, having been
engaged during a large part 01 ten years in explorations of that
region. The line of the Aleutian Islands from east to west is
girt with seaweeds, which are quite as abundant on the north
as on the south side of this archipelago. If Ruprecht, however,
referred to the waters still further north, he is equally in error.
Unfortunately I am not possessed of much more botanical know-
ledge than comes from collecting for my botanical friends, and to
them I must leave the task of enumerating the species, but per-
haps a few remarks on the general distribution of the Algte of
this region may not be without interest. It is noteworthy that
fine and beautiful seaweeds, such as are used for ornamental
albums, are comparatively quite rare on the whole coast, from
the Vancouver Archipelago north and west. Rhodosperms are
particularly scarce in individuals, though how far this may be
true of species I am not competent to say. Chlorosperms are
confined to a very small number of forms, also rare as indi-
viduals. The great mass of the algoid vegetation of this region
is made up of Melanospermte.

Some forms which I believe are closely related to if not iden-
tical with Fucus vesiculosus, are found in masses on the rocky
shores of Behring Sea, from the Aleutian Islands north to
Behring Strait, and I do not know how far beyond.

The distribution of the Algce seems to be largely dependent
upon the character of the rocks. Basaltic shores are least rich
and afford few forms, except what I have called F. vesiculosus,
and species of Agarum. Granitoid rocks and Tertiary sand-
stones and conglomerates always afford at least a few forms of
red and green seaweeds, while on the metamorphic slates and
porphyritic rocks, which make up the greater part of the Aleutian
chain, the Nereocystis, Laminaria, Nullipot'es, and Agarum seem
to find their most congenial home. The character of Behring
Sea is unfavourable for the growth of seaweeds. Much of the
eastern plateau is of soft sticky mud or fine clean black volcanic
sand, affording no hold for Alga;. But wherever there are
rocks Algce may be found, though the more delicate kinds are
always rare. Jointed and incrusting stony Alga^ are abundant
on most of the Aleutians, and I have noticed them also at the
Pribiloff group, Nunivak, Norton Sound, and Plover Bay in
East Siberia, though less common northward.

The "bull-head kelp" (Nereocystis?) is excessively abundant
in the Aleutians, and extends north to Nunivak and the Pribiloff
Islands, There is a patch of twenty-five square miles in extent,
north-east of St. George Island, on a shoal in the open sea. I
do not recollect its occurrence further north than Nunivak.
Laminaria extends to the Straits, and possibly north of them,
with Agarum, the two most abundant seaweeds of Behring Sea,
F, vesiculosus everywhere where there are rocks ; also a flat,
leathery, thick-fronded alga with short stalks, which the sailors
call "devil's aprons." These have the edges variously cut or
indented, though some forms are oval, with two thickened mar-
ginal bands extending outward from the stalk. In Norton
Sound, in 1865-66 and 1867, I obtained what seemed to me
to be at least fifteen or twenty species of algae, which included
something that I could not distinguish from the "Iceland
moss " of the coasts of New England, and which was not found
further south. In many places where the bottom was unfavour-
able for alga2 I have found dead shells and living Crustacea
entirely hidden under a growth of red and green algce, which,
without exercising great care, would often have, led to the rejec-
tion of valuable specimens of invertebrates from the dredge,
from their being taken for mere bundles of seaweed.

I may also mention that in the hot springs (iio°-i8o° F.)
which exist on the peninsula of Alaska and many of the islands,
there is invariably a leathery brown algoid, covering the bottom
of the basins in which the springs occur. Nostoc also flourishes
in the fresh waters emptying into Norton Sound. I have many
times noticed the F, vesiculosus apparently flourishing in lagoons
where the water was barely brackish to the taste, and to which
the sea had no access except in extraordinary storms such as
might occur once or twice in a year.

Much of the above may be without interest to the scientific
botanist; I leave it to your judgment what to reject, but I think
that there is no further necessity for disproving the error into
which Ruprecht has in some way been led ; certainly, if he had
himself walked the beaches of Behring Sea, where any rocks
exist, he could not have come to such a conclusion,

Wm. H. Dall
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C, U.S,, June lo

y^ily I, 1 875 J

NATURE

167

South American Earthquakes

On the 1 8th May, that is, the same day that, if the telegraphic
news be correct, the cities of Cucuta, Santiago, and others
were destroyed by an earthquake, a distinct and prolonged
shock, preceded and accompanied by a loud rumbling noise,
awoke the greater number of the inhabitants of this place, about
a quarter of an hour before midnight. The direction of the
phenomenon was thought by some who heard and felt it to
be from east to west ; but this opinion was, I have reason to
believe, inaccurate.

Not knowing as yet the exact time at which the Columbian
disaster took place, I am unable to calculate the rate at which
the shock, connected with, one can hardly doubt, the great
earthquake above alluded to, may have travelled the long dis-
tance that separates St. Thomas from Cucuta. Fuller details
may subsequently, I hope, help to elucidate the matter.

It is worthy of note that whereas before the 1 8th May an
unusually long period had elapsed during which no subterraneous
vibrations had been felt in this island, there have occurred since
that date several slight shocks at various hours of the day and
night, with a frequency above the average.

St. Thomas, West Indies W. G, Palgrave

Glacier and other Ice

The reviewer of CroU's " Climate and Time" in Nature of
the 24th June (p. 144) says : *' What is there in this (Mr. CroU's)
theory to distinguish a glacier from a common piece of ice ?
which on this principle ought . to flatten out and not retain its
shape as it does."

I believe that, independently of any theory of the cause of
glacier motion, there is no physical difference whatever between
glacier and other ice. The greater mobility of a glacier is
merely due to its greater size and weight ; just as water in a river-
bed flows with very little friction, under a pressure that would
not make it flow at all in a capillary tube. The plasticity of ice
may however be shown on a small scale. I have read some-
where that a slab of ice supported only on its two ends will
gradually bend down in the middle : and I have seen Prof. James
Thomson at the Belfast Museum illustrate a lecture by moulding
a ^e.\i lumps of ice by pressure into the shape of a cup.

I am not writing in defence of Mr. CroU's theory of glacier
motion. I believe the best explanation of those physical
properties of ice on which glacier-motion depends is that given
by Prof. James Thomson. I know Mr. CroU's theory only
from your review, and I do not know how far it agrees with
I'rof. Thomson's. Joseph John Murphy

' )ld Forge, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim, June 26

The House-fly

I AM disappointed to find that no one has answered
"Harrovian's" query in vol. xii. p. 126, as to the mortality
amongst the house-fly, and the yellow powder which covered
the carcase. I have noticed myself that house-flies often die
in numerous company. I had an idea that it was owing to
the temperature falling to its benumbing point, until I found the
same thing happening while the thermometer was particularly
high. Then I thought that all these dead flies might belong to
the same brood, and having lived under almost exactly the same
circumstances, their threads of life were spun out at almost
exactly the same time. This new theory, again, did not stand
examination well under the microscope. But the result of my
experiment differed slightly from that of " Harrovian." At least
I find I entered in my notes, "the body covered with white
eruption, apparently a disease of the skin."

Denstone College, Uttoxeter D. Edwardes

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN
An Ancient " Uranometria." — We have received a
very interesting work, published by Dr. Schjcllerup, of
the Observatory of Copenhagen, under the auspices of
the Imperial Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg. It
contains a description of the constellations, with the star
magnitudes, composed in the middle of the tenth century
by the Persian astronomer, Abd-al- Rahman al-Sijfi, and
is a literal translation of two Arabic manuscripts preserved

in the Royal and Imperial libraries of Copenhagen and
St. Petersburg. A more particular account of the valu-
able addition which Dr. Schjellerup has made to the
literature of astronomy will be given in this colun»n next
week. Meanwhile, we may just note one curious state-
ment made by the Persian astronomer with reference to
the well-known variable star Algol, viz., that at the time
of his observations the star was reddish — a characteristic
applied also to Antares, Aldebaran, a Hydrae, and a few
other stars, which are also reddish in our own day ; but
at present there is no tinge of colour about Algol, which
may be fairly described as a white star, and if there be
one of its class more than another in which the periodical
fluctuation of light can with much appearance of proba-
bility be attributed to the intervention of a revolving
attendant, passing regularly in our line of sight, it is to
this star that we might point in illustration. Its former
ruddy light, however, rather necessitates a different ex-
planation, and one which, notwithstanding the compara-
tive regularity of its changes, may perhaps assimilate it
to the more numerous class of variable stars.

The "Black Saturday" Eclipse, 1598, March 7.
— This eclipse, which was visible in its total phase in
Scotland, like that of 1652, April 8, noticed in this column
last week, was remembered long afterwards in that country,
the day of its occurrence being called " Black Saturday."
The elements were very approximately as follows : —

Conjunction in R, A. 1598, March 6, at 23h. im. 38s. G.M.T.

R.A

.. ...

... 347 44 8

Moon's hourly motion in R. A.

32 9

Sun's „ „

2 18

Moon's declination

4 16 I S.

Sun's ,,

5 16 33 S.

Moon's hourly motion in Decl.

17 8 N.

Sun's ,, ,,

0 59 N.

Moon's horizontal parallax

59 51

Sun's ,,

9

Moon's true semidiameter

16 19

Sun's „

16 5

The sidereal time at Greenwich noon on March 7 was

22h. 59m. 34s., the equation of time i im. 33s. subtractive

from^ mean time, and the middle

of general eclipse at

22h. lom. 29s.

Hence the following points upon the central track of

the shadow :—

Long. 6 2'i W., Lat. S°i 15 N.

Long.

3 14 W., Lat. 55 48 N.

„ 4 17 M 54 12

„

I 55 E. „ 64 29

„ 3 45 „ 54 59

,t

5 27 E. „ 71 37

The semi-diameter of the belt of totality appears to have
been about forty-five miles only. This belt included
Edinburgh, where the total eclipse commenced about
loh. 15m. 36s. A.M. on March 7, local mean time, and
continued im. 29s. with the sun at an altitude of 26°. At
Douglas, Isle of Man, the eclipse was also total for about
the same interval, the sun disappearing at loh. 6m. 43s.
A.M. local time according to the above elements.

The date for this eclipse is given for new style, as was
also that for the eclipse of 1652.

While referring to this subject we may mention that
Dr. Celoria, of the Observatory of Milan, has calculated
the circumstances of the total solar eclipse of 1239, June 3,
from the tables of Hansen— with Leverrier for sun. Prof.
Schiaparelli had collected together a large number of
notices of the totality of this eclipse in its passage across
Italy, his authorities being chiefly found in the great work
of Muratori. It appears to have been total (if we may
assume totality from the visibility of stars and the night-
like appearance of nature) at Monpellieri, Mirabeau
(where Zach found an inscription referring to the pheno-
menon), Digne, Ales^ndria, Genoa, Piacenza, Parma,
Lucca, Modena, Florence, Siena, Arezzo, Este, Ravenna,
Lesina on the Adriatic, &c. ; but Hansen's tables, accord-

:68

NATURE

'{July I, 1875

ing to the calculations of Celoria, do not include the
greater number of places within the belt of totality. It
may be remembered that a calculation of the eclipse
which occurred only two years later (1241 October), pub-
lished by Hansen in the Transactions of the Saxon Society
of Sciences, gave a total eclipse both at Erfurt and Stade
near Bremen, where it is recorded to have been so ob-
served, and hence his tables were considered satisfactory.
Both eclipses may deserve further examination.

D'Arrest's Comet. — This comet appears now to make
a very close approach to the orbit of the planet Jupiter,
from which circumstance it is possible that in some forty-
five years from this time its elements may be entirely
changed. Considerable perturbations from the attrac-
tion of this planet took place between the latter part of
the year 1857 and the next period of the comet's visi-
bility, so that by Leveau's calculations for that epoch the
time of revolution had been increased sixty-eight days,
the inclination diminished more than two degrees, with
very material changes in the other elements. If we adopt
the orbit found by Leveau for the last appearance, we
have the following distances of the comet from the orbit
of Jupiter at different points of heliocentric ecliptical
longitude— equinox of 1872 : —

In 139^ i' distance o -4 1 1... Aphelion

146 28 ,, o'292... Ascending Node

• 150 o ,, 0-189

152 o ,, 0-098

153 o ,, 0-085

In longitude 153° 10', which is about the point of nearest
approach, the distance between the two orbits is only
0-0841. At this point the comet's radius-vector is 5-4254,
with latitude 1° 52' N., and it is passed 873 days or 2-39
years before the arrival at perihelion. Without very sen-
sible perturbations in the mean time, the comet and
planet would encounter each other at the latter end of
the year 1920, when, as noted above, an entire change
of orbit might take place.

The Minor Planets. — Inquiries are occasionally
received for the fullest catalogue of elements of the
minor planets. Such readers as have occasion to refer .
to a pretty complete list, will find the latest and most
authentic summary in the " Berliner Astronomisches
Jahrbuch" for 1877, where the orbits of upwards of 130
of these planets are given, and in many cases from new
and complete discussion. Indeed, the preparation of
elements and ephemerides of the minor planets forms a
speciality of the " Berliner Jahrbuch " under the super-
intendence of Prof. Tietjen. The labour and practical
difficulty attending this work have now become very
great, so much so as to require almost exclusive devotion
to it of a body of computers, if accurate results for the
guidance of observers are expected. Prof. Tietjen to a
considerable extent ensures this. I'he elements are col-
lected by him in each successive volume, the latest being
found as stated above in that for 1877, published within
the last few months.

ON THE PLAGIOGRAPH aliter THE SKEW
PANTIGRAPH

I HAVE been led by the study of linkages to the con-
ception of a new instrument, or rather a simple
modification of an old and familiar one, the Pantigraph,
by means of which a figure in the act of being magnified
or reduced may at the same time be slewed round the
centre of similitude. Some of the readers of Nature,
such possibly as my able and most ingenious friends,
Messrs. George Cayley and Francis Galton, may be able
to pronounce with authority how far the invention is new
and whether it is likely to be found in any way useful in
practice as applied to the art of the designer or engine
turner. Already my invention of the Isagoniostat, or
equal angle setter, which I shall take some other oppor-
tunity to communicate to this journal, has been deemed

available in practice for working automatically the train
of prisms of a spectroscope.

In Fig. I, A O B CQ represents an ordinary pantigraph.
o is the fixed point, p is the tracer, and Q the correspond-

ing follower ; then, as everybody knows, any curve traced
out by P will be imitated by Q, and the two curves will be
similarly situated in respect to O. The point of addition
is the following : —

Let P be moved through any angle, p' A P round A, and
Q through an equal angle Q B q' in the opposite direction
round B, and let p' and q' be supposed to be in any manner
rigidly connected with the bars A c, B c respectively.
Then it admits of an easy proof that in whatever way the
pointed parallelogram A o B c is deformed, o q' will bear
to O P' the constant ratio of A c to A P, and moreover the
angle p' O Q' will always remain equal to the angles P' A P,

QBQ.

It follows that whilst p' is made to move upon any
curve the follower q' will trace out a similar curve altered
in magnitude, and at the same time turned round the
first point O.

If, as in Fig. 2, we take A D equal to AC, B E equal to

B c, and the angles c A D, c B E equal to each other, then
the rays O D, O E will always remain equal and be inclined
to each other at a constant angle. With this adjustment
the instrument may be used to transfer a figure from one
position in a sheet of drawing paper to any other position
upon it, leaving its form and magnitude unaltered, but its
position slewed round through any desired angle.

J. J. Sylvester

SCIENCE IN GERMANY
{From a Ger7nati Correspondent^
AACHEN in 18 19 Dulong and Petit measured the
* * specific heats of some solid elements they found
for each of the elements experimented upon, a very simple
relation between its specific heat and its atomic weight ;
the product obtained by multiplying the specific heat

July I, 1875]

NATURE

169

with the atcmic weight gave a constant value, or, in other
words, the atoms of all the elements experimented with
have the same capacity for heat. The investigation of
Regnault confirmed this law, showing that it is valid for
most of the solid elements with tolerable exactness ; but it
should be remembered here that the specific heats of these
elements must be determined at temperatures which are
sufficiently below the melting points of the elements
in question. Only carbon, boron, and silicon proved
exceptions to this remarkably simple, natural law ; for
these three elements far smaller atomic heats were found.
It was also found that the different allotropic modifications
of these three elements possess cjuite different specific
heats, and that none of these specific heats were in
accordance with Dulong and Petit's law. Later on
similar results were obtained by De la Rive and Marcet,
Wiillner and Bcttendorf. We must not forget to men-
tion, for the sake of completeness, that with regard to the
difference in the specific heats of the allotropic modifica-
tions of an element, Kopp has already, in 1864, stated
his belief that all allotropic modifications of each element
possess the same specific heat in all cases, and that the
results of experiments which are contradictory to this view
must be considered as caused either by a faulty method of
observation or else by impurities in the substances used.
Hcrr Weber of Hohenheim has succeeded lately in prov-
ing the validity of Dulong-Petit'slaw,also for carbon, boron,
and silicon ; his experiments were made with Bunsen's
ice-calorimeter. In order to heat the substances experi-
mented upon to a series of temperatures below red heat,
oil baths were used, and various temperatures between
0° and 300° C. were applied ; in order to cool them,
solid carbonic acid and a cold mixture, consisting
of one part of snow and \ part of common salt, w-ere
employed. All these teinpe'ratures were read off directly
from an ordinary air-themiometer. For higher tempera-
tures (between 500° and 1000°) an indirect method was
made use of, which allowed of the determination of the
temperatures by means of the indications of the calori-
meter. This indirect method is based on the correctness
ofPouillet's determinations (published in 1836) of the
cjuantity of heat which a certain unity of weight of
platinum requires to become heated from temperature
Tq to T. (These determinations are given by Pouillet for
the interval T = 0° X.o T = 1200° C.) The results which
Herr Weber obtained may be stated as follows : — The
specific heats of carbon, boron, and silicon increase
regularly as the temperature rises, from the lowest
obtainable degrees of temperatures upwards, and finally
remain nearly constant after a certain degree has been
reached. The nature of the function, which expresses the
dependence of the specified heat y from the temperature
T, seems to be the same for all the three elements, and to
possess the following formula : —

where A, B, q and /^ express constant positive values, and
A>B, q>h, and also T is the temperature counted up-
wards from the absolute zero.

The temperature from which the specific heat of
carbon remains nearly constant is somewhere near 600°
C, and it is immaterial whether the carbon is in the
form of diamond or in that of graphite. From red heat
upwards this element shows no greater variability in its
specific heat than the other elements which follow Dulong-
Petit's law. (At lower temperatures, however, for in-
stance when the temperature rises from — 50° C. to
+ 600°, its specific heat increases sevenfold). The
specific heats of graphite and diamond are perfectly iden-
tical above 600° C., if we neglect small differences, which
do not exceed the numerical value of the specific heat by
more than 0*5 to 2 per cent. The specific heats of
graphite, of the dense amorphous coal, and of the porous
charcoal, are within the interval from 0° to 225° C. per-

fectly identical from degree to degree. Thus all opaque
modifications of carbon (the graphitic, dense and porous
forms) have the same specific heat. We may say that
below red heat, from a thermal point of view, there are
only two different allotropic modifications of carbon, the
transparent and the opaque one. The specific heats of
these modifications differ all the more the lower their
respective temperatures; if the latter rise, they ap-
proach each other steadily and become identical at
about 600°. Above red heat there are no different allo-
tropic modifications of carbon with regard to specific
heat ; from that point in the scale of temperature, where
the optical difference of the two modifications of carbon
ceases, the thermal difference ceases also. Kopp's view
as quoted above is thus completely affirmed.

With regard to the specific heat of crystallised silicon,
it approaches (analogous to the specific heat of carbon)
as the temperature rises a nearly constant limit, which is
reached at about 200°, after having passed through highly-
variable values. At that point of the scale of temperature
the variability of the specific heat of silicon is no greater,
than that of the metallic elements. With regard to the
experiments with crystallised boron, it has been found that
within the interval of temperature from - 80° to -h 260° C>
the specific of this element behaves in a manner which is
perfectly analogous to the specific heats of opaque and
transparent modifications of carbon. This great coinci-
dence in the behaviour of the specfic heats of both ele-
ments justifies the supposition that also the specific heat
of boron in a rising temperature approaches a nearly con-
stant limit, and that this lies somewhere near a moderate
red heat. Unfortunately, Herr Weber could not prove
the correctness of this supposition by direct experiments
through want of sufficient material.

The nearly constant final values, which are reached as
the temperature rises by the specific heats of both carbon
and crystallised silicon, were found to be, in round
numbers—

For carbon o'46

„ crystallised siUcon 0*205

For crystallised boron, as we have said before, this final
value could not be experimentally determined, but from
the measurements that were made, and from the nature
of the function which represents the specific heat of
boron in its dependence upon temperature, we may con-
clude that this final value lies somewhere near 0-5.
The atomic weights of the three elements, as found by
the determination of their vapour densities, are —

Carbon 12

Silicon 28

Boron \i

The products of these figures when muhiplied by the
specific heats of these elements as mentioned above, give
for their atomic heats the values —

S'S 5-8 5-5

z.^., values which closely correspond to the atomic heats of
metals and the other solid metalloids.

Hence it follows that beyond a certain temperature,
carbon, sihcon, and boron also follow Dulong and Petit's
law, and continue to do so as long as the temperature
rises. Dulong and Petit's law has thus become one
without exceptions. The wording of this law ought, how-
ever, to be somewh£.t different to what it has been up till
now ; the following would, perhaps, be best : —

" The specific heats of the solid elements vary acording
to temperature ; but for each element there is a point T^
in the scale of temperature beyond which, as the tempe-
rature T rises, the variability of the specific heat becomes
insignificant. The product obtained by multiplication of
the atomic weight with that value of the specific heat
which belongs to the temperatures T > T^, is a nearly
constant value for all s#lid elements, and lies between 5-5
and 6-5." S. W,

I70

NATURE

[July I, 1875

MA GNE TO-ELECTRIC MA CHINES *
III.
TJ^ROM this property of the Gramme machine it may be
^ employed to measure by the method of opposing cur-
rents any electromotive force. For this purpose it is only
necessary to ascertain the velocity of rotation of the ring:
when the equilibrium between the currents is established.
This may be measured in one of two ways — by the velo-
cimeter of Deschiens, or by a chromoscopic diapason.
The mode of operating with the latter when applied to

Fig. 7. — Gramme machine for metallic precipitations.

the Gramme machine is thus described in M. Breguet's
work. On the axis of the ring is mounted a small plate
whose plane surface is covered with lamp-black by hold-
ing it over a candle. A tuning-fork vibrating one hundred
times in a second, and carrying at one end a little style,
is held in the hand, or, still better, fixed on a special
support. At the precise moment that the two electro-
motive forces are shown by the galvanometer to be equal,

*.,'^'*«^?"l>stance of a Lecture, with additions, -delivered at the' Belfast
i-hilosophical Society, March 17, by Dr. Andrews, F.R.S., L. & E, (Con-
tinued from p. 132.) - ' ^

the style is brought into contact with the blackened sur-
face of the plate, upon which it traces a sinuous line. A
very short contact is sufficient to give the required result.
On stoipping the machine, it will be seen to what fraction
of the circumference ten sinuosities of the line traced on
the plate correspond, from which it may be inferred in
how many hundredths of a second the entire revolu-
tion of the ring has been accomplished. It is stated
that if the ring in the Gramme machine be turned
at a perfectly steady rate, the current produced will
be more rigorously constant even than that of a
Daniell's battery in good working order.
Fig. 7 represents a machine constructed
with electro-magnets in 1872 by M.
Gramme, which, with six others of the
same kind, is in use in the well-known
galvanoplastic establishment of Chris-
tofle and Co., of Paris. These machines
weigh 750 kilogrammes, and the weight
of copper used in their construction is
about 175 kilogrammes. With a small
engine of one-horse power, one of them
will deposit 600 grammes of silver per
hour. By some recent modifications in
its construction this machine has been
improved so as to increase the weight
of silver deposited per hour to 2,100
grammes, or above 4i lbs. In Figs. 8
and 9 we have the forms of the Gramme
Machine now in use for the production
of the electric light. They are improve-
ments on the machine which was tried
on the Clock Tower of Westminster
Palace. This machine had the defect
of becoming heated while at work, and
of giving sparks between the metallic
bundles of copper wire and the conduc-
tors from the helices. In the machine
represented in Fig. 8 these defects are
said to have been completely remedied.
The entire machine weighs 700 kilo-
grammes, and there are 180 kilogrammes
of copper in the electro-magnets, and
forty kilogrammes in the two rings. It
produces a normal light of 500 Carcel
burners; but, by augmentiiig the velo-
city, it is asserted that the amount of
light may be doubled. It does not be-
come heated, nor does it produce any
spark where the brushes are applied.

In Fig. 9 we have the latest improve-
ments devised by M. Gramme for pro-
ducing the electric light. In this ma-
chine there are only two bar electro-
magnets and a single moveable ring
placed between the electro -magnets.
Its weight is 183 kilogrammes, and the
entire weight of copper used in its con-
struction, both for the ring and for the
electro-magnets, amounts to forty-seven
kilogrammes. Its normal power is
about 200 Carcel burners, but this can
be greatly augmented by increasing the
velocity. It may be interesting to give the results of some
experiments with this machine.

Number of turns.

Carcel burners.

Remarks.

650

77

No heating or sparks. ^

830

125

M >>

880

ISO

M ),

900

200

,, ,,

935

250

Slight heating, no sparks.

1025

200

Heating and sparks.

July I, 1875J

NATURE

171

By uniting two or more machines to-
gether, electrical currents of high tension
may be obtained. But a more useful
arrangement is to divide into two each
ring, so that the two halves may be joined
either for quantity or tension, and varied
effects thus obtained from the same ma-
chine. This is effected in the following
manner. Suppose the machine to contain
sixty bobbins or hehces round the ring.
If the entrance of the thirty alternate
bobbins is placed on one side of the ring
and of the thirty other bobbins on the
other side, there will be in reality two
ring-armatures in one, interlaced as it
were into each other ; and by collecting
the currents by means of two systems of
rubbers, one to the right and the other to
the left of the ring, we may obtain from
each one half of the electricity pioduced
by the rotation of the ring. By applying
this principle to machines for producing
the electric light, the same machine may
give two distinct lights instead of one.
In its industrial applications, this is a
point of capital importance. The use of
the electric light is at present greatly in-
terfered with by its excessive brightness,
and the deep shadows which by contrast
are produced at the same time. These
defects will be to a large extent remedied
by the use of two lights, so that the
shadow from one may be illuminated by
the other. It is proposed to use four
electric lights, each of the strength of lifty
Carcel burners, for lighting foundries and
large workshops. In support of this pro-
posal I may remark that I find Duboscq's
lamp of the latest construction gives a
singularly steady and mild light, with
only twenty Bunsen's cells, and would of
course work equally well with currents of
the same intensity from a magneto-elec-
tric machine.

It would be impossible, within the limits
of this lecture, to give an account of the
proposed improvements in magneto-elec-
tric machines, which will be found in the
records of the Patent Office during the
last three years. I cannot, however, pass
over without notice the machine of Sie-
mens and Alteneck, in which electrical
currents are obtained solely by the rota-
tion of a longitudinal helix of insulated
wire. This helix revolves in an annular
space bounded externally by two semi-
cylindrical magnetic poles, and internally
by a stationary cylinder of iron, which
latter may also be an independent mag-
net. The following account of this appa-
ratus I give nearly in the words of the
inventors. Between the poles of one or
more magnets or electro-magnets, an iron
core or cylinder is placed so as to leave a
space between it and the faces of the
magnetic poles, which have a cylindrical
form, and are concentric with the iron
cylinder. In this annular space a cylin-
drical shell of light metal is made to
revolve, on which a coil of insulated wire
is wound parallel to the axis of the shell,
and crossing its ends from one side to tlu
other. There may be several such coil
each covering an arc of the periphery ot
the shell. The ends of these wires are

Fig. 9,— Gramme iiiaghiue for electric i!,; ■

172

NATURE

\_July I, 1875

connected by metallic rollers or brushes with two sta-
tionary conductors, which are insulated, and constitute
the poles of the machine. The currents obtained on
rotating the shell may be made either continuous or
intermittent, or they may be alternately reversed. The
iron cylinder itself may be rendered magnetic by coiling
upon it longitudinally an insulated wire after the manner
of the rotating armature of Siemens,

To enumerate the possible applications of induction
machines would be simply to describe all the applica-
tions which have already been made, or may hereafter
be made, of current electricity to useful purposes. Among
the former, the electric telegraph, the electric light, and
electro-plating are perhaps the most important ; among
the latter, it will be sufficient to mention two proposals,
one to facilitate the ascent of steep gradients by in-
creasing, by means of magnetism, the adhesion of the
wheels of locomotives to the iron rails ; the other, to
decompose, by electrolysis, common salt so as to obtain
directly, and in a state of purity, the valuable chemical
products hydrochloric acid and soda.

THE GOVERNMENT ECLIPSE EXPEDITION
TO SIAM

THE following few details concerning the above Expe-
dition will probably be of interest to the readers of
Nature ; having just returned from Siam, I am unable
at present to give full particulars. The general results
obtained by our party have already been published in
this country by means of the telegraph. The fact that
any results were obtained at all is far more than might
have been expected considering the very brief time we
had to adjust the instruments. We had only five days to
land, unpack, fit up, and test the instruments, most of
which were quite new and untried. This want of time
was in the first place owing to unavoidable delays on the
way out, and to the fact that there was no steamer ready
to take us on to the Observatory Camp at once, thus neces-
sitating a visit to Bangkok prior to the eclipse. Our partial
success is in a large measure due to the valuable assistance
of Capt. A. J. Loftus, an English gentleman in the service
of his Majesty the King of Siam ; Capt. Loftus was sent
out by his Majesty to prepare the camp for us at Choulai
Point.

As previous to our departure from London there appeared
in one of the leading journals a letter, signed " Monitor,"
in which some very unpleasant statements were made
with regard to the probable reception our party would
receive in Siam — although Mr. D. K. Mason, the Siamese
Consul in London, published at the time a total denial of
the absurd insinuations — I feel it my duty, in the name of
all who took part in the expedition, to state that during
our prolonged stay in the kingdom of Siam we received
nothing but the greatest hospitality and kindness. Every-
body, from the King downwards, showed the greatest
desire to make our visit as pleasant as possible, and to
aid the expedition in every way ; difficulties were sur-
mounted at great expense and trouble, and everything we
asked for was at hand or was obtained with the least
possible delay. Our drinking-water was brought nearly
100 miles by water to the camp ; many tons of ice were
brought up from Singapore, and every kind of wine was
ready at hand.

The King sent several of his officials, both European
and Siamese, to assist us, and ordered such observations
to be made at Bangkok as the chief of the expedition.
Dr. Schuster, might consider of use to the expedition ;
the King himself observed and made a drawing of the
corona. Our camp and observatory were situated some
fifty miles from the city of Bangkok, on the west of the
Gulf of Siam, in the central line of totality. On our

arrival we found what had formerly been a waste of jungle
converted into a magnificent camp, and all the'houses fitted
up ready for our reception.

The eclipse itself differed from former ones in respect
to the greater brightness of the corona and the smallness
and fewness of the red flames. As far as we could make
out, the time as calculated by the Nautical Almanack
was some ten seconds wrong.

In a "Renter's" telegram, Dr. Schuster stated that
the spectroscopic cameras had failed. As failures arise
from many sources, this must be regarded as only a
general statement. It merely implied that no results
were obtained by these instruments, not that as instru-
ments for observing eclipses they were found to be a
failure. Several of the instruments were to have been
tested during the outward voyage, but owing to the
breaking-down of the Sttrat, and consequent transship-
ment of cases, no opportunity for such work was found,
and, on arriving at the camp, the time was far too short,
owing to other accidents, to enable anything like satis-
factory focussing and adjustments.

There were two sets of instruments employed as tele-
spectropes, one working in the large observatory, the
other in the Siderostat Observatory, where we had the
large new siderostat working with Mr. Lockyer's gj-inch
reflecting telescope and a spectroscopic camera. The
first two instruments were in splendid order, working
together beautifully, but the spectroscopic camera, not
having been tested previously, could not be brought to
give anything like a well-focussed photograph prior to the
eclipse. The image of the corona, which appeared very
distinct and bright on the slit-plate, although exposed
during the whole of totality, gave no visible results on
the photographic plate ; even the sun itself, exposed
for two seconds for the purpose of obtaining an index,
gave likewise no result.

Before making any statements on the results obtained,
I must wait the issue of the report of the Royal Society's
Eclipse Committee.

Numerous drawings were sent in by the Siamese, which
will be very valuable along with the general observations.
After the eclipse, owing to three of our party being too ill
to leave, we remained longer in the city of Bangkok than
we had expected. During our stey Mr. and Mrs. Henry
Alabaster, our hosts, on behalf of the King, entertained
us in the most hospitable manner, taking care that those
who were ill should have all possible attention, and be
restored to health as fast as good doctors and kind nursing
could accomplish it.

The following is a complete list of all who assisted us
in the observatories during the echpse, as well as of the
members of the expedition sent out, with the part taken
by each person : —

The Expedition.

Dr. Arthur Schuster.— Chief of the Expedition; in charge
of large Observatory, attending to the Equatorial.

Frank Edward Lott. — Dr. Schuster's Assistant. In charge
of the Siderostat Observatory.

F. Beazley, Jun. — Photographic Department. Developing
negatives in dark room No. I.

Oscar Eschke. — Photographic Department. Preparing plates
in dark room No. 2.

Officers from H.M.S. Lapwing,
Hon. H. N. Shore, Lieut. R.N. — Taking drawings of Corona

in large Observatory.
Andrew Leslie Murray, Nav. Lieut. R.N. —Keeping

time in large Observatory by Chronometer from H.M.S.

Lapwing.
W. J. FiRKS, Assist. Eng., R.N.— Attending to the clock of

Mr. Penrose's instrument.

Europeans and Siamese from Bangkok.
Capt. A. J. Loftus, R.S.N. — Founder of the Observatory

and Camp. In charge of Mr. Beazley's Camera, taking

direct photographs of Corona with 2 — 4 — 8 — 16 seconds'

exposure.

July I, 1875J

NATURE

173

Mi-s. M. LOFTUS. — Keeping time for Capt. Loftus.
i KANXIS Chit.— Royal Photographer to the King. Pre-
paring and developing in dark room No. 3 for Capt. Loftus.
W. Bray.— Attending to plates for Capt. Loftus.
F. G. Patterson. — Keeping time in large Observatory with

Mr. Murray.
— Hendricke and W. H. Lang. — Attending to the Pris-
matic Camera in large Observatory.
C. Bethje. — Dr. Schuster's amanuensis during totality.
Capt. J. Thompson, R.S.N., and Edward H. Loktus.—
Signalling time between the large Observatory and the Side-
rostat Observatory.
Capt. Chung, R.S.W. — In charge of thirty Siamese, guarding
the Observatory ground.

Six Seamen from H.M.S. Lapwing.
Carpenter, Blacksmith, and Two Seamen in large Obser-
vatory, taking plates between dark rooms and instruments.
Two Seamen in Sidei^ostat Observatory : one to bring plate
from dark room and watch the Corona, and the other to
open and shut the Camera slide.
It was not till the day of the eclipse that we got the instru-
ments in anything like position, and even then they were
but half tested. We then had a couple of rehearsals, and
by mid-day everyone was fully prepared and thoroughly
knew the part he would have to perform during totality.
This was entirely due to the indefatigable and untiring
manner in which Dr. Schuster examined into every detail,
and to the readiness with which everyone, without excep-
tion, undertook the part allotted him, and did his utmost
to understand all the requirements of the position.

After leaving Siam our party separated at Singapore,
Dr. Schuster bound for Simla, Mr. Beazley for Japan and
China, Mr. Eschke for Berhn, the writer alore returning
to England with the results obtained by the Expedition.
Frank Edw. Lott

NOTES

Thj: deaths of two eminent astronomers are announced :
Prof. d'Arrest, of the University of Copenhagen, who died on
June 14, in his fifty-third year ; and Prof. Winlock, the distin-
guished Director of Cambridge Observatory, U.S.

We learn with the greatest pleasure that a thorough and
systematic observation of the cirrus clouds is in the course of
being established in other countries than Sweden. The great
importance of these observations we recently urged on the
attention of meteorologists in reviewing Dr. Ilildcbrandsson's
"Essay on the Upper Currents of the Atmosphere," vol. xii.
p. 123. Dr. Ilildebrandsson has undertaken the discussion of
these observations, and already the meteorological institutes and
societies of Norway, Denmark, France, Austria, Portugal, and
Scotland have promised their assistance and agreed to send to
Sweden observations from several stations in their respective
countries.

The following Commission has been appointed to inquire into
" the practice of subjecting live animals to experiment for
scientific purposes, and to consider and report what measures, if
any, it may be desirable to take in respectof any such practice : "
— Viscount Cardwell, Baron Winmarleigh, W. E. Forster, Sir
J. B. Karslake, Prof. Huxley, Prof. Erichsen, and R. H.
Hutton.

Dr. Gerald F. Yeo has been elected to the professorship of
Physiology in King's College, London.

In vol. xi. p. 475, we announced the discovery of a boiling
lake in the island of Dominica. The Trinidad Chronicle of
May 21 contains an account of a visit to the spring by Mr. H.
Prestoe, superintendent of the Trinidad Botanic Gardens. The
lake lies in the mountains behind Roseau, and in the valleys
around many sovffriires, or solfataras, are to be met with.
The Boiling [Lake is a gigantic solfatara, with an excess of

water-volume over the ejective power exerted by its gases and
heat. It is affected by a very considerable volume of water
derived from two converging ravines which meet just on its
north-west corner, and owing to the existence of a small hill
immediately opposite (which has had the effect of diverting the
course of the ravine-water into its present channel), the action of
the solfatara has caused the formation of a crater-like cavity,
which is now the Boiling Lake with its precipitous and evcr-
wasting banks on its north and south sides, of some sixty feet
depth. Th« temperature of the lake ranges from 180° to 190° F.
The point of ebullition seems to vary its position somewhat ; the
water rising two, three, and sometimes four feet above the
general surface, the cone dividing occasionally into three, as
though ejected frcm so many orifices. During ebullition a
violent agitation is communicated over the whole surface of the
lake. The sulphurous vapour arises in pretty equal density over
the whole lake, there being no sudden ejection ol gas observed
from the point of ebullition ; there are no detonations ; the colour
of the water is a deep dull grey, and it is highly charged with
sulphur and decomposed rock. As the outlet of the water is
constantly deepening, the surface of the lake must gradually
become lower, and it will, Mr. Prestoe thinks, ultimately be
destroyed, and its character be changed to that of a geyser. It
will then gradually fill up by the reduction of the adjacent hill-
sides, and innumerable solfataras will be formed in the place of
the present gigantic one. Mr. Prestoe found no bottom with a
line of 195 feet, ten feet from the water's edge. One great result
of the action of solfataras is the decomposition of the volcanic
rock and the development therefrom of various kmds of gypsum.
Some blocks met with have a very strong resemblance to the
Tuscany or Volterra marble. Mr. Prestoe thinks that these
large solfataras have had much to do in bringing about the pre-
sent conformation of the district.

Dominica, which was formerly one of the chief coffee-pro-
ducing countries, has of late years almost entirely ceased to grow
the plant. The capabilities of the island, however, are appa-
rently so great, not only for the cultivation of coffee, but also for
many other food products, that the attention of the authol-itits
has been directed to the matter, and the result is that Mr. Prestoe,
of the Botanic Gardens, Trinidad, has been 'commissioned to
examine and report on the prospects of the island generally, and
the best means of developing its resources. We anxiously await
the details of Mr. Prestoe's report upon an island so fertile and
beautiful as Dominica, but which has, no doubt, through want
of European capital and energy, been allowed to drift almost
into an unprofitable waste.

The Times of last Thursday contains a letter, dated Yoko-
hama, April II, from its correspondent on board the Challenger,
giving an account of the cruise from Mindanao by New Guinea
and the Admiralty Islands to Japan. An extremely interesting
account is given of the natives of New Guinea at Humboldt Bay
and of the Admiralty Islanders. The following are the principal
results of the soundings made :— The greatest depth in the section,
2,250 miles long, fiom the Admiralty Islands to Japan, was
found on the 23rd of March in 4,575 fathoms, between the Caro-
lines and Ladrones. This is the deepest trustworthy sounding
on record, with the exception of two taken by the Tuscarora off
the east coast of Japan, in 4,643 and 4,655 fathoms respectively,
but no sample of the bottom was procured on either of these
occasions. A second sounding gave 4,475 fathoms. The tube
of the sounding machine contained an excellent sample of tke
bottom, which was of a very peculiar character, consisting almtkt
entirely of the siliceous shells of Reidiolaria. Three out of four
Miller-Casella thermometers sent down to these depths were
crushed to pieces by the enormous pressure they had to bear :
the fourth withstood the pressu|e, and registered, when corrected
for the pressure, at 1,500 fathoms, the usual temperature for that

1/4

NATURE

[July I, 1875

depth, 34°- 5 F. ; so that at that place there is a layer of water at
that uniform temperature occupying the bottom of the ocean
trough of the enormous thickness of 3,075 fathoms (18,450 feet).
The observations made in this section, taken in connection with
others made elsewhere, would seem to point to the following
law: — That "Globigerina ooze" — a rapidly forming deposit,
containing the whole of the abundant carbonate of lime of the
shells of the Foraminifera living on the surface and beneath it,
and consequently consisting of almost pure carbonate of lime —
generally occupies depths under 2,000 fathoms in the ocean ;
that beyond this depth, the proportion of the calcareous matter
is gradually diminished, and the deposit, which now contains a
considerable amount of clay, goes under the name of grey ooze ;
that at 2, 600 fathoms the calcareous matter has almost entirely
disappeared, and we have the purest form of " red clay," a sili-
cate of alumina and iron with siliceous tests of animals ; that
from this point the "clay" decreases in proportion, and the
siliceous shells increase, until at extreme depths the " clay " is
represented by little more than a red cement, binding the shells
together. As to the transition from the "Globigerina ooze" to
the "red clay," the Timts correspondent says, it is due to the
removal of the lime of the Globigerina shells by water and car-
bonic acid, or in some other way ; the apparent disappearance
of the " red clay " is a fallacy produced by the increased propor-
tion of the siliceous shells. It has now been ascertained by the
use of the tow-net at great depths that Radiolarians and Diatoms
inhabit the water all the way down, and are probably more
abundant at greater depths ; and it follows from this that four
times more, at least, must die and shed their tests in 4,000
fathoms than in 1,000 fathoms. The most marked temperature
phenomenon observed in the two sections was the presence of a
surface layer of water of an average depth of 80 fathoms, and a
temperature above 77° F., extending northwards from the coast
of New Guinea about 20°, and westward as far as the meridian
of the Pellew Islands. The greater part of this huge mass of
warm water is moving with more or less rapidity to the west-
ward.

M. Janssen was present at Monday's sitting of the Paris
Academy.

The preparations for the Geographical Congress in Paris are
being actively completed. The large map of France executed
by the staff oficers will be exhibited, all the sheets having been
joined, thus forming one continuous sheet of paper of immense
size. The map will be exhibited at the Tuileries in the
Salle des Etats. It will be photographed by the microscopical
and panoramic process. There is a law prohibiting valuable
documents in the National Library, Paris, from being taken out
of the building. But a large hall will be set apart for their
exhibition, and all the members of the Geographical Congress
will get free admission to view them as often as they may desire.

M. Leverrier, at Monday's silting of the Paris Academy,
ntimated that the great reflecting telescope, and other large
apparatus, will be ready for inspection by the members of the
Geographical Congress on their visit on the 5th of August.

Mr. a. J. Anderson, from Manchester Grammar School, and
Mr. T. W. Stubbs, from Clifton College, have been elected to
Demyships in Natural Science in Magdalen College, Oxford.
Mr. H. A. Wilson, of Magdalen College School, was at the
same time elected to the Exhibition in Natural Science. The
stipend of the Demyships is 95/. per annum, and of the Ex-
hibition 75/. They are tenable for five years.

S. Nall has been elected! to a' Foundation Scholarship for
proficiency in Natural Science at St. John's College, Cambridge.
Stewart, Lowe, and Houghton to Exhibitions,

J. T. Moller, of Wedel (Holstein), having been repeatedly
requested to publish his process of preparing Diatomacesc, has
resolved to adopt the following plan :— If a sufficient number of
subscribers is obtained, he will publish a work with illustra-
tions, under the title of "The Preparation of the Diatomacea;, "
which will contain — i. The collecting ; 2. The cleaning and puri-
fying (a) of the living subjects ; {b) of dead subjects in the mud ;
(<r) of fossils. 3. The separation of the different species. 4.
Ti)e preparation and mounting {a) in the ordinary manner— in
quantity ; (b) as selected and arranged ; (c) as * ' Typen- and
Probe- platte," &c

We believe that the Pandora, which has just sailed to attempt
the north-west passage, has been fitted out at the joint expense
of Lady Franklin, Mr, James Gordon Bennett, Lieut. Lillingston,
and Capt. Allen Young— the last-mentioned, however, bearing
the major portion of the cost, as well as the whole risk of
the voyage. We are glad to hear that the health of Lady Franklin,
who has been seriously ill, has considerably improved. On
Monday evening the Pandora finally left Plymouth for Disco.
On the same day, the Times sajs, there was to sail from
Sunderland Dock a small sloop named the Whim, bound to the
Arctic seas and zone ; it is under the command of Capt.
Wiggins, of the merchant service, and is manned by five able
seamen. The Httle vessel is only twenty-seven tons register.
Capt. Wiggins is bound for the Russian coast.

On Monday evening an extraordinary meeting of the Royal
Geographical Society was held, at which the Seyyid of Zanzibar
who was present, was received with great enthusiasm, and ex-
pressed his anxiety to do all in his power to forward the objects of
the Society, Mr, John Forrest gave an account of his journey
across the western half of Australia, from Champion Bay on the
west coast to the Overland Telegraph line. We have already
given some details of thejourney in vol. xi. p, 93. Mr. Forrest
concluded by slating that all the geographical problems have
now been finally solved, and the only remaining portion of
interest is the small part in the north-west corner from Roebuck
Bay to the Victoria River.

At the above meeting Dr. W. B. Carpenter read a paper on
recent observations on ocean temperature made in the Challenger
and Tuscarora, with their bearing on the doctrine of a general
oceanic circulation, sustained by difierence of temperature.

Under the heading of "Early Indications of Spectroscopy in
America," the American Chemist for May reprints two papers
by Dr. David Alter, from the Arnerican Jotirnal of Science of
1854 and- 1855, in which he describes some experiments made by
him on the spectra of metals and gases, at least;, three years
before the publication of the researches of Bunsen and Kirchhoff .

The Sub- Wealden Exploration has made considerable progress
during the past week. A further depth of 108 feet has been
reached in five days, making a total of 1,246 feet.

The most interesting objects which' attract attention at tlie
Southport Aquarium just now are the eggs of the Rough Hound
{Sqiialus catulus), which were deposited in the tanks about the
beginning of December of last year. All the eggs seem to be
in a healthy condition, and the young fish are now so far ad-
vanced that their movements within their horny cases can be
distinctly traced, and possibly only a short interval will elapse
before they are completely free. Mr, Long anticipates a similar
result from the eggs of the Skate {Raia batis) deposited in
February last. The fine Sturgeon about eight feet long, and
about thirty specimens of the Sea-horse {Hippocampus brevi-
rosiris) are also objects of much interest.

With reference to our note (vol. xii. p. 135) on the attempt to
acclimatise humming-birds in Paris, a correspondent informs us

July I, 1875J

NATURE

175

that Mr. Gould some years ago succeeded in bringing a living pair
within the confines of the British Islands, and a single individual to
London, where it lived two days. The birds were quite lively
during the voyage across the Atlantic, but began to droop when
off the coast of Ireland ; and, as we have said, Mr. Gould suc-
ceeded in bringing only one to London alive. Particulars will
be found in Mr. Gould's " Monograph of the Trochilida;."

Further details are to hand of the earthquake which on
May 18 caused so much destruction in the valley of Cucuta, in
the Republic of New Granada. The destruction to life and
property has been almost unprecedented. The German drug
store, it is stated, was set on fire by a ball of fire that was thrown
out of the volcano, which, at the time the news left, was
constantly belching out lava. The volcano has opened itself in
front of Santiago, in a ridge called El Alto de la Giracho. In
reference to this, see the letter we publish to-day from Mr. W. G.
Palgrave.

The final arrangements have been made for holding the
forty-third annual meeting of the British Medical Association,
which meets in Edinburgh this year on August 3, under the
presidency of Prof. Sir Robert Christison, Bart.

An exhibition is to be held in Belgium next year of all such
apparatus, sanitary arrangements, or scientific appliances as are
calculated to preserve health or to save life.

With the Gardener's Chronicle of last Saturday is published
a beautifully illustrated supplement, giving an account of
Chatsworth, the seat of the Duke of Devonshire.

The Brussels Academic Royale has just published a new
edition of its " Notices Biographiques et Bibliographique."
This volume contains a brief sketch of the history of the Aca-
demy, a list of Presidents, honorary, corresponding, and ordi-
nary members and associates in the various classes, followed by
brief biographical notices of all the members who have contri-
buted papers, with full lists of their contributions. The volume
is a very valuable as well as a very interesting one.

Messrs. Trl bner and Co. have published a pamphlet by
Dr. A. Stoecker (translated by Dr. Harrer) giving much useful
information concerning the baths and mineral springs of Wildun-
gen, about one hour's distance from Cassel. The springs, of
^vhich there are five in use, are more or less alkaline-chalybeate,
and seems to possess^important curative quahties. In connection
with this subject the following recently published statistics of the
numbers of patients that visited the German and Hungarian
watering-places during 1874 will be interesting : — Baden-Baden,
41,464 ; Buziasch, 813 ; Carlsbad, 20,235 ; Elster, 4,373 ;
Franzensbad, 7,655 ; Gleichenberg, 3,373 ; Gastein, 1,253 J
Gmunden, 1,202 ; Giesshiibl, 12,625 ; Griifenberg, 847 ; Hall,
2,coo ; Ischl, 9,386; Ilmenau, 1,468; KrankenheiJ, 1,010;
Konigswart, 313; Neuenahr, 3,405; Oeynhausen, 3,254;
Kryniza, 2,080 ; Luhatschowitz, 942 ; Marienbad, 9,861 ; Nan-
helm, 4,152; Pystian, 1,709; Reichenhall, 4,215; Reinerz,
2,352 ; Rohitsch, 2,603 ; Szczawinca, 2,033 > Teplitz-Trentschin
1,655 ; Tiiffer, 2,061 ; Voslau, 3,865 ; Wartenberg, 805 ;
Warmbrunn, 1,960; and Wiesbaden,i65,8oo.

The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during
the past week include a Black-backed Jackal {Canis mesomeles)
from S. Africa, presented by Messrs. Donald Currie.and Co. ;
an Indian Coucal {Centropus rufipennis) from India, presented
by Mrs. Hunter Blair ; a Small^Hill Mynah [Gracula religiosa)
from S. India, presented by Sir Charles Smith, Bart. ; a Golden
Eagle {Aquila chrysdetos) from India, presented by Mrs. Logan
Home ; two Chinese Quails {Coturnix chinensis) from China,
presented by Mr. A. Jamrach ; two Virginian Eagle Owls {Bubo
virginianus) from N, America, deposited ; two White-winged
Choughs (Corcorax leucopterus) from Australia, a Salle's Amazon
(Chrysotis sallcei) from St. Domingo, purchased ; five Australian
Wild Ducks {Anas superciliosa) bred in the Gardens.

RECENT PROGRESS IN OUR KNOWLEDGE

OF THE CI LI ATE INFUSORIA*

IIL

TT follows from this view that the cavity of the Coelenterata
would represent an intestinal cavity only, while a true body
cavity would be here entirely absent. This way of regarding the
cavity of the Crelenterata is at variance with the conclusions of
most other anatomists who regard the ccelenterate cavity as
representing a true body cavity, or a body and intestinal cavity
combined. I had myself long entertained the generally accepted
opinion that the cavity of the Coelenterata represents a body
cavity. I must, however, now give my adnesion to the doctrine
here advocated by Haeckel, and regard the proper body cavity
of the higher animals as having no representative in the Coelen-
terata. I believe that this is supported both by the facts of
development and by the structure of the mature animal. Indeed,
the body cavity first shov/s itself, as Haeckel has pointed out, in
the higher worms, and is thence carried into the higher groups
of the animal kingdom.

If such be the real nature of a true intestinal cavity and of a
true body cavity, it is plain that neither the one nor the other
can exist in the Infusoria, for there is here nothing which can be
compared with either the endoderm or the ectoderm.

The whole, then, of the alleged chyme of the Infusoria is
nothing more than the internal soft protoplasm of the body. It
is quite the same as in Ammba and many other unicellular
animals.

The peculiar currents which have been long noticed in the
endoplasm of many Infusoria must be placed in the same category
with the rotation of the protoplasm observed in many organic
cells. Von Siebold, indeed, had already compared the endo-
plasm currents of the Infusoria to the well-known rotation of
the protoplasm in the cells of Chara.

The presence of a mouth and anal orifice in the ciliate Infusoria
has been urged as an argument against the unicellular nature of
these organisms. The so-called mouth and anus, however,
admit of a comparison not in a morphological but only in a
physiological sense with the mouth and anus of higher animals.
They are simple lacun:e in the firm exoplasm, and have, accor-
ding to Haeckel, no higher morphological value than the " pore
canals" in the wall of many animal and plant-cells, or the
micropyle in that of many egg-cells. Kolliker had already
compared them to the excretory canal of unicellular glands.
Since, therefore, they do not admit of being homologically
identified with the orifices of the same name in the higher
animals, Haeckel proposes for them the terms " Cytosloma" and
" Cytopyge."

So also the presence of a contractile vesicle and of other
vacuoles affords no solid argument against the unicellularity of
the Infusoria. The physiological significance of the contractile
vesicles has been variously interpreted. In certain cases a com-
munication with the exterior appears to have been demonstrated,
and Haeckel regards them as combining two ditTerent functions of
nutrition, namely, respiration and excretion. They are in all
cases destitute of proper walls, and they have been long recog-
nised as morphologically nothing more than lacunae filled with
fluid. Regular contractile vesicles differing in no respect from
those of the ciliate Infusoria are often found in the Flagellata
and in the swarmspores of many AlgK.

Besides the constant and regular contracting vacuoles, there
occur also others less constant and less regularly contracting.
These are found in the softer endoplasm, while the constant and
regularly contracting vacuoles occur for the most part in the
firmer exoplasm. One is just as much a wall-less vacuole as the
other, and the difference between them is to be traced to the
difference of consistence in the surrounding protoplasm. Haeckel
regards the less constant ones as the original form from which
the others have been phylogenetically derived, that is, by a
process of inheritance and modification through descent.

The last and most important of the parts which enter into the
formation of the Infusorium body, namely, the nucleus, is next
discussed. Viewed from a morphological point, it has been
already demonstrated that the nucleus is in all Ciliata originally a
single simple structure, resembling in this respect a true cell-
nucleus. As the Infusorium body approaches maturity we find
that with its advancing differentiation peculiar changes occur in
the nucleus just as in the rest of the protoplasm, but these
changes are entirely paralleled by differentiation phenomena

* Anniversary Address to the] Linnean Society, by the President, Dr. G.
J. AUman, F.R.S., May 24. Continued from p. 157.

176

NATURE

\yuly I, 1875

which are known in other undoubted cell-nuclei, as, for example,
in the germinal vesicle of many animals, in the nuclei of many
unicelMar plants, the nuclei of many parenchyma cells of the
higher plants, and the nuclei of many nerve-cells. The mature
Infusorium nucleus is often vesicle-like, and consists of a delicate
investing membrane and fine granular contents, precisely as in
the differentiated nucleus of many other cells. In many Ciliata,
if not in all, there is within the young nucleus a dark, more
refringent corpuscle, which has quite the same relations as the
nucleolus of a true cell-nucleus.

Regarded from a physiological, no less than from a morpho-
logical point of view, the Infusorium nucleus and true cell
nucleus admit of a close comparison with one another. It may
be considered as established by the concurrent observations of all
investigators, that the nucleus of the Infusoria performs the
function of a reproductive organ, though the opinions entertained
as to the mode in which it thus acts are extremely divergent.

It is now admitted that in the reproduction of unicellular
organisms both in the animal and vegetable kingdom, the
nucleus takes an important part, and by its division as a primary
act ushers in the division of the rest of the protoplasm. Even in
the cells which form constituents of tissues, the part played by
the nucleus is altogether similar, its division always preceding
the division of the cell itself.

In quite a similar way does the nucleus behave in the ciliate
Infusoria. The non-sexual reproduction of the Infusoria by
division is perhaps universal. In such cases the division always
begins by the spontaneous halving of the nucleus, and this is
followed by a similar division of the surrounding protoplasm,
exactly as in the ordinary simple cell.

Another phenomenon in which the nucleus plays an imporiant
part is named by Haeckel " spore formation." Under this
designation he comprehends all those cases in which — the idea
of a previous fecundation being rejected — the nucleus breaks
into numerous pieces, and each of these, apparently by becoming
encysted in a portion of the protoplasm of the mother body,
shapes itself into an independent cell — a so-called germ-globule,
(Keitnkugel). Now this is a true spore — just as much so as the
spores which arise quite in the same way in unicellular plants.
The whole process is to be regarded as a case of the so-called
endogenous multiplication of cells.

Most authors, however, take a different view of the nucleus.
Following Balbiani, they regard it as an ovary ; and to the frag-
ments into which it breaks up they assign the significance of
eggs ; while the so-called nucleolus, wtiich lies outside the
nucleus, is, as we have seen, believed to be a testis in which
spermatozoa are developed for the fecundation of the eggs.

We must bear in mind, however, that this ' ' nucleolus " has
been hitherto found in but a disproportionately small number of
species, while the spermatozoal nature of the apparent filaments
which have been noticed in it has by no means been proved ;
and we have already seen that some observed facts such as those
adduced by Biitschli are opposed to the view which woidd assign
to them the nature of true spermatozoa.

As Haeckel remarks, however, even though the so-called
nucleolus be really a testis fecundating the eggs or fragments
derived from the breaking up of the nucleus, this would afford
no valid argument against the unicellularity of the Infusoria, for
precisely the same sexual differentiation and reproduction are
found in unicellular plants.

It may now, then, be regarded as proved that the process by
which the body of the ciliate Infusorium attains a certain degree
of differentiation is repeated not only in other unicellular orga-
nisms, but in many parenchyma cells both of plants and animals.
The difference, as Haeckel with much force points out, between
the differentiation process of these parenchyma cells and that of
the Infusorium body consists in the fact that in the parenchyma
cells the differentiation is a one-sided one, conditioned by the
division of labour in the organism of which they form the con-
stituents, while in the Infusorium it is a many-sided one related
to all the different directions in which cell-life manifests itself,
and resting on a physiological division of labour among the
" plastidules " or protoplasm molecules. In other words, the
differentiation processes which in multicellular organisms are found
distributed among different cells, are united in the single cell of
the ciliate Infusorium, thus leading to the formation of an animal
very perfect in a physiological point of view, but which morpho-
logically does not pass the limit of a simple cell.

In some rarer cases the Infusorium body is found to enclose
tv/o or more nuclei, and Haeckel admits that such Infusoria
must strictly be regarded as multicellular, since the nucleus in itself

alone determines the individuality of the cell ; but these excep-
tional cases have no significance for the main conception of the
infusorial organism. The multiplication of the nucleus exerts
almost no influence on the rest of the organisation, and such
" multicellular ciliata " are to be compared with the colony-
building forms of the Acinetse, Gregarinse, Flagellatae, and other
undoubtedly unicellular organisms.

In conclusion, Haeckel considers the systematic position of the
Infusoria. That they are genuine Protozoa, having no direct
relation to either the Coelenterata or the Worms, must be now
admitted. To this result we are led in the most convincing way
by all that we know of their development. In all the animal
types which stand above the Protozoa, the multicellular organism
is developed out of the simple egg cell by the characteristic pro-
cess of segmentation, and the cell masses so arising differentiate
themselves into two layers — the endoderm and the ectoderm, or
the two primary germ lamellae.* Resting on the fundamental
homology of these two layers in all the six higher types of the
animal kingdom, Haeckel had already f directed attention to
the fact that all these types pass in their development through
one and the same remarkable form, to which he gives the name
of Gastrula, and which he regards as the most important and
significant embryonal form of the whole animal kingdom. This
gastrula consists of a multicellular, usually oviform uniaxial,
body enclosing a simple cavity — the primordial stomach or intes-
tine cavity, which opens outward on one pole of the axis by a
simple orifice— the primordial mouth, and whose walls are com-
posed of two layers, the endoderm or inner germ lamella, and
the ectoderm or outer germ lamella.

This larval form has now been shown by the researches of
Haeckel, Kowalevsky, Ray Lankester, and others, to occur in
members of all the six higher primary groups of the animal
kingdom ; and Haeckel, in conformity with what he has called
the biogenetic fundamental law+ — the recapitulation of ances-
tral forms in the course of the development of the individual-
had already in a former work § concluded in favour of a common
descent of all the six higher types from a single unknown ances-
tral form which must have been constructed essentially like the
Gastrula, and to which he gives the name of Gastnra.

From this common descent the Protozoa alone are excluded,
these not having yet attained to the formation of germ lamellse
or of a true intestinal cavity.

He regards this difference between the development of the
Protozoa and that of all the other animal types as so important,
that he founds thereon a fundamental division of the whole
animal kingdom into two great primary sections- — the Protozoa
and the Mdazoa. The former never undergo segmentation, never
develop germ lamella:, and never possess a true intestinal cavity ;
the latter, which include all the other types of the animal king-
dom, present a true segmentation of the egg cell, have all two
primary germ lamellse — endoderm and ectoderm — a true intes-
tine formed from the endoderm, and a true epidermis from the
ectoderm ; they all pass through the form of the gastrula, or an
embryonic form capable of being immediately deduced from it,
and (hypotheticallyj are all descended from a Gastrrea.

The only Metazoa which in their existing condition have no
intestine are the low worm-groups — Ccestoda and Acanthoce-
phala — but these form only an apparent exception, for the loss
of their intestinal canal is a secondary occurrence caused by
parasitism, and Haeckel regards them as having descended from
worms in which the intestine was present.

Several years ago Haeckel united into a separate kingdom,
under the name of Protista, certain low organisms, some of
which had been previously placed among the Protozoa, while
others had been assigned to the vegetable kingdom. To this
neutral group he refers the Monera, the Flagellata-, the Catal-
lacta;, the Labyrinthulea;, the MicromycetEc, and the Acytaria:
and RadiolariK. After the elimination of these there remain as
genuine Protozoa the Amoebina:, the Gregarins;, the Acinstce,
and, above all, the the true Infusoria or Ciliata,

The union of the Protista into a distinct kingdom equivalent
in systematic value with the animal or vegetable kingdom, can,
however, scarcely be maintained. We already know enough of
some of them to justify our assigning these to one or other of
the two generally accepted organic kingdoms ; and there can be ^
little doubt that, did we know the whole history of the others,
as well as the essential difference between the animal and vege-

* The comparison of the endoderm and ectoderm of the Coelenterata to
the two primary germ lamellae of the Vertebrata was first made by Huxley.
t " Die Kalkschwamme," 1872.
X "Generelle Morphologic."
§ ' ' Die Kalkschwamme.

July I, 1875]

NATURE

177

table kingdom, these, too, would' be referred without hesitation
either to the one or to the other, some passing to the former and
others to the latter. The group of the Protista is thus at beit
but a provisional one, based partly on our ignorance of the struc-
ture and life-history of the beings which compose it, and partly
on our inability to assign to the animal its essential difference
from the plant. Haeckel, however, has done well in specially
directing attention to it, and in his admirable researches on many
of the organisms which he has thus grouped together he has
largely contributed to our knowledge of living forms.

I have thus dwelt at considerable length upon this important
paper of I lacckel's, because I think that it not only brings out in
a clear light the essential features of infusorial structure and
physiology as demonstrated by recent research, but that it goes
far to set at rest the controversy regarding the unicellularity and
multicellularity of the Infusoria.

Balbiani has quite recently published a very interesting account
of the remarkable Infusorium long ago described by O. F.
Miiller under the name of Vorticella nassuta, and more recently
taken by Stein as the type of his genus Didinium.

The animal, which is somewhat barrel-shaped, with an anterior
and a posterior wreath of cilia, has one end continued into a
proboscis-like projection which carries the oral orifice on its
summit, while an anal orifice is situated on the point diametri-
cally opposite to this. There is a very distinct cuticle, though
the rest of the cortical layer is very thin, and can scarcely be
optically distinguished from the internal parenchyma, which
exhibits manifest currents of rotation. These flow in a con-
tinuous sheet along the walls from the anal towards the oral side,
and on arriving at the mouth turn in towards the axis and then
flow backwards along this until they complete the circuit by once
morej reaching the anal side of the body. No trichocysts are
developed in the walls of the body. The contractile vesicle is
large, and is situated near the anal end ; it presents very distinct
pulsations, and Balbiani is disposed to believe in a communica-
tion between it and the exterior.

During the act of digestion a tubular cavity can be seen run-
ning through the axis of the body, and connecting the oral and
anal orifices. This is regarded by Balbiani as a permanent diges-
tive canal. The post-oral or pharyngeal portion of this tube
possesses a very remarkable feature, namely, a longitudinal
striation caused by rigid rod-like filaments which are developed
in its walls, and which can be easily detached and isolated by pres-
sure or by the action of acetic acid. They then resemble some
common forms of the raphides developed in the cells of plants.
The function of these rods becomes apparent when the animal is
observed in the act of capturing its prey. The Didinium is
eminently voracious and carnivorous, and when in pursuit of
other living Infusoria, such as Paramecium, the prey may be
seen to become suddenly paralysed on its approach. A careful
examination will then show that the Didinium has projected
against it some of its pharyngeal rods, and to the action of these
bodies the arrest of motion is attributed. A curious cylindrical
tongue-like organ is now projected from the mouth towards the
arrested prey, to which it becomes attached by its extremity. By
the retraction of this tongue the prey is now gradually with-
drawn towards the mouth, engulphed in the distended pharynx,
and pushed deeper and deeper into the axial canal, where it is
digested, and the effete matter ultimately expelled through the
anus.

From all this Balbiani concludes against the unicellular doc-
trine. He sees in the axial cavity a permanent alimentary canal,
and in the surrounding parenchyma a true perigastric space filled
with a liquid which corresponds with the perigastric liquid of
the polyzoa and of many other lower animals. He is not, how-
ever, disposed to make too broad a generalisation, and to insist
on the presence of an alimentary canal distinct from a body
cavity in all the other Infusoria. Here, however, he falls in
with the views of Claparede and Lachmann and of Greeff, and
maintains that as a rule the digestive and body cavity in the
Infusoria are confounded into a single gastrovascular system.

Independently, however, of the untenableness of the concep-
tion of a united digestive and body cavity, it does not appear to
me that Balbiani makes out any case against the unicellularity of
the Infusoria. He admits that except in the pharyngeal and
anal portion there is no evidence of a differentiated wall in his
so-called digestive canal, and even though it be conceded that
the middle portion of this canal constitutes a permanent cavity
in the parenchyma, it would not differ essentially from other
lacunae permanently present in the protoplasm of many un-

doubtedly unicellular organisms. It has been already remarked
that a communication between these lacunoc and the external
medium is paralleled in many simple cells, and these external
communications in Didinium present no feature essentially
different

The phaiynx appears to be bounded by an inflection of the
cortical layer, and I believe we may regard the rod-like cor-
puscles here present as a pecuUar modification of the trichocysts
which in many other Infusoria are developed in the cortical layer
of the body. The projectile tongue-like organ is one of the
most remarkable features of Didinium ; we must know more,
however, than Balbiani has told us of it, before we can decide
on its real import. It is not improbably a pseudopodial exten-
sion of the protoplasm.

Balbiani has followed the Didinium through the process of
transverse fission. This is preceded by the formation of two
new wreaths of cilia, between which the constriction and division
takes place, each half previously to actual separation developing
within it such parts as it had lost in the act of division. The
only part which in this act becomes divided between the two
resulting animals is the nucleus. The so-called nucleolus was
not seen by Balbiani, and though he observed two individuals in
conjugation by their opposed oral surfaces, he never witnessed
anything like the formation of eggs or embryos.

I believe I have now laid before you the principal additions
which during the last few years have been made to our knowledge
of the Infusoria. But though it will be seen that the labourers
in the special field of microscopical research, to which I have
confined this address, have been neither few nor deficient in
activity, it must not be imagined that the subject has been ex-
hausted, or that many questions, more especially such as relate to
development, do not yet await Ae results of future investigations
for their solution.

PRIZES OF THE FRENCH ACADEMY
AS our readers are aware, the Paris Academy of Science*
■^ holds at the end of December each year a solemn meeting
for hearing eloges of the departed members, and deliver-
ing' prizes to the most deserving essayists. But owing to the
calamity of the war the prizes for 1873 were distributed in the
end of 1874, and the prizes for 1874 remained undistributed.
An extraordinary solemnity was celebrated on June 21, for the
distribution of the 1874 prizes, and henceforth we hope nothing
will prevent the Academy fulfilling its yearly duties with punc
tuality. M. Bertrand, the new perpetual secretary, read an
essay on the life and works of M. £lie de Beaumont, his prede-
cessor in the office. Since Abbe Duhamel, the first of these
perpetual secretaries, died, this has been the constant practice.
So Abbe Duhamel was praised by Fontenelle, Fontenelle by
Fouchy, Fouchy by Condorcet, &c. &c. But M. I^lie de Beau-
mont did not produce any iloge on Arago ; it will be the next
duty M. Bertrand will have to perform, and a very attractive one
it is. The following are the results of last year's competition as
announced at the meeting : —

1. Grand Prize in the Mathematical Sciences for a Mathe-
matical Theory of the Flight of Birds was not awarded,
though 2,GOO francs were given to M. Penaud, the author of one
of the memoirs, and an "encouragement" of 1,000 francs to
the two authors of another memoir, MM. Hureau de Villeneuve
and Croce-Spinelli.

2. This was also the case with the Grand Prize in the Physical
Sciences, the subject being Fecundation in Mushrooms. The
value of the prize was, however, divided between the authors of
two memoirs, viz., MM. Maxime Comu and Ernest Rose, and
M. Sicard.

3. The Poncelet Prize in Mechanics was awarded to M.
Bresse, Engineer-in-chief des Ponts et Chaussees, for his work
entitled " Cours de Mecanique Appliquee," and particularly for
the great progress shown in the part devoted to the resistance of
materials.

4. The Montyon Prize in Mechanics to M. Peaucellier,
Lieutenant- Colonel of Engineers, for his researches on the trans-
formation of alternate rectilineal motion into alternate circular
motion.

5. The Plumey Prize to M. Joseph Farcot for his setvo-moteur,
or moteur-asservi, an apparatus which renders the action of the
rudder more certain and more easy.

6. The Lalande Prize in Astronomy is a sextuple one, and
was divided among MM. Mouchez, Bouquet de la Grye,

178

NATURE

SJuly I, 1875

Fleuriais, Andre, Hcraud, and Tisserand, as a reward for their
observations of the Transit of Venus.

7. The Montyon Prize in Statistics'was awarded to M. de
Kertanguy, and honourable mention was made of MM. de St.
Genis and Loua.

8. The Jecker Prize was divided into two, 3,000 francs being
awarded to Prof. Reboul of Besan9on for his work on the Ethers
of Glycide and on the Hydrocarburets ; and 2,000 francs to M.
Bouchardat for his researches on the Ethers of Mannite and of
Dulcite.

9. The Desmazieres Prize was awarded to M. J. de Seynes for
his study of many cryptogamic plants belonging to the genus
Fistulina, and especially of F. hepatica,

10. The Fons Mehcoq Prize was divided by way of encourage-
ment between M. Galley, author of a catalogue of vascular
plants of the Department of Ardennes, and MM. Eloi de Vicq
and Blondin de Brutelette, authors of a Catalogue Raisonne of
vascular plants of the Somme.

11. The Thore Prize in Anatomy and Zoology, to M. Auguste
Forel for his work " Les Fourmis de la Suisse."

12. The Breant Prize of 100,000 francs always offered for the
treatment of cholera was not awarded. A reward of 3, 500 francs
was accorded to M. Ch. Pellarin for his studies on the character
and modes of transmission of cholera. For similar studies a
reward of 1,500 francs was given to M. Armieux.

13. The Montyon Prize in Medicine and Surgery was divided
as follows :— 2,400 francs each to MM. Dieulafoy, Melassez,
and Mehu : honourable mention and 1,000 francs to MM.
Beranger-Feraud, Letievant, and Peter.

14. Two Montyon Prizes of equal value,' in Experimental
Physiology, were awarded, one to MM. Arloing and Tripier
for their experimental research on the conditions of persistence
and sensibility in the peripherical end of divided nerves ; and the
other to M. Sabatier for his studies on the, heart and the central
circulation in the Vertebrata.

15. The proceeds of the Tremont Prize for 1873-4-5 were
awarded to Prof. Achille Cazin.

16. The Gegner Prize was given to M.'Gaugain to aid him in
his researches in electricity and magnetism.

1 7. The Laplace Prize, consisting of a collection of the works
of Laplace, was bestowed upon M. Badoureau, pupil of the
first rank, 1874, in the Ecole Poly technique, and student in
the Ecole des Mines.

Several prizes were not awarded.

The following are the subjects proposed for the next competi-
tion : —

1. Grand Prize in the Mathematical Sciences for 1876 : — To
deduce from a new and thorough examination of ancient observa-
tions of eclipses the value of the apparent secular acceleration of
the mean movement of the moon ; to fix the limits of exact-
ness which the determination bears. Value of the prize, 3,000
francs.

2. Another Grand Prize of the same value in the Mathe-
matical Prizes for 1876: — Theory of the singular solutions of
equations for; partial derivatives of the first order.

3. Grand Prize of 3,000 francs in the Mathematical Sciences
for 1877: — Application of the theory of elliptic or Abelian
transcendentals to the study of algebraic curves.

4. Grand Prize of 3,000 francs in the Physical Sciences for
1876: — To investigate the changes which take place in the
internal organs of insects during complete metamorphosis.

5. Another Grand Prize of 3,000 francs in the Physical
Sciences for 1876 : — Investigation into the mode of distribution
of marine animals on the coast of France.

6. Grand Prize of 3,000 francs in the Physical Sciences for
1877 : — Comparative study of the internal organisation of
various Edraiophthalmous Crustaceans which inhabit the Euro-
pean seas.

7. Extraordinary Prize of 6,000 francs on the application of
steam to war->ships.

8. The Poncelet Prize (annual), intended to reward the work
most useful to the progress of the mathematical sciences, pure or
applied, which will have been published during the last ten
years. Value 2,000 francs, with a copy of the complete works
of Poncelet.

9. The Montyon Prize (annual) of 427 francs :— Agricultural
or Industrial Mechanics.

10. The Plumey Prize (aimual) of 2,500 francs : — Improve-
ments in steam-engines.

11. The Dalmont Prize (triennial) of 3,000 francs, to be

awarded in 1876, is confined to engineers "des ponts et
chaussees."

12. The Bordin Prize of 3,000 francs : — To find a means of
doing away with, or at least of seriously diminishing the incon-
venience and the dangers which arise from the products of
combustion issuing from the chimneys of railway - engines
and of steamboats, as well as in towns from the proximity of
furnaces.

13. The Lalande Prize (annual) of 542 francs is offered to the
work most useful to Astronomy.

14. The Damoiseau Prize (the value not indicated) : — To
review the theory of the Satellites of Jupiter ; to examine the
observations and deduce from them constants, particularly that
relative to the speed of light ; finally, to ^ construct special
tables for each satellite.

15. Vaillant Prize (biennial) of 4,000 francs, to be awarded in
1877, to the best work on the planetoids.

16. The Valz Prize (annual) of about 500 francs, to be
awarded in 1877 to the author of the best charts relating to the
region of the invariable plane of the solar system.

17. The Bordin Prize of 3,000 francs: — To determine the
temperature of the solar surface.

18. The Montyon Prize (annual) of 453 francs : — Statistics ot
France.

19. One or more Jecker Prizes (annual) for works on Organic
Chemistry.

20. The Barbier Prize (annual) of 2,000 francs, for a medical,
surgical, or pharmaceutical discovery.

21. The Alhumbert Prize of 2,500 francs, to be awarded in
1876 : — The method of nutrition of mushrooms.

22. The Desmazieres Prize (annual) of 1,600 francs, for the
best work on cryptogamy, published in the year which precedes
that of the competition.

23. The Fons Melicocq Prize (triennial) of 900 francs, to be
awarded in 1877 to the author of the best botanical work on the
North of France.

24. The Thore Prize (annual) of 300 francs, intended to reward
alternatively researches on the cellular cryptogams of Europe,
or on the habits and anatomy of an insect.

25. The Bordin Prize of 1876, of 3,000 francs : — To study
comparatively the structure of the teguments of the seed in
angiospermous and gymnospermous plants.

26. Another Bordin Prize for 1877, of 3,000 francs : — To
study comparatively the structure and the development of the
organs of vegetation in the Lycopodiaceas,

27. The Morogues Prize (quinquennial), value not indicated,
to be awarded to the author ot the best work on Agriculture.

28. The Savigny Prize of about 1,000 francs is intended to
reward a young zoological traveller.

29. The Breant Prize of 100,000 francs, offered to whoever
discovers the means of preventing Asiatic cholera or the causes
of that malady.

30. Montyon Prizes (annual) in Medicine and Surgery.

31. Serres Prize (triennial) of 7,500 francs, for the best work
on general embryogeny applied as far as possible to physiology
and medicine,

32. Godard Prize (annual) of 1,000 francs, for the best memoir
on the anatomy, physiology, or pathology of the genito-urinary
organs.

33. Montyon Prize (annual) of 764 francs, in experimental
physiology.

34. One or more Montyon Prizes (annual) in the industrial
arts.

35. Tremont Prize (armual) of i, loo francs, intended to en-
courage any savant, artiste, or mechanician who may be thought
worthy.

36. The Geger Prize (annual) of 4,000 francs, " to support
a poor savant who has signahsed himself by important re-
searches."

37. The Cuvier Prize (triennial) of 1,500 francs will be
awarded in 1876 to the best work on the animal kingdom or on
geology which will have appeared in the years 1873-75.

38. The Delalande-Guerineau Prize (biennial) of 1,000 francs,
to be awarded in 1 876 to the French traveller or savant who
will have rendered the best services to France or to science.

39. The Laplace Prize (annual), consisting of a collection of
the , complete works of Laplace, to the'pupil of first^rank leaving
the Ecole Polytechnique.

The limit for the competitions for the above prizes is the 1st
of Jime of the year in which the prize is to be awarded.

July I, 1875]

NATURE

179

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
London

Linnean Society, June 17. — Dr. G. J. Allman, F.R. S.,
president, in the chair. — Mr. J." E, Howard, F.R.S., made
some observations on Cinchoua anglica, a hybrid between C.
Calisaya anA C. si4cdru/»a.^Y)v. Pryor exhibited specimens of
Myrsiru- Urvillei, from New Zealand, which appeared to be hardy
in this country. — The following papeis were read: — i.On the
affinities and febrifuge properties of the Aristolochiacea;, by Mr.
Clark. - 2. On Whitfieldia, by Mr. S. Moore. — 3. On the anatomy
o( AtnpJiioxus, by Prof. E. R. Lankester, F. R.S. The author
described the anatomy of .-^. lanceolatiis as worked out in a series of
sections made from numerous specimens collected by him at
Naples. In opposition to Stieda, the truly perforate structure of
the pharynx was asserted. A true body cavity or coelom, distinct
from the atrial chamber, was described, and it was shown to ex-
pand and attain a large development in the post-atrioporal region
of the body. A pair of pigmented canals were described, apparently
representing the vertebrate renal organ in a degenerate or else a
rudimentary condition. Johannes Midler's pores of the lateral
canals were shown to be hyoid slits leading into the pharynx.
The attachment of the pharyngeal bars to the wall of the atrium
by a series of pharyngo-pleural septa was minutely described.
It was further shown that the marginal ridges of the ventral sur-
face (metapleura) are hollow, containing a lymph-space, and
that they, as well as the plates of the ventral integuments, disap-
pear when the atrial chamber is largely distended with the
sexual products. Drawings by Mr. W. J. Fanning, of Exeter
College, were exhiLited in illustration of the above statements.

Physical Society, June 26. — Prof. G. C. Foster, vice-presi-
dent, in the chair. — ^Ir. W. J. Wilson read a paper on a method
of measuring electrical resistance of liquids. Great difficulty has
hitherto been experienced in measuring the resistance of electro-
lytes on account of the polarisation of the electrodes, and most
of the methods hitherto employed have aimed at reducing this
to a minimum by using large electrodes and very weak or rapidly
alternating currents. The determinations, however, are difficult
and require to be quickly performed. The following method is
easy and is free from both the above objections. The arrange-
ment in its most simple form consists of a long narrow trough
filled with the liqnid to be measured, say dilute acid. A porous
pot containing a zinc plate in sulphate of zinc being placed in
the acid at one end of the trough, and a similar pot with a
copper plate in sulphate of copper in the acid at the other end,
the whole arrangement forms a sort of elongated Daniell's cell,
the chief resistance of which is in the long column of acid. The
circuit between the plates being completed through a resistance
box and mirror galvanometer, the current is shunted until a
suitable deflection is obtained. One of the porous pots is now
moved along the trough towards the other, and, as the resistance
of the circuit is thus reduced by shortening the column of acid,
the galvanometer deflection largely increases. The external
resistance is now increased by means of the box, until the deflec-
tion is reduced to the same point as at first. This resistance put
into the circuit is evidently equal to that of the liquid taken out,
and thus a measure of the liquid resistance is obtained. Two
forms of apparatus were shown. In one, the vessels containing
sulphate of zinc and sulphate of copper respectively, formed
pistons in a glass tube which contained the liquid to be examined.
In the other, two pairs of concentric vessels were connected by
a bent glass tube which contained the liquid under examination.
The method is applicable to a great variety of liquids, and with
care almost any degree of accuracy may be obtained. The chief
obstacle to exact measurements lies in the fact that the resistance
of liquids is greatly affected by temperature, but this difficulty is,
of course, common to all methods. Mr. Wilson has been expe-
rimenting with brine, and gave some of the results obtained, but
he has not as yet made a sufficient number of experiments to
complete a table. A mode of arranging the apparatus in a dif-
ferential or bridge form was also described, but it has not been
found necessary to use it ; the simple circuit arrangement giving
accurate results with less trouble. Prof. Foster asked whether
experiments had been made in order to compare this method
with Wheatstone's, which differed from Mr. Wilson's, as liquid
electrodes were not used. He then described an arrangement
he had adopted for measuring the polarisation of plates in a
voltameter. Prof M'Leod stated that he had used plates of
amalgamated zinc and reversed currents to overcome polarisation.
He found that some salts, chloride of zinc for instance, had points

of maximum conductivity which corresponded to a definite degree
of concentration. Prof. Guthrie considered the research to be
interesting as showing that points of minimum resistance might
coincide with points of definite hydration of the salts. — Mr.
Wilson, replying to Prof. Foster, stated tha tthe chief objection
to the use of metal plates is not a variation of the electromotive
force of polarisation, but the accumulation of bubbles of
gas on the metallic surfiices.— Dr. Stone made a communication
on the subjective phenomena of taste. He stated that some
experirnents he had recently made led him to consider whether
there might be " complementary taste," just as there is "comple-
mentary sight." He described the following experiments as
examples of the kind of phenomenon. If water be placed in
the mouth after the back of the tongue has been moistened with
moderately dilute nitric acid, the water will have a distinctly
saccharine taste. Or if the wires from a lo-cell Grove's battery
be covered with moist sponge, and placed one on the forehead
and the other at the back of the neck, an impression is produced
which is exactly similar to that resulting from the insertion of
the tongue between a silver and a copper coin, the edges of which
are in contact. Dr. Stone showed that the induced current
usually employed for medical purposes has not this effect, and
he considered the results curious, as, so far as we know, they can
hardly be the result of chemical action. Mr. Roberts mentioned
an instance in which sudden alarm had been followed by the
peculiar taste which results from the introduction of two coins
into the mouth, to which allusion had already been made. — Prof.
Foster thanked Dr. Stone in the name of the Society, and
expressed a hope that he would continue his suggestive and im-
portant experiments. — Four other communication:, were made,
of which abstracts will be given in a future number.

Entomological Society, June 7.— Sir Sidney S. Saunders,
C.M.G., president, in the chair. — Mr. Briggs exhibited some bred
specimens of Zyqana vuliloti, bearing a strong resemblance to Z.
trifolii, and mentioned several in.^tances in which the offspring of
Z. /«^/i7c>/i exhibited a taint of trifolii h\oo6i, and suggesting that
Z. fueliloti might be only a stunted variety.— Mr. M'Lachlan exhi-
bited a portion of a vine-leaf on which were galls of Phylloxera
vastairix, the leaf having been plucked in a greenhouse near
London. — The Rev. A. E. Eaton exhibited the insects which he
had recently captured in Kerguelen's Island. There were about
a dozen species belonging to the Coleopiera, Lepidoptera, and
Diptera, besides some specimens of bird-lice and fleas. They
were all either apterous or the wings were more or less rudi-
mentary. One of the Diptera possessed neither wings nor
halter es. — Mr. Briggs exhibited a specimen oi Halias prasinaua,
which, when taken, was heard to squeak several times distinctly,
and at the same time a slender filament projected from beneath
the abdomen was observed to be in rapid motion, and two small
spiracles close to the filament were distinctly dilated. — The
President called attention to a larva which he had recently dis-
covered at Reigate in the body of a stylopised female of Andrena
tnmmerana, the larva having a long telescopic process at the
anterior extremity, and two reniform processes behind, similar to
Conops, an insect which had frequently been reared from Poni'
piliis, Sphex, and Odyiterus, and had also been met with in
Bombus, although he had never before heard of its being found
in Andrena. — The Secretary exhibited some specimens of a
minute Podura forwarded to him by the Secretary of the Royal
Microscopical Society, having been found on the snow of the
Sierra Nevada in California. — Mr. F. H, Ward exhibited some
microscopic slides showing specimens of a flea attached to the
skin of the neck of a fowl. — Prof Westwood communicated a
description of a new genus of Clerideous Coleoptera from the
Malay Archipelago. — Mr. M'Lachlan read a paper entitled "A
sketch of our present knowledge of the Neuropterous Fauna of
Japan (excluding the Odonata and Irichoptera),"

Berlin
German Chemical Society, June 14. — A. W. Hofmann,
president, in the chair. — The President opened the proceedings
by informing the Society that their veteran honorary member.
Prof. Wbhler, had very kindly written some recollections of his
li.'e for the special purpose of being read to the meeting ; refusing,
however, their publication in the Proceedings of the Society.
The tollowing short extracts of these " recollections of an old
chemist " will give some idea of the interest attending the
MS. read by the President. On the 2nd of September, 1823,
Dr. Wohler had finished his ftiedical. studies at Heidelberg,
and, yielding to the advice of L. Gmelin, he abandoned the plan

i8o

NATURE

{July I, 1875

of practising jnedicine, took up chemistry as the aim of his
life, and repaired to Stockholm as a pupil of Berzelius. Choosing
the route from Liibeck by sea, he was obliged to wait six
weeks for the departure of a boat. The tedious stay in that
harbour was shortened through the acquaintance of a mineral
dealer already known to Wohler from the Frankfort fair, where
he had exchanged hyaliths for other minerals, and where Wohler
had met Goethe bent upon a similar errand. He also made the
acquaintance of a pharmaceutical chemist, Mr. Kind, at Liibeck,
and with him prepared potassium in quantities hitherto unknown
in Germany, and which, later on, Berzelius made use of in his
studies of boron and silicium. Arriving after a stormy passage,
he managed to find his way, by the aid of a Swedish student,
with whom lie had to talk Latin, the only language they had in
common. He trembled almost at the first interview with the
celebrated chemist, but was soon put at ease by his genial
manner. Berzelius's laboratory was of the simplest. It consisted
of two bare rooms and of a kitchen, which served at the same
lime for cooking the meals of the bachelor-household. This
was the time when Berzelius had just adopted the chlorine
theory. An old maiden cook who reigned supreme at the
hearth complaining one day of the smell of * ' oxidised muriatic
acid," Berzelius exclaimed, smiling, " There is no longer any
oxymuriatic acid, Anna ; you must say it smells very badly
of chlorine." To try his pupil's patience, he put him to the
analysis of lievriete, demanding great exactness. When the
analysis did not come up to the mark, he said : "Doctor, that
was quick, but bad," But soon he took the greatest interest in
his pupil's researches on cyanic acid, for which the ferrocyanide
of potassium had to be sent for from Liibeek. Berzelius kept
his simplicity in his intercourse with the courtiers who sometimes
visited the laboratory, and for whom some interesting experi-
ments had to be performed. He was an excellent narrator, and
Wohler listened with the greatest interest to his recollections of
Gay Lussac and of Sir Humphry Davy. Wohler passed a very
busy winter, spending his evenings in translating Berzelius'
annual reports and Hisinger's treatise on mineralogy. When the
spring came he enjoyed walks in the beautiful neighbourhood of
Stockholm, studded with the last oaks of the northern zone, and
he became intimately acquainted with the Swedish philosophers
Caro, Mosander, Retzius, Arfvedson, Hisinger, and others who
have now all left the scene of life. At last the time arrived
when he had to take his departure from Sweden, and he did so,
accompanied by Berzelius himself, who had invited him to take
a journey through Sweden and Norway. Many mineral trea-
sures were collected on the road, and the great mines and indus-
trial establishments were visited. At Helsingborg the travellers
stopped for several days to wait for the arrivai of .Brogniart,
iather and son, the French geologists, and of Sir Humphry
i3avy. The latter was then salmon-fishing in Norway, and
announced his arrival to Berzelius in a letter commencing, "My
dear sir and very honoured brother in science." He had some
kind and encouraging words for young Wohler, not forgotten by
the latter in his celebrity and his old age. Sir Humphry soon
left for Copenhagen, where he had an engagement to shoot
snipe with Forchhammer. Oerstedt arrived also to pay Berze-
lius his respects, and so did several professors from the neigh-
bouring university of Lund. In fact, Berzelius's celebrity was
so great that an official in the passport office refused to take any
fee from the pupil who had come to study under such a master.
Messrs. Brogniart had taken their comfortable travelling carriage
over from Paris. Their comfort, however, was disturbed by the
arrival of a French courier, the bearer, as they feared, of news of
Louis XVIII. 's death. Putting the question to the courier, they
received the answer, " Messieurs, vous savez, qu'un courier doit
etre aveugle, sourd et muet." The journey to Norway was con-
tinued in common, the elder Brogniart and Berzelius occupying
the carriage of the former, Wohler and the younger Brogniart
following in Berzelius's carriage. They often had to stop all
night in their carriages ; for it so happened that the Crown
Prince preceded them on their road with a numerous suite, and
the inns were overcrowded. We cannot enter into the details of
this interesting journey. When it came to a close at Helsing-
borg, Wohler had to take leave of his master, and the feelings
of regret were mutual and deep. Translating Berzelius's reports
and his handbooks became henceforth a duty to Wohler, by
which, regardless of the time it demanded, he tried to repay a
debt of gratitude. The meeting sent a vote of thanks to the
great and modest author of these recollections, praying for his
permission to print them in the Society's Reports ; and your corre
spondent hopes he may be forgiven any indiscretion he has l>een

guilty of in preserving for the scientific world these short extracts.
— Th. Zoeller and E. A. Grothe have introduced xanthogenate
of sodium as a remedy for Phylloxera. Compared with the

sulfocarbonate of sodium, it deserves the preference. CS o-vr^

IS easily transferred into CSj and HSg, the former killing the
Phylloxera, while the latter gas injures the vine : but xanthoge-

SC H
nate of sodium, CS r\^ ®, cannot produce hydrosulphuric acid,

and appears to be by far the better remedy of the two, as well
as the cheaper one. — S. Reymann proposes the following way
of determining the amount of orcine contained in lichens. Bro-
mine-water of known strength is added to the solution, pro-
ducing iribromorcine, C7ll5ljr;j02, until the solution has a per-
manent smell of bromine. Iodide of potassium is then added,
and the amount of iodine set free (corresponding to the excess of
bromine added) is determined by volumetric analysis. — The same
chemist described an easy method of determining the quantity
of bromoform contained in commercial bromine. — E. Donath
described a method of extracting from yeast a substance inverting
cane-sugar, and called by him invertine. — E. Zuercher has
found bromonitrorcthan to be transformed by nitrite of potas-
sium and alcoholic potash into yellow needles of potassic dinitro-
rethan :

CH3 CH3

I -f KNO., -h KOH - I + KBr -j- H^O.

CH(N02)Br " CH(N02)2K

The substance resembles the corresponding picrate. The acid is
an oily liquid.— E. Forst and Th. Zincke have oxidised the
two isomeric glycols, hydrobenzoine and isohydrobenzoine,
Ci4Hj2(OH)2. Both yield benzoic aldehyde. The authors try to
explain the identity of these reactions by constitutional formula;.
— F. Tieftrunk exhibited specimens of gas-tight membranes,
invented by Mr. Schiilke, and used for a new system of dry-
meters by Mr. S. Elster in Berlin. The membranes are not
acted upon by hydrocarbons, sulphuret of carbon, or ammonia,
and form a much better material for dry-meters than leather.
Mr. Tieftrunk demonstrated another application of this inven-
tion, consisting in a gas-burner yielding a constant flame. An
air-bath heated with this burner did not vary in temperature
more than one degree during six hours.

BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

British. — Differential and Integral Calculus : C. P. Buckingham
(Triibncr and Co ) — Italian Alps : Douglas A. Freshfield (Longmans). — An
Analysis of the Lite Form in Art : Dr. Harrison Allen (Triibner and Co.) —
Nuragghi Sardi and other non-historic Stone Structures of the Mediter-
ranean Basin: CapL S. Pasfield Oliver, R. A., F.S.A , F.R.G..S. (Dublin,
Carson Bros.)— Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1874-75.

CONTENTS Page

Sir William Edmond Logan. By Prof. Arch. Geikie, F.R.S. . . 161
Trevandrum Magnetic Observations. By Prof. B. Stewart,

F.R.S 1G3

Our Book Shblf:—

Martineaa's " Chapters on Sound " J 165

Letters to the Editor : —

On th» Temperature of the Human Body during Mountain Climb-
ing.— Prof. T. E. Thorpe 165

Arctic Marine Vegetation. — Wm. H. Dall 166

South American Earthquakes. — W. G. Palgrave 167

Glacier and other Ice. — Josbph John Murphy 167

The House-fly. — Rev. D. Edwardes 167

Our Astronomical Column : —

An Ancient " Uranometria " 167

The "Black Saturday " Eclipse, 1598, March 7 167

D'Arrest's Comet 168

The Minor Planets i63

On the Plagiograph alHer the Skew Pantigraph. By Dr. J. J.

Sylvester, F.R.S. (ffz/A ///«j/ra/'2V)«f) 16S

Science in Germany 168

Magneto-Electric Machines, III. By Dr. Andrews, F.R.S. {Wilk

IUustraiions)\ 170

Tub Government Eclipse Expedition to Siam. By Frank

Edw. Lott 172

Notes 173

Recent Progress in our Knowlrdge of the Ciliate Infusoria,

III. By Dr. G. J. Allman, F.R.S 175

Prizes of the French Academy 177

Societies and Academies 179

liooKS and Pamphlets Received . w . iSo

NATURE

i8i

THURSDAY, JULY 8, 187S

HOLLAND'S ''FRAGMENTARY PAPERS''
Fraomentmy Papers on Science and other Subjects. By
the late Sir Henry Holland, Bart. Edited by his Son,
Rev. Francis J. Holland. (London : Longmans, 1875.)

IT is impossible not to be struck with the width of
knowledge, the balance of intellect, and the true
wisdom shown in the posthumous writings of the late
Sir Henry Holland. This distinguished physician was
born as long ago as 1788, when many of the most exten-
sive and important sciences — Chemistry, Electricity,
Heat, Geology, and others — could hardly be said to
exist. Yet we find in these papers that he was fully
alive to discoveries which were quite recently made. Not
only does he appear to have accepted the Evolution
Philosophy in a thorough-going manner, and to have
ncquired a perfect comprehension of its bearings and
results, but the latest discoveries in each branch of
physical science were familiar to him, and duly con-
sidered in retouching his papers for the last time.
Writing in 1873 at the age of eighty-five, he naively
remarks that it would be impossible at his age to re-write
the whole of his essays so as to bring them up completely
to the present day. He therefore proposed to select
what was most suitable for publication, making such
additions as were suggested by the recent progress of
research.

The essays, as now published, range over most of the
physical and moral sciences, and touch upon theology.
The Plurality of Worlds, Creative Power, Matter and
Force, Divisibility of Matter, the Nature of Electricity,
Animal Instincts, the Perfectibility of Man, Infinity,
Eternity, Materialism, Scepticism, Subjective Functions
of the Eye, Sleep and Dreams, — such are only a part of
the topics upon which he discourses. It is, of course, out
of the question that an old man writing between the
seventieth and eighty-fifth year of his age could give much
that is original and novel upon such a wide range of
subjects. Of this he must have been fully conscious, and
his object appears rather to have been to sum up the
results of the progress of science as he had witnessed that
progress, and to point out how far it had really gone in
comparison with the possible sphere of discovery. His
principal conclusion is, that no efforts of scientific men
have yet, or indeed ever can, penetrate the mysteries of
existence. His favourite expression is that of Laplace :
" Notre ignorance est immense."

He more fully states his convictions in the following
words :—

" The horizon of our knowledge continually, though un-
equally, expands — obscure in its boundary on every side,
and ultimately defined by limits impassable to human
reason. One man by genius or happy accident may
press more closely than another towards this horizon ;
but the ultimate limit is the same to all, involving those
mysteries of matter, force, and creative or governmental
power, to which all other problems are subordinate."

One of the most original and interesting essays is that

in which Sir Henry Holland treats of " mental operations

in relation to time." The same subject had, indeed, been

discussed in two chapters of his " Mental Physiology,"

Vol. XII.— No. 297

and he had shown how many striking illustrations of the
relations of states of mind in succession, one to the other,
may be discovered. He wished to see carried out an
experimental inquiry into the chronometry of mind, by
observing the velocity with which trains of ideas can be
made to move through the mind in various circumstances .
The following is an example of the kind of self-experiment
which Sir Henry tried (p. 106) : —

" Within a minute I have been able to coerce the mind,
so to speak, into more than a dozen acts or states of
thought, so incongruous that no natural association could
possibly bring them into succession. In illustration I
note here certain objects which, with a watch before me,
I have just succeeded in compressing, distinctly and
successively, within thirty seconds of time — the pyramids
of Ghizeh, the Ornithorhynchus, Julius Cccsar, the Ottawa
Falls, the rings of Saturn, the Apollo Belvedere. This is
an experiment I have often made on myself, and with the
same general result. It would be hard to name or
describe the operation of mind by which these successive
objects have been thus suddenly evoked and dismissed.
There is the vohtion to change ; but how must we define
that effort by which the mind, without any principle of
selection or association, can grasp so rapidly a succession
of images thus incongruous, drawn seemingly at random
from past thoughts and memories .'' I call it an ejjort,
because it is felt as such, and cannot be long continued
without fatigue."

This is a curious subject which easily admits of experi-
ment ; but it will be found that the velocity with which
thoughts can be made to ; succeed each other depends
entirely upon the degree of similarity or connection
between them. Judging from my own experience and
that of three students, well qualified to test the matter, I
find that where the objects thought of are as incongruous
as possible, the number which the mind can suggest to
itself in a minute varies from twelve, the result of Sir
Henry Holland, up to about twenty. Anyone who tries
the experiment, however, will find that there is an almost
insuperable temptation to go off on lines of association.
To avoid these and yet to think rapidly, requires a very
disagreeable effort, becoming more and more painful by
repetition.

When the thoughts are restricted within certain grooves,
as it were, the result is more rapid succession. Thus one
student was able to think in a minute of thirty different
kinds of actions, forty-six animals, fifty places, or fifty
persons. I can myselt think without much effort of
thirty-two animals, or forty persons or places in a
minute. Even in these cases, however, it will be found
that the rapidity greatly depends upon the degree in which
the objects have been associated. When thoughts have
been very closely and frequently linked together, the
number which may be compressed within a minute is
much greater. I find that I can count about ninety-six in
half a minute, which, without allowing for the two places
of figures, gives 192 thoughts per minute. I can think of
every letter in the alphabet in five seconds at most, which
is at the rate of more than 300 per minute. Finally, by
counting the first ten numbers over and over again, I
have compressed nearly 400 changes of idea within the
minute. Thus it may be said that the facility of mental
action varies something like forty-fold, according to the
degree of previous association between the ideas.

Little has hitherto been done to investigate the action
of mind systematically, but there is little doubt that by

l82

NATURE

\_7uly 8, 1875

following up the hints given by Sir Henry Holland, Prof.
Wendell Holmes, and some others, useful results might
be obtained. It is difficult to help agreeing with Sir
Henry when he remarks that the opinions of Comte on
this subject are a sheer paradox (p. 97). Comte strangely
denied the competence of consciousness as an interpreter
of mental functions. It may perhaps be allowed that
consciousness has not been happily investigated hitherto,
but it would be wholly premature to assert that it is
incapable of scientific investigation,

W. Stanley Jevons

URE'S ''DICTIONARY OF ARTS"
Ur^s Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines. By
Robert Hunt, FR.S., Keeper of Mining Records, &c.,
&c., assisted by F, W. Rudler, F.G.S., and by numerous
contributors eminent in science and familiar with
manufactures. Seventh edition, in three volumes.
(London : Longmans, 1875.)

THIS well-known work, of which the seventh edition
is now before us, first made its appearance in the
past generation. During the life-time of its original
projector and editor, Dr. Andrew Ure, it undoubtedly
contributed largely to advance the education and progress
of our manufacturing and industrial classes, and well-
thumbed copies of it are to be found on the library shelves
of all the " Mechanics' Institutions " which the educa-
tional revival of thirty years ago scattered over the land.

We find from the preface that since 1858, when the
present editor took charge of the work, three editions,
including the present, have appeared, so that its reputa-
tion as a standard work of reference appears to be still
maintained.

In the volumes now before us, there are, as might be
expected, great differences from the edition which pre-
ceded them, many new industries having arisen, while
others, if they have not altogether disappeared, have at
least lost much of their importance. The alterations thus
arising have overpassed the space left available by the
curtailment and omission of some of the articles which
had lost their value, and have increased the size of the
work to a total of 3,255 pages for the three volumes.
Although a long list of contributors succeeds the preface,
we imagine that the burden of the major part of this
increase must have fallen on the two editors, and^it is
therefore with considerable pleasure that we congratulate
them on the thorough manner in which the revision has
been effected, and the very full and complete information
given in nearly all cases. We must not, perhaps, com-
plain if "the information given in such articles as "AH.
zarine " and " Aniline " is not very full, since the complete
knowledge of the actual methods of production em-
ployed in these and in other cases of chemical manufacture
are in the possession of persons whose interest it is not
to be very explicit in matters involving manufacturing
secrets. While, however, the editors are to be praised for
keeping the articles abreast of the time in other respects,
we cannot agree with them that it is good policy to retain,
as they have done, the old equivalentic formulae beside the
atomic ones which are now, and have been for years
past, in such general use as to justify the exclusion of the
former altogether, as has been done in every other work

on chemical subjects printed within the last five years.
The acquisition of the modern views and system of
formulas is really so simple a matter that there is no
justification for its not being made by everyone interested
in the science, and the retention of both forms tends to
confuse young workers while conferring at best a doubt-
ful benefit upon those who, having learnt the older form,
are not made to feel the necessity of learning the newer.

As may be supposed from the names of the editors,
the parts relating to mining and metallurgy are extremely
full of valuable information, and we notice particularly an
article on coal-cutting machines, one on safety apparatus
for mines, and one on mine-ventilation, as deserving
attention. Much information is given on printing, and
the mixed chemical and mechanical art of calico printing
is most exhaustively treated. In the article on the soda
manufacture, a good sketch of Schloesing and Rolland's
process is given. The explanation of the devitrifica-
tion of glass, given in vol. ii. p. 647, is, however, only pro-
bably true in a limited number of cases, in many the
change being molecular only, and not involving the for-
mation of definite silicates.

The articIe]i|on coal-gas is particularly full and well
written ; but in fact this may be said of so many of the
subjects treated that it becomes an invidious task to
attempt to point out the shortcomings which are in some
cases unavoidable in a work of this magnitude, while it is
a pleasant one to congratulate Messrs. Hunt and Rudler
on the care and ability bestowed on a task of great diffi-
culty. We have only to add that the type of the work
has been entirely reset, and the titles of the articles
printed in a bold type which renders reference easy.

R. J. F.

DRUMMOND'S ''LARGE GAME OF SOUTH
AFRICA "

The Large Game and Natural History of South and
South-east Africa. From the Journals of the Hon. W.
H. Drummond, (Edinburgh : Edmonston and Douglas,
1875.)

THE countries of Amazulu, Amatonga, and Amaswazi
form the tract of land bounded on the south by Natal,
and on the west by the Transvaal Republic. These were
the scenes of Mr. Drummond's experiences, which, he
teUs us, extended over a period of some five years, ending
in 1872. He candidly admits that his knowledge of
Natural History as a science is little or nothing, in con-
sequence of which all reference to questions bearing on
the subject are omitted, except those which have come
within his personal knowledge. Such being the case, we
think that we cannot do better than make an attempt to
summarise the direct information which the author places
before us on those biological questions which are in any
way referred to, leaving the discussion of the many
valuable observations on sport in general to con-
temporaries who are in the habit of keeping those
subjects in constant view.

Of the nine chapters which constitute the work, the
first six treat of the buffalo, rhinoceros, eland, elephant,
lion, and leopard ; the remaining three being devoted to
anecdotes connected with dogs, antelopes, and game
birds.

7uly%, 1875J

NATURE

183

Respecting the first of these animals, the statement
that " only one species of buffalo {Bubalus caffer) is
found in the southern part of Africa," is confirmatory
of the results arrived at by all other investigators. Their
abundance and ferocity when charging are much empha-
sised.

Our knowledge of the African rhinoceroses is much
more imperfect than that of their Indian allies, and Mr.
Drummond's remarks on these animals must be looked
upon as those of a reliable and acute observer. We read :
"As far as my experience and inquiries have gone, I
believe, in accordance with the recorded opinions of most
travellers and sportsmen who have given any attention to
the subject, that there are four — two of the so-called
* white,' and two of the ' black.' " The way in which these
four species are arrived at, presents one point, at least, of
special interest. The first species is the Rhiuoceros
bicornis, " borele " or " upetyane," the smallest and most
dangerous of the four, it alone being in the habit of
attacking man unprovoked. The second is the R. keiiloa,
the " keitloa " or " umkombe tovote," the next largest, with
the hind horn, which is quite small in all the others, very
nearly as big as, or even sometimes bigger than, the fore
one. In one specimen " the horns, which were unusually
good, measured twenty-four inches for the front one,
twenty for the back." The third species is the R. simus,
" umkave," or common white rhinoceros, the largest of
all ; it is " remarkable for the great length the front horn
grows to, as well as for its gentle and inoffensive disposi-
tion." With this is united as a variety R. oswellii, in which
the front horn is particularly long and turns forwards ;
and we are well disposed to agree with Mr. Drummond
in thus laying little or no stress on peculiarities in the
horns when they are not associated with other characters.
For a knowledge of the last species we have to rely
entirely on our author. It has an independent native
name, which is in its favour, being known as the " Kulu-
mane." it " differs from the other species {R. simus) in
three important particulars : firstly, in its horns, which^
though following the conformation of A', simus, never
attain to the same size ; secondly, in its measurements,
which, while considerably inferior to those of the common
white, are greater than those of the other two species,
while it is to be noted that it possesses, though in a less
marked degree, the long and prehensile upper lip which
characterises R. bicornis and R. keitloa ; thirdly, in its
food, for though preferring, as was to be expected from
the formation of its snout, the young tender shoots and
leaves of thorns, it also resembles R. simus in consuming
large quantities of grass. In its disposition it would
seem to combine the characteristics of the other species."

The author was fortunate enough to capture and keep
alive for a short time a very young individual of the last-
described species, and he tells us that "if a specimen were
really wanted for this country [which most certainly is the
case], and there is not a single one as yet, I have no doubt
that the difficulty of finding a substitute for its mother's milk
— a serious one in a land where cattle do not exist on
account of the tsetse— might be got over by the sacrifice
of the lives of a few cows, for, as the bite of this insect
does not cause immediate death . . . they might be
brought down to the plains, and would probably live long
enough to take the young rhinoceros to the higher dis-

tricts, where plenty of milk could be procured." It is
much to be regretted that Mr. Drummond was not able
to employ the method he thus describes so clearly, and
so put us in possession of an invaluable zoological
treasure.

The light thrown on the question as to whether the
striped eland is a species differing from the unstriped
animal is but small, the author's experience being in
favour of there being but one. Both varieties are met
with in Amatonga. As to the elephant, its difference
from its Asiatic brother in the conformation of its skull
produces an important difference in the hunter's point of
view also. In the Indian species " the forehead presents
a certain mark, while in Africa it is quite impervious."
The following observations will also be read with painful
interest. " Slowly, but surely, this most useful animal is
being extirpated, merely for the purpose of supplying
Europe with ivory ornaments and billiard-balls, and be-
fore many years are over the inhabitants of Africa will
grieve, v/hen it is too late, at the short-sighted policy
which has allowed them, for the purposes of immediate
gain, to kill down the only animal capable of becoming a
beast of burden through the tsetse-infected districts
of that continent." The extreme difficulty of taming the
animal, the impossibility of breeding it in captivity, and
the rapid advance in steam-locomotive power, must,
however, be placed in the balance against the advan-
tages which the creature offers.

The portion of the work devoted to the Hon and the
leopard abounds in incidents, many of which terminated
fatally ; so many, indeed, that we can hardly understand
how it is that the author places the upetyane {Rhinoceros
bicornis') before the lion in comparing the different shades
of danger encountered from the larger varieties of South
African animals.

In conclusion, we strongly recommend this book to all
who are fond of sport and who require practical hints on
minor details before commencing a similar undertaking.
To the student of Natural History it will be equally
attractive, because of the clear and pleasing manner in
which it depicts the manners and habits of several ani-
mals in their native haunts, nothing respecting which can
be gained from any amount of study of the dry skins or
skeletons. It is by his knowledge of the habits of the
creatures which he is accustomed to meet, that the prac-
tical naturalist can frequently put the museum-student to
shame, and for this reason we think that works hke the
one before us ought to be studied by zoologists.

Some of the illustrations are good, but many of them
are quaint and not always accurate. Why the head of
a Zebra introduces the chapter on the Eland, and an
Aard Wolf does the same with respect to the Leopard,
we are at a loss to understand.

BRUSH'S ''DETERMINATIVE MINERALOGY"
Manual of Determinative Mineralogy, with an Intro-
duction on Blowpipe Analysis. By George J. Brush,
Professor of Mineralogy in the Sheffield Scientific
School. (New York : John Wiley and Son, 1875.)

PROF. BRUSH has endeavoured to make the study
of mineralogy lighter than usual, and has in many
respects succeeded, but tmfortunately for the modem

1 84

NA TURE

\7uly%, 1875

student he has retained the old chemical formulas.
Surely it would have been better to swim with the times
and adopt the new atomic weights, taking care to abolish
all doubtful tests, and adding the latest and most accurate
methods of analysis. Many of the latest and most delicate
methods of mineral analysis are entirely omitted, such as
Bunsen's methods for the detection of arsenic, antimony,
selenium, molybdanum, uranium, &c. The work in
question is divided into two distinct parts ; the first con-
taining descriptions of the different apparatus and re-
agents used, and a " Systematic Course of Blowpipe
Analysis ; " the second, styled " Determinative Minera-
logy," makes use of the knowledge acquired in the first
part to determine the mineral species under examination.
The " Systematic Course of Blowpipe Analysis " is adapted
from the later editions of Plattner's work on Blowpipe
Analysis, edited by his successor. Prof Richter ; the
" Determinative Mineralogy " is a translation of Von
Kobell's " Tafeln zur Bestimmung der Mineralien," tenth
edition. Generally speaking, students do not take kindly
to " Tables," but Prof. Brush has made them more in-
viting by arranging the minerals having the same base
into groups, and studying them in order. This is an
excellent arrangement, and the distinguished author
deserves the gratitude of students for thus lightening their
labours. Too many mineralogical works of the present
day exhibit a harum-scarum kind of classification, which
simply bewilders the inquiring student and leaves him
in greater confusion than before. The first part of the
work opens with descriptions of various kinds of blow-
pipes, and the manner of using them, also the fuel
used to obtain the requisite flame. Here, under the
headings " Reducing " and " Oxidising " flames, are de-
scribed very clearly the characters of the two flames,
with very good engravings showing the zones. The
methods for preparing the various reagents required are
trivial and should ^have been omitted ; for instance, we
are told to prepare pure carbonate of soda by taking
" four, or five ounces of commercial bicarbonate of soda
free from mechanical i7Hptirities," &c. We should be
glad to know where Prof Brush obtains his commer-
cial bicarbonate of soda so free from impurity, as the
manufacturer deserves encouragement. Chapter II. com-
mences the " Systematic Course of Quahtative Blow-
pipe Analysis," describing the reactions of the elements
and their combinations in the " closed tube and open
tube," and on " Charcoal as a support." Under the
latter heading a very neat and novel method is given for
overcoming the great difficulty experienced sometimes in
keeping the assay in its place on the charcoal. Let those
who wish to work in comfort for the future buy the book,
and find the method therein.

Further on, the colours imparted to a flame by different
metallic salts are described, but all of them, with the excep-
tion of copper, sodium, potassium, lithium, and calcium,
might have been left out with perfect justice, for no one could
decide what metal was present from a simple examination
of the coloured flame as described ; that could only be
done by means of the spectroscope. Then follow " The
uses of Fluxes and Roasting," and " Fusion with Borax,"
which are simply adaptations from Plattner, and the
tables given in this division are literal translations from
the same author, which may also be said of the division

" Fusion with Salt of Phosphorus." It is only fair to say
that in the preface to his book Prof Brush states : " The
main authorities used in the original preparation and
later revision of the chapters on blowpipe analysis
were the works of Berzelius and Plattner. The third
and fourth editions of Plattner, the latter edited by Prof.
Richter, have been chiefly consulted." The whole work
seems to confine itself almost entirely to blowpipe analysis
by the dry method, ignoring very frequently much easier
and quicker methods of detection by the wet method of
analysis. A few instances may be given, viz., copper
when associated with nickel, cobalt, iron, and arsenic by
the dry method, proceed as follows : — " Separate most of
the cobalt and iron by treating with borax on charcoal,
the remaining metallic globule is fused with pure lead,
and then boric acid is added ; this last dissolves the lead
and the rest of the cobalt and iron, while most of the
arsenic is volatilised. The cupriferous nickel globule
which still may contain a little arsenic is treated with
salt of phosphorus in the oxidising flame ; the bead ob-
tained will be dark green while hot, and clear green when
cold. This last green is caused by a mixture of the
yellow of oxide of nickel and the blue of oxide of copper.''
What a complicated and tedious process ! Now let- us
consider the wet method well known to chemists, but not
mentioned amongst the " characteristic reactions " in the
first part of this book. Dissolve the mineral in nitric
acid or nitro-hydrochloric acid, get rid of the excess of
nitric acid, precipitate the copper by means of sul-
phuretted hydrogen, dissolve this, precipitate in nitric
acid, and add excess of ammonia, when the liquid at once
acquires the splendid well-known blue colour. The arsenic
will be present as arseniate of ammonia, and will not inter-
fere with the reaction. Even more easily can traces of
copper be detected by Bunsen's neat method, as follows : —
Fuse the assay on a charcoal^ match with carbonate of
sodium ^in the reducing flame, treat the fused mass with
distilled water in a porcelain basin, gather together (by
means of a small magnet) the metallic particles of cobalt,
nickel, and iron, and remove them ; dissolve the remaining
metallic copper in nitric acid ; take up a drop of this solu-
tion by means of a glass rod and place it upon a strip of
white filter-paper, add a drop of ammonia to the moistened
paper, and observe the decided blue colour where the drop
of solution was placed. Thus, by the time the student had
blundered through the dry method of discovering copper,
a skilful chemist would almost have determined the
percentage of copper present in the assay by some
volumetric process. Singularly enough, the above method
is mentioned several times incidentally in the second part,
entitled *' Determinative Mineralogy." Under the heading
" Iron," no mention is made of the well-known reaction
between ferric salts and ferrocyanide of potassium, but
doubtful borax bead reactions are very prominent. The
characteristic precipitate obtained by mixing soluble lead
salts with bichromate of potassium is omitted also.
Chapter IV. opens with "Determinative Mineralogy."
These tables are the best part of the book. The student
must be very dull indeed who fails to determine a mineral
by the use of them. The method of studying the different
minerals is excellent, as the , specimen under examination
is soon brought into a group ; and by ,'glancing at the
characteristics of each mineral in that group, and com-

>/j/8, i875]

NATURE

185

paring the reactions obtained with the specimen, the
name is ascertained without difficulty. An example will
suffice to show this : — " The mineral has a metallic lustre.
Its degree of fusibility is 2, and a portion of it is readily
volatile, evolving the garlic-like smell peculiar to arsenical
minerals. On looking at the tables it is found to belong
to Division I. Fused with carbonate of sodium on char-
coal in the reducing flame, no metallic globule is obtained,
but the reaction for sulphur is seen on moistening the
fused mass and placing it upon a piece of silver. Does
not give the reactions for copper or cobalt. In the
closed tube gives metallic arsenic, and after long heating
becomes magnetic. It is found that it can only be one of
two minerals, viz., Arsenopyrite (mispickel) or Lolingite.
The streaks, colour, and hardness are the same ; but two
reactions observed before prove it to be arsenopyrite, for
it fuses at 2, and gives a strong sulphur reaction." As
we have pointed out, it might have been expected that so
distinguished a mineralogist as Prof. Ikush would have
given us all the more modern methods, but, nevertheless,
his book is certainly a very useful one, and may be recom-
mended to the student. Charles A. Burghardt

OUR BOOK SHELF

Elementary Chemistry. By F, S. Barff, M.A. (London :
Edward Stanford, 1875.)

The question which naturally occurs to one on opening
this book is, Why was it written ? Of late we have had
so many books professing to teach elementary chemistry,
and some of these really fulfilling their profession, that it
is hard to understand why another should be added to
the list. In his preface the author says : " This book, as
far as it goes, professes to enable the attentive student to
acquire a sound knowledge of the very elementary facts
concerning the most important of the ' non-metallic ele-
ments,' as they are called." Again, he expresses the
belief that by the system he has adopted, " boys will have
their reasoning faculties strengthened and their powers of
observation rendered accurate and acute."

So far as mere facts are concerned, this book appears to
to be very trustworthy ; the author is evidently well ac-
quainted with his subject ; but there is a want of principles
toguidethestudent. If chemistryistobetaught thoroughly,
even in its elements, the method of teaching adopted
must from the very beginning be a scientific method ; it
must seek not only to inculcate accuracy of knowledge in
detail, but also to point out the generalised expressions
which bind together the facts into a connected system.
By studying the book before us a boy may certainly gain
a considerable amount of good and useful knowledge, but
we are afraid that his ideas of what chemical science is will
be at best but vague. The author does not appear to have
clearly set before himself the end which he desired to
secure by writing a book on elementary chemistrj. If
that end was merely to supply a collection of useful facts
about various chemical substances and processes, he has
succeeded ; but books already existed which supplied this
want. If he wished to supply sound chemical knowledge,
so far as the book goes, he must be said also to have suc-
ceeded, but unfortunately he has stopped too soon ; the
fault is that it does not go quite far enough : a little more
carefulness in planning the book, and the introduction of
at least a few generalisations to explain the facts, would
have added vastly to the value of the book as an
elementary educational work. If we compare this
little book with others which might be named which
cover much the same ground, the want of general
ideas to guide the student becomes very apparent.

Another question which occurs in connection with
a book on chemistry specially intended for the use of
boys at school is. Are schoolboys as a rule really inte-
rested in this science ? Is it found generally advisable to
devote any large portion of a schoolboy's time to the
study of chemistry ; or is it better, when natural science
is introduced into a school curriculum, to choose physics
as the principal subject-matter for study ? "

M. M. P. M.

Travels m Portugal. By John Latouche. With Illus-
trations by the Right Hon. T. Sotheron-Estcourt.
(London : Ward, Lock, and Tyler.)
Mr. Latouche's narrative is full of interest and instruc-
tion ; but why has he not indicated the year or years
during which he travelled in Portugal ? There is even no
date on the title-page. Wc hope Mr. Latouche will
supply the necessary dates in a second edition. The
author refers with justice to the general ignorance of
Portugal and of its people ; many, no doubt, suppose they
are a sort of degraded Spaniards, whereas we think it is
pretty clear, from the information contained in the work
before us, that the Portuguese are in many respects supe-
rior to their neighbours. Mr. Latouche evidently knows
Portugal well, and has carefully observed the charac-
teristics of its people. In his narrative he wisely gives
very few details about the beaten tracks, but describes
principally what he saw in districts which are never
visited by the ordinary traveller. His work contains
much information concerning the people, their ethnology,
language, manners, customs, superstitions, and history ;
about the country itself, its physical features, its natural
history, the state of agriculture, and other points of inte-
rest. As to the ethnology of Portugal, Mr. Latouche
seems to believe that the people are an agglomeration of
a greater variety of elements than that of any other
country in Europe, and that these elements still remain
to a large extent heterogeneous, different elements pre-
ponderating in different districts — Celts, Iberians, Phoe-
nicians, Romans, Visigoths, Saracens, Greeks, French,
and Jews all contributing their quota. As an illustration
of the extensive infusion of Jewish blood throughout all
ranks of the people, Mr. Latouche tells the following
anecdote : — " When that foolish bigot. King Joseph, pro-
posed to his minister Pombal that all Jews in his kingdom
should be compelled to wear white hats as a distinctive
badge, that sagacious minister made no objection, but
when next he appeared in Council it was with two white
hats — ' one for his Majesty and one for himself,' explained
Pombal, and the King said no more about his proposal."
With regard to the natural history of Portugal, Mr.
Latouche thinks there is much still to be learned; that, in
fact, it has been less studied than that of any other
country in Europe. There is no doubt much truth in
this, but we hope it will not be necessary for any foreign
"patient naturalist " to learn the language, as Mr. Latouche
suggests, in order to investigate the natural history of
Portugal. Surely there is a sufficient number of com-
petent men in the country itself to undertake the task, if
their attention were directed to the importance of having
it accomplished. Indeed, we believe there have not been
wanting signs recently of an awakening of intellectual life
in Portugal, and we hope that one of its results will be a
thorough investigation of the natural history of the country,
as well as a vast improvement in the wretched system of
education which prevails. The Portuguese, as our readers
know, were at one time one of the most enterprising people
in Europe, and under proper guidance might still occupy
an honourable position among the nations.

To those who wish to obtain some trustworthy infor-
mation concerning the present condition of Portugal, we
commend Mr, Latouche's work, which, we may state, is
enlarged from a series of articles which were published in
the New Quarterly Magazine.

i86

NATURE

\7uly 8, 1875

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[ The Editor does not hold himself respdnsible jor opinions expressed
by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return,
or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts,
No notice is taken of anonymous cotnmunications.']

Temperature of the Body m Mountain Climbing
I HAVE read with great interest the able paper on the Tem-
perature of the Human Body during Mountain Climbing in
Nature, vol. xii. p. 132, and as it is there mentioned that the
results obtained by Drs, Marcet and Lortet require confirmation,
I am tempted to send some extracts from notes of observations
made on myself while on a walking tour last autumn, in the
Yorkshire moors. I made in all five ascents, of heights over
2,000 feet, during all of which I took notes of my temperature
at intervals. As, however, I had no more than a hearsay ac-
quaintance with Dr. Marcet's results, and was not aware of the
important influence of the act of ascending as distinguished from
the elevation attained, my earlier results were not sufiiciently
connected to be worth publishing. Suffice it to say that I
always obtained a fall of from one to two degrees. On the fifth
day of observation, when I was alive to this and other sources of
error, I made the following observations in the course of the
ascent of Whernside and Gragreth.

Time.

Height
in feet.

Tempe-
rature in
mouth.

In bed, Chapel le Dale, feeling warm

7.30

QOO

977

Breakfast

8.30

—

Before starting, feeling cold

9.40

—

97 '6

Walked one mile nearly level ; spent half an hour

at Gate Kirk Cave, then a steep ascent ; after

rising 1,000 feet and while hot, tired, and

sweating, and before stopping

11.20

1,900

96-4

Sat down ; after ten minutes' rest felt fresh, and

neither hot nor cold

11.30

—

98 -a

Ascent continues steep till near the top, when it

is moderate ; reached the top hot, sweating,

and out of breath ; temp, of air 47", barometer

2741"

13

2,414

97 '6

After sitting still in a cold wind and eating 4 oz.

biscuits ; toes and fingers cold, and shivering

slightly

12.37

—

99'3

Steep descent of 1,000 feet, came down at a

run ; fingers and toes getting warm ; before

stopping

1. 10

1,400

9S-0

Crossed the valley to ascend Gragreth ; after

climbing 500 feet, sweating and feeling hot,

and before .• topping ,

After sitting seven minutes

2.17

1,900

96-4

2.24

97-6

Still sitting, feeling cooler

2.29

—

98-6

Still sitting

2-33

—

98-6

Nearly at the top

247

2,200

98

On the flat top of Gragreth, going sl»wer, feeling

cooler

2.52

2,250

98-2

Sitting, feeling cold, strong wind

3.12

98-4

After descending 1,050 feet rapidly

3-55

1,200

984

After sitting ten minutes

4-5

—

98

Sitting warm, at "George and Dragon" Inn,

Dent

9-50

500

97'9

la comparing the temperatures above it should be borne in
mind that I uniformly found my temperature in bed in the morn-
ing 97"6 or 977, and about the same at 9 or 10 at night ; while
the day previous, when detained in the house by bad weather, it
had been 98*4 and 98*6 in several observations, between 10.30
A. M. and 6 p.m., and this I have found the case on many other occa-
sions, so that the difference between the second and third obser-
vations really represents a greater depression than is apparent.

It is worthy of note that the two lowest temperatures, viz. ,
96-4, both occurred during steep ascents and before stopping,
arid while I was perspiring freely and feeling hot. In each case
I immediately sat down and noted a progressive rise in the tem-
perature, though at the same time I was feeling much cooler.
"When I began to shiver from sitting above half an hour in a
strong wind on the top of Whernside the temperature had actu-
ally risen to 99°*3. This reminds one of the cold stage of ague,
when a patient may have a temperature of 105° while his teeth
are chattering with cold,

I entirely agree with Dr. Marcet that it is the fact of actively
climbmg and not the actual elevation, which influences the tem-
perature. When sitting quiet on the top of Whernside and
Gragreth the temperatures were at or above the normal. The
steepness also appears to have great influence ; both these moun-

tains have flattish tops, and the temperature on reaching the top of
Whernside shows less depression than during the ascent, while
that taken walking on the flat top of Gragreth, though without
stopping, after the ascent showed scarcely any.

I noticed no depression of temperature in descending, though
I often came down at a run, and none in several long level walks.
And now as to any possible fallacies. The same thermo-
meter was used in all the observations. It is a Philips' maxi-
nium, by Wood and Co., of York, is graduated in fifths of a
degree, and easily reads to tenths, I have compared it with a
thermometer certified at Kew, and find it very exact. It rises to
within a degree of the truth in ten seconds after putting under
the tongue, and I am accustomed to rely on its indications after
being in about two minutes. In all the above observations it
was left in the same position under the tongue five minutes by
the watch (except the reading at 2.33, when it was only four) ;
consequently any failure to rise to the true temperature would
be likely to affect all the readings nearly alike. Whatever error
may be due to this cause would be likely to show itself in raising
the readings during the ascents, as at these times the heart was
beating strongly and the circulation particularly active ; so that
the cooling of the mouth by the cold bulb would be quickly
neutralised. I was also particularly careful not to allow any air
to enter through the lips and as little as possible through the
fauces, and feel confident that there is no appreciable error from
this cause.

As to the rationale of the process, may not the following
theory embrace all the facts as observed by Marcet, Forel, and
others ?

Heat motion and chemical force are merely varieties of one
force convertible under certain conditions. The human body is
an engine, in which muscle and other tissues are oxidised, and
the resulting chemical force is transformed into an equivalent
amount of motion and heat. Now it is manifest that there is a
limit to the rate at which oxidation can go on in the body, and
consequently to the amount of force available for transformation
in an unit of time into motion and heat. Usually the human
machine is not worked up to its full power ; the amount of motion
produced is nothing approaching what is possible, and only suffi-
cient force is transformed into heat to keep the body at the
normal temperature of 98 '4 ; but in the limit the two processes
become complementary to each other, and if from any cause the
force converted in one direction exceeds a certain amount, the
excess can only be obtained at the expense of what would ordi-
narily be converted in the other. Now, in mountain climbing
the amount of motion as expressed in foot-pounds of work done
is very great, and much exceeds the amount to which most of us
are accustomed in walking on a level road. If this be pushed to
the limit it encroaches on the amount of force destined for the
supply of heat to the body, and the temperature falls. It is
clear that these processes habitually go on at different rates in
different individuals ; if so, may not the limit of the rate of tissue
change be different ? One man may be able to push his motion
production nearly to the limit up to which his oxidation will work,
thereby encroaching on what ought to sustain his temperature,
while another, whose muscles are less fully under the dominion
of his nerves, or whose power of oxidation is considerable, may
be unable to reach that limit.

To this class I believe Dr. Forel to belong ; in the other, the
slow oxidisers, I find myself in the honourable company of Drs.
Marcet and Lortet, Tempest Anderson

17, Stonegate, York

Trevandrum Magnetic Observations
Though I have felt much gratified with the notice by Prof. B.
Stewart of the first volume of the " Trevandrum Observations "
which appeared in last week's Nature, p, 163, I desire, never-
theless, to make a few remarks on the only point on which we
appear to differ.

There are two methods of investigating the laws of magnetic
disturbance, which have quite distinct objects ; one, which has
been employed with much success by that eminent veteran of
science Sir E. Sabine, seeks, as he has expressly stated, the laws
of the larger disturbances only, and for this end chooses only
those deviations from the mean positions that are greater than
some arbitrary value. The other method seeks the laws of dis-
turbances of all magnitudes, and employs deviations of all
amounts.

As Prof. Stewart regrets that I have employed the latter
method, and suggests that the former may yet be used by others.

July 8, 1875]

NATURE

187

it may be supposed that the laws of disturbance are not found
by me, and are not to be found by the method which I have
employed. This would be a great mistake ; one which I am
bound to correct.

The method which Prof. Stewart recommends has had objec-
tions proposed to it by the Astronomer Royal, the Provost
of Trinity College, Dublin, and by myself. It is, I think, to
defend the method against these objections that Prof. Stewart
has written his remarks on the modes of discussion ; but I have
never heard any objections to the other method, nor, as far as I
can understand, does he offer any.

As the method followed by Dr. Lloyd on the Dublin Obser-
vations and by myself on the Makerstoun and Trcvandrum
Observations has shown every law of magnetic disturbance that
has been obtained by the other, I am afraid I cannot see that
the illustration of the cyclones is applicable to the two methods,
even if we were bound to study large cyclones only and to put
those of less than a given magnitude out of consideration.

4, Abercom Place, London, N.W. John Allan Broun

Anomalous Behaviour of Selenium

It has been lately observed that the electrical resistance of
selenium is greater in the light than in the dark. It was at first
thought possible that this increase of resistance might be due to
heat admitted with the light, but Prof. W. G. Adams, in his
paper read before the Royal Society, June 17th, 1875, ^^s
shown that this is not the case, but that the phenomenon is a
purely optical one.

The writer of this letter has to-day tried an experiment with a
selenium bar belonging to the Cavendish Laboratory. Its length
is 50 mm., breadth 8 mm., thickness about I mm. ; platinum
wires are soldered to its ends, and it has a hard metallic surface.
Its electrical resistance is enormous. In the dark it is just over
100 megohms (100,000,000 B.A.U.) When, however, the light of
the paraffin lamp of the galvanometer was allowed to fall, on it
from the distance of about a foot, the resistance decreased
between 20 and 30 per cent. The experiment was repeated
many times, with current sent sometimes one way, sometimes
another, and with different sides and edges of the bar turned to
the light, but always with the same result, namely, that the effect
of letting in the light was to largely decrease the resistance,

A second set of experiments were made with a selenium medal
struck by Berzelius soon after the discovery of the metal in 1818,
and presented by him to Mr. Deck, by whose son, Mr. Deck of
Cambridge, it was kindly lent for the experiment. This medal
was of oval shape, about 40 millims. long by 30 broad. Owing
to the difference of form between the two specimens, their
specific resistances could not be accurately compared ; that of
the medal was, however, not more than about ^V of that of the
bar. The medal was exactly like black lead both to touch and
sight, and quite different in appearance to the bar. The resist-
ance of the medal ivas sensibly the same, both in the dark and
in the light ; no difference could be detected.

These experiments seem to show that the physical form of
the metal has a great deal to do with its behaviour when carrying
an electric current and exposed to light.

J. E. H. Gordon

Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, June 29

The House-fly

As no one more competent than myself seems disposed to
reply to the query of " Harrovian" (Nature, vol. xii. p. 126)
respecting a disease of the house-fly, and which is again referred
to by the Rev. D. Edwardes in last week's Nature, I may
perhaps be permitted to make a few remarks thereon.

I have frequently noticed dead and dying flies thus affected,
generally in the late summer and autumn ; and I think I am
right in attributing the phenomenon to the growth of a parasitic
fungus, called, I believe, Evipusa mtisci, in the fly's body. The
insects may otten be seen settled in a natural position on window-
panes, but with the abdomen much distended, and surrounded
by a collection of whitish powder, extending for a few lines in
all directions on the surface of the glass. The whole of the
interior organs of the abdomen are consumed by the plant,
nothing remaining but the chitinous envelope, on which the
mycelia of the fungi form a felt-like layer ; the fructification
showing itself externally as filaments protruding from between
the rings of the body.

Insects are very subject to the attacksof such parasites. Some
of those living in the interior organs of the body seem to do little
if any injury to their " hosts," while others completely destroy
them ; as in the case of Sph(eria,\'wh\ch. changes the caterpillars
at whose expense it lives into a mass of fungoid growth of most
grotesque appearance. It is now well ascertained that a species
of Botrytus produces the dreaded "Muscardine" of the silk-
growers ; and every practical lepidopterist has had to lament
the destruction of pet broods of larvae by some similar disease,
which, though perhaps sometimes pathological, is probably in
the first instance set on foot by fungi.

The whole subject of the parasites of insects is extremely in-
teresting. According to my experience it is the exception for
an insect to be quite exempt from the attacks of one or more
animal or vegetable entozoic or epizoic organism ; and I have
often found five or six different species inhabiting one unfor-
tunate individual.

I may mention that " Harrovian " will find some remarks on
this fly-fungus by Dr. Cohn, in an early volume of the Journ.
Micros. Science. I regret that, writing away from home, I
cannot give the exact reference. W. Cole

Stoke Newington, N., July 2

[We print this letter from among several which all correctly
explain the phenomenon under consideration in a similar
manner. — Ed.]

Theories of Cyclones

In Nature, vol. xii. p. 98, you notice a paper by Dr. Hann
on two rival theories of cyclones. According to one, "whirl-
winds are formed mechanically by different streams of air meet-
ing, and centrifugal force causes the central depression. The
more modern theory regards a local depression as the first con-
dition, causing an indraft resulting in a whirlwind through the
earth's rotation : the primary depression is held to follow con-
densation of vapour."

The question is how the cyclone begins : whether the first
depression is due to the centrifugal force of an eddy, or to the
expansion of air in the upper strata from the heat liberated in
the condensation of vapour. There need not be any controversy
as to the dynamics of the cyclone after it is formed.

There is a mass of geographical evidence in favour of the first-
named theory, namely, that cyclones originate in the conflict of
the trade-winds of the northern and southern hemispheres when
either trade-wind is drawn to some distance across the equator.
(A cyclone cannot be formed on the equator, because there the
earth has no rotation in relation to a vertical axis). On this
subject see Mr. Meldrum's paper in Nature, vol. ii. p. 151,
and my letter in Nature, vol. iv. p. 305 ; also Mr. Maury's
paper in Nature, vol. viii. pp. 124, 147, 164.

Mr. Maury fully recognises the truth that the motive power of
the cyclone, once it is formed, consists in the heat liberated by
the condensation of vapour, which causes expansion in the upper
strata and produces an ascending current. 1 believe the nature
of these actions was first explained by Espy, whose " Philosophy
of Storms," though well known by name, seems to be less appre-
ciated than it deserves.

There is, however, another reason for the existence of an
ascending current at the centre of a whirlwind, which I do not
think I have seen stated. The lowest atmospheric stratum of a
whirlwind is retarded in its motion by friction against the earth,
and its centrifugal force is thereby lessened in proportion to that
of the upper strata. The effect of this relative deficiency of cen-
trifugal force in the lowest stratum — that is to say, at the surface
of the earth — must be to cause a flow of air at the surface of the
earth towards the centre of the whirlwind, and an ascendmg
current at its centre. Such an ascending current is probably the
cause of the vertical columns of dust that accompany those small
whirlwinds which are common in windy weather.

Old Forge, Dunmurry, Joseph John Murphy

Co. Antrim, June 23

The Dark Argus Butterfly

It is stated in H. N. Humphrey's work on " British Butter-
flies," that the Dark Argus Butterfly appears in July, and has
only been found in the neighbourhood of Durham and New-
castle, and seldom above half a mile from the sea. When in May
I was at Ashmore, which is on the borders of Dorset and Wilts,
I took some butterflies answering exactly to the description of

NATURE

\July 8, 1875

the Dark Argus in Mr. Humphrey's book ; so would you kindly
inform me whether this is a new locality, and whether there are
two broods, the first in May and the second in July, as is the
case with several of family, as would appear from the above
statements? I identify the species with his Dark Argus by the
following peculiarities, viz. : (i) an obscure black spot near centre
of fore-wings ; (2) no black spots in the orange ocelli in fore-
wings, the hind-wings containing these black spots as in the
Brown Argus. John Hodgkin, Jun.

West Derby, near Liverpool

Meteorological Phenomenon
While walking out yesterday afternoon my attention was
drawn to a very remarkable display of mares-tail clouds spread-
ing from the north, stretching in broad and narrow bands in every
direction over the whole sky, and reaching beyond the zenith.
While standing thus facing the sun, I saw, at a great elevation, a
coloured bow with its convex red side towards the sun ; it was
only about one-sixth or one-seventh of a circle, and its width
seemed to be only about half that of an average ordinary rain-
bow. It had the appearance of being nearly horizontal, with its
centre not far from the zenith, but probably not so distant. Not
being accustomed to estimate elevations, when I got home I
took a quadrant and held it about the elevation of the part of the
bow nearest the sun, and found it came out, on repeated trials,
at a zenith distance of 25° or 26°.* When I first saw the bow it
was just 6h. 30m. P.M. Greenwich time, and the sun appeared to
be about 15° above the horizon (that you can correct by calcu-
lation). The sun was shining brightly, and the bowwus pro-
jected over a patch of sky slightly dimmed, at a great height
(but below the cirri?), by a smoke-grey haze; its ends just pro-
jected over the edges of the clouds. It lasted about 2m.
and then laded away. There was no halo or ring but this. The
wind was a rather fresh breeze, between S.S.E. and S.
Norwich, June 28 Henry Norton

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN
St>Fi's Description of the Fixed Stars. — The
author of the ancient Uranometria to which we adverted
last week, Abd-al- Rahman al-Sufi. (an abbreviation of a
much longer name), was born in 903 ; he was of the sect
of the Sufis, and of Rai, a place to the east of Teheran.
He was in high favour with Adhad al-Davlat, of the reign-
ing family ot Persia, and it was principally for the instruc-
tion of this prince that he wrote the work under notice,
which was not the only one he produced. Ibn Jounis
reports that he was not only an observer, but framed astro-
nomical tables; and Dr. Schjellerup states he is known to
have undertaken geodetic operations. He is said to have
determined the length of the year, and in his tables fixes
the mean motion of the sun in the Persian year at
359° 45' 4o""2. He died in May 986. The prince Adhad
al-Davlat, who gave great encouragement to the study of
the sciences, commenced his reign in 949, and at the
time of his death, in 983, governed the extent of country
situate between the Caspian and the Persian Gulf.

The translation of the " Description of the Fixed
Stars" by Sufi was made by Dr. Schjellerup from a
manuscript preserved in the Royal Library at Copen-
hagen, which came into the possession of Niebuhr in
1763. It is a copy made in 1601 from a manuscript
transcribed in 1013, and, as stated by Schjellerup,
" directement d'apres I'exemplaire de Sufi." The trans-
lation was finished when the Danish astronomer, through
Herr Dorn, had the opportunity of consulting another
copy of Siifi's work, recently acquired by the Imperial
Library of St. Petersburg. Where differences exist
between the two authorities, they are particularised in
notes to Schjellerup's translation.

The description of the stars by Sufi, though founded
upon that of Ptolemy, is not merely a simple translation.
All the stars contained in Ptolemy's catalogue were
sought in the positions there recorded, and submitted to
attentive examination, and their magnitudes carefully

* Subtended at my eye by bow and sun = about 50°?

noted, as is distinctly stated by Sufi in his preface.
Schjellerup draws attention to the great extent of his
work, the perseverance displayed, and the minute accu-
racy and scientific criticism with which the whole is
executed ; so that, under all circumstances, the Persian
astronomer has presented us with the state of the sidereal
heavens in his time, which merits the highest confidence,
and which during nine centuries remains without a rival,
not having found its equal till the appearance of the
" Uranometria Nova " of Argelander.

Prefixed to the description of the constellations, Schjel-
lerup has published what he terms " Tableau synoptique
de I'intensite lumineuse des ^toiles principals selon
Ptolemde (ou Hipparch), Sufi et Argelander," which is
obviously a valuable compilation, and one that may be
frequently consulted in cases where the naked-eye stars
are suspected of variability. The magnitudes attributed
to Ptolemy are not those given in our editions of the
" Almagest," but are taken from the work of Sufi ; indeed,
Schjellerup considers the former " parfaitement inutiles,"
being expressed in round numbers and with much con-
fusion, so that in this respect also we have an important
addition to our knowledge of the magnitudes of the stars.

In Siifi's tables of positions, the longitudes of the
Almagest are increased 12° 42', the latitudes being
unaltered.

Generally speaking, there is a fair agreement between
the magnitudes of Ptolemy and Argelander, the differ-
ences not often exceeding a degree of the scale. Amongst
the larger discordances Schjellerup points to the cases of
25 Orionis and p Eridani, estimated by Ptolemy of the
third and fourth magnitudes respectively, while by Arge-
lander they are called a bright fifth and a sixth. Sufi's
estimates in the middle of the tenth century are inter-
mediate, the first star being rated a fourth and the second
a fifth magnitude. The case of Sirius is worthy of atten-
tion for another reason. Cicero, Horace, and other clas-
sical writers refer to the ruddy colour of this star. In the
editions of Ptolemy it is indicated as vnoKippos, but Sufi
makes no mention of this reddish tinge, though, as was
stated last week, other stars well marked as red stars in
our own day, are also so distinguished in his description
of the heavens. Instead of reading with Halma kuI
vwoKippos, Schjellerup thinks we should more correctly
read /cat aelpios, conformable to the designations which
Ptolemy gives to the other bright stars which bear a
proper name, as with a Bootis (apKTovpos), a Leonis
l^aa-iKia-Kos), &c. ; and remarks that it is certain Cicero
was the first who mentions the ruddiness of Sirius, that
Horace followed him, and that after Seneca we find no
reference to it. Eratosthenes, Aratus, Manilius, Hygmus,
and Germanicus are silent as to this particularity of the
star.

The great nebula in Andromeda is named by Sufi as
an object generally known in the heavens, and it is inte-
resting to note that he also records the variable star
recently detected by Herr Julius Schmidt near a Virginis.
Its position is very clearly described.

The title of Schjellerup's translation is " Description
des Etoiles Fixes, composde au milieu du dixieme siecle
de notre ere, par I'Astronome Persan Abd-al-Rahman al-
Sufi, par H. C. F. C. Schjellerup, St. Petersbourgj 1874."
It was presented to the Imperial Academy in June 1870.

SOLAR RADIATION AND SUN-SPOTS

SINCE I communicated to Nature the first results (vol.
xii. p. 147) of an examination of the Indian registers of
solar-radiation temperatures, I have examined some other
registers, all of which confirm the conclusion adumbrated
in my former note. Among these the most interesting
and striking is the hill station Darjiling, in Sikkim,
nearly 7,000 feet above the sea. The place is very
cloudy, being on the outer Himalayan range, and much

Jnly^, 1875]

NATURE

189

exposed to the moist southerly winds, but it has two
advantages over the stations in the plains, viz., that there
are nearly 7,000 feet less atmosphere above it, and it is
free from the dust haze, so prevalent on the plains, which
perhaps more than water vapour (if not thickly con-
densed) stops a large part of the solar radiation. On clear
days and in intervals between the clouds, the sun's heat
is sometimes ver>' intense. The table that follows has
been compiled in a different manner from that which I
communicated a fortnight since. Instead of picking out
days with little or no cloud (which are sure enough
during the greater part of the year), I have taken the
three highest recorded sun-temperatures in each half-
month, and from these have deducted the maximum air-
temperatures recorded on the same days ; the mean of
the six observations being taken to represent the month.
The same instrument has been in use since the obser-
vations were commenced in April 1870. I must leave it
to meteorologists at home to compare these temperatures
with the recorded sun-spot areas, which I am unable to
ascertain. But the maximum radiation temperature evi-
dently falls in 1 87 1, the year of maximum spots, and the
increase on that of the imperfect year 1870, and the fall
in the subsequent years, at least up to the end of 1874,
arc very marked.

Mean differences of the three highest solar temperatures in each
half-month and the cori-esponding maximum air tempera-
tures at Darjiling.

1870.

1871.

1872.

1873-

1874.

1873-

January

,

57-8

677

59-2

57-8

62-3:

February

—

62-2

628

62-1

S6-S

6o-^

March

—

6,r,s

6rs

62

S8-2

57-8

April

—

64-2

6r2

62-8

557

60 -2

May

62-2

67-8

66-8

6v8

S7-8

—

June

67

68

67-3

62-s

59-2

July

6.r3

66-2

6S7

6o-8

56-3

—

August

70-8

6.S7

66-8

60

57-8

—

September

7I-S

b9-3

6,r7

623

59-3

—

October

6S-S

68-2

70

6V3

60-8

—

November

62-S

67-^

62-S

57-3

6V3

—

December

59

66-s

59

53 "8

6o-^

Yearly means

65-5

64-9

6o-8

58-6

~

In my former note I adverted to Prof. Koppen's re-
sults on the variation of the temperature of the lower
atmosphere in the tropics, which he showed to be inversely
as the number of the sun-spots or nearly so, from 1820 to
1858. On thinking the matter over, this result, however
anomalous at first sight, appears to me really only in con-
formity with what might be expected when taken in
connection with the facts of the rainfall. Since three-
fourths of the earth's surface are covered with water, the
chief effect of increased radiation must necessarily be to
increase the evaporation, and therefore the cloud and
rainfall. The former of these will intercept a larger pro-
portion of the solar heat and prevent its reaching the
ground ; while the latter, by its evaporation from the
land surface, will still further reduce the temperature.
The annual curves of temperature at the Bengal stations
show most strikingly how the temperature falls with cloud
and rain. A single heavy storm without any change in
the prevalent wind direction reduces the temperatuie by
several degrees for two or three days after the fall ; and
the same fact is illustrated in the mean annual curve,
which falls considerably on the setting in of the rains,
while there is generally a slight rise in September when
the rains draw to a close. It follows, then, that the whole
increase of the sun's heat and something more, in the
tropics, is absorbed in evaporation and by the upper
strata of the atmosphere, thus affording a confirmation of
the speculation of (I think) Sir John Herschel, that the
inferior planets (if partly covered by water) may enjoy an

equable moderate temperature fitted for the existence of
such terrestrial organisms as can thrive under a sombre
sky.
June 7 H. F. Blanford

SCIENCE IN GERMANY
{From a German Corrrspondent.)
"D UNSEN'S ice-calorimeter was used lately for a very
^-^ interesting experimLnt by Messrs. Rontgen and
Exner, who tried to determine the intensity of the radia-
tion of the sun by means of an apparatus constructed on
the principle of that calorimeter. The apparatus consists
of a glass bell a of 75 mm. height. This is fastened into
a brass hoop b, which is closed below by a plate of
wrought silver of j mm. thickness, and 106 mm. diameter.
The neck of the bell bears a massive brass top d, which
is cut conically above and below, and has a central
opening of 6 mm. diameter. Into the exterior groove a
massive brass cone e fits water-tight, having also the
central boring, into which a little glass tube is fastened.
By a screw h in the circumference, the cone e can be
firmly pressed against the brass piece d, while the tube/
communicates with the interior of the bell a. A second
communication between the interior of the bell and the

outside is obtained by the boring at g and the metal-tube
/, with stopcock /.

When the apparatus is to be used as a pyrheliomcter,
the bell is filled with well-boiled distilled water, and
the whole is frozen like one of Bunsen's calorimeters. To
the tube/ along glass tube of perfect caUbre and with
millimetre divisions is fastened by means of a piece of
india-rubber tubing ; to the end /• of the brass tube with
stopcock an indiarubber ball filled with well-boiled
water is then fastened, the stopcock opened, and while
the apparatus is held vertically, all air which may still be
contained in the bell is removed from it through the cone
^', the tube /, and the divided tube, so that thse latter is
filled with water up to its end. Then the stopcock / is
closed. If beforehand the silver plate has been carefully
covered with soot, the apparatus is ready for use. It is
directed towards the sun just.like Pouillet's pyrheliometer,
so that the sun's rays fall vertically upon the blackened
plate. The divided tube is then supported as much as
possible in a horizontal position, and the progress of the
column of water in the same is observed with a second
clock from minute to minute. This progress of the

IQO

NATURE

\July 8, 1875

column of water would indicate directly the intensity of
the radiation of the sun in calories if the ice did not also
partly melt in consequence of the surrounding warm air.
In order to eliminate this influence, the progress of the
column of water must be observed before and after the
actual experiment, and during these observations the sun's
rays must be shut out from the apparatus by a screen.
The difference of the readings with and without the sun's
rays will then indicate the density of the latter. But this
method has a drawback. It was found that with experi-
ments which were made in quick succession, when the ap-
paratus was exposed to the sun's rays, that the first results
were always a little larger than the following ones, and
that only after some time had elapsed did the results show
a constant value. The reason of this is doubtless the
formation of a stagnant layer of water in the apparatus
below the blackened plate, and this layer must first reach
a stationary position before anything like regularity is ob-
tained in the results.

With regard to the general results of these experiments;
which were made by Messrs. Rontgen and Exner on the
platform of Strassburg Cathedral, the absolute values of
the intensity of the radiation of the sun are considerably
larger than those found by Pouillet, If Pouillet's values
are reduced to the same measures and units, which form
the basis of the values obtained by Rontgen and Exner, we
find, for instance, for the month of June and the sun's eleva-
tion 12I1, the value i'i40, while the latter observers still
obtained i"226 for an elevation of I2h, 15m, Further, we
must remark that the values obtained by Rontgen and
Exner are decidedly too small (the observations record
the progress of the column of water after the stationary
condition of the stagnant layer of water), and that accor-
ding to a rough guess they should be at least 20 per cent.
to 25 per cent, larger ; thus it is certain that Pouillet's
values must be looked upon as considerably too small.

FERTILISA TION OF FLO WERS B Y INSECTS*

XI.
Adaptation of Floivers to Lepidoptera — Hesperis tristis.

LEPIDOPTERA are distinguished among all insects
that visit flowers by their slender proboscis. Hence, in
order to make their honey exclusively accessible to these
insects, flowers have only to narrow the entrance to their
nectaries to such a degree that no other proboscis but
that of Lepidopterous insects is able to enter. This
adaptation to butterflies by narrowing the entrance of
the nectary in different families of plants has been

Fig. 65.— Flower oi Hesperis tristis (natural size).

arrived at in very different ways. In flowers with a
tubular corolla {Primula villosa, Daphne striata. Nature,
vol. xi. p. no. Figs. 43-47) the corolla- tube has narrowed;
in flowers with a honey-secreting spur {Gymnadenia,
Ni^ritella, Nature, vol. xi. p. 170, Figs. 58-62) the
entrance of the spur has been constricted ; in the labiate
-flowers of Rhinanthus alpitms (Nature, vol, xi, p. in,
Figs. 51-56) the large entrance of the flower is blocked up

* Continued from p. 50.

by the margins of the upper lip lying close together, and
only a small opening in its rostrate projection has been
left open ; in the quite open flowers oi Lilium Martas;on
(Nature, vol, xii, p, 50) the honey-secreting furrow at
the base of the sepals and petals has been converted into

Fig. (ye.

Fig. 66.— The same after the sepals, the petals, and two of the four longer
anthers have been removed. «, nectary ; h, honey ; a', shorter anther ;
st, stigma.

Fig. 67.— Situation of the nectary, aa, longer filaments ; o, point of inser-
tion of one of the shorter filaments ; b b, points of insertion of the two
adjacent petals ; d, insertion of the adjacent sepal ; n, nectary.

a narrow channel by a coating of glandular hairs, Hesperis
tristis, belonging to the family of Cruciferae, which are
generally visited for honey by Apida;, Syrphidse, Muscidse,
and various other insects, has excluded from its honey all
visitors except Lepidoptera, by simply lengthening its
sepals and the basal portion of its petals and laying them
close together. The sepals, indeed, as is shown by Fig.

.jA\\\m

Fig. 68. — The centre of the flower at its first period seen from above.
a, longer anthers ; o, openings.

65, are elongated to 11-15 rn^i-, and whilst diverging
and presenting open slits in their basal portion, are con-
vergent and connate towards their tips. By this coal-
escence of the sepals the entrance of the flower is so
constricted as to be almost completely filled up by the
four longer anthers (a, Figs. 68, 69). At first, when the

JulyZ, 1875J

NATURE

191

flower has just opened, only a single very small open-
ing is commonly left free (<?, Fig. 68) ; somewhat later,
when the longer anthers have advanced a Httle further,
two small openings are frequently obvious {p 0, Fig. 69),
by which Lepidoptera can insert their proboscis. The
exclusion, however, of all other insects from the honey
would be useless or even fatal to this, as well as to the
above mentioned flowers, unless by particular contri-
vances, ( I ) increased frequency of the visits of Lepidoptera,

^

X

'/^

/

\

iW \

Fig. 69.— The same, .at a somewhat later period.

and (2) certain cross-fertilisation by them were effected.
Hesperis trisiis, by the very inconspicuous colour of its
flowers, which are yellow reticulated with purplish streaks,
by opening them in the afternoon, and by having no smell
in the daytime whilst very fragrant towards the evening,
proves to be adapted exclusively to crepuscular and noc-
turnal Lepidoptera, which, attracted from afar by the
sweet odour, are induced to pay frequent visits. The
base of each of the two shorter filaments is surrounded by
a greenish swelling (//, Figs. 66, 67), which secretes on its
inside honey so copiously that it rises in the interstice
between the shorter and the two adjacent longer filaments.
Cross-fertilisation by the visits of moths is secured in the
following manner. From the one or two small openings (<?,
Figs. 68, 69) the proboscis of the moth is guided down-
wards by the longer filaments as in a channel, first along
one side of the stigma {st, Fig. 66), which has bent down-
wards on both sides just into the way of the proboscis, then

Fig. 70.— The same in its last state.
(Figs. 66-70 are seven times magnified.)

along the shorter anther («', Fig. 66), which from the
other side has turned its pollen-covered front likewise
exactly into the way of the proboscis, until at last it
reaches the honey {h, Fig. 66) ; the proboscis afterwards
wetted with honey at its tip, when retracted, first touches
again the anther a' with one sid«, which is thus charged
with pollen, then with the other side the stigma, which thus
escapes fertilisation with its own pollen, and when in the

next visited flower the tip of the proboscis with its pollen-
charged side touches i^the stigma, cross-fertilisation is
effected.

My daughter Agnes, perseveringly watching Hesperis
tristis during several mild evenings in the month of May,
has succeeded in observing and catching the following
fertihsers of it : — (i) Plusia gamma, frequently (length of
the proboscis 16-18 mm.); (2) Hadena sp. (11 mm.);
(3) Dtatttha'cia conspersa, W.V., twice (13 mm.) ; (4)
lodis lactearia, L. ; (5) Botys forhcalis, L., three times.

But although in calm and warm evenings, as is proved
by these observations, cross-fertilisation may be suffi-
ciently effected ; yet in unfavourable weather all flowers
of many individuals develop and fade without experiencing
any visit of fertilisers. In this case, nevertheless, almost
every ovary develops and brings to maturity its seed-
vessels, self-fertilisation being regularly effected by the
pistil growing and the stigma coming into contact with
pollen-grains of the four longer anthers.

Thus, in these flowers the four longer anthers have
apparently no other function in the first period of flowering
but to exclude incompetent visitors from the honey, by
stopping the entrance of the flower, and, by the direction
of their filaments, to keep the proboscis of the fertilisers in
the right direction, whilst in a later period, in case visits
of moths have been wanting, they regularly effect self-
fertilisation. The two shorter anthers, on the contrary, are
exclusively adapted to cross-fertilisation by visiting moths.

Lippstadt Hermann Muller

JOSEPH WINLOCK

THE following details concerning the late Prof.
Winlock, whose death we announced last week, we
take from the New \ork Nation : —

Prof. Joseph Winlock, Director of the Observatory of
Harvard College, died suddenly after a brief illness last
Friday morning, June 11, at the age of forty-nine. One
of the foremost of American astronomers, whose honour-
able career in science began thirty years ago, who has
filled with great credit several important positions of
scientific labour and trust, is thus cut off in the midst of a
life whose usefulness cannot be estimated by ordinary
standards. Well known and highly estimated by all active
collaborators in astronomy both at home and abroad, he
was never so well known to others or to the public as his
important services deserved. This was chiefly on account
of a modest shrinking from any candidacy for honours,
amounting almost to an aversion from them, and an in-
difference to an uncritical or merely popular reputation.
Immediately upon graduating from Shelby College,
Kentucky, in 1845, he was appointed Professor of Mathe-
matics and Astronomy in that College, where he re-
mained until 1852, when he removed to Cambridge, Mass.,
and took part in the computations of the Americdn
Ephemcris atid Nautical Almanac, then under the
superintendence of Admiral C. H. Davis. In 1857 he
was appointed Professor of Mathematics of the United
States Navy, and in that capacity served in succession as
Assistant at the Naval Observatory at Washington, as
Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac, and as Director
of the Mathematical Department of the Naval Academy
at Annapolis, Md. On the breaking out of the war, in
1 86 r, he was a second time made Superintendent of the
Nautical Almanac. His next service to astronomy was
in the position of Director of the Observatory at Harvard
College, and Phillips Professor of Astronomy, to which
he was appointed in 1865— a position already made
highly honourable by the labours of his predecessors, the
distinguished astronomers. Professors W. C. Bond and
G. P. Bond. He has also served at the same time as
Professor of Geodesy in the Mining School of Harvard
College. Only a few months ago, Mr. Bristow appointed
him the chairman of the Congressional Commission for

192

NATURE

{July 8, 1875

Investigating the Causes of Steam-Boiler Explosions.
These many appointments to places of responsibility are
evidences of the rare sagacity, skill, sound judgment, and
integrity of character which were qualities conspicuous to
all who knew him well or dealt with him in his various
duties. Upon taking charge of the Cambridge Observa-
tory, he proceeded with energy to complete its equipment,
adding to its already famous resources a meridian circle,
constructed in accordance with his designs by Throughton
and Simms of London — an instrument whose performance
has been pronounced by competent judges the best of its
kind in the world. The distinguished astronomer, Adams, of
Cambridge, England, subsequently ordered an instrument
from the same makers to be constructed on the same
model. Prof Winlock also secured for this Observatory a
very perfect astronomical clock, made by Frodsham of
London, from which, through contrivances of his own,
true time is telegraphed to neighbouring cities. He also
set the famous equatorial instrument of the Observatory
upon a new career of usefulness and glory in astronomical
spectroscopy. In 1870 he put into regular working effi-
ciency a mode of observing the sun — namely, by a single
lens, a heliostat, and photograph — which he independently
conceived, and was the first to utilise as a form of syste-
matic observatory work. French astronomers have lately
been contending with one another about priority in the
conception of this method of observation, which was so
important a part of the equipment for observing the
transit of Venus last December furnished to American
expeditions ; but in all that really constitutes effective
originality, the honour of this invention undoubtedly
belongs to Prof. Winlock. He was, however, almost
entirely indifferent, in the singleness of his devotion to
his favourite science, to popular fame, or even to con-
temporary recognition. Besides his observatory work, he
was engaged on two occasions in the direction of expedi-
tions to observe solar eclipses — namely, that to Kentucky
in August 1869, and that to Spain in December 1870.
Though ingenious as an inventor, his judiciousness was
so much more prominent a quality that his originality is
shown rather in a thoroughness and detailed efficiency of
contrivance than in the more brilliant qualities that dis-
tinguish the more famous inventors. Very numerous
little but very effective improvements in astronomical
methods distinguish the astronomical art of the present
day ; and in these Prof. Winlock's originality was consider-
able. Among his published works, besides the " Annals of
the Observatory " under his directorship, are a set of tables
of the planet Mercury (arranged with characteristic
neatness and ingenuity) ; brief papers in astronomical
journals and mlYiQ Proceedings of the American Academy
of Arts and Sciences. He was a native of Kentucky, and
the grandson of General Joseph Winlock, who entered
the American army at the beginning of the Revolutionary
War, and also served in the war of 181 2, and was a
member of the convention which drew up the constitu-
tion of the State of Kentucky.

INDIA MUSEUM, SOUTH KENSINGTON

THE India Museum, which was opened in South
Kensington last month, was founded by the Court
of Directors of the Honourable East India Company
in 1798. In i860 it was removed from Leadenhall Street
to Fyfe House, and in 1869 to the India Office. The
galleries of the Exhibition Building, in which it is now
temporarily lodged, have been leased from H.M. Com-
missioners for the Exhibition of 1851 for three years.
The lower gallery is devoted to Raw Products, and the
upper gallery to Manufactures. The present arrange-
ment of the India Museum Collections is to a large
extent only temporary, and fulfils mainly the purpose of
bringing them into view preparatory to their final classi-
fication. The preparation of Descriptive Catalogues will

go hand in hand with the completion of the different
groups.

A handy little penny Guide has in the meantime been
officially issued, which will be found of considerable
service in enabling the visitor to make a systematic
inspection of the large collections which have been for so
long stowed away in various cellars and ware-rooms in
the topmost story of the New India Office. Now that
this Museum has been brought " to the light of common
day," and that the public has a chance of estimating the
value of its treasures, we are sure that when the lease of
the Exhibition rooms expires, permanent accommodation
will be allotted to it, we hope in connection with an
India Institute so ably advocated by the Director of
the Museum, Dr. Forbes Watson. On four days of the
week the charge for admission is only one penny, and
sixpence on the other two days. We purpose at present
to give some account of the Botanical and Zoological
Collections in the Museum.

Room No. I is devoted to the commercial products
of the vegetable kingdom, with the mechanical appli-
ances associated with their cultivation, collection, or
preparation, and is under the superintendence of Dr. M,
C. Cooke. A complete collection of thete products is
exhibited in small tin cases with glass fronts, which are
arranged in metal frames, and suffice to give a general
view of the productions of the country. Supplemental to
this the principal trade articles receive special illustration
in a more extended manner in central cases. As this is
a new feature in the arrangement of this section, it will
take some time before it can be fully and properly deve-
loped. What has been done with cotton will in part
illustrate what is intended with other products. In this
instance the cotton is shown from all parts of India, at
first in the boll, then in the seed ; afterwards cleaned,
together with the seed and oil therefrom, with the waste
obtained in the processes of cleaning and spinning and
its economic applications. The processes of spinning are
next illustrated, with the resultant twists and yarns.
These are succeeded by grey and bleached cloth, printing
blocks, samples of dyed and printed fabrics, and coloured
yarns. Underneath these cases are arranged the agricul-
tural implements employed in the cultivation of cotton,
churkas and rollers for cleaning it from the seed, models
of spinning wheels and other appliances illustrating the
manipulation of the cotton fibre. Above the cases are
displayed drawings of the varieties of cotton plants, and
of the natives at work at the different processes through
which the cotton passes from the ploughing of the soil to
the complete woven fabric. By this mode [the whole
history of the progress of cotton from first to last is exhi-
bited at one view, or at least as much of it as could be
compressed within available space. Hitherto, although
agriculture, and especially its food products, has been
fully illustrated, forestry has not had by any means the
share which its importance demands. It is contemplated
therefore to expand this new division considerably by the
addition of collections of the timbers of the three presi-
dencies and of native states, each by itself, so as to show
the character of the forests in each division, accompanied
by maps and drawings or photographs of the trees.
The products of the forests, other than timber, will be
shown collectively for the whole of India, accompanied
by such diagrams, drawings, and statistical tables as may
be necessary ; and the fungoid pests and enemies of
arboriculture will also be illustrated. Already this illus-
trative mode of exhibition has commenced, but will evi-
dently proceed slowly, as diagrams, drawings, and tables
will have to be constructed, and probably some of the
illustrations must be obtained direct from India.

It may be remarked that Cinchona Bark from the
Neilgherry plantations, as well as from Kangra, has the
honour of a case to itself, and it is hoped that soon
another important drug recently introduced — Ipecacuanha

July 8, 1875]

NATURE

■93

— will be represented by samples grown in India. The
economic plants introduced into India must necessarily
form an important feature in its trade museum. Amongst
trees Eucalypti, the baobab, cork oak, mahogany, have
not as yet produced marketable results ; but tea, cinchona,
senna, nutmegs, pepper, cinnamon, cloves, barley, tapioca,
the Maranta arrowroot, Orleans and Egyptian cotton,
with their hybrids, Carolina rice, &c., are a few of the
instances in which the SHCcessfully introduced plants
have added, or promise to add, considerably to the
exports of India. In the development of the natural
resources of so vast a region undoubtedly much remains
to be accomplished. Passing through this room, a great
number of such unknown, undeveloped, or unappreciated
objects will not fail to impress themselves upon the atten-
tive observer. Surely with such vast forests, and a system
of conservation so steadily pursued, more ornamental
and furniture woods are destined to be exported than yet
find their way to the coast ; and there are at least sound
timbers _^little inferior to teak, such as Hopca odorata is
said to be, which require only to be more widely known
to be more generally appreciated. In resinous products
the European markets are as yet but little indebted to
the forests of India, but the copals here shown from
Hopca odoraia and Hopca 7nicrantha give considerable
promise. The wood oils produced by several species of
Dipterocarptcs, and the Burmese lacquer derived from
Melatwrrhcca tisitatissinia, might be obtained in large
quantities, and yet hitherto no practical application for
them in this country has been discovered. The latter is
employed to a very great extent in Burmah for lacquering
furniture and small wares, but it is unsuited for the Eng-
lish process.

Amongst the objects in this room of interest to the
botanist rather than to the general pubhc may be cited
the Tabashir, a sihceous secretion from the joints of the
bamboo ; the curious horn-shaped galls called Kakra-
singhec, produced on a species of RJms ; manna ob-
tained from Tamarix indica in the North-west Provinces,
and a kind of manna named Shirkhist from the Punjab,
attributed to the Frnximts Jloribuiida ; the resin some-
what resembling Elemi, derived from Boswellia Frercmia,
which the late Daniel Hanbury considered one of the
ancient kinds of Elemi, but which is disputed on good
grounds by Dr. Birdwood ; narcotic Indian hemp in
different forms, including the Churrus or hemp resin, and
various confections into which it enters ; the clearing
nuts which are employed by natives in clearing water,
and are the seeds of a species of Strychnos. To which
may be added the paper-like bark of Betttla bhojpatra,
used in Northern India as a wrapper for cigars ; the bark
of one of the species of Daphne, from which the re-
nowned Nepal paper is made, and the singular natural
sacks made of the bark of Ajttiaris saccidora.

The models of native implements associated with the
respective " products," drawings and photographs of the
mode of using them, the copious illustrations of plants
from whence useful substances are derived, and especially
the series of photographs of forest trees, are calculated
to increase the public interest in this collection, and add
to its usefulness, although these features are not yet deve-
loped to the extent or in the systematic manner which
they are intended to assume.

Rooms Nos. 4 and 5 contain the zoological collections,
under the superintendence of the assistant curator, Mr. F.
Moore. In it are comprised the various collections of
Mammals, Birds, Insects, &c., contributed by officers of
the old East India Company, whose names have been
distinguished by their labours in this branch of natural
history, of whom may be mentioned Buchanan, Cautley,
Finlayson, Hodgson, Horsfield, M'Clelland, Raffles, Rox-
burgh, Russell, Wallich, &c.

Commencing with the Mammals, in Room No. 5, the
various tribes have been so arranged in the several cases

that the visitor at a glance may see the principal species
in each group. From want of space, however, many of
the larger species are at present precluded from being
exhibited, and it is proposed to substitute photographs
and other illustrations of them.

Following in order come the Birds, which have also
been arranged in a similar manner, each group or tribe
being represented by prominent and characteristic species.

In this room are also deposited the cabinets of Insects,
several groups of which are provisionally exhibited in the
window recesses, as well as an unique collection of Indian
forest insect pests.

The tribes of Reptiles and Fish are shown in Room No,
4, and, though at present but few species are represented,
this section will shortly be enriched by the extensive and
valuable collections formed by the Inspector- General of
Indian Fisheries.

Supplemental to these groups, which are arranged in a
scientific series, these rooms contain an important collec-
tion of economic animal products, including an unique
series of the silk-producing insects, lac, honey-yielders, and
gall-making insects of India, and their several valuable
products, as well as groups of pearl-oysters, chanks, wools,
plumes, horns, ivory, &c.

For a series of fossils and plaster casts from the
Cautley and Falconer collections, as well as the collec-
tions of shells and Crustacea, no cases have as yet been
erected for their reception.

7" HE BIRDS OF GREECE*

'T^ HE third part of Mommsen's Griechische Jahres-
-*- zeiten is devoted to an article upon the birds of the
classical land, to our better knowledge of which Herr
Mommsen's work is intended to contribute— an article
which will be quite as interesting to naturalists as to the
scholars for whom the periodical in question is primarily
designed. The memoir is based upon the notes and
observations made during his long residence in Greece
and the adjoining parts of the Levant by Dr. Kriiper, a
naturalist well known to all students of European orni-
thology for his accurate and painstaking investigations of
the birds of those countries, and especially for his dis-
coveries of the breeding haunts of some of the rarer
species. Dr. Kriiper's notes have been further augmented
in value by the co-operation of Dr. Hartlaub, of Bremen,
one of the first of living ornithologists, who has con-
tributed the references to the previous authorities upon
each species, and a list of the existing memoirs relating
to the same subject, besides adding many extracts from
former writers to Dr. Kriiper's observations.

The total numbe-r of species of birds noticed by Dr.
Kriiper in the present memoir is 358, on each of which
notes of a more or less extended character are given.
The arrangement adopted for the sake of convenience is
that of Lindermayer's " Vogel Griechenlandes," published
at Passau in i860, and hitherto generally recognised as
the best authority upon Grecian ornithology. Dr. Kriiper's
memoir must now, however, be referred to as more com-
plete, and contains many recent additions to Linder-
mayer's list. We observe, however, that the work
extends into limits which cannot (at any rate at present)
be called Greece in its modern sense, as Dr. Kriiper's
recent discoveries in the neighbourhood of Smyrna of
such birds as Pious syriaciis, Siita krueperi, and Cos-
syp/ia qtitturalis are mtroduced into it. It is, how-
ever, a matter of great convenience to ornithologists to
have Dr. Kriiper's notes upon the Birds of Greece and
the Levant, many of which have been scattered through
the pages of half a dozen periodicals, reduced into order
under such excellent superintendence. Dr. Hartlaub's

* Griechische "Jahreszeiten ; unter Mitwerkurg Sachkiindiger, htraus-
gegeben von August Mommsen. Heft iii. Schleswig, 1875.

94

NATURE

\7uly 8, 1875

numerous references render the volume of still greater
value, and make it one that no naturalist who is interested
in the Birds of Europe should emit to consult.

NOTES
On July 5 the Sub-Wealden boring had reached the depth of
1,400 feet, and it is expected that this week it will have reached
1,500 feet. But this will have quite exhausted the funds of the
Committee, and Mr. Henry Willett appeals for more sub-
scriptions. "It cannot be too widely known," he states, "that
unless 2,000 feet be reached, the solution of the problem is as
far off as ever. We have met with nothing to show that
Palfcozoic rocks, as anticipated, may not lie at the estimated
depth." We are inclined to think that Mr. Willett is too
desponding in thinking that failure " seems to be imminent "
from want of funds. We are sure there are many wealthy men,
who, if the importance of the undertaking were properly repre-
sented to them, would come to the rescue and advance the
trifling sum necessary for the completion of the experiment.

On Saturday last. Sir George B. Airy, the Astronomer Royal,
was entertained at the Mansion House on the occasion of the
freedom of the City having been voted to him. A considerable
number of well-known scientific and other gentlemen were
present.

The Royal Commission on Vivisection held their first regular
meeting on Monday. The offices of the Commission are at
13, Delahay Street, Westminster,

In connection with the recent volcanic eruptions in Iceland,
which have caused great loss and much suffering to the inha-
bitants, the Times publishes the following abstract of a report by
the Very Rev. Dean Sigurd Gunnarsson, dated Hallormsstad,
in Mulasysla, April 24, 1875 : — "On Easter Monday, early in
the morning, loud rumbling noises were heard to the westward,
and apparently travelled towards the north-east, in the direction
of the mountain ranges bounding the valley of Fijotsdalsherad
to the north. Presently the sounds turned backward along the
southern mountains as well. The air was heavy and jet black
towards the north and north-east. About nine o'clock whitish-
grey scoriaceous sand began to fall from the sky, the particles
averaging the size of a grain, but in shape longer. The dark
column moved on nearer and nearer, and the darkness rapidly
increased, while the scoriaceous hail thickened at the same rate.
A full hour before noon candles had to be lighted in the houses,
and at noon the darkness was as dense as that of a windowless
house ; even abroad the fingers of the hand could not be distin-
guished at the distance of a few inches from the eye. This pitch
darkness lasted for about an hour. During the dark all glass
windows appeared like mirrors to those inside, reflecting the
objects on which the light fell as if they had been covered out-
side with a coat of quicksilver. For four consecutive hours it
was necessary to have lighted candles in the houses. During
all that time the ashes and the sand were falling thick and fast.
Lightning and claps of thunder were at the same time seen and
heard in rapid succession, and the earth and everything seemed
to tremble again. The air was charged with electricity to such
an extent that pinnacles, and staff-pikes of iron when turned into
the air, and even one's hands when held up, seemed all ablaze.
But the thunder differed from ordinary claps in this, that it tra-
velled in rapidly-repeated echoes across the skies. When the
darkness wore off the fall of the ashes abated. The dark column
now moved inland towards the upper valleys ; but, being there
met by a counter current of air, it remained at first stationary for a
while, and afterwards moved slowly down country again along
the valleys, so that once more the daylight was changed into
dusk, which was accompanied by the fall of fine ashes. After

the fall the earth was covered with a layer of ashes and scoriae
from I ^ inches to 8 inches deep ; coarsest where it lay thickest,
in many cases exhibiting pumice boulders twice as large as the
fist. In these places the ashes fell hot as embers on the ground.
At first the fall of the ashes was accompanied by a foul sulphurous
stink, which, however, very soon vanished. When the ashes
had any perceptible taste it was that of salt and iron. For three
days after the fall still weather prevailed, and the ashes lay
undisturbed on the earth. Before the fall of the ashes the land
was snowless and pasture plentiful ; but after it not a creature
could be let out of doors, and the sheep, if they were let out,
would run as if mad in all directioiis. On the fourth day a pretty
stiff south-west gale blew the ashes away from the hillocks and
mounds, except the finest part, which remained on the sward,
presenting the appearance of a compact scurf But what little
good this gale might have done was undone the next day by a
wind blowing from north-west."

The New York Tribune publishes additional information
respecting the disastrous earthquake in South America. The
locality where the earthquake occurred is the great coffee district
of South America, The region affected by the shocks covers
five degrees of latitude, and is 500 jmiles wide. The shock
extended in a north-east direction along the northern range of
the Andes, It was felt first very perceptibly at Bogota, the
capital of New Granada, thence seemed to travel north, gather-
ing intensity as it advanced, until it reached the south-east
boundary line of Magdalena, where the work of destruction
began, continuing as it advanced along the eastern boundary of
Magdalena, following the line of the mountain range, and
destroying in part or whole the cities of Cucuta, San Antonio,
El Bosario, Salazar, San Cristobal, San Cayetano, and Santiago.
The first premonition of the terrible visitation occurred on the
night of May 17, when a strange rumbling sound was heard
beneath the ground, although no earthquake occurred. It
travelled in the direction afterwards taken by the earthquake,
and lasted only a few minutes. On the morning of May 18 a
terrible shock occurred. It suddenly shook down the walls of
houses, tumbled down churches and the principal buildings,
burying the citizens of the place in the ruins. Another shock
completed the work of desolation. Three more shocks followed
of equal intensity, but there appears to be no evidence that there
were any openings in the earth, which on similar occasions have
engulfed buildings ani inhabitants, at least not in Cucuta. The
shocks, with lesser force, however, seem to have been felt
throughout the whole region of the earthquake for two days
afterwards, extending to Cartagena and the western sea-coast.
To add to the horror of the calamity, the Lobotera Volcano
suddenly began to shoot out lava in immense quantities, or, as a
correspondent writes, ' ' it sent out a mass of molten lava in the
form of incandescent balls of fire into the city. "

Details concerning Mr. Giles's exploration of the country
lying about 100 miles from the coast-line of the great Australian
Bight have come to hand (see vol. xii. p. 135). The country he
examined seems almost useless for pastoral purposes, the greater
part of it being dense scrub, "heavy red sand-hills with thick
mallee, mulga, acacia, ^Grevilles, casuaxina, hakea, and spinifex."
For 200 miles the greatest suffering was endured from the want
of water, the horses all dying, and the party only being saved by
the camels ; Mr. Giles speaks of the latter as " wonderful, awe-
inspiring, and marvellous creatures." He just touched the edge
of Lake Torrens, and from what he has seen he judges that
there exists a vast desert of scrub of a triangular form, the base
of which is at or near the western shores of the lake, and the
sides running north-westerly from the southern foot, and most
probably west from the northern cone to an apex at no great
distance from his starting-point, Youldeh. It consists of two

7tdy 8, 1875J

NATURE

195

deserts divided by a strip of open country about thirty miles
broad ; the western one Mr. Giles has named Richards' Desert,
and the eastern one Ross's Desert. His starting-point was
Youldeb, 135 miles N.N.W. from Fowler's Bay. At Pyleburg,
sixty-four miles from this, is an extraordinary native dam, and a
clay tank, with circular wall five feet high around it, the work
of the aborigines. Mr. Giles is confident of being able to cross
to the settled district of Western Australia.

Advices from New Zealand represent the last shipment of
salmon ova from Glasgow to that country as having arrived in a
worthless state. The total length of time during which the eggs
were packed on board ship was 121 days, or only nine days
longer than the period during which it has already been proved
by Mr. Bu ckland and Mr. Youl that the development of salmon
may be safely retarded by ice. A large quantity of the ice
remained till the end of the voyage, so that the temperature of
the ice-houses must have been kept very low throughout the
voyage. In fact it is said that the exterior of the packing never
exceeded 43° Fahr. The officers of the Otago Acclimatisation
Society state that microscopic examination proved that many of
the eggs were unfertilised : but this was not the case with all ;
and it is hardly to be supposed that so experienced a piscicul-
turist as Mr. Buckland, who had charge of the operations of
collecting and packing the eggs, could have improperly performed
so important a duty. It is more than probable that of the
large number of ova sent, many were handled by incompetent
assistants. But this theory will not explain the want of vitality
in the impregnated eggs, especially when the conditions for their
safe transit were so favourable. The cases in which they were
packed are described as "sodden," so that they did not suffer
from dryness. It is probable, therefore, that want of ventilation
was the cause of the failure of the experiment. It will be in-
teresting to receive more detailed information from New Zealand,
as our present advices hardly enable us to judge accurately of
the state of the whole consignment.

At the time of his death Dr. J. E, Gray had compiled a list
of the books, memoirs, and miscellaneous papers of which,
during his lengthy life, he had been the author. This Mr. J.
Saunders has completed and seen .through the press, a fitting
last service to his illustrious chief. The total number is
1,162.

There is no professional branch of practice which is so
much in need of elevation as the veterinary. On this account
we feel particular pleasure in noticing the commencing
number of a new monthly journal, the Veterinary yotirnal, con-
ducted by Mr. George Flemming, of the Royal Engineers, whose
valuable Manual of Veterinary Science and Police, as well as
his other contributions to veterinary science, make it certain that
the undertaking will not be found lacking in enterprise and the
outspoken criticism of existing abuses. Messrs. Bailliere, Tindall,
and Cox are the publishers.

The third part of the eleventh volume of the Transactions of
the Zoological Society consists of a monograph by Prof. Owen
on Cneiniornis cakitrans, the huge extinct Lamellirostral bird of
New Zealand. We omitted to mention in connection with the
preceding part of the same work that the monograph on the
Birds of the Philippine Islands is by Ixjrd Walden, President
of the Zoological Society.

The subscription for the families of the unfortunate aeronauts,
Sivel and Crocc-Spinelli, has reached 3,200/. A monument will
be erected by means of a special fund. The two aeronauts will
be represented sleeping, wrapped in a large mantle, and the
statue will be executed in marble, life size.

» A VERY valuable publication is the " Seventh Annual Report
on the Noxious, Beneficial, and other Insects of the State of

Missouri," made to the State Board of Agriculture by Mr. Charles
V. Riley, State Entomologist It argues considerable enlighten-
ment on the part of the Government of Missouri that they keep
a State Entomologist, though Mr. Riley complains that his work
is much hindered from want of sufficient funds. The necessity
for such an official in Missouri is proved by the fact that a single
insect, the Chinch Bug, filches nineteen million dollars from the
pockets of the farmers in a single year, and reduces by so much
the wealth of the State. "Yet, though the sum demonstrably
amounts to millions," Mr. Riley states, "many of our legislators
and some of our journalists would laugh at.me were I to ask for
an appropriation of five or ten thousand dollars to be expended
in experiments which might result in giving us a perfect, or at
least a much better remedy for the evil than any now in our posses-
sion, and thus save the whole or the larger part of this immense
annual loss." In cases, as with the Locust, the Chinch Bug,
the Cotton Worm, &c., where the evils are of a national cha-
racter, Mr. Riley rightly advocates the appointment of a National
Commission for the express purpose of their investigation, and
consisting of competent entomologists, botanists, and chemists ;
and we are glad to learn that preliminary^steps have been taken
by some of the leading scientific men in the United States to
memorialise Congress to create such a Commission, the members
to be chosen by the Council of the National Academy of Science,
and approved by the Secretary to the Treasury. The present
Report is wholly occupied with the following noxious insects : —
The Colorado Potato- Beetle, the Chinch Bug, the Flat-headed
Apple-tree Borer, Canker-worms, the Grape Phylloxera, and
the Rocky Mountain Locust.

The U.S. Smithsonian Institution has lately undertaken an
exploration which promises very important results in the interest
of American archjeology. It is well known that on some of the
islands off the south coast of California there have been found
some extremely interesting remains of prehistoric occupation on
the part of the aboriginal tribes of the country, these consisting
of stone implements in great variety, soap-stone bowls, bone and
shell ornaments, &c., forming a valuable collection already
obtained for the National Museum. With a view of exhausting
the locality and securing whatever may still remain of interest,
the services of Mr. Paul Schumacher, who had previously
explored the region, have been secured by the Smithsonian
Institution, and he left San Francisco early in May, with four
labourers, for the scene of action. The U.S. Treasury Depart-
ment gave him transportation on the revenue steamer Rttsh, and
the War Department supplied tents and camp equipage. It is
expected that this investigation will occupy several months, and
that the results will be almost as interesting in their relations to
American archaeology as those of Di Cesnola in Cyprus, and of
Schliemann in Troy, to that of the Old World. The special
object of this investigation is the furnishing of material for the
grand display to be made at the Centennial by the combined
efforts of the Smithsonian Institution and the Indian Bureau.

The Eighth Annual Report of the Trustees of Cambridge,
U.S., Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethno-
logy contains a memoir of Jeffries Wyman, the late Curator,
to whom Mr. F. W. Putnam has succeeded. The Report
contains besides some account of the additions made to the
Mviseum since last Report, which are extensive and valuable.
One of the principal additions is a collection of earthen dishes
and vases, a number of bone and stone implements and miscel-
laneous articles from mounds* near New Madrid, Missouri, and
several stone implements from various localities in that State,
collected by Prof. G. C. Swallow. This is a very important
collection, particularly rich in articles of pottery and stone of the
mound-builders. The Report contains a pretty full account of
these with many illustrations, especially of articles of pottery of
very varied and remarkable shapes. The mounds from which

196

NATURE

\7uly 8, 1875

they were taken appear very ancient ; soil has formed on them to
the depth of three feet, and thelargest trees grow on them and
the connected embankments or levees. Another large collection,
by Mr. F. W. Putnam, comes from fortifications, caves, and
mounds in Indiana and Kentucky, and consist of implements,
weapons, pottery, sandals, bark-cloth, crania, &c.

Mr. F, Clowes, B.Sc, has been appointed Natural Science
Master in the recently-established Middle Class Public School at
I^ewcastle-under-Lyne. Mr. Clowes is the author of a work on
Practical Analysis, and is well known as a sound and accurate
chemist.

Prof. C. F. Hartt, of Cornell, U.S., has been appointed,
with Major Continho, a Brazilian, to take charge of the Geolo-
gical Survey of Brazil.

It is estimated that 10,000,000 acres of land in Algeria are
covered with a spontaneous growth of the Alpha plant. The
exportation of this fibre for paper-making has increased very
rapidly during the past five or six years. In 1869 it amounted
to 4,000 tons, in 1870 it rose to 32,000 tons, and in 1873 to
45, 000 tons, while the past year's produce was expected to reach
60,000 tons. The average price at Oran is about 140 francs per
ton.

A VERY fine specimen of the singular rubiaceous epiphyte
Hydnophytum foi-micarium has recently been received at the
Kew Museum. This specimen measures some thirteen inches
through, and was accompanied by some of the ants which make
their nests in the fleshy tubers of the plant. These ants were
very lively when received, and prove to be the Ca7nponotus
irritans of Smith.

Prof. Bradley, of Knoxville, Tennessee, has recently pub-
lished the results of his geological labours among the Southern
Appalachians, and they throw much light upon the probable age
of the crystaUine rocks of that region. It has long been the
tendency of geologists to regard the metamorphic crystalline
rocks of the Atlantic coast as certainly pre-Silurian. This has,
however, been called in question by the observations of Prof.
Dana, which go to prove that the limestones and accompanying
schists and quartzites of Western New England are a// Silurian,
and not Huronian or Laurentian. Prof Bradley now claims the
same for the region he has investigated, that is, the western
portion of North Carolina, the eastern part of Tennessee, and
much of Georgia and Alabama. The evidence upon which the
conclusion is based is stratigraphical, and must be studied in
detail to be fully understood. The time at which the uplift and
metamorphism of this region took place is considered by Prof.
Bradley to have been post-carboniferous, and it is probably refer-
able to the close of the palaeozoic.

A VERY interesting and important addition to the ethnological
branch of the National Museum at Washington, U.S., has lately
been made in the form of a large collection of objects of stone
from Porto Rico. This was gathered from the ancient graves of
the island during a period of many years by Mr. George Latimer,
an American citizen residing in that place. The most notice-
able features in the series consist of about fifty oval stone rings
of much the size and shape of horse-collars, all variously carved
and ornamented. There are also many statuettes, carved heads,
triangular stones with faces of animals carved at either end,
some pottery, and numerous axes and chisels — some of exquisite
beauty, and polished to the highest degree. Many of them are
of the green jade so much sought after by archaeologists.

Mr. Elliot Stock sends us an essay by Mr. T. K. Callard,
F. G. S. , on * ' The Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of
Man reconsidered ;" being an attempt to show that man's anti-
quity is not so great as some eminent geologists make it to be.

and that ' ' man's advent was accompanied by the introduction
of a vast number of fresh forms both in the vegetable and animal
Ufe, and that this took place soon after a great devastation of the
former flora and fauna, which devastation was accompanied by
ice and water."

The Electric Nnus and Telegraphic Reporter '\% the title of a
new journal, edited by Mr. VV. Crookes, F.R.S., to be pub-
lished every Thursday. We wish it success.

The sturgeon fisheries of Schleswig Holstein yielded 1,917
fish during 1874, of which 1,355 were caught in the Elbe, and
562 in the Eider, In 1873 the total was 2,174.

M. A. Lancaster, of the Brussels Observatory, sends us a
paper, reprinted from the Bulletin of the Belgian Academy, on
the remarkable dryness of the months of February, March, and
April of this year.

Mr. Ellery's " Monthly Record of Results of Observations
in Meteorology, Terrestrial Magnetism," &c., at Melbourne
Observatory, for September and^Octoberj874, are to hand.

The latest additions to the Manchester Aquarium include
twelve Octopus ( Octopus vulgaris) from the Channel Islands ;
seven King, or Horse-Shoe Crabs {Linmlus polyphemus) from
North America ; twelve Large Spider .Crabs {Maia squinado)
from Devonshire ; two Lettered Terrapins {Emys scripta) from
New Orleans ; two Salt-water Terrapins {AIalac/de?iiys concen-
irica) from Mexico ; one Horned Toad or Crowned Tapaxaxin
{Phrynosoma cortiutum) from Mexico ; one Alligator {Alligator
mississipiensis) three feet long.

The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during
the past week include two Macaque Monkeys {Macacus cyno-
molgus) from India, presented by Lord Lindsay ; a Sloth Bear
{Melursus labiatus) from India, presented by Mr. Richard A.
Roberts ; three American Red Foxes {Canis fulvus) from N.
America, presented by Mr. Edward Darke ; a Peregrine Falcon
{Falco peregrinus), European, presented by Mr. H. J. Watson ;
a Water Viper {Cenchris piscivorus) from N. America, presented
by Mr. J. F. Painter ; a Gambian Goshawk {Astur tibialis) from
W. Africa, purchased ; three Indian Adjutants {Leptoptilus ar-
§ala), two Pondicherry Vultures ( Vuliur calvus), seven Indian
Cobras [Naia tripudians) from India, deposited ; six Trumpeter
Swans {Cygnus buccinator), a Common Fallow Deer {Datna vul-
garis) bom in the Gardens.

OUR BOTANICAL COLUMN

The Potato Disease. — It will be remembered by those of
our readers interested in the potato disease, that Lord Cathcart
offered a prize in 1873 for the best essay on the " Potato Disease
and its Prevention ; " and it will also be fresh in their memories
that of the ninety-four essays sent in, not one was considered by
the judges to deserve the prize. This circumstance, and Prof.
Dyer's summary of the history of what was known of the disease,
delivered before the Horticultural Society last year, gave rise to
some correspondence in this and other journals. Few subjects,
probably, have been so fertile a source of wild theories and
speculations, Mr. Eccles Haigh, one of the competitors for
Lord Cathcart's prize, now comes before the public on his own
responsibility, with a theory which at least has the merit of inge-
nuity, and is based upon a cleverly worked out idea. But it
seems to us that the writer has taken up a wholly untenable
position. In a pamphlet of forty-four pages, small octavo, the
writer traces the causes not only of the murrain, in which Perono-
spora infestans is so destructive, but also of the "curl," a disease
very prevalent just before the appearance of the present scourge ;
and, to his own satisfaction, explains how these diseases are to
be prevented. To be brief, gardeners are credited with having
induced by their mode of cultivation the " curl," and afterwards,
in getting rid of that, brought on the present far more formidable
scourge. Mr, Haigh endeavours to show that during the " curl '^

July 8, 1875]

NATURE

197

period the potato bore enormous crops of berries, whilst since
the prevalence of the murrain it has almost ceased flowering and
fruiting ; and in these facts (?) lies the whole gist of the matter.
The production of fruit in profusion is regarded as an exhausting
process so far as the tubers are concerned, and this is so far a
very philosophic assumption, inasmuch as fruit-bearing is one of
two ways to ensure the propagation of the plant. But here it
becomes necessary to give the author's view respecting the
"Functions of Nitrogenous Matter." It is in substance that
the formation of fruit draws the nitrogenous matter from the
plant and tubers, and when excessive crops of fruit are borne,
the tubers are left without sufficient of this vital principle to con.
tinue the existence of the plant. On the other hand, when little
or no fruit is produced, the tubers are left overcharged with this
nitrogenous matter, which here becomes a source of decomposi-
tion, in proof whereof we are gravely told that the decay of
manure is due to the presence of nitrogenous matter. It has
long been admitted that excessive luxuriance predisposes in
favour of disease ; but this assumed presence of nitrogenous
matter in the wrong place will hardly be accepted as an ade.
quate explanation of the phenomena presented by the curl and
the murrain. It is assumed that the potato left off bearing
berries just about the time of the appearance of the murrain,
and this we are told was brought about by the use of artificial
manures containing a large percentage of nitrogenous matter.
The " curl " was cured or rather prevented by using sets (tubers)
from plants which had not been allowed to ripen seed. We
have not space to examine the writer's arguments in support of
this theory, but we may give his remedy.

" Having so fully set forth the natural habit of the plant, and
JO copiously elucidated the principles on which my theory of the
disease is founded, the means of its prevention all but suggest
themselves. They require compHance with but two simple
forms : regenerate through the seed two or three times, and
abstain as nearly as practicable, not only from nitrogenous arti-
ficial manures, such as guano, sulphate of ammonia, rape- cake,
nitrate of soda, but also from strong farmyard manure."

We do not intend to attempt to refute the author in detail
here, as it would occupy too much space ; but we may observe
that the condition of practical experience imposed upon the
competitors for the Cathcart prize, of which our author com-
plains because it disqualified him, was the wisest provision in
the whole business. It is just this want of practical experience
and personal knowledge that has led him astray in regard to the
berry-producing power of varieties now cultivated, of the descrip-
tion of manure usually employed, &c. Why all varieties of the
potato in all parts of the kingdom should have become just so
much overcharged with nitrogenous matter at exactly the same
time as to take the disease is rather puzzling. Does the writer
not know that the Vine Mildew, Oidium Tuckeri, has been suc-
cessfully combated ?

Since the preceding lines were written, the report of a new (?)
disease having attacked the potato-crop has caused some con-
sternation and alarm. First we hear that it has destroyed the
entire crop of American varieties in the trial gardens of the
Horticultural Society at Chiswick ; then the appearance of the
same disease is observed in Northumberland, but here again only
American varieties are affected, and a vain hope is indulged in
that it may soon be stamped out. The following week, how-
ever, the horticultural journals begin to team with letters from
the most distant parts, and the unwelcome truth that all varieties
are alike attacked, or liable to be attacked, is forced upon us.-
True, we read of certain varieties being diseased, whilst others
remain healthy in the same garden, but we fear there is no
ground for believing that it is restricted to any particular varie-
ties, whether of English or American origin. The Rev. M. J.
Berkeley is investigating the nature of the disease, which he
regards with considerable anxiety. It appears to be caused by,
or perhaps succeeded by, a fungus growth. At all events a
fungus is present ; but we must await r thorough microscopical
examination for more precise information. Mr. Shirley Ilibberd,
in a letter to the editor of the limes, takes a more hopeful view
of the matter than we can ; and his description of the nature and
spread of the disease is not borne out by the reports from other
quarters. His statement that the new disease begins in the " set"
and progresses upwards, is in direct contradiction to the expe-
rience of others. In the Gardemr's Chronicle it is affirmed that
the sets of affected plants were cut in two, and in no case was
there the slightest evidence of disease in the tuber causing imma-
ture and diseased haulm. Possibly, however, it may manifest
itself in different forms.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

The Journal of the Chemical Society, April and May. — The
April number contains the following papers : — Researches on the
paraffins existing in Pennsylvanian petroleum, by Thos. M. Mor-
gan. This paper is followed by some remarks on the same subject
by Prof. C. Schorlemmer. — On Groves' method of preparing chlo-
rides, by the same. — A note on aricine, by David Howard.— On
the precipitation of metals by zinc, by J. L. Davies. The au-
thor failed to precipitate to any large extent many of the metals
which, according to some metallurgical books, are precipitated
by zinc from acid solutions. Copper and the other well-known
metals reduced by zinc precipitate well enough, but nickel,
cobalt, iron, &c., do not. If, however, ammonia was added to
their solutions the precipitating power of the zinc was rendered
as efficient as under ordinary circumstances it is with copper, &c.
The zinc was used in the shape of filings, and the author remarks
that the metals precipitated by it under the above circumstances
present a beautiful metallic appearance, and are in a weighable
form. — On the action of the organic acids and their anhydrides
on the natural alkaloids (Part HI.), by G. H. Beckett and C.
R. Alder Wright. The authors in this paper treat first of the
action of acetic anhydride on the polymerides of codeine and
morphine (dicodeine, tetracodeine, and tetramorphine being
considered, further also the action of ethyl iodide on tetraco-
deine and octacetyl-tetracodeine) j they then speak of isomeric
diacetyl morphines, and of the action of ethyl iodide onacetylated
morphine, codeine derivatives, ^and analogous products. The
compounds treated of in the latter division are diacetyl-codeine
ethiodide, tctracetyl-morphine ethiodide, a-, j8-, and 7- diacetyl*
morphine ethiodide, dibutyryl-codeine ethiodide, tetrabutyryl-
morphine ethiodide, dibutyryl-morphine ethiodide, dibenzoyl-
codeine ethiodide, tetrabenzoyl-morphine ethiodide, and o dia-
cetyl-dibenzoyl-morphine ethiodide. Finally, there is an
account of the action of ethylate of sodium on acetylated
codeine and morphine. — The Journal, as usual, contains nume-
rous abstracts from other serials. — The May number contains the
following papers : — Further researches on bilirubin and its com-
pounds, by Dr. J. L. W. Thudichum. This is a most elaborate
paper, and we must refrain from entering on its details, confining
ourselves to a mere outline of its contents. First, the author
gives an account of the behaviour of bilirubin with the halogens,
and in turn speaks of mono- and dibromo-bilirubin, the tri- and
tetrachloro-bilirubin (with iodine there is no reaction at 80° to
100°). Then Dr. Thudichum proceeds to consider the operations
made by chemists on bilirubin, prior to his own. He then
describes some experiments bearing upon the alleged transforma-
tion of bilirubin into the colouring matter of urine, and treats of
Maly's hydrobilirubin, urochrome spectra, and the spectra of the
chemolytic products of bilirubin. We then have an account of
experiments made with Jaffe's product, with which Maly com-
pared his biliary product more particularly. Jaffe's product was
obtained from febrile persons, and Dr. Thudichum points out
that a source of error must here be eliminated, namely, the
abnormal product urerythrin. He gives the spectrum and a new
reaction of this compound ; finally, there is a note on Jaffe's
urobilin. The paper ends with a summary of conclusions against
the alleged metamorphosis, and with some remarks on the
author's theory of bilirubin and bilirubates, and on Stiideler's
hypothesis regarding the same. — On calcic hypochlorite from
bleaching powder, by Charles T. Kingzett. This treatise turns
on the chemical constitution of bleaching powder, on which sub-
ject the opinions of eminent chemists are at variance. The
author describes four experiments which he made with a view to
bring light into the matter, but he was not completely successful.
Although his experiments may be regarded as a perfect proof of
the body being in mass hypochlorite of calcium, yet he is never-
theless reluctant in being too positive on the subject, and recom-
mends further investigation. — On a simple method of assaying
iron, by Walter Noel Plartley. The principles on which this
method depends are (i) The abolition of weights by exactly
balancing a quantity of the ore to be examined against pure iron
wire. (2) The reduction of inaccuracies in weighing by making
the solutions of the iron and the ore up to the same volume, and
taking a fraction (about jV) of the liquid for experiment, whereby
the error of the balance is diminished j^. (3) The reduction of
all other experimental errors to a minimum by putting com-
parable quantities of both ore and pure iron under precisely the
same conditions. There is the usual number of abstracts in this
part. .

198

NATURE

\July 8, 1875

The Geographical Magazine, July. — This is a particularly in-
teresting number of this magazine. The first article is an abstract
of the narrative of Captain the Hon. G. C. Napier, who has
recently returned to India after an adventurous tour in Northern
Persia. An article on ' ' Recent Russian Explorations in Western
Mongolia," accompanied by a map, gives some account of (i)
Sosnovski's and Miroshnichenko's explorations on the Upper
Irtysh in 1872-73 ; (2)Matusovski's journey into the Ektag- Altai
in 1873 ; (3) A Russian caravan journey to Kobdo, Uliassutai,
and Baikul in 1872. In an article on Paraguay the leading
features of the history of that country are traced. In " A Trip
up the Congo or Zaire " river, Selim Agha gives an interesting
account of his joui-ney from Fernando Po to that river in com-
pany with Capt. Burton ; the latter prefaces the narrative with
a few words of personal notice of his old factotum and com-
panion. To those whose interest in Zanzibar has been awakened
by the present visit of its sovereign to this country, the account
of the dominions of the Seyyid Burghash, along with the good
map which accompanies it, will be welcomed. The usual reviews
and reports fill up the number.

Journal of Proceedings 0/ the Winchester and Hampshire
Scientific and Literary Society, vol. i. part iv., 1874. — We are
glad to see from the president's address that this Society is doing
much real work, and especially that it is devoting itself with
considerable zest and good lesults to field-work. The Society
includes in its programme a wide variety of subjects, aiid its
Journal contains good papers in various departments of science.
The president, the Rev. C. Collier, after reviewing tlie Society's
work for the year, gives an interesting address on the archfeology
of Winchester and its neighbourhood. Other papers in the part
are "Selections from the Sanskrit Poets," by Mr. W. Water-
field ; " Sarsens, grey wethers, or Druid Stones," by Mr. Joseph
Stevens; " Two- winged Plagues," a paper on CKstrids, Tabanids,
and Hippoboscids, by the Rev. W. W. Spicer ; "The Chalk
Formation," by Mr. C. Griffith j and "A Gossip about Mites,"
by the Rev. W. W. Spicer.

Zeitschrift der Oesterreichischen Gesellschafi fiir Meteorologie,
May I. — This number contains an account of Mr. Colding's
work on the behaviour and relations of atmospheric currents,
consisting mainly of mathematical reasoning based upon a study
of the movements of water, which he considers analogous to
those of air. With regard to hurricanes, he observes that just as
in a water eddy the velocity of rotation increases from the cir-
cumference towards the centre, until at the inner surface it be-
comes imaginary, so the velocity of the wind increases from the
circumference of a revolving storm towards the centre, but at a
certain distance from the centre, the boundary of the calm space,
falls suddenly to stillness. He beheves the following formula,
which applies to water, to be good for air also, both being
bounded by a resisting medium. Let water circulate in a
cylinder, where // = depth of current at the circumference,
V ~ velocity_of,current at the surface ; then at a depth x below
the surface :

».=;.(. -o.433(i)')

when the resistance at the base is equal to that which would be
exercisedby a substratum of water. If water flows in at one
point in- "a vessel containing water, and flows out at another
point, and the inflowing and outflowing quantities are equal, the
surface remains at a constant level. Let the supply be in the
middle and the outflow round the circumference, the water will
descend towards the circumference. If the contained water be
rotator)', its condition will be similar when a constant stream
flows in ; there will be an increase of pressure at all points, and
the water will attain a higher level, descending in the directions
of its escape. A whirlwind can withstand pressure from without
only when the rotation has a certain velocity, and although a
considerable quantity of air must flow to the whirlwind along the
surface of the earth, on the other hand a permanent current must
flow outwards in the direction of the surface level. In moving oyer
the surface of the earth it encounters many obstacles, v/hich
reduce the velocity of rotation, so that an inrush of the air at
higher pressure takes place, and immediately the condensed air
in the lower strata forces outwards a quantity of air at the top
proportionate to that which streams towards the centre below.
This action of course diminishes the fury and increases the
diameter of a hurricane, and exhibits the twisting motion so
often observed in small whirlwinds and waterspouts. The rest of
the article will be given in the next number of the Zeitschrift.

Der Naturforscher, May 1875. — From this part we notice the
following papers : — On the atomicity of nitrogen, by Victor
Meyer and M. Lecco. These gentlemen arrive at the conclusion
that nitrogen is not a triad, as thought by some chemists, but a
pentad.— On the process of fertilisation with fungi (Basidiomy-
cetes) by Van Tieghem. — On the evaporation of moisture
through the human skin, by Fried. Erismann. — On the cause of
luminosity or non-luminosity of carboniferous flames, by F.
Wibel. — On the artificial imitation of native polar-magnetic
platinum, by Daubree. — On the tenor of nitrogen in soil-acid, by
E. Simon. — On the behaviour of some solutions in polarised
light, by O. Hesse. — On the marine flora existing at Spitzber-
gen during winter, by Herr Kjellman. — On the temperatures
in the southern and northern Atlantic Ocean, by Herr von
Schleinitz. — On melting points, by Herr Midler. — On the de-
pendence of the action of emulsine upon physical conditions, by
Herren E. Marckurst and G. Hiifner. — On hardened glass, by
Herr Bauer, — On the so-called " Riesenkessel " (gigantic kettles)
near Christiania and their origin, by Herren Brogger and Reusch.
— On the immunity of Gytnnotus electricus against its own electric
shock, by Herr J. Steiner. — On the influence of light on the weight
of animals, by Dr. Fubini. — On the dependence of the specific heat
of carbon, boron, and silicon upon temperature, by Friedrich
Weber. — On the action of the central organs of the nerves, by
Herr Frensberg. — On the spectrum of Encke's comet, by Herr
von Konkoly. — On the action of the electric current on fused
amalgama and alloys, by Eugen Obach.

Monthly Notices of Papers and Proceedings of the Royal
Society of Tasmania for 1873. — This has only just come to hand,
and the subject matter of some of the papers has lost in interest,
inasmuch as some of the phenomena discussed- — the Transit of
Venus, for instance — have since taken place. Mr. F. Abbot's
paper on the Transit of Venus, with special reference to the
importance of determining the true distance of the sun in con-
nection with meteorology, is a most interesting contribution.
Speaking of the effects of conjunctions, he alludes to the
fearful storm which took place Nov. 27, 1703, when five
of the planets were in conjunction. The storm swept over
the continent of Europe, causing an immense amount of
damage. It was on that day the whole structure of the first
Eddystone Lighthouse, together with its architect, Winstanley,
and other inmates, was blown into the ocean. — The principal
other contributions are on the Mersey coal-measures, by T.
Stephens, M.A. ; on the Tertiary Beds in and around Laun-
ceston, by R. M. Johnston ; Contributions to the Phytography
of Tasmania, by Baron F. Mueller ; and Law of Weather and
Storms, by the Right Rev. Bishop Bromby.

Reale Istituto Lombardo. — Rendiconti : vol. viii., fasc. x. and
xi. — These parts contain the following papers :— On scientific
association, by Prof. G. Sangali. — On the " Jaborandus," by
Prof. S. Garovaglio.— On the importance of the study of meteor-
ology to agrici3turists, by Prof. Gaetano Cantoni. — On the
reasons why sulphur destroys the Oidio (a cryptogamic parasite)
of the vine, and on the emission of free hydrogen from plants, by
Prof. E. Pollacci.— On two questions relating to chimneys, by
Prof. R. Ferrini. — On hydrostatic pressure in relation to the
molecular motion of gravitation, by Dr. G. Grassi. — The re-
maining papers in this part relate to political and moral
sciences.

The Journal de Physique Theorique et AppUquie, May 1875,
contains the following original paper? : — Researches on the
modifications which light undergoes in consequence of the
motion of the luminous source and of that of the observer, by
M. Mascart. — On the currents of mechanical origin, by E.
Bouty. — On the combustion of explosive mixtures, by M.
Neyreneuf. — ^On the apparatus used for the explanation of the
laws and formula of elementary optics, by C. M. Gariel. — On
the determination of the electric capacity of bodies and of their
condensing power by means of Thomson's electrometer, by M.
A. Turquen. — A note by M. C. Daguenet, on the electric light
in rarefied gases.

Verhandlungen des Vereins fiir Naturwissenschaftliche Unter-
haltungzu Hamburg, 1871-74. — This is the Vereins' first publi-
cation, and contains an account of the formation and of the first
year's doings of the Society, together with a copy of the laws
and regulations, and a list of members. Further on we have
several well-written articles, viz. : — On the preparation of cater-
pillars for collections, by G. J. Wittmack. — On some attempts
at silk -culture with j5^/w^>'.y mori, by Georg Semper. — Researches

7uly%, 1875]

NATURE

199

on the effects of trichina; on white rats, by C. Rodig. — On a
method of preparing slugs for dry keeping in collections, by F.
Hiibner. — Geological recollections of a few weeks at Weymouth,
by Dr. Filby.— Some remarks on CypraeiT, by Dr. Aug. Sutor.
On the honioptera of Schlcswig, by Dr. H. Benthln. —Finally,
there are a number of papers relating to the fauna of the Lower
Elbe, some of which are highly interesting.

The March number of the Bulletin de la SocietS d'Acclimata-
Hon de Paris contains, among other papers, one by M. E.
Renard, on a new kind of bamboo, and the articles made from
the canes of this species of plant. This particular variety is
square, and is found in the Chinese provinces of Ilonan and
Se-tchuen. — M. le Comte Pouget, in a note on the Kagou,
describes a new bird known by that name in New Caledonia, of
which it is a native, and called Rhynochetos jubatus by ornitholo-
gists. The bird is entirely insectivorous, feeding on almost every
kind of insects and worms, and appears to thrive in the climate
of France. — M. Gildas, a priest in the monastery of Notre
Dame de la Trappe des Trois Fontaines, near Rome, gives a
description of the growth of Eucalyptus trees in the Roman
Campngna ; the salubrity of the locality has, partly in conse-
quence of sanitary works, and partly probably in consequence
of the effect of these trees, been greatly increased of late years.
— The Colorado potato beetle {Doryphora decemlineatd) is being
made the object of special research by members of the Society.
M. Maurice Girard states that as this insect does not exist always
in close contact with the plant on which it lives, it will probably
suffer from the change of climate to which it is subjected by
transportation from America to Europe, and will consequently
die off. Had it been, like the Phylloxera, an insect living
always closely fixed to the tree on which it preys, there would
have been greater danger of its permanent introduction into
other coimtries.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

London
Anthropological Institute, June 22.— Col. A. Lane-Fox,
president, in the chair. — A paper by Mr. Herbert Spencer was
read on the comparative psychology of man. The author com-
menced by showing the necessity for division of labour in a sys-
tematic study of psychology, and proceeded to map out the sub-
ject into divisions and subdivisions, and to indicate the manner
in which its various branches might be investigated. The main
divisions were — mental mass and complexity, the rate of deve-
lopment, plasticity, variability, impulsiveness, difference of sex,
the sexual sentiment, imitation, quality of thought, peculiar
aptitudes, with their many subdivisions. Mental effects of mix-
ture, and the inquiry how far the conquest of race by race has
been instrumental in advancing civilisation, would also come
within the scope of comparative psychology. — Mr. John Forrest
read an account of the natives of Central and Western Australia,
whom he had observed during two journeys he had made across
the country from Western to South Australia. Among their
customs might be mentioned that of tattooing on the shoulders,
back, and breast, and the practice of boring noses, which is
raised to the importance of a ceremony, when hundreds of indi-
viduals gather together for that object. Circumcision he found
to be universal. The use of the boomerang was described, and
the exaggerated statements concerning the manipulation of the
weapon were corrected. Cannibalism was common among the
natives of the interior. Many other descriptive details of their
faith, manners, and customs were given. — A paper by Capt.
John A. Lawson was read on the Papuans of New Guinea.
The only part of the coast that the author examined was Houl-
tree, and there, as in the interior, he met with a race of people
dissimilar to those described by other travellers who have visited
various parts of the coast. There was a marked diversity in
stature ; in the south of the island the people were shorter than
those inhabiting the north. They were possessed of enormous
muscular power, and showed a large thoracic development.
Their complexion was a dark tawny, but not black, and their
fcatiues were of Negroid type.

Royal Horticultural Society, June 2. — Scientific Com-
mittee.— J. D. Hooker, M.D., C.B., P.R.S., in the chair.—
Prof. Thiselton Dyer made some further remarks on letranychus
Taxi, A.Murr., which he thought did not attack the ordinary buds
of the Yew, but, as far as he had observed, those containing the
female flowers. The acarus appeared to feed on the nucleus of

the ovule and the adjoining scales, the external scales became
brown and withered.— The Rev. M. J. Berkeley showed speci-
mens of /y^'/^^^'/^w octraceum, which was figured by Bulliard, tab.
444. fig- 3' It bad been referred by Fries to Lophuim inytilimim,
but was really, as Sowerby was aware, the, cocoon of a midge.
Mr. Berkeley had met with similar cocoons belonging to other
species, and Prof. Westwood was understood to be preparing
descriptions of all three.— Prof. Thiselton Dyer exhibited
specimens ^of the capsules of Hibiscus Rosa-simnsis, which,
though the'plant was so common in gardens, were quite unde-
scribed. According to Dr. Cleghorn, it rarely if ever /ruited in
India, In Barbados, on the other hand, it fruited abundantly
in the garden of General Munro.— Mr. Andrew Murray read a
paper on the packing of living plants for transport.— Prof.
Thiselton Dyer called attention to Willkomm's "Die mikro-
scopischen Fcinde des Waldes," in which the Larch-canker was
shown to be due to the attacks of the so-called " Corticium
amorphum," since described by Hartig as Feziza IVillkommii.

General Meeting.— W. Burnley Hume in the chair.— The Rev.
M. T. Berkeley called attention to the more interesting objects
exhibited. The young shoots of apple-trees were liable 10 great
injury from an Oidium, which might, however, be destroyed by
the use of sulphur ; specimens were exhibited.

June 16.— Scientific Committee.— A. Murray, F.L.S., in the
chair. — A letter was read from the Hon. Secretary of the Wilt-
shire Horticultural Society relating to some diseased potatoes,
upon which Mr. Berkeley remarked that he had recently found the
American varieties at Chiswick, especially the Early Rose,
dreadfully affected with disease, communicated from the tuber
to the haulm. Mr. Berkeley had hitherto been only able to make
a superficial examination, but he suggested that possibly the
disease in question was analogous to the "curl," a disease well
known many years ago, but since then not noticed. He had
found in the cells of the leaf an obscure fungoid organism — a
species of Protomyces. — Mr. Bateman exhibited a package of
the Paraguay tea. Ilex Paraguay ensis, together with the gourd
and strainer used by the natives in the preparation of this tea, as
figured in Hooker's Journal of Botany many years since. — Mr.
W. G. Smith exhibited a drawing of the mould {Ascomyces
deformans) which is associated with the Peach blister. — Dr.
Masters exhibited on the part of the Rev. H. N. Ellacombe a
portion of the main root of an apple nearly gnawn through by
the Water Vole. Dr. Masters also showed Cheiranthus Cheiri
var. gynantheriis, to show that the peculiarity was reproduced
from seed. — Dr. Hooker sent for exhibition the nest of a trap-
door spider found ^in the bark 'of a tree at Uitenhage, Port
EUzabeth, South Africa, where it was obtained by Mr. Bidwell,
a member of the Legislative Assembly of Cape Town, The
nest and the lid were so nearly like the bark itself that it was
with difficulty the lid could be seen, and it was with some diffi-
culty that the lid could be raised, as the insect was still within
the nest. Mr. Murray suggested that the spider had taken
possession of the empty cocoon of a moth (Bombyx), and had
woven a lid to it with silk and fragments of bark.

General Meeting. — Hon. and Rev. J. T. Boscawen in the
chair. — The Rev. M. J. Berkeley gave an account of the new
potato disease, which he identified (as mentioned above) with
that formerly known as the "curl."

Philadelphia
Academy of Natural Sciences, Sept. 22, 1874. — Dr.
Ruschenberger, president, in the chair. — Prof. Leidy remaikcd
that he had found several specimens of the curious rhizo-
pod, discovered by Cienkowski, and named by him Clathruliua
ele^ans. They were found among Utricularia, but though
retaining their stems, were unattached and apparently dead.
One of the specimens presented a peculiar and as yet un-
explained character. On one side of the latticed head the
orifices were capped with little inverted hemispherical cups,
from the top of which projected a funnel like the cup of the
spongozoa. Prof. Leidy was pursuing his search for the living
and attached Clathrulina.— Prof. Leeds made some remarl^
concerning a remarkable mineral found in a bank of white sand
near Fayetteville, N.C. It was, in appearance, a rod of glass
four feet in length and two inches in diameter, wliich was nmde
up of a great number of irregular fragments. These fragment*
were highly polished on one side, the side apparently turned
towards the hollow axis of the rod, and excessively contorted
on the exterior side. They consisted almost eniirely of si lex,
the remainder being chiefly oxide of iron. Accurate analysis
showed that the percentages of the constituents in these siliceous

200

NATURE

[July 8, 1875

fragments and in llie sand found in the hollow core of the rod
were the same. On account of this identity in composition, and
the incompetency of any other known agent to produce such a
fusion of almost pure si'ex, it was concluded that this "rod of
glass " was a result of lightning — a lightning-tube, or fulgurite,
as such products have been called. — Mr. Thomas Meehan re-
ferred to a former conimunication in which he exhibited speci-
mens of Euphorbia cordata, or E. huviistrata, collected by him
in the Rocky Mountains, and which, normally procumbent, had
assumed an erect habit on being attacked by a fungulus, Aici-
dium eupJiorbicc hypericifolicv. He now found that the common
trailing Euphorbia of our section, E, inaculata, when attacked
by the same fungulus, assumed the same erect habit. With
change of habit of growth there was a whole change in specific
character in the direction of E. hypcricifolia.

Sept. 29. — Dr. Ruschenberger, president, in the chair. — On
favourable report of the committee to which it was referred, the
following paper was ordered to be printed : — " Notes on the Santa
Fe Marls, and some of the contained Vertebrate Fossils," by
E. D. Cope.

Oct. — Mr. Thomas Meehan introduced a specimen in which
plants ot Triticitm and Broiims were blended. This Dr. J. G.
Hunt proved to have been a " cheat ; " neither did he think the
workman had been expert in his manipulation. — Mr. Redfield
drew attention to the growth, near Delaware River, o{ Folygoniim
orientale SinA Cleovie ptmgens, which Prof. Leidy traced to ballast
deposited there. The lastnamed author then drew attention to
g me new species oiDifflugia. — Mr. Meehan announced th» dis-
covery ol Abies concolor in Glen Eyrie, Colorado, by Dr. Engel-
mann ; and Prof. Leidy drew attention to the devastation of
the oaks of New Jersey, by the Dryocampa senatoria.

Nov. — Mr. A. R. Grote presented a paper on a new species
of NocteridiZ, describing as new genera and species Acronycta
exilis, A. paiipercula, Eutolype, Himella, &c. ; and Prof. Cope
described some ruins of villages of extinct races near Nacimiento,
N.M.- — Prof. Leidy, besides referring to Titatioiherium, drew
attention to several Protozoa which he was studying, including
species of Clathriilina elegans, Amceba viridis, &c.— Prof. P.
Frazer, jun., described the geology of certain lands in Ritchie
and Tyler Counties, W.V. ; and Dr. Elliott Cones read a
synopsis of the Mnridis of North America, dividing the Murince
into the genera Mus, Neoioma, Sigmodon, Hesperomys (Water-
house, emend.), Ocheloden (n.g.) ; and the ArvicoUnai into Evo-
loniys (n.g.), Ai'vicola, Synaptomys, Myodcs, Cuniculus, and
Fiber.

Vienna

K. K. geologische Reichsanstalt, Jan. 5. — This was a festival
meeting in celebration of the 25th anniversary of the foundation of
this institution. No scientific papers were read. From those read at
the subsequent meetings, Jan. 19, Feb. 16, March 2 and 16, we
note the following : — Geological report from travellers in Persia,
by Dr. E. Tietze.— On the Aralo-Caspian basin, by Dr. M. Neu-
mayr. — On some pseudomorphous copper ores from the Ural, by
E. Doll. — On well-sinking in the Vienna district, by T. Fuchs.
— On Tertiary stone forma ions in Carniola, by the same.— On the
formation of terra rossa, by Dr. Neumayr. — On a new occurrence
of manganic peroxide in Lower Styria, by Dr. R. v. Drasche. — On
the gneiss formation of the Bohemian forest, by Dr. J. Woldrich.
— On the i geological results of the railway diggings between
Rakonitz and Beraun, by H. Wolf. — On the occurrence of
antimony near Eperies, by L. Manderspach. — On the ores of
Laurion in Attica, by A. Schlehan. — On sorrte new silver ores
from Joachimsthal, by J. v. Schrockinger. — On the lime of the
Acropolis of Athens, by Dr. M. Neumayr. — On the environs of
Predazzo and on the Monzoni mountains, by Dr. C. Doelter. —
On the interior structure of the Offenbanya mining district and
on that of the Boitza district, by F. Posepny. — On some petrifac-
tions from the Kalnik mountains, by Dr. R. Homes. — On some
slaked stone mounds in Bohemia, by Dr. J. Woldrich.

Paris

Academy^' jOf Sciences, June 28, — M. Fremy in the chair. —
The president welcomed M. Janssen in the name of the
Academy on his return to Paris, and M. Janssen made some
remarks in reply. — The following papers were read : — On the
explanation of numerous phenomena which are consequences of
old age, by M. Chevreul.— On the work in course of execution
at the Observatory, by M. Leverrier. Among other observations
it is proposed to carry on a series with a view to constructing
magnetic and meteorological charts of France. — Magnetic obser-

vations made in the Peninsula of Malacca, by M. Janssen. The
observations were undertaken with a view to fixing the present
position of the magnetic equator, which the author found to pass
between Ligor and Singora. A meridian was found also in
which the magnetic declination was C. This note is dated from
Singapore, May 16. — On the distribution of magnetism in a thin
bar of great length, by M. J. Jamin. — On the cyclone at
Chalons ; second examination of facts and conclusions, by M.
Faye. — On the distribution of an acid among several bases in
solutions, by M. Berthelot. — On the hydrocarbons produced by
the distillation of the crude fatty acids in presence of super-
heated steam, by MM. A. Cahours and E. Demarcay. The
authors found in a sample of oil from Fournier's stearine candle
factory the following hydrocarbons : amyl, liexyl, and heptyl
hydrides ; likewise the hydrides of octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl,
duodccyl, and cetyl. — Note on tabular electro-magnets with
multiple cores, by M. T. du Moncel. —Note accompanying the
presentation of the first volume of the " Analytical and Experi-
mental Demonstration of the Mechanical Theory of Heat," by
M. Hirn. — Influence of compressed air on fermentation, by
M. P. Bert. — Memoir on the earth's motion of rotation, by M.
E. Mathieu. — Study of electric discharges through fine metallic
wires, by M. Melsens. — On the influence of magnetism on the
extra current, by M. Trene. — Chemical equivalence of the
alkalies in the ashes of various vegetables, by MM. Champion
and H. Pellet. — On the presence of hydrogen dioxide in the sap
of vegetables. — On the work of the expedition commissioned to
study the project of a central sea in Algeria, by AL Roudaire. —
Solar parallax deduced from the combination of the Noumea
with the Saint-Paul observations, by M. C. Andre. — On the
numerical values of the musical intervals in the vocal chromatic
gamut, by M. Bidault. — New sounding flames, by M. C.
Decharme. — Action of chlorine on isobutyliodhydric ether, by
M. Prunier. — On the portative force of M. Jamin's magnets, by
M. A. Sandoz. — New apparatus relating to respiration, by M. G.
Carlet. — Of the influence of the noxious Solanacecc in general,
and of belladonna in particular, on Rodents and Marsupials, by
M. E. Heckel.

BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

American. — The Birds and Seasons of New England: Wilson Flagg
(Triibner and Co.) — Annual Kepjrt of ttie Board of Regents of the Smith-
sonian Institution (Washington).— Important Physical Features exhibited in
the Valley of the Minnesota River. An Essay, by G. K. Warren (Washing-
ton).— Proceedings of the American Philo.?ophical Society. — Transactions of
the Academy of Science of St. Louis. Vol. iii. No. 2.— Bulletin of the Essex
Institute, 1874.— Report of the Geological [Survey of Missouri, U.S., and
Atlas to same

Foreign. — Notizblatt des Vereins fur Erdkunde. ate Folge, i3tes Heft
(Darmstadt) — Nach den Victoriafallen des Zambesi, von Eduartl Mohr.
2 vols. (Berlin, Ferdinand Hirt und Sohn).

CONTENTS pacb

Holland's "Fragmentary Papers." By Prof. W. Stanley Jevons,

F.R.S .181

Ure's " Dictionary OF Arts" 182

Drummond's " Large Game OF South Africa" 182

Brush's " Determinative Mineralogy." By Dr. Charlks A.

Burghardt 183

Our Book Shelf: —

Barff's " Elementary Chemistry " 185

Latcuche's " Travels in Portugal" 18=;

Letters to the Editor:—

Temperature of the Body in Mountain Climbing.— Dr. Tempest

Anderson » 186

Trcvandrum Magnetic Observations —John Allan Broun . .186

Anomalous Behaviour of Selenium.— J. E. H. Gordon .... 187

The House-fly.— W. Cole 187

Tlieories of Cyclones. — Joseph John Murphy 187

The Dark Argus Butterfly. — John Hodgkin, jun 187

Meteorological Phenomenon.— HENRy Norton 188

Our Astronomical Column : —

Sufi's Description of the Fixed Stars 188

Solar Radiation and Sun-spots. By H. F. Blanford .... 188

Science IN Germany (WzM ///j<i/raAo«) 189

Fertilisation of Flowers by Insects, XI. By Dr. Hermann

^lvLi.n-R {IViik Illustrations) 190

Joseph Winlock 191

India Museum, South Kensington 193

The Birds of Greece 193

Notes 194

Our Botanical Column : —

The Potato Disease 196

Scientific Serials 197

Societies and Academies 199

Books and Pamphlets Received . . . i . 200

^3^la^& cJ/aM^^^ c^^-

cy^^t

Snf^i^^.^^/ 4r/ '^'^^^fi^-mf^s^M

NATURE

201

THURSDAY, JULY 15, 1875

SCIENTIFIC WORTHIES

v.— George Gabriel Stokes

A GREAT experimental philosopher, of the age just
-^^ past, is reported to have said, " Show me the scien-
tific man who never made a mistake, and I will show you
one who never made a discovery." The implied inference
is all but universally correct, but now and then there
occur splendid exceptions (such as are commonly said to
be requisite to prove a rule), and among these there has
been none more notable than the present holder of
Newton's chair in Cambridge, George Gabriel Stokes,
Secretary of the Royal Society.

To us, who were mere undergraduates when he was
elected to the Lucasian Professorship, but who had with
mysterious awe speculated on the relative merits of the
men of European fame whom we expected to find com-
peting for so high an honour, the election of a young and
(to us) unknown candidate was a very startling pheno-
menon. But we were still more startled, a few months
afterwards, when the new professor gave public notice
that he considered it part of the duties of his office to
assist any member of the University in difficulties he
might encounter in his mathematical studies. Here was,
we thought (in the language which Scott puts into the
m.outh of Richard Coeur de Lion), " a single knight, fight-
ing against the whole jnclee of the tournament." But we
soon discovered our mistake, and felt that the under-
taking was the effect of an earnest sense of duty on
the conscience of a singularly modest, but exceptionally
able, and learned man. And, as our own knowledge gra-
dually increased, and we became able to understand his
numerous original investigations, we saw more and more
clearly that the electors had indeed consulted the best
interests of the University ; and that the proffer of assist-
ance was something whose benefits were as certain to be
tangible and real as any that mere human power and
knowledge could guarantee.

And so it has proved. Prof. Stokes may justly be
looked upon as in a sense one of the intellectual parents
of the present splendid school of Natural Philosophers
whom Cambridge has nurtured — the school which num-
bers in its ranks Sir William Thomson and Prof, Clerk-
Maxwell.

All of these, and Stokes also, undoubtedly owe much
(more perhaps than they can tell) to the late William
Hopkins. He was, indeed, one whose memory will ever
be cherished with filial affection by all who were fortunate
enough to be his pupils.

But when they were able, as it were, to walk without
assistance, they all (more or less wittingly) took Stokes
as a model. And the model could not but be a good one :
it is all but that of Newton himself. Newton's wonderful
combination of mathematical power with experimental
skill, without which the Natural Philosopher is but a
fragment of what he should be, lives again in his suc-
cessor. Stokes has attacked many questions of the
gravest order of difficulty in pure mathematics, and has
carried out delicate and complex experimental researches
of the highest originality, alike with splendid success. But
Vol. XII.— No. 298

several of his greatest triun phs have been won in fields
where progress demands that these distinct and rarely
associated powers.be brought simultaneously into action.
For there the mathematician has not irerely to save the
experimenter from the fruitless labour of pushing his
inquiries in directions where he can be sure that (by the
processes employed) nothing new is to be learned ; he has
also to guide him to the exact place at which new know-
ledge is felt to be both necessary and attainable. It is
on this account that few men have ever had so small a
percentage of barren work, whether mathematical or
experimental,''as Stokes.

Like that of the majority of true scientific men,
his life has been comparatively uneventful. The honours
he has won have been many, but they have never
been allowed to disturb the patient labour in which
short-sighted Britain has permitted (virtually forced)
him to waste much of his energies. He was born on August
13, 1819, at Skreen, Co. Sligo, of which parish his father
was rector. At the age of 13 years he was sent to Dublin,
where he was educated at the school of the Rev. R. H.
Wahl, D.D. In 1835 he was removed to Bristol College,
of which Dr. Jerrard was principal. He entered Pembroke
College, Cambridge, in 1837 ; graduated in 1841 as Senior
Wrangler and First Smith's Prizeman ; became Fellow
of his College in the same year ; and in 1849 was elected
Lucasian Professor of Mathematics. In 1857 he vacated
his fellowship by marriage, but a few years ago was rein-
stated under the new statutes of his college. Stokes was
elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1851, was awarded
the Rumford Medal in 1853, and was elected Secretary of
the Society in 1854.

A really great discoverer in mathematics or physics
does not seek the readily-accorded plaudits of the igno-
rant masses or of the would-be learned rich. He knows
the worthlessness of such verdicts (in any but a possible
pecuniary sense) ; his joy is in the conviction that, within
a very short time after their publication, his discoveries will
be known to all who are really capable of comprehending
them ; that his experiments will be repeated, and in many
cases even extended, by some of them before he has made
further advance. He is a true soldier of science, and fights
for her cause, not for his own hand ; he joys quite as much
in an advance made by another as in his own. When the
army has passed on from the well-fought field, let the
camp-followers deck themselves with fripper) from the
spoil, and talk pompously of the labours 01 the campaign !
Them the many-headed will applaud, too often even sage
rulers will lavishly reward thtm. The true votary of
science, in this country at least, rarely meets with State
encouragement and support. Mole-eyed State ! Men
whose undisturbed leisure would be of incalculable valuf»
not only to the instruction but to the material progress
of the nation, have to devote the greater part of their
priceless intellects and time to work like common hod-
men for their children's bread ! It is the long-conse-
crated, and still common, custom of our mighty empire to
harness Pegasus to the dust-cart ! Ignorance alone is to
blame for this, ignorance that cannot distinguish Pegasus
from a jackass !

Perhaps the simile may be thought exaggerated. But
what a comment on things as they are is furnished by the
spectacle of genius like that of Stokes' wasted on the

202

NATURE

{July 15, 1875

drudgery of Secretary to tjie Commissioners for the
University of Cambridge ; or of a Lecturer in the School
of Mines ; or the exhausting labour and totally inadequate
remuneration of a Secretary to the Royal Society ! Men
know about these things, as well as about a good many
other important things, much better in Germany than we
yet know them ; and it will not be very long before we
in our turn will be forced to know them to the full as well.
Let us hope that this knowledge may come to us in a more
gentle form than that of the rude and sudden lessons
which have so lately been read (for something very like
the same fatal blindness) alike to Austria and to France !

The magnificent Royal Society Catalogue of Scientific
Papers^ one of the greatest boons ever conferred on men
of science, shows that up to 1864 Stokes had pubhshed
the results of some seventy distinct investigations ; on an
average between three^and four per annum. Several of
these are controversial ; designed not so, much to establish
new results as to upset false and dangerously misleading
assertions. Some are improvements on the mathematical
methods usually employed in the treatment of compara-
tively elementary portions of physics ; and, especially
those on the Hydrokineiic Equations and on Waves, are
exceedingly valuable. These appeared in the Cambridge
and Dublin Mathematical Journal.

Of the higher purely mathematical papers of Stokes we
cannot here attempt to give even a meagre sketch. It
would be hopeless to attempt to give the general reader
an idea of what is meant by- the " Critical Values of the
Sums of Periodic Series," or even by the "Numerical
Calculation of Definite Integrals and Infinite Series;"
though we may simply state that under these heads are
included some of the most important improvements which
pure mathematics have recently received with the view of
fitting them for physical applications.

In applied mathematics it is hard to make a selection,
so numerous and so important are Stokes' papers. But
we may mention specially the following :—

" On the Friction of Fluids in Motion, and the Equili.
brium and Motion of Elastic Solids." Camb. Phil,
Trans., 1845.

" On the Effects of the Internal Friction of Fluids oa
the Motion of Pendulums." Ibid. 1850.

(In these papers, for the first time, it is shown how to
take account of difference of pressure in different direc-
tions in the equations of motion of a viscous fluid ; the
suspension of globules of water in the air as a cloud is
for the first time explained and the vesicular theory
utterly exploded ; and the notion of Navier and Poisson
as to a necessary numerical relation between the rigidity
and the compressibility of a solid is shown to be un-
tenable. Each one of these is a distinct, and exceedingly
great, advance in science ; but they are only single gems
chosen, as we happen to recollect them, from z. rich
treasury.)

Then we have a series of magnificent researches on the
** Undulatory Theory of Light," for the most part also
published in the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions.
Of these we need mention only three : —

" On the Dynamical Theory of Diffraction." 1849.

(Here, in addition to "a splendid experimental inquiry
as to the position of the plane of polarisation with refer-
ence to the direction of vibration, we have an invaluable
inquiry into the properties and relations of Laplace's
' 'i'ei-ator, an inquiry bearing not alone upon the Undula-

tory Theory, but also upon gravity, electric and magnetic
attractions, and generally upon all forces whose intensity
is inversely as the square of the distance.)

" On the Colours of Thick Plates." 185 1.

*' On the Formation of the Central Spot of Newton's
Rings beyond the Critical Angle." 1848.

As another most important contribution to the undu-
latory theory we have his

" Report on Double Refraction." Biitish Association
Report, 1862.

Then we have a full investigation, in one respect carried
to a third approximation, of the propagation of waves in
water ; a complete explanation of the extremely rapid sub-
sidence of ripples by fluid friction, &c.

Another paper of great value is —

" On the Variation of Gravity at the Surface of th«
Earth." Camb. Phil. Trans., 1849.

Perhaps Stokes is popularly best known by his experi-
mental explanation of Pluorescence. This is contained in
his paper

" On the Changel^of the Refrangibility of Light." Phil.
Trans., 1852.

There can be no doubt, as was well shown by Sir W.
Thomson in his Presidential Address to the British Asso-
ciation at Edinburgh in 1871, that Stokes (at least as early
as 1852) had fully apprehended the physical basis of
Spectrum Analysis, land had pointed out hotv it should
be applied to the detection of the constituents of the
atmospheres of the sun and stars. Since 1852 Thomson
has constantly given this as a part of his annual course of
Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow ; but,
till 1859, under the impression that it was quite well
known to scientific men. Balfour Stewart's experiments
and reasoning date from 1858 only, and those of Kirchhoflf
from 1859.

In some of Stokes' earlier hydrokinetic papers, he for
the first time laid down the essential distinction between
rotational, and differentially irrotational, motion, which
forms the basis of Helmholtz's magnificent investigations
about vortex-motion.

Another most valuable paper (a short abstract of which,
in the Reports of the British Association for 1857, seems
to be all that has been published) completely clears up the
difficulties which had been .felt with regard to the very
curious effects of wind upon sound, and the diffraction of
waves in air. The singular fact noticed by Sir John
Leslie that the intensity of a sound depends, ceteris
paribus, to a marked extent upon the nature of the gas in
which it is produced, is explained in an admirable
manner by Stokes in the Philosophical Transactions for
1868 in a paper entitled " On the Communication of
Vibration from a Vibrating Body to the surrounding
Gas."

Of late years Stokes has^not published so many papers
as formerly : one reason at least has been already hinted
to the reader. But there is another. It is quite well
known that he has iri retentis several optical and other
papers of the very highest order, but cannot bear to bring
them out in an incomplete or hurried form. No doubt he
may occasionally hint at their contents in his lectures,
but his (undergraduate) audience are likely to take them
for well-known and recognised facts [as Thomson unfor-
tunately did in the case of Spectrum Analysis], and so

July 15. 1875]

NATURE

203

they run the risk of being wholly lost— unless inde-
pendently discovered. But he has not time to draw them
up with the last possible improvements, nor to publish
that Treatise on Light and Sound which we all so eagerly
expect. Hence the world has to wait while the author
devotes his powers to work which a clerk could do nearly
as well !

Of these later papers, however, that " On the Long
Spectrum of the Electric Light,",,and,^particularly those
on the " Absorption Spectrum of Blood," are of very great
value, the latter especially for their physiological appli-
cations.

We must not omit to mention that , partly in conjunc-
tion with the late Mr. Vernon Harcourt, Stokes has made
a most valuable experimental inquiry into what is called
Irrationality of Dispersion, chiefly with a view to the
further improvement of achromatic telescopes.

He has also proved, by very exact measurements, that
the wave-surface for the extraordinary ray in uniaxal
crystals is (at least to the degree of accuracy of his expe-
riments) rigorously an ellipsoid of revolution. From the
theoretical point of view this is a result of extreme im-
portance ; and it is a happy illustration of what we have
already said as to the conjunction in Stokes of the expe-
rimenter and the mathematician.

Several of his papers are devoted to the extraordinary
and, at least at first sight, apparently incongruous proper-
ties of the Luminiferous Ether— more especially with the
view of explaining (on the Undulatory Theory) the ob-
served Law of the Aberration of Light. He has also
reaped an early harvest from the even now promising
field of the connection between Absorption and quasi-
metallic Reflection of Light — and has furnished the
student with an admirably simple investigation of the
Conduction of Heat in Crystals.

It is quite possible that, in hurriedly jotting down our
impressions and recollections of Stores' work, we may
liave omitted something of even greater value than we
have recorded. But if so, does the fact not show the
absolute necessity that exists for a reprint of all Stokes'
works, collected alike from the almost inaccessible Cam-
bridge Philosophical Transactions, the ponderous Philo-
sophical Transactions, &c., no less than from the Sitzungs-
berichte of the Imperial Academy of Vienna, in which we
find Stokes suggesting a preservative for miners against
the deadly vapour of mercury ?

Stokes was President of the British Association at the

Exeter meeting in 1869. The Address he then delivered

was a thoroughly excellent and appropriate one ; and its

modest but firm concluding paragraphs are well calculated

I to reassure those who may have been perplexed or puzzled

I by the quasi-scientific materialism of the present day.

P. G. Tait

SCIENCE EDUCATION FROM BELOW

''y HE Science Department of the Committee of Council
-L on Education was instituted twenty-two years ago.
At that time the general public was far from being alive
to its advantages, and for the first seven years it achieved
VLiy little. The second term of seven years showed a
considerable increase in the number of science schools
throughout the country ; but it was onlv_during the third

septennial period (1867 to 1874) that the importance of
such an educational agency became in any sense duly
appreciated ; and it is not too much to say that it is now
one of the most important scientific organisations in this
or any country.

Still, in the Government schools as elsewhere, science
teaching hitherto has had uphill work, nor must we
delude ourselves with the pleasing idea that the road
is now all smooth and level. It is true that for some
years past the extension of education in this direction
has| been a popular cry, and a good deal of poHtical
capital has been made of it. The international ex-
hibitions have been mainly at the bottom of this ; and
one of the great benefits derived from those occasions
of friendly rivalry has been the diminution of that
self-satisfaction which is the greatest bar to progress.
Economists have reminded us that we have been relying
upon our physical advantages as a nation, rather than the
intelligence of our people, in our competition with the
rest of the world, and that if we are to maintain our
supremacy we must not be behind other nations in the
practical applications of knowledge. The argument goes
home readily enough to a commercial people, but it is one
thing to admit the fact, and another to apply the remedy.
The majority of the upper class, from the circumstances
of their position and education, are indifferent to the
matter. It is foreign to the idea of our older Universities
and public schools ; and these have exercised, and still
continue to exercise, a direct influence over the middle-
class schools. True, the number of professional chairs
is on the increase, and opportunities are now afforded
of practical study in physical and chemical laboratories ;
but it cannot be pretended that these studies yet take their
proper rank amongst the rest. The inferior educational
establishments naturally take their cue from the superior
ones ; indeed, they do so almost as a matter of necessity.
They have not only to please the public, but the masters
can only impart to their scholars the knowledge they them-
selves possess ; and until on the one hand it be required
that the pupils should be taught science, and on the other
the masters find it to be an indispensable portion of their
educational course, the progress of these studies in private
schools will be but slow. In our large towns special
teachers can be had for the purpose, but as a fact they
are discouraged, the subjects they teach being generally
regarded as extras and reduced to a minimum so as not
to interfere with the regular routine of the school and the
work of the resident masters. So long as the time of the
boys is to be wasted in making wretched Latin verses, and
the amount of their learning is to be measured by the
retentiveness of their memory rather than by how much
they understand, the hope of progress in this quarter
must inevitably be small.

The operations of the Government department have,
however, no direct bearing upon any such schools, unless
the principals choose to avail themselves of it as an
examining body ; but we believe the indirect influence to
be already considerable, and likely to become more so in
the course of the next few years. Nothing:^will tend to
arouse'the proprietors of our boarding schools throughout
the land to the necessity of improving both the quantity
and quality of the instruction given in them, more than
the upward pressure that will be exerted by those who

204

NATURE

\7uly 15, 1875

in a social sense occupy the level immediately below them.
The moving impulse is from below, and to that we must
now more particularly direct our attention.

From the first the South Kensington estabhshment
has acted as an examining body, and the staff ap-
pointed for that purpose includes the names of the most
eminent professors in natural and physical science.
Subject to certain limitations the passes carry with them
pecuniary grants to the authorised local teachers ; prizes
and medals of honour to the most proficient of the
students. The department also makes grants in aid of
scholarships and the Royal and local exhibitions, as
well as having the administration of those scholarships
which were endowed by Sir Joseph Whitworth. Grants
are also made in aid of new local schools of science, and
towards the cost of the apparatus which they may require.
Special classes for the improvement of acting teachers
are held by some of the Professors. Lastly, we must not

omit to mention in our summary the well-known museum
under its management, and the too little known educa-
tional library Avhich is available to the general public on
payment of a very trifling fee.

The twenty-three branches of study dealt with include
Mathematics, Mechanics, Physics, Natural Science, and
some of the Applied Sciences. The six most popular
among the students are Physical Geography ; Pure
Mathematics ; Animal Physiology ; Magnetism and Elec-
tricity ; Inorganic Chemistry ; Acoustics, Light, and Heat :
some, such as Navigation and Nautical Astronomy, are,
from their very nature, little studied except in special
localities. The large preponderance of students in
Physical Geography, generally nearly double that of the
next in rank, is due to girls' schools, in which it forms a
leading feature, being included.

Those who care for statistics will be interested in the
following table, for which we are indebted to the courtesy

b

a

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.

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X

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X

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X

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X

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No. of -»
Classes. ]

211

248

181

12

537

18

5

xos

66

357

485

322

49

162

15

414

66

35

6

10

32

9

73

686

No. of ->
Students.)

4631

5201

2518

183

10502

251

23

2265

1238

8463

125158259

701

3183

307

9470

1914

547

no

no

537

236

1260

17720

Students \
examined.)

2500

3968

1302

117

6228

121

21

1668

704

5473

91225264

286

2598

116

6623

1 168

209

95

173

251

92

908

13312

of the Secretary of the Science and Art Department.
The table shows the actual state of the Science Classes in
Great Britain during the last session.

The students for whom this machinery is designed
belong to what may be termed the Industrial Classes,
including all those in receipt of weekly wages, small
tradesmen whose income 'does not exceed 200/. per
annum, the children of any of these, all attendants at
Public Elementary Schools, together with the teachers \
and pupil teachers of such, and the students in the |
Training Colleges which receive grants from the Educa- '■
tion Department. This list of course includes such as 1
constitute our mechanics' institutes and co-operative
societies, in the programmes of which science classes
now form an important element. In these the practical
advantages are of a most direct character ; but we are
disposed to ascribe a still higher value to the assistance
rendered in the Training Colleges and to the acting
and pupil teachers in the Public Elementary Schools.
Hitherto one of the difficulties which the department has
had to contend against has arisen from the unavoidable
circumstance that so many of the local science teachers
are themselves self-taught, and their deficiencies have

often been only too apparent in the character of the
examination papers given in by their pupils : time, how-
ever, will do much to cure this as these teachers drop
into the background and are succeeded by those who
have gone through a systematic training.

The next table will show the rapid extension of
the operations of the department during the years 1 867
to 1873 inclusive. It will be seen, on comparing the
figures, that the relative number of those who now go up
for examination is greater than formerly, and that the
increase in the number of papers worked is still greater
in proportion.

Numter of

Year.

Science
Scholars.

went up for
Examination.

Papers worked
|by them.

Papers passed.

1867

10,230

4,520

8,213

6,013

1868

15,010

7,092

13,112

8,649

I8b9

24,865

13,234

24,085

14,550

1870

34,283

16,515

34,413

18,690

1871

38,015

18,750

38,098

22, 105

1872

36,783

19,568

39,383

27,806

1873

48,546

24,674

56,577

35,100

July 15, 1875]

NATURE

205

It is abundantly clear then that through the enhghtened
and vigorous action of the Science and Art Depart-
ment, a large bulk of the population of our country has
received and is receiving an elementary scientific educa-
tion. The work which Sir Henry Cole began can no
longer be sneered at nor overlooked; its value to this
country is beginning to be widely recognised, and the
man who laid its foundations so wisely and well deserves
the highest gratitude of his countrymen. Let us re-
member that only a few years ago there was Httle science
education in the higher classes, and absolutely none
in the lower ; whereas, scattered over Great Britain,
there are in active work this year no less than 1,707
certificated science teachers engaged in 1,374 science
schools, teaching 4,104 separate classes, and the number
of individuals actually receiving science instruction by
this means reaches the enormous total of 48,274.

The Department, however, has not been content to
rest on its laurels. Within the last few years it has under-
taken a new work, which promises to be of the highest
value. It was felt that the system of examinations needed
supplementing. Teachers could gain certificates, and
thus receive payment upon the results of their teaching,
without any evidence of their having more than book
knowledge. And it was found, indeed, that the great
body of certificated teachers had, with few exceptions,
little practical knowledge of the various subjects they
taught. They could accurately describe an electrophorus,
but they could not make one, nor use it perhaps when
made ; they knew all about the circulation of the blood
or the structure of the heart, but they had never seen the
one nor dissected the other. For the most part they
knew nature as words, not as living facts. The eminent
men who conduct the examinations for [the Department
saw the danger that was arising. Prof. Huxley addressed
the Government upon the subject, and urged a practical
class in Physiologyfor a certain number of science teachers
certificated in that subject. By taking fresh men each year
it was hoped that a large am.ount of practical knowledge
would be diffused and gradually make its way through the
various science classes. The late Government promptly
acceded to the wish thus expressed, and in 1869 two short
practical courses of a week each were given, the one on
Animal Physiology and the other on Light.

The importance of even such brief instruction was so
manifest that it was decided to enlarge the original concep-
tion. The details of the scheme were, however, difficult
and needed to be grappled with in earnest. The body of
teachers was large and distributed over wide areas ; they
could not afford the time nor money to come to London for
instruction, and even if they had the requisite knowledge
their means were to» slender to enable them to purchase
the apparatus needed for the proper demonstration of
their subject. To the administrative genius of Major
Donelly, the present chief of the Science Staff at South
Kensington, no less than to his untiring zeal in the cause
of scientific education, the country is mainly indebted for
the solution of this formidable difficulty. Announce-
ments were made to all the certificated science teachers
throughout the country that a month or six weeks'
gratuitous course of daily practical mstruction, in various
branches of experimental science, would be held at the
new Science Schools at South Kensington during the

summer vacation. Those who wished for this instruc-
tion were to apply to the Department ; if selected, their
expenses to and from London would be paid, and thirty
shillings a week given to each as amaintenance allowance
whilst they remained in London. It was soon found
imposssible to accommodate all who applied j at present
the applications are about three times as many as can be
taken. In the selection of the men most needing this
kind of instruction, and who would afterwards make the
best use of it, arose another difficulty. But, as before, the
excellent judgment of the Secretary of the Science and
Art Department, and the careful scrutiny of his officers,
led to a choice of such capital men that the wisdom of
their mode of selection has been shown in the happiest
manner.

At the present moment sixty teachers are working at
Practical Chemistry under Prof. Frankland and Mr.
Valentin ; thirty-one teachers are studying Heat practi-
cally under Prof. Guthrie ; these have been preceded by
the same number who have worked at Light ; twenty-one
are studying Mechanics with Professors Goodeve and
Shelley ; twenty-eight are being taught Geometrical
Drawing by Prof. Bradley ; and thirty-eight are work-
ing at Machine Construction and Drawing under Prof.
Unwin.

The applicants give a list of the courses they wish
to attend, in much the same way that one hands in
a selected list of books to Mudie's Library ; they are
allotted courses as far as possible in their order of pre-
ference, and may, in successive years, take successive
subjects. The courses only last from three to six weeks.
Chemistry this year runs on from the 1st to the 23rd of
July ; Physics, from June 23rdto Aug. 3rd ; Mechanics
and Geometrical Drawing from June 30th to July 22nd j
and Machine Construction from 27th July to 1 3th of August.
It might be imagined that such short courses could be ot
little real use ; experience has, however, shown the
reverse. The fact is, the men in each subject are thirst-
ing for information, they know they have now a chance
which may never recur to them ; in a few short weeks
they must strive to win much knowledge, which they not
only desire for its own sake, but which means bread and
cheese to their families. They are prompted, therefore,
by every inducement to make the best possible use of
their time. It is this heartiness of work combined with
the admirable system of instruction given by each pro-
fessor that has made these short summer courses so
remarkably effective.

Capital evidence of the value of what is being done
may be had by simply walking through the different
rooms of the Science Schools and observing the teachers at
work. If, for example, we go into the Biological depart-
ment,* we find every man busily dissecting plants or
animals, each one seated at a separate little table, and
each provided with an excellent microscope and proper
instruments and suitable specimens. The earnestness of
everybody in the room strikes one very forcibly ; and as
we look at the fresh specimens at every table, we think "of
the labour implied in choosing typical objects and se-
curing forty or fifty of each daily Professors and stu-
dents unquestionably are hard at work. If we now go
into the fine chemical laboratories a like impression is
produced. Here are qpe set making perhaps their first

2o6

NATURE

{July 15, 1875

practical acquaintance with the reactions which they have
so often written down, and which in future they will
regard with an altogether new interest and delight.
Others more advanced are conducting analyses, or per-
haps making "combustions "—if in the advanced group,
studying organic chemistry. All are intensely busy, and
work with a fixed purpose before them. The same quiet
activity is noticeable in the different subjects going on in
the other rooms. Entering last the physical laboratory
on the ground floor, we find the teachers constructing
apparatus which, though simple and often rough, is well
adapted for teaching purposes. The raw material is
provided them, printed instructions are given to each
one, and under the direction of Prof. Guthrie, and the
gentlemen associated with him, the most useful physical
instruments are built up. These instruments are then
employed in repeating the experiments seen in the
morning lecture, or in making physical measurements
wherever it is possible to do so. The homely apparatus,
it is true, has not the polish of the instrument-maker, but
in delicacy and efficiency is, generally speaking, far better
than the teachers could purchase out of the small grants
allowed to them tor that purpose. With a wise liberality
the Department permits each teacher to take home with
him, without any charge, all the apparatus he himself has
made : and one can easily imagine the pleasure with which
these simple and useful instruments are afterwards looked
upon and used by those who have made them. Nor is this
all! ; the impulse to sound and practical science teaching is
given, and at the same time the hands have been discipHned
to useful skill, and the senses trained to accurate observa-
tion. After such preparation good use is made by the
teachers of the more refined physical instruments which
are set before them, but which are beyond their time or
power to construct for themselves. It is most instructive
to watch one of these men as he makes his first essay, and
to trace the growth of his education in manipulative skill
and in practical knowledge of his subject. We propose in
our next number to go more fully into detail in this matter,
and to describe some of the simple physical apparatus
made by the teachers.

But the good work done by the Department does not
rest here. In addition to giving practical instruction to
teachers in short summer courses, free admission to ex-
tended courses of lectures and practical instruction in
Chemistry, Physics, Mechanics, and Biology at South
Kensington was granted to a limited number of teachers
and students who intended to become science teachers.
The selected candidates received a traveUing allowance,
and a maintenance allowance of 25J. a week while in
London. The courses in Chemistry and Biology com-
menced in October of last year and ended in the early
spring, when the courses in Physics and Mechanics began,
and these closed at the beginning of this summer. From
ten to sixteen teachers in training attended these different
classes, and worked daily from 10 to 5 at the subjects they
had chosen, in the evening writing up their notes and memo-
randa. Botany was not included in the foregoing series,
but it was not forgotten. In January last the Lords of
the Committee of Council on Education gave directions
for a practical course on this subject. The course was

* This refers to last year ; the teachers' summer course on BioUgy has
been omitted this session.

given by Prof. Thiselton Dyer, and commenced on the
4th of March last, extending over eight weeks. It was
attended by twenty-three science teachers and persons
intending to become science teachers ; these received
precisely the same advantages as the teachers in training
in the other subjects.

The value of such courses as these can hardly be over-
estimated, and we trust that no niggardly policy will lead
the Government to restrict the great and good work they
have begun. We hope there is no cause for apprehension
in the apparent neglect of Biology in the summer course
given this year, and what seems to us a little diminution
of the strength of the staff in another subject. The
improvement in the quality of the education given by the
science teachers is already making itself felt. The reports
of the May examiners for recent years show that " while
the general average has been maintained throughout, the
instruction had in some subjects decidedly improved."
But it will necessarily take a few years to lift up so large
a constituency. Surely and slowly it is being done, and
the masses of the country are gaining a sound elementary
knowledge of science. Whilst the magnificent laboratories
of the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge and Dublin
are nearly empty, Owens College and the classes under
the Department are crowded with active and earnest
workers.

The several large educational societies of England have
availed themselves for some years past of the benefits
offered by the Science and Art Department, with the
object of turning the students out of their Training Col-
leges as thoroughly fitted as possible for their future
scholastic career ; and the continuance of this system for
the future is now further assured by the necessity of their
being provided with Government certificates in science in
order to secure employment under the London School
Board, or indeed at any of the first-class Elementary
Schools throughout the country.

An impartial view of the facts we have placed
before our readers will show that what the Universities
might have done from above, others are doing from
beneath. Science, instead of forming the delightful pur-
suit of the leisure classes, and thence distilling downwards
to the workers, is, on the contrary, first becoming an
integral part of the education of the toilers of the country.
England, in fact, is being scientifically educated from
below.

DARWIN ON CARNIVOROUS PLANTS

I.

Insectivorous Plants. By Charles Darwin, M.A., F.R.S.,

&c. With Illustrations. (London : J. Murray, 1875.)

TO have predicted, after the publication of Mr.
Darwin's works on the Fertilisation of Orchids and
the Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants, that the
same writer would hereafter produce a still more valuable
contribution to botanical literature, characterised to an
even greater extent by laborious industry and critical
powers of observation, and solving or suggesting yet more
important physiological problems, would have seemed the
height of rashness. And yet, had such a prediction been
made, it would have been amply justified by the present

July 15, 1875]

NATURE'

207

volume, one which would alone have established the repu-
tation of any other author, and which will go far to
redeem our country from the charge of sterility in physio-
logical work. Much attention has been called recently to
the singular subject of ".carnivorous plants ; " we have had
records of useful original work from several quarters in
England, the Continent, and America, together with
much that has been superficial and worthless ; and even
the newspapers have discussed the anti-vegetarian habits
of some vegetables in the light, airy, and philistine
manner in which they are wont to approach " mere scien-
tific" subjects. During the whole of this time, foi the
last fifteen years, Mr. Darwin has been steadily and
quietly at work, collecting materials and recording long
series of observations ; and now at length has given us
their results, completely and finally settling some of the
points that have been most in controversy, and raising
others which suggest conclusions that will take by surprise
even those whose minds have been most open to deviate
from the old and narrow paths.

Rather more than one-half of the volume is devoted to
the most abundant and readily obtainable of these preda-
tory plants, the common Sundew, Drosera rottmdifolia j
and an epitome of this portion must be first placed before
our readers.

Commencing with a description of the well-known
leaves and their glandular appendages, or "tentacles,"
as he terms them, Mr. Darwin has arrived at the conclu-
sion that these latter most probably existed primordially
as glandular hairs or mere epidermal formations (tri-
chomes), and that their upper part should still be so con-
sidered ; but that their lower portion, which alone is
capable of movement, consists of a prolongation of the
leaf ; the spiral vessels being extended from this to the
uppermost part. One point which seems to be clearly
established is, that it is not sufficient that the substance
which excites the movements of the tentacles should
merely rest on the viscid fluid excreted from the glands ;
it must be in actual contact with the gland itself. A state-
ment made by several previous observers (including Prof.
Asa Gray on the authority of Mr.' Darwin's earlier obser-
vations, and the present writer) — that inorganic substances
are almost or entirely without effect in producing
movement— must now be modified. Although the
effect is much less considerable, and the substance
is soon released from the embrace of the tentacles ;
yet such bodies as minute particles of glass un-
doubtedly possess the power of irritation. While it is
the glands or knobs at the extremities of the tentacles,
and a very small part of the upper portion of the
pedicels, which alone are sensitive or irritable, the actual
inflection takes place only in the lowermost portion of the
pedicel, causing a bending of the tentacle ; and the
irritation is conducted from the tentacle actually excited
to the neighbouring ones, or to all those on the leaf, in
such a manner as to cause them to bend towards the
object which produces the excitement. One of the most
striking of the [series of observations here recorded is
that which describes the affixing of exciting particles on
glands at two different portions of a leaf of Drosera^ the
result being that all the tentacles near each of these two
points were directed towards them, "so that two
wheels were formed on the disc of the same leaf,

the pedicels of the tentacles forming the spokes, and
the glands united in a mass " over the irritated tentacle
which represented the axle ; the precision with which
each tentacle pointed to the irritating particle was
wonderful. What makes this result the more extraor-
dinary is that " some of the tentacles on the disc, which
would have been directed to the centre had the leaf been
immersed in an exciting fluid (as in Fig. i), were now
inflected in an exactly opposite direction, viz., towards
the circumference. These tentacles, therefore, had devi-
ated as much as 180° from the direction which they would
have assumed if their own glands had been stimulated,
and which may be considered as the normal one." As
the author remarks, "we might imagine that we were
looking at a lowly organised animal seizing prey with its
arms." Indeed, the whole description of Mr. Dar-
win's researches after the tissue that conducts this
irritation reminds one of experiments on the motor
and sensitive nerves of animals ; and we commend
the subject to the serious attention of the Royal Com-
mission now sitting to investigate the subject of vivi-
section. Mr. Darwin compares this movement to the
curvature displayed by many tendrils towards the side
which is touched j but the comparison appears to us to
fail, from the fact that the movement of tendrils is a
function of growth, they being sensitive to contact or
pressure only so long as they are in a growing state;
which is not the case with the tentacles of Drosera. One
of the most extraordinary of the statements made by trust-
worthy observers with regard to the sensitiveness of these
tentacles is not, however, confirmed by Mr. Darwin. Mrs.
Treat {American Naturalist, Dec. 1873) asserts that
when a living fly was pinned at a distance of half an inch
from the leaves of the American species D. filiformis, the
leaves bent towards it and reached it in an hour and twenty
minutes, a phenomenon inexpHcable on any theory which
would account for the transmission of the irritation from
one tentacle to another. Mr. Darwin states, on the contrary,
that when pieces of raw meat were stuck on needles and
fixed as close as possible to the leaves, but without actual
contact, no effect whatever was produced. The minuteness
of the solid particles which produced sensible inflection
was a matter of great surprise. Particles perfectly inap-
preciable by the most sensitive parts of the human body,
as the tip of the tongue— a fragment of cotton weighing
s^U, and of hair weighing ^gj^o of a grain— caused the
tentacles with which they were in contact to bend. Our
author remarks that " it is extremely doubtful whether
any nerve in the human body, even if in an inflamed con-
dition, would be in any way affected by such a particle
supported in a dense fluid, and slowly brought into con-
tact with the nerve ; yet the cells of the glands of Drosera
are thus excited to transmit a motor impulse to a distant
point, inducing movement ; " and he adds justly, that
" hardly any more remarkable fact than this has been
observed in the vegetable kingdom." The only substance
which appears to be altogether without effect in producing
inflection is drops of rain-water ; a singular exception
paralleled by the case of certain climbing plants whose
excessively sensitive tendrils are irritable to every sort ot
object which touches them except rain-drops.

The inflection of the base of the tentacle is accom-
panied by a change in the molecular condition of the

208

NATURE

{July 15, 1875

protoplasmic contents of the cells of the gland and of
those lying immediately beneath it ; though the two
phenomena are not necessarily connected with one
another. If the tentacles of a young but mature leaf that
has never been excited or become inflected, are examined,
the cells forming the pedicels are seen to be filled with a
homogeneous purple fluid, the walls being lined with a
layer of colourless circulating protoplasm. If a tentacle is
examined some hours after the gland has been excited by
repeated touches, or by an inorganic or organic particle
placed on it, or by the absorption of certain fluids, the
purple matter is found to be aggregated into masses of
various shapes suspended in a nearly or quite colourless
fluid. This change commences within the glands, and
travels gradually down the tentacles ; and the aggregated
masses of coloured protoplasm are perpetually changing

Fig. z.— {Drosera roinndt/olia.)
Leaf (enlarged) with all the ten-
tacles closely inflected, from im-
mersion in a solation of phosphate
of ammonia (one part to 87,500 of
water).

Fig. 2. — {Drosera rotundi/olia.)
Leaf (enlarged) with the tentacles
on one side inflected over a bit of
meat placed on the disc.

their form, separating, and again uniting. Shortly after
the tentacles have re-expanded in consequence of the
removal of the exciting substance, these little coloured
masses of protoplasm are all re-dissolved, and the purple
fluid within the cells becomes as homogeneous and trans-
parent as it was at first. This process of aggregation is
independent of the inflection of the tentacles and of
increased secretion from the glands ; it commences
within the glands, and is transmitted from cell to cell
down the whole length of the tentacles, being arrested for
a short time at each transverse cell-wall. The most
remarkable part of the phenomenon is that even in those
tentacles which are inflected, not by the direct irritation
of their glands, but by an irritation conducted from other
glands on the leaf, this aggregation of the protoplasm
still commences in the cells of the gland itself.

Some who admit the reality of the phenomena now
described, have still doubted the digestive power ascribed
to the leaves of the Sundew, believing that the apparent
absorption of the organic substances in contact with the
glands is due rather to their natural decay. This question
is, however, entirely set at rest by Mr. Darwin's observa-
tions. The action of the secretion from the glands on all

albuminous substances — for it is by these only among
fluids that inflection of the tentacles is excited— is pre-
cisely the same as that of the gastric juice of animals.
The secretion of the unexcited glands is neutral to test-
papers ; after irritation for a sufficiently long period it is
distinctly acid. A very careful analysis by Prof. Frank-
land of the acid thus produced indicated that it was
probably propionic, possibly mixed with acetic and

, Vii>

Fig. 3. — {Drosera rotutidi/olta.) Diagram showing one of the exterior
tentacles closely inflected ; the tw« adjoining ones in their ordinary
position.

butyric acids ; and the fluid, when acidified by sulphuric
acid, emitted a powerful odour similar to that of pepsin.
If an alkali is added to the fluid, the process of digestion
is stopped, but immediately recommences as soon as the
alkali is neutralised by weak hydrochloric acid. Mr.
Darwin believes that a ferment of a nature resembling
that of pepsin is secreted by the glands, but not until
they are excited by the absorption of a minute quantity of
already soluble animal matter ; a conclusion which is
confirmed by the remarkable fact observed by Dr.
Hooker, that the fluid secreted by the pitchers oi Nepetithes
entirely loses its power of digestion when removed from

Fig, ^.— (Drosera rotundifoUa.') Diagram showing the distribution of the
vascular tissue in a small leaf.

the pitcher in which it is produced. It is one of the
many extraordinary facts connected with this subject that
the tentacles of the leaves of Drosera retain their power
of inflection and digestion long after the separation of the
leaves from their parent plant.

As might naturally be expected, salts of ammonia are
among the substances which have the most powerful
effect on the leaves of Drosera; but the excessively
minute quantities which are ^efficacious will probably bs

July 15, 1875]

NATURE

209

as astonishing to everyone else as they were to Mr.
Darwin himself. From a most carefully conducted series
of experiments from which every possible source of error
seems to have been eliminated, it appears that the absorp-
tion by a gland of „.,s\nj, of a grain of carbonate of am-
monia (this salt producing no effect when absorbed
through the root) is sufficient to excite inflection and
aggregation of the protoplasm. With nitrate of ammonia
a similar effect is produced by the ^j,';,^ of a grain ; while
the incredibly small quantity of ^^,irir,r.js of ^ grain of phos-
phate of ammonia produces a like effect. Mr. Darwin
believes that carbonate of ammonia is also absorbed in
the gaseous state by the tentacles ; but we venture to
think that the evidence on this point is not conclusive.
In both the experiments which he records the air sur-
rounding the plant was more or less humid, and the effect
was much more intense in the one where the air was the
dampest, indicating apparently that the inflection was
due to the absorption of the extremely soluble gas by the
moisture which was in contact with the ^tentacles. This
would also afford an explanation of what he regards as " a
curious fact, that some of the closely adjoining tentacles
on the same leaf were much, and some apparently not in
the least, affected," if we suppose that they were clothed
with larger and smaller amounts of moisture. The view
that the glands have no power of absorbing gases or
effluvia receives confirmation 'from the failure of the
attempt to induce inflection or aggregation by the affixing
of particles of meat in close proximity to the tentacles,
but without actual contact.

We cannot follow Mr. Darwin through his exhaustive
series of experiments on the effects of various solutions
of mineral salts, acids, and poisons, on the leaves of
Drosera. With organic fluids the aggregation of the pro-
toplasm and inflection of the tentacles furnish a most
delicate and unerring test of the presence of nitrogen.
The effect of inorganic salts and poisons can by no
means be inferred from the effect of the same substances
on living animals, nor from their chemical affinity. Nine
salts of sodium all produced inflection, and were not
poisonous except when given in large doses ; while seven
of the corresponding salts of potassium did not cause
inflection, and some of these were poisonous. This cor-
responds to the statement of Dr. Burdon Sanderson,
that sodium salts may be introduced in large quantities
into the circulation of mammals without any injurious
effects, whilst small doses of potassium salts cause
death by suddenly arresting the movements of the
heart. Benzoic acid, even when so weak as to be scarcely
acid to the taste, acts with great rapidity and is highly
poisonous to Drosera, although it is without marked effect
on the animal economy. The poison of the cobra, on the
other hand, so deadly to all animals, is not at all poisonous
to Drosera, although it causes strong and rapid inflection
of the tentacles, and soon discharges all colour from the
glands.

The last point of investigation is the mode of transmis-
sion and nature of the conducting tissue of the motor
impulse from one tentacle to another. It has been already
stated that the seat of irritability is limited to the glands
themselves and a few of the uppermost cells of the
pedicels, the blade of the leaf itself not being sensitive to
any stimulant. In order to be conveyed from one ten-

tacle to another, the impulse has therefore to be trans-
mitted down nearly the whole length of the pedicel ; and
it appears to be conveyed from any single gland or small
group of glands through the blade to the other tentacles
more readily and effectually in a longitudinal than in a
transverse direction. It can be shown that impulses
proceeding from a number of glands strengthen one
another, spread further, and act on a larger number of
tentacles than the impulse from any single gland. The
phenomenon already alluded to, of the aggregation
of the protoplasm in a tentacle incited indirectly by
the irritation of other glands on the leaf— this aggre-
gation advancing not upwards, but downwards, in each
tentacle — is spoken of by Mr. Darwin as partaking
of the nature of those actions which in the nervous
systems of animals are called reflex. The existence
of such a phenomenon— of which this is the only
known instance in the vegetable kingdom— is one of the
most extraordinary points brought out by these investi-
gations. It will be recollected that the transmission of
the motor impulse in the sensitive leaves of Mimosa is in
a precisely opposite direction, travelling upwards from
the base to the apex of those pinnas which are indirectly
irritated in consequence of the direct irritation of other
pinnse of the same leaf. The arrangement and direction
of the fibro-vascular bundles in the leaves of Drosera are
shown in Fig. 4 ; and Mr. Darwin's inquiries were first
directed to solve the question whether the impulse was
conveyed through the vascular system ; but he came to the
conclusion that it is not sent, at least exclusively, through
the spiral vessels or through the tissue immediately sur-
rounding them. He believes, on the contrary, that the
conducting tissue is the parenchyma or cellular tissue of
the mcsophyll of the leaf ; and that it is chiefly delayed by
the obstruction offered by the cell-walls through which it
has to pass ; the transmission of the impulse being indi-
cated by the phenomenon of aggregation of the proto-
plasm, which is transmitted gradually from cell to cell.

A few other species of Drosera were examined, but
presented no special phenomena of interest ; and the
remainder of the volume is occupied by the narrative of
researches on other carnivorous plants, a review of which
we must defer to a future number.

Alfred W. Bennett
{To be continued^

PERCY'S METALLURGY
Metallurgy : Introduction, Refractory Materials ana
Fuel. By John Percy, M.D., F.R.S. (London:
J. Murray, 1875).

THIS valuable work is not merely a new edition of
the volume previously published by its distinguished
author, for it contains more than 350 pages of fresh
matter, and several articles on subjects which were not
treated of originally. Dr. Percy's "Metallurgy" is so
well known as the standard book in this country that it
may be well to indicate as succinctly as possible the
differences between the present volume and the portion
of the one published in i86r, which was devoted to refrac-
tory materials and fuel.
Much information has been added to the section which

2IO

NATURE

[July 15, 1875

treats of the physical properties of metals. Thus a gene-
ral but comprehensive view of the subject of Elasticity is
given, with ample references to the works of Wertheim,
Kupffer, Styffe, and others. Tresca's experiments on the
flow of metals are also briefly described, and " Tensile
strength" has "received due attention. Graham's experi-
ments on the occlusion of gases by metals are described
at some length.

The matter relating to the composition, fusibility, and
character of slags, has been re-arranged.

As plumbago crucibles are now so extensively used, the
question of the suitability of different kinds of graphite
for their manufacture has become of much importance.
A valuable table of analyses of graphite of various quali-
ties from different localities is therefore given, and the
machinery used by Messrs. Morgan in their well-known
crucible works is illustrated by excellent drawings. The
apparatus devised by Ste. Claire Deville for obtaining high
temperatures is now frequently employed in laboratories,
and the description of the methods of making the cru-
cibles of carbon, lime, magnesia, alumina, and bauxite will
be of much service. Deville's blast furnace is described,
but we could have wished that, in the interests of metal-
lurgical research, some account had been given in this
place of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe, and of the apparatus
by means of which he melted platinum.

Care has been taken to collect the recently discovered
facts relative to the calorific power and calorific intensity
of fuel, and these are specially considered with reference
to furnace tempeiatures. The section devoted to Pyro-
metry is excellent, and Weinholt's classification of the
principles on which the instruments have been con-
structed has been adopted.

The question of the utilisation of peat and of the possi-
bility of substituting it for coal in metallurgical and other
manufacturing processes, has of late particularly engaged
public attention in this country. Dr. Percy has therefore
collected " such evidence as may enable the reader to
arrive at a satisfactory judgment on that question," and
forty-six pages are devoted to the consideration of cutting
peat, together with its mechanical treatment, condensa-
tion, and desiccation. We may quote some of Ur.
Percy's general conclusions as to its use as fuel. He
observes that, " so far as the suitability of peat for metal-
lurgical purposes is concerned, we may not unreasonably
conclude that it could be widely substituted for coal with
success ; " but he states as his conviction that peat can
only compete with coal in countries where the cost of pro-
duction and carriage of peat is relatively very low and the
price of coal is relatively very high.

More than 200 analyses of coal from various paits of
the world are given, and we may mention as an indication
of the care which has been taken to render the section
devoted to coal as complete as possible, that Von Meyer's
recent investigations as to the nature of the gases disen-
gaged from certain varieties, and Fleck's table showing
the action of weathering on the chemical composition of
coal, are recorded at some length. Valuable remarks as
to the various sources of errOr in the analysis of coal are
given, but we venture to think that students would have
been grateful for some account of the methods of analysis
and details of manipulation.

The author next treats of charcoal, and an account of

Dromart's process for charring in circular piles by firing at
the bottom has been added to the descriptions of the
various processes contained in the former volume. Refer-
ence is also made to the methods of preparing brown
charcoal and " torrefied wood," and the section concludes
with theoretical considerations concerning their use.

In the new matter^' relative to coke, the various methods
of desulphurisation are treated at some length, and, in
considering i the economic products generated during
coking. Dr. Percy gives much evidence as to the working
of Pernolet's oven ; but he concludes, as in the case of
many other metallurgical operations, by pointing out that
the evidence as to the advantages of the process " is not a
little conflicting." A new article has been added on the
preparation of peat- charcoal, with reference to the em-
ployment of which the author observes " that as yet the
use of peat-charcoal in metallurgical operations in Great
Britain is either very restricted or must be kept rigidly
secret."

The consideration of one or two questions of practical
importance in connection with the subject of fuel is
reserved for the conclusion of the volume.

The author, in treating of the preparation of peat for
fuel, makes some observations on patents generally which
deserve notice. He says : " Should any person of ordi-
nary intelligence^ be disposed to wade through the dreary
specifications of patents relating to the preparation of peat
for fuel, he will perceive that frequently the same thing
has been patented several times, and that in not a few
cases the patentees have displayed astounding ignorance
of the subject." He suggests as a remedy that " a tribu-
nal for the administration of patent law " should be esta-
blished. " The expenses of such a tribunal could be
defrayed .... out of the large surplus income, exceed-
ing 50,000/., arising from the duties and fees paid by
patentees." The authority of such a court would doubt-
less have a very beneficial effect ; but we may point out
that the sum above named would probably be very mate-
rially reduced by its intervention, and that the vigilance
and remuneration of the tribunal might each tend to
diminish the other. Dr. Percy calls attention to the
scheme proposed during the present session by the Lord
Chancellor, who suggests the appointment of five addi-
tional commissioners of patents, without giving them any
remuneration whatever for their services !

Among the illustrations are plans and sections of
Ekman's peat kiln, of Echement's pile for making brown
charcoal, and at the end of the volume there are nine
folding plates, some of them coloured, giving complete
working drawings of Siemens' gas producer and regene-
rative gas reheating furnace, and of Coppee's coke oven,
in which even the forms and dimensions of the fire-bricks
are shown. The drawings throughout the volume are
admirable, and, as is the case in all Dr. Percy's works,
are drawn to scale.

We think that it is a matter for congratulation that the
author's labours have been devoted to rendering the intro-
duction to Metallurgy as complete as possible, before
considering metals not yet touched upon, which would
doubtless have been more attractive work. Throughout
this, as in former volumes, the slightest aid has been
carefully acknowledged, and the relative merits of dis-
coverers are most conscientiously apportioned, in Dr.

July 15. 1875J

NATURE

211

Percy's remarks, which are sometimes severe but always
impartial.

In viewing the volume in relation to metallurgical science
generally, we are reminded of a remark made by Dumas
more than twenty years ago : " Les nouvelles substances
mdtalliques ne mdritent [certes pas I'oubli dans lequel les
chimistes les laissent depuis si longtemps." We fear that
the words apply with some force to the state of metallur-
gical research at the present day ; still, the progress
which has been made is very considerable, and this
country has good reason to be proud of Dr. Percy's
contributions to the literature of the subject.

OUR BOOK SHELF

Sound. By John Tyndall, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Pro-
fessor of Natural Philosophy in the Royal Institution of
Great Britain. Third Edition. (London : Longman
and Co., 1875.)
The principal addition to this new edition of Dr.
Tyndall's work on Sound is an account of the investiga-
tion which he has conducted in connection with the
Trinity House, and which he treats here under the title,
" Researches on the Acoustic Transparency of the Atmo-
sphere, in relation to the question of Fog-signalling." By
this investigation, " not only have the practical objects of
the inquiry been secured, but a crowd of scientific errors,
which for more than a century and a half have surrounded
this subject, have been" removed, their place being now
taken by the sure and certain truth of nature." In his
preface Dr. Tyndall remarks on some of the criticisms
which have been made on the results of the investigations
referred to. It is interesting to learn that the work has
been translated into Chinese, and published at the expense
of the Government at the moderate price of 7.od.

Six Lectures on Light, delivered in America i7i 1872-73.
By John Tyndall, D.C.L., F.R.S., &c. Second Edition.
(London : Longman and Co., 1875.)

We are glad to see that these interesting popular lectures,
to which we referred during and after their delivery, have
reached a second edition ; they are well calculated to
interest the general reader, and, we have no doubt, have
been the means of inducing many to make a systematic
study of the subject to which they refer. The principal
change in this edition is the omission of Dr. Young's
" Reply to the Edinburgh Reviewers," the reprint of which
in the first edition, Dr. Tyndall believes, has served the
purpose intended. In place of this, a beautifully executed
steel engraving of Lawrence's portrait of Young is prefixed
to the volume.

The Birds and Seasons of New England. By Wilson
Flagg. With Illustrations. (Boston : Osgood and Co.
London : Triibner and Co., 1875).

Mr. Flagg is evidently an enthusiastic lover and close
observer of nature in all her moods and phases, but this
more from the sentimental and poetic than from the
scientific point of view. His book consists of a great
number of essays on various aspects of nature as mani-
fested in the New England country, the most original
being on the songs of the birds of that region. That he
must be a very patient and very minute observer is evi-
denced by the fact that he has actually embodied in mu-
sical notation the songs of some of the principal singing
birds of New England. We have no means of testing
the correctness of Mr. Flagg's interpretation of these
singers, but we should think, judging from the very care-
ful observations ;^he has evidently made, that they are

generally correct. The work also contains essays on the
aspects of nature in the various months of the year, and
on such subjects as " The Haunts of Flowers," " Water
Scenery," " The Field and the Garden," " Picturesque
Animals," " The Flowerless Plants," " Swallows : their
Hibernation," " Changes in the Habits of Birds," &c.
Mr. Flagg's essays, we must say, are on the whole rather
tedious, reminding us often of the tiresome moral essayists
of last century, although they frequently contain passages
of quite poetic beauty. There is also a sufficient amount of
novelty about many of the subjects to add interest to his
observations, and many facts are recorded concerning
the habits of the New England birds that will give the
book some value in the eyes of the naturalist. Those who
love a quiet dreamy country life will find much through-
out the book to interest them. Mr. Flagg, as we have
said, evidently possesses the power of minute observation,
and we would recommend him to bring himself abreast of
the ornithology, and indeed general natural history, of the
day, and carry on his observations from a more scientific
point of view, which he*can easily do, and still find scope
enough for the satisfaction of his sentimentalism ; he
might thus render substantial service to science. Judging
from what he says about the " hibernation " of swallows,
he seems to be unaware that anything has been written
on the subject of the migration of birds since the days of
Gilbert White. Mr. Flagg's essays want the simplicity
and naturalness and geniality of the Letters of that mi-
nute observer.

The illustrations of New England scenery are beau-
tiful specimens of the heliotype process, and add much
to the interest of the work. An index is appended con-
taining both the common and the scientific names of the
birds referred to in the work, but why should so carefully
" got-up " a book have been printed without a table of
contents ?

Practical Guide to Carlisle, Gilsland, Roman Wall, and
Neighbourhood, By Henry Irwin Jenkinson. Also,
Smaller Practical Guide. By same author. (London :
Edward Stanford, 1875).

Mr. Jenkinson has succeeded in accomphshing what he
has aimed at ; he has written a really " useful, entertain-
ing, and instructive " guide-book to the district indicated
in the title. This district, of no very great extent,
abounds in varied interest, and to those who desire to
visit it we could recommend no more valuable companion
than Mr. Jenkinson's " Practical Guide." He has evi-
dently taken pains to make himself personally well
acquainted with the localities he describes, and has diH-
gently collected all the historical and other associations
which add interest to the various points to be visited.
To antiquaries, his " Walk along the Roman Wall from
Coast to Coast " will be specially interesting, and with
this book in one's hand we could imagine no more inte-
resting and instructive walk for a summer holiday. The
difference between the larger and smaller Guide is, that
the former ; contains an additional eighty pages on the
Local Names and the Natural History — Geology, Mine-
ralogy, Botany, Entomology, and Ornithology — of the
district, which adds to its value from a scientific point of
view. Both books contain an excellent map of the
county from coast to coast, embracing a distance of
several miles on each side of the Roman Wall. We
commend the Guide as the best to be had for the district
to which it refers.

North Staffordshire Naturalist^ Field Club. Annual
Addresses, Papers, &c. With Illustrations. (Hanley :
William Timmis, 1875.)

This club has now been in existence for ten years, and
judging from the list of papers read and excursions made,
has evidently carried out with_ creditable faithfulness the

212

NA TURE

\7uly

1875

object for which it was estabhshed — the study of the
natural history and antiquities of the neighbourhood.
The vokimc before us contains a selection of some of the
principal f>apers read at the Club meetings during these
ten years, and, as a whole, they reflect credit on the dili-
gence, intelligence, and knowledge of the authors. Both
the papers on general and those on local subjects contain
much valuable material, quite deserving of publication,
and the latter especially will be useful to those who want
information on the natural history and antiquities of
Staffordshire. One of the most interesting general papers
is by Dr. J. Barnard Davis, " On the Interments of
Primitive Man," which is illustrated by some beautifully
executed woodcuts. Of the papers on local subjects, we
may mention " Notes on the Fossil Trees in a Marl Pit
at Hanlcy," by John Ward, F.G.S. ; "The Geology of
Mow Cop, Congleton Edge, and the surrounding dis-
trict," by J. D. Saintcr, F.G.S. ; " On the abscnee of
Waterfalls in the Scenery of North Staffordshire," by J.
E. Davis; and "On the Organic Remains of the Coal
Measures of North Staffordshire," by John Ward, F.G.S.
Appended is a considerable list of Macro-Lepidoptera
taken and observed in North Staffordshire by members
of the Club, by T. W. Daltry, F.L.S. The illustrated
paper on Croxden Abbey is a valuable one of its kind.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

\The Editor does not hold himself responsible Jor opinions expressed
by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return,
or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications. \

The India Museum

In your notice of the various transfers of the India Museum
(vol. xii. p. 192), you do not allude to the somewhat important
fact that from 1869 up to the recent opening of the new museum
the whole of the Natural History Collections have been kept in
closed boxes in the cellars of the ladia Office.* This has been
a grievous wrong to working naturalists, who have constantly
required access to typical specimens to solve various points of
inquiry.

Again and again the attention of the authorities of the India
Office was called to this state of affairs without effect, and natu-
ralists cannot give too much credit to Lord Salisbury and the
present Administration for putting' an end to the scandal that
existed so long.

Unfortunately, however, as I prophesied, it has been found on
opening the boxes that some of them have been attacked by
moth, and that valuable specimens have perished.

July 9 r. L, SCLATKR

Irish Cave Exploration

During the last few weeks Dr. Leith Adams, F.R.S., and
myself have been exploring an ossiferous cave at Shandon, near
here, under a grant from the Royal Irish Academy. Bones of
mammoth, reindeer, bear, wolf, horse, and hare, were found in
the debris of a quarry here in 1859, and are now in the Royal
Museum, Dublin, We have worked through a considerable
quantity of limestone breccia and stalagmite, in which and in a
thin underlying deposit of cave- earth we have found numerous
bones of the above-mentioned animals, indicating at least two
individuals of mammoth, eighteen of reindeer, and five of horse,
for which latter this is as yet the sole recorded locality in Ire-
land. The bones of bear show extreme age and signs of disease,
and we have found the cast ander of a reindeer. Some of the
bones have been gnawed, probably by wolves, and many have
been broken by the falling-in of the roof of the cave. Though
we have broken into a large chamber, we are as yet unable to
form a clear conception of the original form of the cavern. A
full account of the cave previous to the present exploration was
given by Prof. Harkness in the Geological Magazine for June,
1570. G. S. BOULGER

Dungarvan, Co, Waterford, July 1 1

* See Nature, vol. vii. p, 457.

Sea-power

Will you allow me to ask your readers one or two questions
upon a subject which may ultimately belong rather to an engi-
neering than to a purely scientific journal, but which at present
has not, I believe, passed into the hands of practical men ? I
wish to know :

1. Where — if anywhere — use is made of the movements of
the sea as motive powers ?

2. Where I can find the latest and fullest information upon
this subject ?

I have an impression that'a paper on the subject appeared in
one of the volumes of Nature, but I cannot find it. The latest
paper on which I can now put my hand is M. Cazin's lecture
on " Les Forces Motrices," xa S}^& Rruue des Cours Scientifitjues
of Feb. 19, 1870. The lecturer mentions the failure of the
moulins de tnaree, and gives a description, with diagram, of M.
Tommasi's proposed y?«x tnoteur.

It has long appeared to me that the immense importance of
the question as to the possibility of utilising sea-power has not
been sufficiently recognised. The practical solution of this
question would not only give to England an inexhaustible motive
power, but would also, to a considerable extent, solve at once
such problems as are connected with the rapid consumption of
our coal, the pollution of our rivers in manufacturing districts,
the unhealthy and immoral massing of our working classes in
dirty and smoky towns and cities, &c. Moreover, the space
covered by the sea-side factories would in many instances be
merely the almost waste border-land between sea and field.

Giessen, June 30 A, R,

Sea-Lions

It will be no doubt interesting to your readers to learn that a
pair of Sea-Lions have just been added to the collection of
animals in the Jardin d'Acclimatation, Paris. They are said to
have been brought from the North Pacific, and are marked
Otaria stelleH, but I think from their small size and long narrow
heads that the species is more probably Otaria ursina, the
Northern Sea Bear, whose principal habitat is the Pribylov
group. , They are quite young, and the female is larger than the
male.

The administrative committee of the Garden has caused a
large tank to be built for their reception similar to that in our
Zoological Gardens, only rather larger. They seem in excellent
health, and it will be interesting to .see whether they breed in
captivity.

They have no special attendant, so far as I could see, as the
Sea-Lions at our Gardens have, and are therefore only fed at
stated times. On the day of my visit the keeper was late, and
the female became hungry. She gave vent to her feelings by a
curious cry, a prolonged "Ah — a — a— ah," repeated at short
intervals — something like the bleating of an angry sheep.

It is to be regretted that these animals were not secured for
our Gardens, where the best method of managing them is so
thoroughly understood, and where consequently the experiment
of breeding might have been tried with a better chance of success
than elsewhere, J. W. Clark

Museum of Zoology and Comparative
Anatomy, Cambridge, July u

Hereditary Affection of a Cat for a Dog

I HAVE reared a fine mastiff. He is now three-and a-half years
old. When quite a puppy he and a kitten evinced a strong
liking for each other. The kitten, when able to leave her mother,
fixed her residence in the dog's kennel, and never seemed happy
when away from her large friend. She ate her breakfast out of
the dog's bowl, and slept in his kennel with his paws around her.
She used to catch mice and young rats, and carry them to him,
and seemed quite pleased when he accepted friendship's offering.
One morning I observed the cat preparing a bed with straw in
the corner of the kennel — an ordinary wooden one, 4 feet by
2\ feet. As she was going to have kittens, I thought she in-
tended making the kennel her nursery, and " Cato " (the dog)
her head nurse. Such proved to be the case. She brought
forth five kittens, and there they lay for some time. The mother
frequently went away for hours, leaving the dog to look after her
family. I many times stooped down to examine them, and
" Cato " stood by my side quite proud of his charge. The poor

JtUy 15, 1875J

NATURE

213

cat came to an untimely end eighteen months ago, but the only
surviving kitten of the five named above is as fond of the dog
as her mother was. She brings mice, young rats, and rabbits, and
lays them down before "Cato," and looks beseechingly till he
takes them. She constantly plays with him and gets on her
hind legs to look fondly into his face, while he puts his paws
round her as he used to do to her mother.

vShe must have inherited ihis affection from her mother, as she
was too young to have imitated her mother's actions at the time
of her death. H, G.

Clent, July 13

Scarcity of Birds

I SHOULD much like to know whether blackbirds and thrushes
are scarce in other localities this year ; because they have most
unaccountably vanished from this neighbourhood, with the excep-
tion of a very few stragglers. Our cherries and strawberries are
untouched. I have not observed a single blackbird or thrush in
our garden or pleasure-grounds since the fruit ripened, though
every other year we captured several m the cherry-nets, and
shot many others.

R. M. Barrington

Fassaroe Bray, co. Wicklow, July 12

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN

Variable Stars.— Of the three stars to which Col
Tennant draws attention as being probably variable
("Monthly Notices R.A.S.," June 1875), B.A.C. 740
appears more especially deserving of regular observation.
The B.A.C, has adopted the magnitude assigned by
Groombridge, 6 ; other estimates are : — Hevelius, 6 ;
Fedorenko (Lalande, 1789 November), 8 ; Piazzi, 8, by
seven observations; Schwerd, 8^; Taylor, in 1834 or
1835, in vol. iii. of "Madras Observations," 7 (he calls
the star 21 Cephei) ; Carrington, 8-i ; the Radcliffe
Catalogues, 7-5 ; and Durchmusterung, 8-4. With regard
to the observation of Hevelius, which has been assumed
to refer to this star, it may be remarked that the position
given in his Catalogue for 1660, where it is No. 46 in
Cepheus, does not well agree with the place of the Redhill
Catalogue for B.A.C. 740, the difference of position
amounting to 16' ; nevertheless, it is not easy to identify
the star observed by Hevelius with any other in the
modern catalogues. In the cases of the stars B.A.C.
4166 and 4193, also noticed by Col. Tennant, the esti-
mates of magnitude from the epoch of Schwerd's obser-
vations to the present time appear pretty accordant.
[In comparing the magnitudes assigned in different cata-
logues to the naked-eye stars it is necessary to bear in
mind that in'Argelander's Uranometria, and in Heis and
Behrmann, 6*5, 5-4, &c., apply to stars which are judged
to be somewhat brighter than an average sixth or fifth
magnitude, and are not to be understood decimally, as is
the case in the " Durchmusterung."]

The Double-star 2 1785. — The proper motion of this
star is investigated in Argelander's researches, Bonn
Observations, vol. 7. He remarks : " Die Begleiter geht
mit," and of this there can be no doubt, since in the
interval between Struve's first measures and the last pub-
lished by the Baron Dembowski, the amount of proper
motion, according to Argelander's values, would be
- 2o"-9 in R.A. and - 2"-4 in Decl. But the relative fixity
of the components, which might have been surmised from
Argelander's comparison of his differences of R.A. and
Decl. for i867'34, with those deduced from Struve's angle
and distance in 1830, is clearly refuted by the recent
measures. Thus we have —

Struve ... .

. 1830-12 Position i64°-43 Distance 3" -487

Dembowski

. 1870-81 „ i99°-6o „ 2" -431

one that should be regularly measured. The position for
the beginning of the present year is R.A. i3h, 43m. 24s
and N.P.D. 62° 23'-6. '

The Total Solar Eclipse, 1927, June 29. — We
believe the Rev. S. J. Johnson, of Upton Helions, Devon,
was the first who pointed out the probable totality of this
eclipse for a short interval in this country. It is one of
those eclipses in which the moon's augmented semi-
diameter exceeds that of the sun by a small quantity, even
where the sun is on the meridian. The following are
approximate elements :—

Conjunction in R.A. 1927, June 28, at i8h. 27m. 14s. g.m.t.

R.A

Moon's hourly motion in R. A.
Sun's ,, ,,

Moon's declination

Sun's „

Moon's hourly motion in Decl.
Sun's ,, ,,

Moon's horizontal parallax
Sun's ,,

Moon's true semidiameter
Sun's ,,

The sidereal time at Greenwich noon on June 29 is
6h. 26m. 17s., and the equation of time 3m. 3s. subtrac-
tive from mean time. The middle of general eclipse at
i8h. 23m. 17s.
Hence the following points on the central line :—

• - 97

6 12

37 27

236

. ... 24

4 35 N.

... 23

17 17 N.

I 18 N.

0 7 s.

57 55

0 9

15 47

15 44

Long. 3 21 W. Lat. 54 11 N.

„ o 45 W. „ 55-40

M I 30 E. „ 57 3

„ 3 32 E. „ 58 15 N.

Sun's zenith distance"! 78-5

,. "76-3

74-5

M 72-8

Perhaps it is not yet practicable to decide whether this
relative change is due to sKght difference of proper motion
or to the binary character of the star, but it is evidently

In 1° 37' W. and 55° 12' N. totality begins according to
the above elements, June 28 at I7h. 19m. 31s. local mean
time, and continues only nine seconds. It will be seen
that the track of the central line in its passage over
England is from Windermere, a little north of Morpeth,
to the Northumberland Coast ; it appears to just' escape
the Isle of Anglesey, but our data are not quite definitive.

Minor Planets.— M. Stephan has calculated elements
of No. 146, discovered by M. Borrelly, from the Mar-
seilles observations of June 9, 18, and 29, which give as
a first approximation to the period of revolution, 1627
days ; the planet has been named Lucina. Euphrosyne
is in opposition about this time, with 57° South DecHna-
tion ; this body makes one of the widest excursions of any
in the group, and may at times be found in Ursa Major.
Daphne is the brightest of the small planets now near
opposition.

SCIENCE IN GERMANY

{From a German Correspondent^

T N continuation of the last report (p. 152) we make the
■*■ following further communication on Gotte's "His-
tory of Development." As we have already mentioned,
Gotte deduces the structure of the embryo from the
difference in size and position of the parts resulting from
the division of the ovum. He supports this theory by
the following observations. In the case of all ova, first
of all a difference shows itself in the vertical axis, the
parts round the upper pole being smaller and generating
quicker than those round the under pole. The ratio of
displacement is therefore also much greater in the upper
hemisphere ; and as this one expands concentrically it over-
grows downwards the more bulky lower hemisphere, or
causes it to bulge inwards, so that from the ovum which
divides into many cell-like pieces, results a beaker-shaped

214

NATURE

\yuly 15, 1875

formation with double sides ; these are the two original
germ-layers . The space enclosed by the inner germ-
layer is the intestinal cavity ; the whole formation we call
gastrula after Haeckel. As the causes of the formation of
the two germ-layers are the same for all animals con-
sisting of more than one cell (matazoa), according to
Gotte's view, the form of development of the gastrula is
therefore common to all, however indiscernible it may
often be in the outside appearance. The cause of this
is partly that the above-mentioned difference between
the upper and lower hemispheres of the ovum varies in
magnitude. If this difference is small, the result will be
that only a moderate part of the lower hemisphere will
be pressed inward, the .inner germ-layer remaining simple,
as for instance with the lower polypi, which on the whole
consist of two layers of cells. As the energy of the inward
pressure increases, a third germ-layer, the so-called middle
one, is split off the stronger inner one ; this third one,
from being a simple intermediary layer, may develop and
originate many and important organs. If in the dividing
ovum only the difference referred to in the vertical axis
exist, the gastrula is naturally formed equally in all direc-
tions between the two poles, so that if further transfor-
mations take place, these likewise occur equally in all
directions from the intestinal cavity and its principal axis,
and therefore in radiated planes or lines. Thus the
difference in the first axis of the ovum, if it acts by itself,
always leads to a radiated structure of body which we
find with Polypi, Medusae, Echinoidea, and their relatives.
Yet the higher developed representatives of these classes
already show here and there, and in unimportant points,
indications of a transition to a higher type. If we sup-
pose the two horizontal axes of the ovum to be unequal,
then the formation of the gastrula must naturally be un-
equal likewise. The inequality, which with many of the
Vermes already shows itself during the first divisions of
the ovum, causes the gastrula to extend in one direction
more than in any other, and thus to receive another prin-
cipal axis. If at the same time the two sides precede in
development the other parts, two symmetrical masses
are formed, situated opposite one another (germ-streaks),
and which approach each other more or less on the stomach
side, and there produce certain principal organs. To this
transverse divisions may be added,asin theArthropoda ; or
this may not occur, as in the MoUusca. Vertebrata finally
do not show the preponderance of the first formation on
two opposite symmetrical sides of the ovum, but only on
one, where the odd germ-streak is situated and indicates the
future back. In a manner similar to that of the typical
foundation of the embryo, Gotte tries to deduce all
other phenomena of development not from hypothetical
causes of inheritance, but directly from the laws of the
formation of the ovum ; as, for instance, the whole deve-
lopment of the different organs and tissues. Any essen-
tial change in a certain animal species must then be
deduced from a change in the laws of formation, which
are peculiar to the ovum, i.e. its first cause lies in the
ovum, and the live animal can never transfer newly-
gained changes of form directly to the law of formation
of its germs, nor thus cause its descendants to inherit
them.

NEW DISCOVERY IN CONNECTION WITH
THE POTATO DISEASE

npHERE has been hitherto one ''missing link" in our
■■- knowledge of the life-history of the potato-blight,
Peronospora infestans. The non-sexual mode of repro-
duction by conidia or zoospores has long been known ;
but the sexual mode of reproduction has eluded observa-
tion. This link has now been supphed through the
researches of Mr. Worthington Smith, who described his
discovery in a paper read at the last meeting of the
Scientific Committee of the Royal Horticultural Society,

and published at length in the Gardener's Chronicle for
July 10, He finds the female organs, the " resting-
spores " or unfertilised " oospores," and the male organs
or " antheridia," in the interior of the tissue of the tuber,
stem, and leaf, when in a very advanced stage of decay ;
and he has actually observed the contact between the two
organs in which the process of fecundation consists. In
some remarks made at the meeting of the British Asso-
ciation last year by one of our high authorities, it was
suggested that we have in the Peronospora an instance of
the phenomenon not infrequent among fungi, known as
" alternation of generations ;" and that the germination
of the true spores of the potato-blight must be looked
for on some other plant than the potato. Mr. Worthing-
ton Smith has, however, looked nearer home, and has
proved that the suggestion is not at all events verified in
all cases. It is matter of congratulation that, after the
lapse of a period of nearly thirty years since the publi-
cation of the first important memoir on the subject, this
discovery — important alike from a scientific and a prac-
tical point of view — has fallen to one of our own country-
men, notwithstanding the foreign aid invoked by the
Royal Agricultural Society in settling the still unsolved
problems connected with this perplexing pest.

HISTORY OF THE PLAGIOGRAPH

T SHOULD like to add a few words to my description
■*■ of the instrument called the Plagiograph * (the g
to be pronounced soft, like 7, as in Genesis, Plagiarist,
Oxygen) in Nature, vol. xii. p. 168, for the purpose of
explaining the order of ideas in which it took its rise,
and also a very beautiful extension of another recent
kinematical invention to which it naturally leads the way,
and which, thus generalised, I propose to term the Quad-
ruplane.

The true view of the theory of linkages \ is to consider
every link as carrying with it an indefinitely extended
plane, and to look upon the question as one of relative +

* It may be questioned whether a new-born child can have a history.
Perhaps it might have been more correct to have used for my title, ' ' History
of the Birth of the Pl'\gicgraph," but this would have been long ; moreover,
the Plagiograph proves to be an unusually precocious child, having in its
very cradle given birth to a greater than itself, the Quadruplane, a full-
grown invention described in the sequel of the text.

t It is quite conceivable that the whole universe may constitute one great
linkage, i.e. a system of points bound to maintain invariable distances,
certain of them from certain others, and that the law of gravitation and
similar physical rules for reading off natural phenomena may be the
consequences of this condition of things. If the Cosmic linkage is of the
kind I have called complete, then determinism is the law of Nature ; but,
if there be more than one degree of liberty in the system, there will be room
reserved for the play of free-will. We shoud thus revert to the Aristotelian
view under a somewhat wider aspect of circular (the most perfect because
the simplest form of motion) being the primary (however recondite) law of
cosmical dynamics. Speaking of cosmical laws brings to my mmd a reflec-
tion I have made upon the new chemical theory of atomicity. Suppose it
should turn out that the doctrine of Valence should be confirmed by expe-
rience, and that the consequent logico-mathematical theory of colligation
containing the necessary laws of consecution, or if cone pleases so to say
of cause and effect should plant its foot and introduce a firm basis of
predictive science into chemistry, how beautiful will be the analogy between
this and the physical law of inertia! which really merely affirms the fact
of each atom or point of matter carrying about with it a certain number,
denoting its communicative and inverse receptive faculty of motion ; for in
such case Valency, also affirming a numerical capacity for colligation, will
be the exact analogue in chemistry to Inertia in the theory of mass motion,
and might properly assume the name of chemical inertia. Social individuals
differ as egregiously as Isomers in their capacity for forming multifarious
attachments.

% I believe it is to Mr. Samuel Roberts that we are indebted for the
idea of passing from mere copulated links to planes associated with the links,
and for the observation that the order of the corresponding Graphs is not
thereby augmented. The substitution of the more general idea of linkage
for link-work, and of isolating completely the conception of relative in lieu of
absolute motion, is due to the author of these lines. Take the case of a
Quadrupla«e in which the four joints in their natural order of sequence form
a contra-parallelogram. It is well known (and the fact has been applied to
machinery under the name of "the parallelogram of Reulleux") that the
relative motion of an opposite pair of planes maybe represented by causing
two curves to roll upon each other ; but I add that this may be done simul-
taneously for both pairs of planes, giving rise to a beautiful and previously
unthought of double motion of rolling (without slip) between two ellipses for
one pair and two hyperbolas for the other pair of planes. This is an imme-
diate deduction from the conception of purely relative motion.

Note —In the description of the plagiograph, for pointed parallelo-
gram, p. 168, second c«lumn, line 14, lege jointed parallelogram. Also a
dotted line should be drawn in Fig. i connecting the points o and v'.

July 15, 1875J

NATURE

motion which may be put under this form : When a
complete linkage (meaning thereby a combination of
jointed planes capable of only a definite series of relative
movements) is set in motion, what is the curve which any
point in one of these planes will describe upon any other ?

In this mode of stating the question, the lines joining
the pivots round which the planes can turn correspond to
the jointed rods of the common theory. P'ix any one of
the planes, and the linkage becomes a link-work, or, to
speak with more precision, a piece-work.

The curve described by a point in one plane upon any
other plane has been termed by me with general acqui-
escence a Graph, and to keep the correlation closely in
view, I have proposed to call the describing point the
Gram.* We may further understand by canonigrams
describing points taken in the lines connecting the joints
and their corresponding curves, canonigraphs ; Grams
lying outside these lines and their appurtenant Graphs
may be termed Epipedograms and Epipedographs ; or, if
these names are found too long for use, Planigrams and
Planigraphs.

Now consider more particularly the'generalised form
of the linkage which corresponds to three-bar motion, of
which Watt's parallel motion (so-called) offers a simple
instance. If we were to revert to the old notion of link-
work we should say that a three-bar motion is obtained by
fixing one of the sides of a jointed quadrilateral of any
form ; but adhering to the more general conception of the
matter here set forth, we may describe it as resulting from
the fixation of any one of the planes of a quadriplane,
i.e. a system of four planes connected together by four
joints. Mr.^A. B, Kempe, who has brought to light
magnificent additions to Peaucellier's ever memorable
discovery of an exact parallel motion in a paper which
I have had the pleasure of presenting to the Royal
Society of London, in the course of conversation with
me made the very acute and interesting remark that
in an ordinary 3-bar motion, supposing the distance be-
tween the two fixed centres to be given, and the lengths of
the two radial arms and the connecting rod to be also given,
the order in which these three latter elements are arranged
will not affect the nature of the canonigraphs described.
Whichever of the three lengths is adopted as the length
of the connector and the remaining two as the lengths of
the radial arms, the very same system of curves will be
described in all three cases so far as regards their form :
every canonigram in the arrangement will have a canoni-
gram corresponding to it in each of the other arrange-
ments such that the corresponding curves described
will be similar and similarly placed — a most remark-
able, and, for the purposes of theory, an exceedingly im-
portant observation ; but, as Prof. Cayley observed, when
once stated, a self-evident deduction from the principle of
the ordinary pantigraph.t It therefore occurred to me

• Gram is intended to suggest the notion of a letter discharging the duty
of a point. In inventing new verbal tools of mathemathical thought, the
following are the rules which I bear in mind:— i. The word must be
transferable into the common currency of the mathematical centres of
Europe, France, Germany, and Italy. 2. It must enter readily into com-
binations and be susceptible of inflexion fore and aft. 3. It should contain
some suggestion of the function of the idea intended to be conveyed. 4.
It should by similarity in quality or weight of sound conjure up association
with the allied ideas 5. VVhen all these conditions are incapable of being
simultaneously fulfilled, they should be observed as far as possible, and
their relative importance estimated according to the order in which they
are written above.

\ Suppose A B, B c, c D to be three jointed rods fixed at a and d. Choose
either of the fixed points, say a, and complete the parallelogram a b c b' a,
regarding c 11', b'a as two additional jointed rods; through a draw any
transversal, cutting the two indefinite straigkt lines a b, n b' in p and V respec-
tively ; then whatever curve p describes when the system is set in motion,
!■' by the principle of the common Pantigraph will describe a curve similar
and similarly situated •thereto, a being the centre of similitude. Now, it will
be noticed that A b' c D is a system of four jointed rods in which the lengths
A b', b' c are the same as the lengths a b, b c in inverted order, viz. , a b' =1 b c,
and b' C = a B, and as we may proceed from the point d equally well as
from A, it follows that all the six interchanges may be rung between the three
lengths A b, uc, cd. This is the proof of Mr. Kempe's admirable theorem ; but
does the simplicity of the principle involved take away in any degree from
the beauty of the result, or rather, is not the interest of the conclusion
enhanced by the simplicity of the means by which it is arrived at ? In fact,

that a corresponding theorem ought to hold for all graphs
whatever — for plagiographs just as well as for canoni-
graphs ; and by a very simple application of the general
double- algebra method of Versors, I found that this would
be the case, the only difference being that now the corre-
sponding graphs, instead of being similar and similarly
situated, would be similar but not similarly situated; in
other words, that the lines joining the centre of similitude
with the corresponding points, instead of coinciding in
direction, would make for each particular graph a constant
angle with each other. Thus I passed from the con-
ception of the common Pantigraph to that of the Quer-
graph, or Plagiograph, or Skew Pantigraph, as thenew
instrument described in the previous article may indiffe-
rently be called. I now come to the second part of my
story, and proceed to explain the remarkable extension a
theorem analogous to and naturally suggested by the

Plagiograph gives of Mr. Hart's remarkable discovery of
a cell consisting of only four jointed rods which possesses
the same property of reciprocation as Peaucellier's six-
sided cell.

This cell is exhibited in the figure above. The four
jointed rods A B, A c, C D, B D are equal in pairs, A B
and c D being equal, also A c and B D. In fact, the
figure is nothing else but a jointed parallelogram twisted
out of its position of combined parallelisms, and may be
termed a contra-parallelogram. When the cell is in any
position whatever, imagine a geometrical line to be drawn
parallel to the lines joining A and D or B and c (for these
lines will obviously always remain parallel to each other),
cutting the four links in the points/, q, r, s.

Now take up the cell and manipulate it in any manner
you please so as to change its form, the same four points
p,q,r,s will always remain in the same straight line,
the distances/^ and r s will always remain equal to one
another, and the product oi pghy p r, or, which is the
same thing, of s rhy s q, will never vary, so that p r
remains (so to say) a constant inverse of / q., and sr ol s q
— the actual value of the constant product (called the
modulus of the cell) being the difference between the
squares of the unequal sides of the contra-parallelogram,
multiplied by the product of the segments into which
auy one of the links is separated by the points p, q, r,
or s, and divided by the square of such link. Now Mr.
Kempe and myself— he by the free play of his vivacious
geometrical imagination, I by the sure and fatal march
of algebraical analysis— have arrived at the following
beautiful generalisation of Mr. Hart's discovery. On
A B, B D, D c, c A describe a chain of four similar tri-
angles, the angles of which are arbitrary, but looking
towards the same parts, and so placed that the equal angles
in any two contiguous triangles are adjacent — call the
vertices of these triangles P, Q, R, s (which will be in fact
the analogues of the points p, q, r, s before mentioned) :
then it will be found that the figure P Q R s will be a
parallelogram whose angles are invariable, and the
product of whose unequal sides is constant ; in a word, a

as Kant has observed, the groundwork of all mathematical proof consists in
putting things together by a free act of the imagination ; and the essence of
Euclid is to be sought in the constructions which antecede the formal proofs.
The real proof is the construction, and no one has the right to call Mr,
Kempe's discovery " a truism."

NATURE

{July 15, 1875

parallelogram of constant area and constant obli-
quity*

The modulus, or constant product of the sides, follows
the same rule as in the special case, except that for the
product of the segment of a link divided by the square of
its entire length, must be substituted the product of the
sines of th« angles adjacent to any link divided by the
square of the sine of the angle subtended by it.

Just as in the first case pq.pr and sr.sq are constant,
so now PQ.PR and SR.SQ are constant; but whereas
p q coincided in direction with p r and s r with j' ^, P Q
and P R, like s R and s Q, remain inclined to each other
at a constant angle ; in a word, as the Plagiograph is to
the Pantigraph, so is the Sylvester- Kempe Inverter or
Reciprocator to Mr. Hart's.f Do not let it be supposed
that this new reciprocator is to be consigned to the limbo
of barren mathematical generalities — very far from it ; it
is very likely indeed to find a most valuable application
to mechanical practice, and to subserve the purposes of
that immediate " Utilitarianism " % so dear to the Philis-
tine mind ; for, as by means of Mr. Hart's Quadri-

* I early noticed the analogy between M. Peaucellier's six-linked recipro-
cator and the primitive form of the pantigraphic proportionator formed by
two parallelograms having »n angle and the directions of its two containing
sides in common, also therefore consisting of sixjinks ; and indeed pointed
out that, starting (to fix the ideas) from a negative Peaucellier-cell (such as
is in successful use in the Houses of Parliament for ventilating the brains
of our representative and hereditary legislators), we have only to unfix
the two interior links from the angles to which they are attached, and attach
them instead to two sides of the containing lozenge, so as to be parallel
to the other two sides ; and we pass from a Reciprocator to the compara-
tively barren Proportionator. Now as a Proportionator (the Pantigraph in
common use) exists with only four sides, it ought to have been inferred as
fairly probable that a Reciprocator also might be discovered having only
four sides, i.e. by analogy, the probable existence might have been inferred
of a Hart cell— the contra-parallelogram first imagined by Mr. Samuel
Roberts, but rediscovered and hugged with the affection of a supposed
original discoverer, and warmed into new and unsuspected uses by its
foster-parent Mr. Hart. I shall have no difficulty in finding a generalisation
of the Peaucellier-cell standing to it in the same relation as the Quadruplane
does to the Hart- cell, and similarly for the Proportionator, so that we shall
have the fourfold proportion — Peaucellier-cell : Hart-cell : Quadruplane :
New Peaucellier cell : : Old Pantigraph : Common Pantigraph : Plagiograph :
Oblique Old Pantigraph ; but, except as completing a chain of analogies,
the last terms in each quatrain will probably not prove of any practical
importance.

t In the case of a 3-piece motion whose fundamental linkage [i.e. the
quadrilateral formed by the lines joining the pivots and the fixed points in
their natural order of succession) is subject to the condition that either the
two pairs of opposite sides or two pairs of contiguous sides are equal for each
pair, the Planigraph (leaving out of account its circular portion) is the inverse
of a conic. In the first case (that of the contra-parallelogram) the position
of this node is seen immediately to be the opposite to the Planigram in respect
to the centre of the figure in its untwisted (i.e. parallelogrammatic) form In
the second case, that of the so-called kite-form, it was found to be far from
easy to determine its position. Even our Cayley did not [quite succeed in
determining it from the analytical equations, and it was reserved for M.
Manhaim to deduce it geometrically by a most elegant but very elaborate
construction given in a paper inserted in the Proceedings of the Mathematical
Society of London. By the aid of the reciprocity established by me above
we pass at once from the case of the contra-parallelogram to that of the kite-
form, and the problem literally solves itself as easily as a musical passage
can be tran.sposed from one key to another. It is to that profound mathe-
matician, Mr. Samuel Roberts, that we are indebted for bringing to light
these two cases of 3-bar motion, in which the general 3-bar sextic Graph
breaks up into a circle, and the inside of a conic, and I have proved that
no other such cases exist Mr. Roberts's papers are inserted in the Procee-
dings of the London Mathematical Society, which is indebted for its existence,
at least in its present form (being originally little more than a juvenile
mathematical debating society among the students of University College), to
the organising talents of Mr. Hirst, who has reason to be proud^of his pro-
geny. Similar societies on a precisely similar basis, and adopting the rules
of its elder sister, have been subsequently founded in Paris, Warsaw, and, I
believe, other capitals in Europe, and, it is safe to predict, are destined to
play no unimportant part in the further evolution .of our time-honoured
yet ever young, ever fresh, and self renovatinx science— Othello, Hamlet,
and Romeo all in one. Meanwhile, in the University supposed to be pecu-
liarly dedicated to the advance ol mathematical science, a young and very
promising mathematician (whose name shall not be divulged) d-propos of a
movement kindly attempted, without my being previously consulted, to place
me in a position where, in the vicinity of our central luminary, I might have
been in my proper place, and helped to reflect some portion of his rays upon
surrounding bodies, wrote to ma lately: "You cannot imagine the bitter
prejudice that prevails here against pure mathematics, &c." I freely forgive
those, "the bigots of a narrow creed," who entertain such; sentiments,
knowing that " they know not what they do."

t What would our English statesmen say to the conduct of the prover-
bially parsimonious Prussian Government and the nineteenth century
Richelieu, "dertolle B is mark " in appropriating a million and a half of
marks (75,000/. sterling) placed at the free disposal of the modern Aristotle,
Helmholtz, for constructing the bare shell alone of the new Physical Labora-
tory at Berlin ! If such an appropriation were proposed at home, would
there not run through the land a frantic shriek or muttered low of dis-

lateral, when one of the four named points, say p, is
absolutely fixed, and one of its non-conjugate points,
say r, is attached to the end of a radius so centred and
of such a length that the path of r is a circle which,
geometrically completed, would pass through p, the
remaining conjugate point q will be forced to describe a
straight Hne perpendicular to the line joining the two
fixed points — so by means of our Quadruplane, when P is
fixed and R made to move in the arc of a circle passing
through P, the point Q may be made to describe a straight
line having any desired obliquity to the line of centres,
the amount of such obliquity depending on the magnitude
of the supplemental equal angles p, Q, R, s. Thus the
Plagiograph (and in the first instance Mr. Kempe's notice
of the homcEOgraphic commutability of the lengths of
the connecting rod and the radial bars in ordinary
three-bar motion) has led by a devious path to the con-
struction of a three-piece-work giving the most general
and available solution of the problem of exact parallel
motion that has been discovered or that can exist — I
say the most available, for it is evident, in general, that
piece-work must possess the advantage of greater firmness
and steadiness from the more equal distribution of its
strains over ordinary link-work.

The Peaucellier and Hart cells, duly mounted, afford the
means by obvious methods of adjustment to cut straight
lines at any distance from either of the fixed centres, but
confined to lying perpendicular to the line of centres;
whereas the Quadruplane puts it into our power with one
and the same instrument affected with simple means of
adjustment to make straight cuts (and, if desired, two
parallel ones simultaneously) in all directions as well as at
all distances in the plane of motion. So again the
Plagiograph enables us to apply the principle of angular
repetition (as, for instance, in making an ellipse with
dimensions either fixed or varying at will, successively
turn its axis to all points of the compass) to produce
designs of complicated and captivating symmetry from
any simple pattern or natural form, such as a flower or
sprig ; and as the head of a house at Oxford in the good
old port-wine days was heard to complain about the
electro-magnetic machine, that " he feared it would place
a new weapon in the hands of the incendiary" (the
power of Swing being then rampant in the land), so,
but with better reason and upon the highest authority,
it may be predicted that this simple invention will be
found to place a new and powerful experimentative and
executory implement in the hand of the engine-turner,
the pattern-designer, and the architectural decorator.

J. J. Sylvester
Athenaeum Club, and 60, Maddox Street, W.
July 5-

P.S. — I rejoice to be able to state that the Institute of
France has quite recently adjudged its great mechanical
prize, the " Prix Monty on," to Col. Peaucellier for his
discovery of an exact parallel motion when a lieutenant
in 1864. The first practical application of this discovery,
made by Mr. Prim under the sanction of Dr. Percy, may
be seen daily at work in the Ventilating Department of
our Houses of Parliament. The workmen there, who
never tire of admiring its graceful and silent action, have
given it the pet name of the " Octopus," from some
fancied resemblance between its backward and forward
motion and that of the above-named distinguished
Cephalopod. I feel a strong persuasion that when the
inertia of our operative classes shall have been overcome,
this application will prove to be but the signal, the first
stroke of the tocsin, of an entire revolution to be wrought
in every branch of ^construction ; and that machinery is
destined eventually to merge into a branch of the science
of Linkage in the sense in which that word is used in the
text above.

July 15, 1875]

NATURE

217

CHARCOAL VACUA*
{From a Correspondent^

PROF. DEWAR began his discourse by describing
the different processes which have been adopted for
obtaining very perfect vacua, and referred to a paper
regarding this matter, read by Prof. Tait and himself
before the Society last year.

By the ordinary air-pump the exhaustion can only be
obtained to \ of an inch, i.e. .^j^ of the ordinary pressure.

Regnault, in some of his experiments, after exhausting
with the air-pump, boiled water, and when the water had
evaporated, sealed the vessel, and then broke a flask
inside containing sulphuric acid, and so the water vapour
was absorbed.

Dr. Andrews' way is a revival of one due to Davy, viz. to
fill and exhaust twice with carbonic acid after the pump
exhaustion, and then by caustic potash to fix the CO2
which is left.

Professors Tait and Dewar's method is to take advan-
tage of the power charcoal has of condensing gases ;
while the exhaustion, by means of a mercury pump,
is going on, the charcoal is kept heated ; when the
exhaustion has been carried as far as possible, the vessel
is sealed, and as the charcoal cools, it condenses the very
small residue of gas there may be present, and this can
again be temporarily driven out by heating the charcoal.
The test they have employed to gauge the perfection of
their vacuum has been to sec if it will allow an electric
spark to pass. It is well known that at the ordinary
atmospheric density it requires considerable tension for a
spark to pass through air, and as the density diminishes,
the spark passes more easily ; but when a certain point is
reached the difficulty again increases, and in a very per-
fect vacuum no spark passes at all. Two wires, \ inch
apart, in one of Tait and Dewar's exhausted tubes would
not allow a spark to pass, although a powerful coil was
employed.

Prof. Dewar went on to say that the effect of light and
heat had been tried by many experimenters, on magnets
and delicately suspended bodies, and in the Edinburgh
New Philosophical yournal for 1828 there is an interesting
account of some experiments performed by Mark Watt on
the same subject, with apparatus little differing in appear-
ance from that now used by Mr. Crookes.

Recently Mr. Crookes has found some curious results
which he seems to think are inexplicable. He found that
the action of a beam of light on a delicately suspended glass
fibre with a disc at each end was repulsion of the disc when
the exhaustion was perfect, but attraction when at ordi-
nary pressures. The discs were light bodies of pith or cork.
One side of each was covered with lampblack, the other
was white. The first thing to be noticed is that the
blackened face is affected much sooner than the white face.
Since there was attraction at one density and repulsion
at another, it follows that at some intermediate density
there is no action at all, and this neutral point depends
among other things on the conductivity of the body and
the nature of the residual gas.

It will be seen that for delicate action one essential is
that the glass of the vessel be thin. The sensibility is
also found to increase with the perfection of the vacuum.

The first fact ascertained is that the action follows the
law of the inverse square of the distance, that which all
radiation obeys. Thus, when the light was 3I inches from
the beam, the reading was no, zero 22, deflection 88;
at 7|, reading 48, deflection 22, or only about \ ; and
when at 1 1^, reading 33 ; and(as zero changed, reading 33,
deflection 9, or only about \.

The next experiment was this. Professor Dewar in-
terposed between the candle and the beam a substance
opaque to heat rays. The candle was placed so as to

* By Professors Tait and Dewar. Paper read by Prof. Dewar before the
R.S. of Edinburgh on Monday, July 12.

give a large deflection, and then a vessel of ordinary
glass was interposed, and the deflection decreased, and
on filling the vessel with water, which is almost opaque to
heat rays, there was no perceptible deflection left. This
shows that when the heat rays are absorbed or prevented
from reaching the disc, hardly any action takes place. A
layer of water \ of an inch thick diminishes the amount
of deflection to \ part of the original.

Next a smoked piece of rock-salt was interposed, or
a vessel filled with a substance transparent to heat
but opaque to light, viz., a solution of iodine in bisulphide
of carbon. The deflection was as before, large ; on the
empty screen being interposed a diminution followed, due
to the non-transparency of the glass screen for heat.
But when by means of the iodine solution the light rays
were cut off there was hardly any further diminution in
the deflection. This shows that the light rays may be
taken away without any considerable diminution of the
action.

Prof. Dewar then proceeded to show that the heating
of the disc was the efficient cause of the action.

Two equal discs, one of rock-salt, the other of glass,
were attached to; the glass fibre. The rock-salt was
inactive when the beam was thrown on it ; the glass disc
was active. The reason is evidently that the rock-salt
is not heated, being transparent to heat, whereas the
glass is opaque, absorbs the heat and is heated. Unless
the shell of the receiver be thin, however, the selective
action is very small, as the glass envelope absorbs much
of the heat.

The back of the rock-salt disc was then coated with
lampblack, and the beam sent through to the blackened
side. Yet there would be attraction. The heat and light
passes through the rock-salt and is absorbed by the lamp-
black at the surface of contact. The lampblack is heated
up in consequence, but it is so bad a conductor that before
this heat can be conducted through the thin coating of
lampblack it is conducted through the rock-salt, heats it
up, and the action is repulsion. If the lampblack were
not so bad a conductor, all the lampblack would be first
heated up and there would be repulsion at the other side,
or apparent attraction. The subsequent action is due to
the giving out heat unequally on the two sides.

The next modification was to substitute for the rock-
salt clear sulphur and ordinary sulphur on the other.
The peculiarity of clear sulphur is that when acted on by
light it resumes the appearance of ordinary sulphur, with
a disengagement of heat. A beam was thrown on this,
and the effect was, as expected, attraction, the back being
heated, and repulsion, there being attraction on the other
side. The success of this experiment depends on the
way in which the sulphur is transforming.

This suggested to the learned Professors an instrument
for detecting the presence of very high violet rays. Have
the transparent discs coated with white phosphorus,
which is opaque to the ultra-violet rays. There would
ensue a chemical action with disengagement of heat, and
the result would be a motion of the discs. To show the
sensitiveness of the apparatus, it may be stated that an
ordinary lucifer-match held at a distance of 4 feet pro-
duced instant action, which was observed by means of a
telescope. When ether was brought near there was
attraction. The disc followed the ether about because
there was radiation of heat from the disc. The action is
clearly due to the infinitesimal heating of the discs.
Reynolds suggested the action was due to the evaporation
of some fluid on the surface of the discs. The recoil of
the evaporating particles leaving the disc sent it back.

When the action takes place in ordinary pressures it is
probably due to convection currents. The air in front of
the disc is heated and ascends, there is avacuum,and hence
the disc advances. To understand the action that takes
place when the exhaustion is more perfect, we must con-
sider how much gas there is in the vessel. The capacity

2l8

NATURE

\yuly 15, 1875

of the vessel is about a litre or 1000 cubic centimetres.
But since we know that the eichaustion has reduced the
density to -4Trui7rT7r of its original, the volume occupied by
the residual gas at ordinary pressures would be that of a
little bubble ^\-^ of an inch in diameter.

Sir Wm. Thomson, T. Clerk-Maxwell, and Clausius have
shown that in a gas, at ordinary pressure, the mean or average
path between two collisions is about to W of a millimetre.
When tke pressure is reduced to ttjooooo the mean will be
400 millimetres, or about a foot and a half. What takes
place is this. The particles of the gas are flying about in
all directions, with a velocity which depends on the tem-
perature. When they impinge on the heated disc their
velocity is increased, they go off with a greater velocity
than those which go off from the colder side, and hence
there is a recoil of the disc. When the gas is at all dense
the particles get a very short way before they are met by
another and sent back, and so the velocity gets a common
velocity before any visible action takes place. When the
gas is rare the particles may get a long way off before they
meet others, and so the action becomes perceptible.

In case of cooling they go away with diminished ve-
locity and a negative recoil.

The author of the paper went on to show that the total
mechanical action on a square centimetre of black surface
derived from the radiation of a magnesium lamp, at a dis-
tance of 150 mill., did not exceed a continuous pressure of
JLj part of a milligramme, and that the total work done
did not amount to the five-millionth part of the available
energy received by the movable surfaces.

ADDITION TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE
TERMITES*

FRITZ MULLER has recently pubHshed a short but
interesting memoir on the larvae of Calotermes,
a genus of Termites, which he describes with his wonted
care and accuracy. We cannot, of course, here follow
him in detail ; but, as is so often the case in the writings
of this eminent naturalist, he draws our attention by his
descriptions to several points of unusual interest. As
occurs in some other insects, the youngest larvse of
Calotermes differ much in form from those somewhat
more advanced in age. The form of the younger larvne
may be accounted for on two hypotheses. It may be an
adaptation to the mode of life, or it may be the original
larval form of the group. In the latter case, Herr Miiller
considers that it would be an extremely interesting form,
because, in his opinion, Calotermes is one of the oldest,
if not the oldest, of existing insect genera ; since, accor-
ding to Hagen, the carboniferous Termites described by
Goldenburg from the cold strata belong to this group.
Under the latter hypothesis, therefore, the younger larvae of
Calotermes would have, as regards insects, an interest
similar to that possessed by Nauplius among Crustacea ;
and, according to Miiller, the latter really is the case.
The youngest larvae of Calotermes live with their elder
sisters, in the same localities, on the same food, and, in fact,
under precisely the same conditions. These older larvae
have, in a word, completely adapted themselves to their
dwelling-place and mode of life. Like most animals
which burrow in earth, wood, or stone, they are cylindrical
in form. Not so the youngest larvEe, which are flattened,
and have the thorax laterally expanded. Their structure
is, in Miiller's opinion, as unsuitable as possible for
animals inhabiting wood. This form is therefore pro-
bably only possessed through inheritance from far distant
ancestors.

It is unnecessary to point out how great is the interest
attaching to these larva;, if Miiller's view be correct ;
nor would I venture to express any dissent from his con-
clusions. But, I confess, there seems to me a difficulty

» By Fritz MOUer.

in comprehending why the younger larvae have not
adapted themselves to their conditionSj'^in like manner as
their elders.

May there not possibly be some circumstances which
have hitherto escaped observation, and which might
render the form of these larvae not so altogether unsuit-
able as Miiller supposes ?

I will just refer to one other point in this interesting
paper. The author shows that the main, if not the whole
growth of the antenna takes place in the third segment :
the two basal ones and the terminal portion remaining
almost unaltered. My husband, many years ago (Linn.
Trans., 1863), showed this to be the case in the
Ephemera {Chloeon), and it would be interesting to know
whether the same thing occurs among other Neuroptera.

High Elms Ellen Lubbock

NOTES
The Loan Exhibition of Scientific Apparatus at South
Kensington, to which we have already referred (vol. xi. p. 301),
will open on the 1st of April, 1876, and remain open until the
end of September, after which time the objects will be returned
to the owners. It will, as we have already intimated, consist of
instruments and apparatus employed for research, and other
scientific purposes, and for teaching. It will also include appa-
ratus illustrative of the progress of science, and its application
to the arts, as well as such as may possess special interest on
account of the persons by whom, or the investigations in which,
it had been employed. The precise limits are detailed under
several sections in a syllabus which has been issued for the in-
formation of exhibitors. Models, drawings, or photographs will
also be admissible where the originals cannot be sent. The
apparatus may, in certain cases, be arranged in train as used for
typical investigations ; and arrangements will be made, as far as
it may be found practicable, for systematically explaining and
illustrating the use of the apparatus in the various sections.
Forms on which to enter descriptions of objects offered for
exhibition may be obtained on application to the Director of the
South Kensington Museum, London, S.W. These forms should
be filled up and returned as soon as possible, so that exhibitors
may receive early intimation as to the admissibility of the objects
they propose to send. The cost of carriage of all objects
selected for exhibition will be defrayed by the Science and Art
Department. It is hoped that institutions or individuals having
instruments of historic interest will be good enough to lend
them. The following are the various sections into which the
Exhibition will be divided : — Arithmetic, Geometry, Measure-
ment, Kinematics, Statics and Dynamics, Molecular Physics,
Sound, Light, Heat, Magnetism, Electricity, Astronomy, Ap-
plied Mechanics — [as the Exhibition must be regarded as chiefly
referring to education, research, and other scientific purposes, it
must in this division consist principally of models, diagrams,
mechanical drawings, and small machines, illustrative of the
principles and progress of mechanical science, and of the appli-
cation of mechanics to the arts], — Chemistry Meteorology,
Geography, Geology and Mining, Mineralogy, Crystallo-
graphy, and Biology.

Mr. Sullivan on Tuesday, in the Heuae of Commons, moved
with regard to the necessity for having a Museum of Science
and Art in Dublin. He, as well as the^other speakers, seems to
be ignorant of the fact that in addition to its educational staff
and appliances, the Royal College of Science in Dublin possesses
the germ of an admirable museum which formerly constituted the
Museum of Irish Industry. It seems probable that what is needed
is a removal of the specimens from the College to a suitable build-
ing ; probably an enlargement of the Royal Dublin Society would
be best, and the space thus gained in the College of cience

July 15, 1875]

NATURE

219

would be invaluable for laboratories. Few of the outside public
arc aware what a fine collection of mechanical apparatus the late
Professor of Mathematics, Dr. Ball, made in the College, and
how highly d«sirable it is that these should be turned to active
and good use by his successor.

The Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction and the
Advancement of Science have held their final sitting and ap-
pended their signatures to the Sixth Report on Science Teaching
in Tublic and Endowed Schools ; the Seventh Report on the
Universities of London, Scotland, Dublin, and the Queen's Uni-
versity in Ireland ; and the Eighth and Final Report on the
Advancement of Science and the relations of Government to that
branch of study.

For the Paris International Geographical Exhibition an im-
mense number of photographs have been received from the
Palestine Exploration Fund, which will afford a good idea of the
work done by British explorers. The Russian and Austro-
Hungarian Governments have erected, each at its own expense,
an elegantly fitted pavilion on the terrace dit bord de V Ean,
where their exhibits will find ample room. M. Esler, the
Dnnish delegate, has brought with him a complete collection of
the dresses used by the natives ©f Greenland. All the original
mifs of Paris, from the celebrated tapestry carpet up to the
latest published by M. Haussmann, will be exhibited by the
French Government. A special section has been arranged for
alimentary preparations useful for travelling purposes, and an-
other for inventions relating to salvage.

Session 1875-6 of the Teachers' Classes oi St. Thomas
Charterhouse School of Science will commence on Sept. 25
next. A public meeting will be held on some Saturday early in
October, when an address will be delivered by Dr. Carpenter.
Tlie managers of the Gilchrist Trust have made a grant for
the delivery of a course of lectures, on alternate Friday
evenings, during the session. The arrangements are in the
hands of Dr. Carpenter, secretary to the Trust, who is in active
communication with Professors Huxley and Tyndall and
other eminent lecturers. The lectures will be delivered in the
Foresters' Hall, Wilderness Row, near the Charterhouse
Schools.

The Committee of the French Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, which meets at Nantes on August 19, have
issued invitations and a list of some of the French men of science
expected; to be present. Among the subjects which will be
brought before the Association are Researches on Prussic Acid,
by M. Claude Bernard ; an important paper by M. Pasteur on
Beer ; an account of the work relating to the Meridian of France,
by Commandant Perrier ; and a new rhinoplastic process, by Dr.
Oilier. Among those expected to be present are, MM. Dumas,
Claude Bernard, Pasteur, H. St. Claire Deville, De Quatrefages,
I^evasseur, P. Broca, E. Caventou, L. Lefort, E. Moreau,
Trelau, Vemeuil, and other eminent scientific Frenchmen.

At the half-yearly general meeting of the Scottish Meteoro-
logical Society on Tuesday last two interesting papers were
read ; one on " The Mortality of the Large Towns of the British
Islands in relation to Weather," by Mr. Buchan ; and the other
on " Weather and Epidemics of Scarlet Fever in London during
the past thirty-five years," by Dr. Arthur MitchelL We hope
to be able to give a notice of these papers in our next number.

On the 7th of July an extraordinary hail and thimder storm
raged over a large part of France, many towns having been
deluged in succession. At Geneva, where the phenomenon was
more satisfactorily observed than elsewhere, it was found that
the hailstones fell on a belt at first only four kilometres in
breadth, but enlarging, when near the lake, to about thrice that

breadth. The path of these thunderstorms will be investi-
gated by the Meteorological Boards of the different departments,
but it will take some time before they are correctly mapped.
M. Dumas, at Monday's sitting of the Paris Academy,
read a letter from M. Calladon, of Geneva, stating that hail-
stones of 300 grammes each had been collected ; and a letter
from M. W. de Fonvielle, describing the icicles observed by M.
Duruof on his balloon in his last ascent, about ten days ago.
M. Dumas directed the attention of the Academy to the import-
ance of that observation, in order to explain how gigantic
hailstones can be generated during abnormal atmospheric per-
turbations.

There is nothing particularly noteworthy in the Report pre-
sented by the Radcliffe Observer to the Board of Trustees on
June 29. The work of the Observatory has been steadily pur-
sued, interrupted only by an unusual amount of unfavourable
weather. A great advance has been made in the reduction and
printing of the observations during the past year.

A LIVELY interest in science seems to have been awakened
in Aberdeen, by means of lectures on anatomy and physio-
logy, delivered gratuitously by Prof. Struthers on Saturday
evenings in Marischal College. They have been very largely
attended by both sexes, and particularly by that portion of the
community, comprising all classes, whose opportunities for in-
struction in scientific subjects have been necessarily restricted. A
beautifully illuminated and handsomely mounted address was
recently presented to Dr. Struthers by the Dean of Guild of the
city on behalf of a large number of subscribers, as a mark of their
appreciation of his disinterested labours. The Aberdeen School
Board had been stimulated to resolve to introduce some physical
science into the Grammar School. They propose to have a course
of Elementary Chemistry and Elementary Physics, and also one of
Botany. The Mechanics' Institution of Aberdeen, now aided by
a munificent bequest from the late Dr. Neil Amot, himself an
Aberdonian, is also doing valuable work in the way of dissemi-
nating systematic knowledge in various branches of physical
science. '

The Halifax Geologists' Field Club now consists of ninety
members, and during the past year many papers have been read
and a considerable number of excursions made. The president,
Mr. J. W. Davis, in his address on May 19, gave an inte-
resting sketch of the work done at the Settle Caves. Mr. L. C.
Miall gave a lecture on the 2nd June on the Construction of
Geological Maps ; and on the i6th, Prof. A. H. Green lectured
on the General Structure of the Central Part of Yorkshire Coal
Field. The Club seems to be in a healthy condition.

We are glad to see from the " Reports and Proceedings" for
1874 and part of 1875 of the Miners' Association of Cornwall
and Devon, which carries on its work to some extent in connec-
tion with the Science and Art Department, that notwithstanding
the present great depression in mining, this exceedingly useful
Association has been able to continue its good work among the
class for whose benefit it has been founded. The report of the
lecturer, Mr. B. Kitto, F.G.S., is very satisfactory, and is fol-
lowed by a number of valuable papers on various subjects con-
nected with mining.

The Revue Scientifique {ox }v\y 10 contains M. J. Bertrand's
valuable account of the hfe and work of the late M. Elie de
Beaumont, recently read before the Paris Academy of Sciences.

Principal Dawson has sent us an interesting paper, being
the Presidential Address to the Natural History Society
of Montreal for 1875, entitled "Recollections of Sir Charles
Lyell," containing among other things some personal remi-
niscences of the great geologist's visits to America.

220

NATURE

IJuly 15. 1875

The " Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences " for 1874-5 ^'^^ j"st to hand ; the following is a list of
the papers contained in the volume : — Researches on the Hexa-
tomic Compounds of Cobalt, by Wolcott Gibbs, M.D. Contribu-
tions to the Botany of North America, by Asa Gray. Graphical
Integration, by Edward C. Pickering. On the Solar Motion in
Space, by Truman Henry SafFord. Historical Sketch of the
Generic Names proposed for Butterflies : a contribution to
Systematic Nomenclature, by Samuel H. Scudrler. On the
wide diffusion of Vanadium and its_ association with Phosphorus
in many Rocks, by A."A. Hayes, M.D. Foci of Lenses placed
obliquely, by Prof. E. C. Pickering and Dr. Chas. H. Williams.
On the Effect of Heat upon the Magnetic Susceptibility of Soft
Iron, by H. Amory and F. Minot. A Conspectus of the North
American Hydrophyllaceje, by Asa Gray. Revision of the
Genus Ceanothus, and Descriptions of New Plants, with a
Synopsis of the Western Species of Silene, by Sereno Watson.
List of the Marine Algse of the United States, with Notes of
New and Imperfectly Known Species, by W. G. Farlow. On a
New Induction Coil, by John Trowbridge. On the Effect of
Armatures on'the Magnetic State of Electro-Magnets, by B. O.
Peirce and E. B. Levafour. On the Time of Demagnetisation
of Soft Iron, by W. C. Hodgkins>nd;J. H. Jennings. Light
transmitted by one or m«re Plates of Glass, by W. W.Jacques.
On the Application of Logical Analysis to Multiple Algebra, by
C. S. Peirce. On the Uses and Transformations of Linear
Algebra, by Benjamin Peirce. On a New Optical Constant,
and on a Method of Measuring Refractive Indices without the
use of Divided Instruments, by Wolcott Gibbs, M.D. Inten-
sity of Twilight, by Charles H. Williams. Light of the Sky, by
W. O. Crosby. Light absorbed by the Atmosphere of the Sun,
by E. C. Pickering and D. P. Strange. Tests of a Magneto-
electric Machine, by E. C. Pickering and D. P. Strange.
Answer to M. Jamin's Objections to Ampere's Theory, by
William W. Jacques. Melanosiderite : a New Mineral Species,
from Mineral Hill, Delaware County, Pennsylvania, by Josiah
P. Cooke, jun. On Two New Varieties of Vermiculites, with
a Revision of the other Members of this Group, by Josiah P.
Cooke, jun., and F. A. Gooch.

At a meeting of the Council of the Royal School of Mines,
held on Saturday, July 3rd, the following gentlemen received, the
diploma of Associate of the Royal School of Mines : — Mining
and Metallurgical Divisions : Harry H. Becher, W. Frecheville,
F. II. Marshall, Ambrose R. Willis. Mining Division : Archi-
bald E. Pinching, G. Seymour, H. Lamont Yomig. Metal-
lurgical Division : G. Fitz Brown, Robert Hellon, W. Foulkes
Lowe, Thomas Purdie. Geological Diivsion : G. C. Frames.
The following scholarships and prizes were also awarded : —
Third-year Students : The De la Beche Medal and prize of
books to Mr. G. Fitz Brown ; the Murchison Medal and prize
of books for Geology to Mr. G. Seymour. Second-year Stu-
dents : H.R.H. the Duke of Cornwall's Scholarship of 30/. for
two years to Mr. H. Louis, and the Royal Exhibition of 25/. to
Mr. W. Hewitt. First-year Students : Two Royal Scholar-
ships of 15/. each to Mr, A. N. Pearson and Mr, L, J. Whalley.

During the past week the Commission on Vivisection have
held several meetings. The absence of Prof. Huxley is to be
regretted.

In the secret committee which was held after Monday's sitting
of the Paris Academy of Sciences the claims of M. Mouchez and
M. Wolf to the vacant membership in the section of Astronomy
were warmly discussed. The election will probably take place
next Monday. M. Mouchez is one of the most successful of the
Transit observers, ^and M. Wolf is the sub-director of the Paris
Observatory.

A SECOND specimen of a Two-homed Asiatic Rhinoceros was
yesterday deposited in the Zoological Society's Gardens. It
closely resembles the Hairy-eared species, and does not differ
much from the Sumatran animal.

A SECOND edition has been issued of "The Unseen Uni-
verse ; or. Physical Speculations on a Future State " (Macmillan
and Co.)

The Geologists' Association will make a five days' excursion
into East Yorkshire, commencing on July 19,

In connection with the calamitous floods around Toulouse, on
the 25 th June a singular phenomenon was observed at Clermont-
sur-Lanquet. The whole of the earth on the slope of a moun-
tain was moved bodily, a shepherd's house being transported
uninjured to a distance.

We have received a paper addressed to the Royal Society of
Edinburgh by M. F. Lefort, Inspecteur-General des Ponts et
Chaussees, containing Observations relative to Mr. Edward
Sang's " Remarks on the Great Logarithmic and Trigonometrical
Tables calculated in the Bureau du Cadastre under the direction
of Prony." Appended to the paper is Mr. Sang's reply to M.
Lefort's observations.

We have received the "Astronomical and Meteorological
Observations " made during the year 1872 at the U.S. Naval
Observatory.

To those who are interested in the question of the pollution of
rivers, we would commend a letter to the Right Hon. G.
Sclater-Booth, President of the Local Government Board, en-
titled "The Pollution of Rivers, by a Polluter" (Mr. E. C.
Potter, of Manchester). In a very moderate and reasonable way
it advances some arguments in favour of the polluter's side of
the question.

The Thirteenth Annual Report of the Birmingham Free
Libraries Committee for 1874 is on the whole a satisfactory one.
The aggregrate number of issues for the year is 542,887, and
although this is only an increase of about 3,000 over 1873, there
is a very marked increase in the issues of books to readers in
the Reference Library, indicating the growing use of a higher
class of works than are deposited in the L&iding Library, and
showing that the Free Library system is bearing fruit in raising
the standard of taste and cultivation among readers. The issue
of scientific works both in the Lending and Reference Libraries
bears a very fair proportion to that in other departments.

We have received a paper by Mr. W. W. Wagstaffe, of St.
Thomas's Hospital, on the mechanical structure of the cancellous
tissue of bone, in which the arrangement of the trabeculse of the
articular ends of the human bones are described, from sections,
on the same principle as that previously adopted by Mr, F.
Ward, Julius Wolff, and others.

The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during
the past week include a Maholi Galago [Galago maholi) from
S. Africa, presented by Mr. C, E, Thomson ; two Angulated
Tortoises {Chersina angulata) from S. Africa, presented by Mr.
L. A. Knight; a Roseate Cockatoo {Cacafua rosdcapilla) from
Australia, presented by Mr. Alfred^Thompson ; seven Garganey
Teal {Querquedula circia), and a Temminck's Tragopan {Ceriornis
temmincki) from China ; two Argus Pheasants {Argus giganleus)
from Malacca, deposited ; two Giant Tortoises { Testudo indica)
from the Aldabra Islands, purchased ; a Malbrouck Monkey
{Cercopithecus cynosurus) from W. Africa, received in exchange ;
a Hog Deer {Cervus porcinus) and five Chiloe Wigeons {AJareca
ckiloensis) born in the Gardens.

July 15, 1875]

NATURE

221

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Transactions of the Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists^ Society,
vol. ii. part i., 1874-5. — This Society has now been in existence
for seven years, and at present numbers 140 members. It
endeavours, we beheve, faithfully to carry out one of the main
objects of local societies, the study of the natural history of its
district. This number of its Transactions contains the first
section. Dicotyledonous, of a list of the flowering plants of Norfolk,
forming the sixth instalment of the fauna and flora of the
county, which the Society is publishing. Mr. John Quinton
also contributes "Notes on the Meteorological Observations
recorded at Norwich during 1874." A notable and excellent
feature in this Society's publications is the miscellaneous notes,
in which are briefly recorded new or interesting facts in the
natural history of the county. There are several curious papers
in this part. Mr. Amyot gives some details concerning a very
old oak at Winfarthing Manor. — Mr, J. H. Gurney communi-
cates some extracts from the notebook of the late Miss Anna
Gurney of Northreps, in which she recorded noteworthy zoologi-
cal occurrences in her neighbourhood, between 1820 and 1856.—
A reprint of a letter by Sir J. E. Smith, from vol. vii. of the
Jrunsactions of the Linnean Society, gives some interesting de-
tails concerning several Norwich botanists. — Mr, T. Southwell
contributes an analysis of the documents from which the ' ' Indi-
cations of Spring," communicated to the Royal Society by
Robert Marsham, F,R.S., in 1789, were compiled. — A hst of
139 birds observed on the Kimberley estate, by the Earl of Kim-
berley. — The wild cattle at Chillingham, by Mr. C. G, Barrett,
an interesting account of a visit to those rare animals.

Journal of the Franklin Institute, May. — The following nre
the principal papers in this number: " On the theory of the
tension of belts,'* by Prof. L, G. Franck ; the continuation of
Mr. C. E, Emery's paper on "Compound and non-compound
engines," and of Chief Engineer B, F, Isherwood's paper on
"Experiments with different screws;" "On the mechanical
equivalent of htat," the translation of a paper by M, Jules VioUe.
There is also a description of the Centennial Exhibition Build-
ings, with some excellent views, plans, and elevations,

Zeitschrift der Oesterreichischen Gesellschaft fiir Metcorologie,
May 15. — The first paper describes a new kind of thermometer
invented by Dr, Wollny, of Munich, for earth-temperature between
0'3 and i '8 metres below the surface. — The next is the con-
cluding part of Mr. Colding's article on winds. After explaining
the effect of the rotation of the eaith on great atmospheric currents,
he continues as follows : — Let us consider the case of two winds, a
polar and an equatorial, moving side by side in opposite direc-
tions, the polar being to the west of the other. Clearly the two
will have a tendency to recede from each other, and in conse-
quence there will be rarefaction at their neighbouring borders,
producing a reaction in the two currents exactly counterbalancing
the force due to rotation. Thus pressure diminishes from their
outer towards their inner or neighbouring borders, where there
must be a valley or depression of their surfaces. Since the
magnitude of this valley depends upon the velocity of the winds,
any slackening of velocity in one of them must allow it to break
into the other by gravitation, and originate a hurricane revolving
against the sun. It is the denser polar wind which generally
breaks into the equatorial from a N. W, direction. Condensation
of vapour follows, and then under certain conditions a hurricane.
Now to take the other case — what will happen if the polar
current flows on the cast of the equatorial ? The effect of the
rotation of the earth will be a heapmg up or condensation of air
at their neighbouring borders, and the heavier current as before
will invade the lighter from S.E., bringing rahi. Here, how-
ever, there can be no hurricane, for gravitation acts dispersively,
and the adjustment of level proceeds outwards instead of in-
wards. If it were possible for a hurricane to arise on the east
side of the equatorial current, it would rotate "with the sun."
The reason why all hurricanes rotate against the sun is now
obvious, ^Vith these principles in mind, Mr. Colding thus illus-
trates the law of Dove : Let us imagine ourselves advancing in
a westward direction out of a polar into an equatorial current.
The wind turns gradually to E., then it changes to S. and S.W,
as we enter the warm current ; then we have it W,, N,W., N.,
and finally N.E., in the polar current on the othei side. Now
at most stations where observations have been made, this direc-
tion of shift is the common one. Hence we are led to suppose
that the atmosphere as a whole moves sometimes from E. to W, ,
but more commonly from \V, to E, There is good reason for

this view. If the atmosphere consisted of air only, there would
be no reason for an excess of eastward movement, but the equa-
torial current, more than the polar, carries a large quantity of
vapour, and this causes an excess of pressure from W, to E.
Therefore, concludes the author, Dove's law is a real law of
nature.

June I. — The chief papers in this number bear the follow-
ing titles : — " The Climate of the Lower Yenesei," "Co-efficients
of Temperature of Naudet's Aneroid," "An empirical demon-
stration of the Motive Force of the Equatorial Oceanic Current,"
"Quantity of Carbonic Acid Gas in Desert Air." The last
paper refers to an examination of the air of the Libyan desert,
by which it appears that the quantity of carbonic acid gas con-
tained by it is about the amount found in other open places,

Reale Istiluto Lombardo, Rendiconti, t, 8, fasc. ill., iv,,
e V. — These parts contain the following papers : — Prof. L.
Maggi and G, Canton!, on some new experiments on hetero-
geneity and some consequences drawn from previous series 01
experiments. — On the modification of the pupil observed in some
cardialgies, by Dr. A, de Giovauni. — Researches on the mor-
phogeny of alcoholic ferments, by Dr. J, Macagno. — Meteoro-
logical observations made at the Observatory of Brera, by
Abate G, Capelli. — On some new parasitic fungi found by
Dr. A. Cattaneo, of the Cryptogamic Laboratory, on some
fruit affected by the so-called rosin disease and gangrene, by
Prof. S. Garovaglio; the fungi belonged to the families of
Sporocadus spharonema, Echinobotrytwi, and a new kind called
Cattanea ; and the part contains some excellent illustrations of
the species. — A note by Prof. C. Combroso on the causes of
crime, — On the physiological effects of the Jaborandus, a shrub
growing in the interior of some provinces of Northern Brazil,
and whose leaves much resemble those of laurels, by Dr. Carlo
Ambrosoli. — On the correction of temperature in a liquid into
which the thermometer cannot be sufficiently immersed, by Prof,
Rinaldo Ferrini. — On the centre of gravity in some homogeneous
systems, by Prof. G. Bardelli. — Observations of the periodical
comet of Winnecke (1819, III,), by Prof, G. V, Schiaparelli,
made at the Observatory of Brera.

Freiburg Naturforschende Gesellschaft. — This Society's Ver-
handlungen (vol, vi. Parts I. -HI.) contain .the following more
important papers : — On the action of sulphur chloride upon
aniline in the presence of carbon bisulphide, by A. Claus and
W, Krall. — On the action of solids upon over-saturated solu-
tions, by F, C, Henrici. — On the occurrence and some reactions
of pjrol, by W, Schlebusch, — On the decomposition of grape
sugar by cupric oxide in alkaline solution, by A, Claus, — On
some volcanic rocks of Java (with plates), by II, Rosenbusch. —
On nitrophenylene, by A, Claus. — Microscopic mmeralogical
researches, by H, Fischer (second paper), — On the galvanic
ignition of metal wires, by Dr, J. Miiller. — A graphic represen-
tation of Ohm's Jaw ; notes on melting points ; both these
papers by the same. — On Diiodohydrine, by A. Claus. —
Researches on the Lesser Lamprey {Fetromyzon planery), by Dr.
P, Langerhans (with plates).

The Gazzetta Chimica Ilaliana, fasc. iv., 1875, contains the
following original papers : — On the hydrate of chlorine Clg -h
loHjjO, by U, Schiff. — On the action of aniline on dichlor-
hydrine, by the same. — On the supposed transformation of the
asparagine of vegetables into an albuminoid, by M. Mercadante.
— Besides the above there is a literal translation of Prof. Clerk-
Maxwell's paper on the dynamic evidence of the molecular
constitution of bodies, as read at the Chemical Society in
February last, and a summary of the contents of other journals.

The "Attnalidi Chimica applicata alia Medicina" (April)
contains the following papers: — On chloral-collodion, by C.
Pavesi. — On the action of water upon subnitrate of bismuth, by
A. Ditte. — On the morphogeny of alcoholic ferments, by Dr. J.
Macagno. — On the action of nitrite of amyl upon the blood cor-
puscles, and on the temperature of the body during the inhala-
tion of this substance, by W, B, Woodmann. — On the origin
and propagation of disease (last paper), by Sig. Calton.— On the
nature of hydrophobia, by Dr. Brunetti.

Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naiurelles, No. 209,
May 15. — The following are the principal original papers con-
tained in this number : — On Anajsthetics, by Dr. J. L. Prevost.
Reply to that part of M. Marc Micheli's article on the progress
of botany in 1874 whidi concerns plant-motion, by E. Hreckel.

i22

NATURE

{July 15, 1875

—On the normal spectrum of the sun, the ultra-violet part, by
M. A. Cornu, with a plate.

Nachrichtcn von dcr Konigl. Gcsellschaft der Wissenschaftm
und der G. A. ihtivej-sitdt zu Gottingen (Nos. 11-16, 1875).—
From these publications we note the following papers :— Re-
searches on the magnetism of steel rods, by Dr. Carl Fromme. —
On the oscillations of a magnet under the resisting influence of a
copper ball, by Franz Himstert.— On the determination of the
specific conducting resistance of gas coal, by Ed. Riecke. — On
hyperelliptical integrals, by L. Koenigsberger.— On the irregu-
larities and fundamental numbers of plane curves of the third
order with points, by Dr.'Hermann Schubert.— On the symmetric
functions of weight (XI.), by Prof. Faa de Bruno.— On the
volcanic ashes of Turrialba (Costa Rica), by Heinr. O. Lang. —
On the structure of German ferns, by H. Conwentz,

Gotthigen Royal Society of Sciences. — Nos. i to 10 of this
society's Nachrichten contain the following among other papers :
On some cut stones (flints) hitherto unknown, by Fr. Wieseler.
— On elastic after effects, by Fr. Kohlrausch.— On Asa Grey's
group oi Diapcvsiacecc, by Dr. O. Drude.— On a new genus of
Palma: of the Arecineic group, called Griscbachia, by the same
and II. Wendland.^ — On the proof of Cauchy's theorem for
complex functions, by G. Mittag-Leffler. — On the curvature of
some planes, by A. Enneper. — On Rabuteau's law of the toxical
cflect of elements and the action of lithium, by Prof. Husemann.
— On a fundamental theme of PlUcker's geometry, by Dr. A.
Voss. — On the ends of sensitive nerves in the skin, by Prof.
F. Merkel.— On dibromobenzoic acids, by A. Burghard. — On
iodojuiphotoluol, by H. Glassner. — On mononitrobenzonaphty-
lami. es, ainitrobenzonaphtylamide and their derivatives, by P.
Ebell. — On Fuctis vesiculosus, by J. Reinke. — On the action of
a weak acid upon the salt of a stronger acid, by H. Hlibner and
PI. Wiesinger.- On magnetism in steel rods, by Herr Fromme.
— On the specific resistance of gas-coal, by Herr Schrader.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

London

Geological Society, June 23.— Mr. John Evans, V.P.R.S.,
president, in the chair. — Some observations on the Rev. O.
Fisher's remarks on Mr. Mallet's theory of volcanic energy, read
May 12, 1875, by Robert Mallet, F.R.S. The subject of the
Rev, O. Fislier's paper has been anticipated by one from Prof.
Hilgard (Geol. (Jniv. of Michigan) published in the American
Journal of Science (vol. vii., June 1874). The pith of the Rev.
O. Fisher's communication is to a great extent comprised in the
two following sentences : — i. That "if crushing the rocks can in-
duce fusion, then the cubes experimented upon ought to have been
fused in tlie crushing ? " 2. *' If the work (of crushing) is equally
distributed throughout, why should not the heat be so also? or
if not, what determines the localisation ? " In his reply Mr.
Mallet controverts the views of the Rev. O. Fisher by bringing
them mto contact with acknowledged physical laws. He shows
that "crushing alone of rocky masses beneath our earth's crust
may be sufficient to produce fusion. He also shows that the
heat developed by crushing alone cannot be equally diffused
throughout the mass crushed, but must be localised, and that
the circumstances of this localisation must result in producing
a local temperature far greater than that due to crushing.
Lastly, he shows that after the highest temperatures have been
thus reached, a still further and great exaltation of tempera-
ture must arise from detrusive friction and the movements of
forcible deformation of the already crashed and heated material. "
He therefore expresses his conviction that " there is no physical
difficulty in the conception involved in his original memoir (Phil.
Trans. 1873), but not there enlarged upon in detail, that the
temperatures consequent upon crushing the materials of our
earth's crust are sufficient locally to bring these into fusion. "

On the physical conditions under which the Cambrian and
Lower Silurian rocks were probably deposited over the Euro-
pean area, by Mr. Henry Hicks. The author indicates that the
base line of the Cambrian rocks is seen everywhere in Europe
to rest unconformably upon rocks supposed to be of the age of
the Laurentian of Canada, and that the existence of these Pre-
Cambrian rocks indicates that large continental areas existed
previous to the deposition of the Cambrian rocks. The central
line of the Pre- Cambrian European continent would be shown
by a line drawn from S.W. to N.E. along the south coast of the
English Channel, and continued through Holland and Denmark

to the Baltic. Its boundaries were mountainous ; they are indi-
cated in the north by the Pre- Cambrian ridges in Pembroke-
shire, in the Hebrides and Western Highlands, and by the
gneissic rocks of Norway, Sweden, and Lapland. The southern
line commenced to the south of Spain, passing along Southern
Europe, and terminated probably in some elevated plains in
Russia. Between these chains the land formed an undulating
plain, sloping gradually to the south-west, its boundary in this
direction being probably a line drawn from Spain to a point
beyond the British Isles, now marked by the loo-fathom line.
The land here facing the Atlantic Ocean would be lowest, and
would be first submerged when the slow and regular depression
of the Pre-Cambrian land took place. The author points out
that the evidence furnished by the Cambrian and Lower Silurian
deposits of Europe is in accordance with this hypothesis. In
England they attain a thickness of 25,000 to 30,000 feet ; in
Sweden not more than 1,000 feet ; and in Russia they are still
thinner, and the earlier deposits seem to be wanting. In Bohe-
mia they occupy an intermediate position as to thickness and
order of deposition. The author discusses the phenomena pre-
sented by the Welsh deposits of Cambrian and Lower Silurian
age, and shows that we have first conglomerates composed of
pebbles of the Pre-Cambrian rocks, indicating beach conditions,
then ripple-marked sandstones and shallow-water accumulations*
and then, after the rather sudden occurrence of a greater depres-
sion, finer deposits containing the earliest organisms of this
region, which he believes to have immigrated from the deep
water of the ocean lying to the sotith-west. After this the de-
pression was very gradual for a long period, and the deposits
were generally formed in shallow water ; then came a greater
depression, marked by finer beds containing the second fauna •
then a period of gradual subsidence, followed by a more decided
depression of ptobably 1,000 feet, the deposits formed in this
containing the third or "Menevian" fauna. This depression
enabled the water to spread over the area between the south of
Prussia and Bohemia and Norway and Sweden, there being no
evidence of the presence of the first and second faunas over this
area. The filling up of this depression led to the deposition of
the shallow-water deposits of the Lingula-Flag group, followed
by another sudden depression at the commencement of the Tre-
madoc epoch, which allowed the water to spread freely over the
whole European area. The author next discusses the faunas of
the successive epochs, and indicates that these are also in favour
of his views. He indicates the probability that the animals,
which are all of marine forms, migrated into the European area
from some point to the south-west, probably near the equator
where he supposes the earliest types were developed. Both the
lower and higher types of invertebrates appear first in the western
areas ; and the groups in each case as they first appear are those
which biologists now recognise as being most nearly allied, and
which may have developed from one common type. The lower
invertebrates appear at a very much earlier period than the
higher in all the areas. In the Welsh area the higher forms
(the Gasteropods, Lamellibranchs, and Cephalopods) come in
for the first time in Lower Tremadoc rocks ; and with the ex-
ception of the presence of a Gasteropod in rather lower beds in
Spain, this is the earliest evidence of these higher forms having
reached the European area. At this time, however, no less than
five distinct faunas of lower invertebrates had already appeared •
and an enormous period, indicated by the deposition of nearly
i5,oco feet of deposits, had elapsed since the first fauna had
reached this area. The author points out also that a similar
encroachment of the sea and migration of animals in a north-
westerly direction occurred in the North American area at about
the same time, the lines indicating the European and American
depressions meeting in Mid-Atlantic.

On a Bone-cave in Creswell Crags, by the Rev. J. Magens
Mello. In this paper the author describes some fissures contain-
mg numerous bones, situated in Creswell Crags, a ravine
bounded by cliffs of Lower Permian limestone on the north-
eastern borders of Derbyshire. These cliffs contain numerous
fissures. The principal one described by the author penetrates
about fifty yards into the rock, and has a wide opening, but is
very narrow throughout the greater part of its length. It runs
nearly north and south, and inclines slightly from west to east
from the top downwards. The organic remains found in the
first fissure belong to fourteen mammals at least, besides a bird
and a fish. The mammalia are : Man, Lepus timidus, Gulo lus-
ciis, Hycsna spelcea, Ursus, sp., Canis lupus, Cams vtilpes, Canis
lagopus, Elephas primigenius, Equus caballus, Rhinoceros ticho'

July 15, 1875J

NATURE

223

hlnus. Bos itrus, Cervus vugaccros, Ccrvus iarandus, Ovis, sp.,
I?- 'kola, sp.

Notes On Ilaytor Iron Mine, by Clement Le Neve Foster,
D.Sc.

On the formation of the Polar Ice- cap, by Mr. J. J. Murphy.
The present paper is intended by the author to supplement a
previous one read before the Society in 1869 (Q. J. G. S., vol.
XXV. p. 350), in which he gave reasons for differing from Mr.
Crcll in thinking that the glacial climate was one of intense cold,
and held, on the contrary, that it was one of snowy winters and
cold summers, with a small range of temperature. Mr. Camp-
bell, in a paper read before the Society in 1874, gave the follow-
ing as the southernmost limits of the polar ice-cap, viz. :— In
Eastern Europe, lat. 56° N. ; in Germany, 55° ; in Britain, nearly
50° ; in America, 39°. This the author considers as strong but
not new evidence against the theory of ice-cap extending to low
latitudes ; the extent of the ice-eap would of course not be so
wide as that of the limits of glaciation, owing to the floating ice
approaching nearer the equator. After commenting on Mr.
Belt's remarks made during the discussion of Mr. Campbell's
paper, the author states that he attributes the presence of the
boulders found in the valley of the Amazon to icebergs which
had drifted further than usual. The glaciation of the tropics
would imply the glaciation of the whole world, which appears
no more possible than that the whole world was submerged at
one time. The author concludes with some remarks on a recent
paper of Mr. Tylor's.

Notes on the Gasteropoda of the Guelph Formation of Canada,
by Prof II. Alleyne Nicholson, D.Sc, F.R.S.E. The author
notices the occurrence of the Guelph formation as a subdivision
of the Niagara series in Canada and the United States, and
describes it as consisting everywhere of a cellular, yellowish, or
cream-coloured dolomitic limestone of rough texture and crys-
taUine aspect, containing innumerable cavities from which fossils
of various kinds have been dissolved out. In this paper the
author describes all the known Gasteropoda of the Guelph for-
mation in Canada, including the following previously described
species : — Murchisonia Lo^anii (Hall), M. turritiformis (Hall),
M. macrospira (Hall), M. bivittata (Hall), M. longispira (Hall),
M. vitellia (Billings), M. Ilercyna (Billings), Cyclonema ? ele-
vata (Hall), Holopea guelplunsis (Billings), H. gracia (BiUings),
Subulites vc7ttricosus (Hall), and Pleurotomaria solarioides (Hall).
As new species he describes Murchisonia Boylei, distinguished
from M. turritiformis (Hall) and M. estella (Billings) by its more
rapid rate of expansion, its apparently canaliculated suture, and
the existence of an angular band a little above the suture ; and
Holopeal occidentalis, distinguished by its short but elevated
spire, its large body- whorl, which becomes almost disjunct at the
aperture, its circular aperture, and large umbilicus. The upper
whorls are convex, but the body-whorl is obtusely angulated
at about its upper fourth. Uncertain species of Murchisonia
and Pleurotomaria are also indicated.

Description of a new genus of Tabulate Coral, by Mr. G. J.
Hinde. The coral described by the author as constituting a
new genus of Favositidae, for which he proposes the name of
SphcErolites, has a massive free corallum consisting of minute,
polygonal, closely united corallites, growing in all directions
Irom a central point, forming a spheroidal body, the entire sur-
face of which is occupied by the calices of the corallites. The
walls of the corallites are very delicate, with numerous pores ;
the tabula; are incomplete, formed by delicate arched lamellae, and
there are no septa. From Chcctetes this genus is distinguished
by the perforated walls and incomplete arched tabulae ; from
Favosites it differs in its mode of growth and its incomplete
tabulae ; and from Michdinia it is separated by the minuteness
of its coralUtes, and the absence of epitheca and of septal striiv.
The single species, which is named .S". Nicholsoni, is from cal-
careous shale of Lower Helderberg (Ludlow) age, near Dal-
housie, in New Brunswick. — {To be continued.)

Physical Society, June 26 (continued from p. 179). —
Prof. G. ^C. Foster,J vice-president, in the chair. — Prof. G.
C. Foster called attention to the work of Prof. Everett
on the Centimetre-grarame-second (C.G.S.) System of Units
which will shortly bs published by the Society. It is
designed to facilitate the study of the quantitative rela-
tions between the different departments of physical science
by the adoption of a common system of units. Prof. Foster
explained that a committee of the British Association which
was appointed in 1872, and of which Prof. Everett was secretary,
recommended the adoption of this system, based upon the

metric system, the unit of mass being the gramme, that oi length
the centimetre, and that of time the second. They recom-
mended that the unit of force be called a dyne, which therefore
is the force required to act upon a gramme of matter for a
second to generate a velocity of a centimetre per second. The
unit of work is called an erg, and is the amount of work done by
a dyne working through the distance of a centimetre. Prof.
Everett's book consists of a collection of physical data reduced to
these fundamental terms, so that no other physical magnitudes
enter into the expressions, and it cannot fail to prove of the
greatest possible value to physicists. Prof. Foster then left the
chair, which was taken by Dr. Stone. — Dr. W. .M Walts com-
municated a paper on a new form of micrometer for use in
spectroscopic analysis. In determining the positions of lines in a
spectrum by the use of a micrometer eye-piece or divided arc,
it is often difficult to see the cross wires distinctly without
admitting extraneous light, which with faint spectra fre-
quently cannot be done. Dr. Watts has sought to overcome
this difficulty by substituting some one known line of the
spectrum itself for the cross wires, and to measure the posi-
tions of unknown lines by bringing this index line successively
into coincidence with them. Thus, for example, the sodium
line, which is present in nearly every spectmm whether it is
wanted or not, may be made to move slowly when under the
spectrum, and the displacement necessary to make it coincide
with the lines to be measured may be determined by the read-
ings of a micrometer screw. To accomplish this a convex lens
of about two-feet focus is placed in front of the prism of the spec-
troscope, between the prism and observing telescope, and is
divided along a line at right-angles to the refracting edge of the
prism. One half of the lens is fixed, the other half is made to
slide over it by means of a micrometer screw. When the mov-
able half of the lens is in its normal position, the only effect is to
alter the focus of the telescope slightly, but when it is made to
slide over the fixed half, the refraction of the prism is increased
or diminished, and half of the spectrum appears to move over the
other half, and the sodium line, or any other convenient line of
reference can be brought into coincidence with the lines to be
measured. The indications of this instrument are reduced to
wave-lengths by means of a series of interpolation curves irom
the data obtained by observations of the solar spectrum, the co-
ordinates of which are wave-lengths and micrometer readings.
The author considers the advantages of the instrument to be
(i) great precision in results; and (2) convenience in use.
In illustration of the former quality he quotes twenty readings
of the point at which there is coincidence of the lenses. They
are remarkably concordant, the mean being 8*34, while
the two extreme readings are 8 "21 and 8 '41 — Prof. Guth-
rie then ■ read a paper on the fundamental water-waves in
cylindrical vessels. He stated that many attempts had been
made to connect wave-lengths with wave-amplitude, and that
the most successful of these were by the brothers Weber, who
allowed a column of water to fall into one end of a long trough
filled with water ; and they ascertained by means of a stop-
watch when the crest of the wave reached the other end. Dr.
Guthrie has recently made some experiments on this subject, in
which he employed a series of five vessels, varying in diameter
from 5*5 to 23-5 inches. The water in each was agitated m
the centre by a disc of wood, by which means the vessel was
made to give what Dr. Guthrie called its "fundamental note."
He counted the number of times the wave rose in the centre in
a minute, and he found that amplitude has no influence upon the
rate. It should also be observed that the wave effect is not the
same as if the field were of infinite extent. The following are
the results he obtained :—

Diameter of

No. of pulsations

Tessel.

per minute.

(I) ...

23-5 inches.

106-5

(2) ...

17-87 „

1227

(3) •••

145 M

1360

(4) ...

12-5 „

146-5

(5) -

5-5 „

219-0

From which he deduced the curious result that a constant
quantity (5I7'S) is obtained by multiplying the square root of
the diameter by the number of pulsations. The question of
depth was also carefully considered, and it was ascertained that
the number of waves increases slightly with the depth.— Mr.
S. C. Tisley read a paper on a new form of magneto-electric
machine. After briefly describing the machines which have

2 24

NA TURE

July 15, 1875

hitherto been devised, he stated that the new apparatus consists '
essentially of an electro-magnet with shoes forming a groove, in
which a Siemens' armature is made to revolve. It differs from
the original machines made by Siemens and Wheatstone in the
commutator, as two springs conduct the current from the cylin-
drical insulator, to which are attached three pieces of metal,
one surrounding it for three-quarters of its "circumference, the
second for one quarter, and between these is a ring con-
nected with the insulated end of the wire from the arma-
ture, and bearing two pieces of metal which are so arranged
as to complete the circles of the outer pieces of metal. The
armature is so constructed that a stream of water may be con-
stantly passed through it. A small machine constructed on this
principle, which without its driving gear weighs 26 lbs., is
capable of raising 8 inches of platinum wire 8 inches long and
•005 inches in diameter to a red heat. — Dr. Stone then adjourned
the meetings of the Society until November.

Vienna
Imperial Academy of Sciences, Jan. 14.— The following
papers were read : — On the tempera- tures arising from the
mixing of sulphuric acid with water, with reference to the
molecular heats and boiling points of the resulting hydrates, by
Dr. L. Pfaundler.— On the occurrence of relatively high tem-
peratures of air in the valleys of the Alps, by Prof. Kerner.—
On some researches on dinitro compounds of the phenyl series,
by Prof. Hlasiwetz. The author shows that phenol can easily be
converted into dinitrophenol if treated with nitrous acid when
dissolved in ether. At the same time mononitrophenol is formed —

(1) CfiHj.OH -f N2O, = CgH^NjO -f N2O5 -1- H2O

(2) 2CeH5 . OH -}- N2O5 = 2CbH4 . NO2 . OH -F HgO.
—Prof. "Weiss then gave an account of his observations of the
transit of "Venus at Jassy. The inner contact [could not be ob-
served through clouds, but the outer one was observed at
20h. 25ro. 49s 7 Jassy mean time. Prof. Weiss thinks that
through the unsatisfactory state of the atmosphere this result
may probably not be quite correct, and that the actual contact
took place a few tenths of a second later. The longitude of the
observing station was found to be 44m. 49S.7 east of the Imperial
Observatory of Vienna (probable error in this — ±os-l). — Prof.
Oppolzer gave an account of his observations at the same place,
and quoted his results in Paris mean time. In the reports of the
Academy for April 1870 he had given the time for the second
outer contact i8h. 45m. 25s.- 7 Paris mean time; he found by
observation iSh. 44m. 56s. -3 Paris mean time ; difference, 29s. "4.
The latitude of Jassy is given as -t- 47° 9' 25"-i (± o"-2).

Jan. 21. — The following papers were read : — A note on the
experimental determination of diamagnetism by means of its
electric action of induction, by Prof. Toepler. — On the action of
the muscular current upon a secondary circle of currents, and on
a peculiarity of currents of induction, induced by a very weak
primary current; by Prof. Briicke.— On some Accra and
Geophagus species of the Amazon River, by Dr. Steindachner ;
in a second paper this gentleman spoke of four new Brazilian
siluroids, belonging to Oxydoras, Doras, and Rhinodoras.

Feb. 4. — On the double refraction of quartz under pressure,
by Prof. Mach.— On the latent heat of vapours, by Prof. Puschl.
—On the fine structure of bones, by Prof. v. Ebner. — Detailed
classification of all known Foraminifera, by A. v. Reuss. — Re-
searches on the development of Naiades (freshwater mussels), by
W. Flemming. — On the dependence of the coefficient of friction
of .the air upon temperature, by A. v. Obermayer,

Feb. 18.— On phenomena of flexion in the spectrum, by W.
Rosicky.— On the temperatures of solidification of the hydrates
of sulphuric acid and the composition of the crystals formed, by
Prof. Pfaundler and E. Schnegg.

Feb. 25.— On the Tertiary strata on the north side of the
Apeniunes from Ancona to Bologna, and on the Pliocene forma-
tions of Syracuse and Lentini, by Th. Fuchs and A. Bittner.

March II.— On the great ice period, and on some geological
theories, by Dr. A. Boue.— On anthracene and its behaviour
towards iodine and mercuric oxide, by Dr. H. Hlasiwetz and
Dr. O. Zeidler.

March 18.— On a consequence drawn from Biot-Savart's law,
by Prof. A. "Wassmuth. — On the thermoelectric behaviour of
n etals during melting and solidification, by A. v. Obermayer.

Stockholm
Korgl. Vetenskaps Akademiens Forhandlingar, Jan. 13.
— The loUowing papers were read : — On the'relation of tempe-
rature and moisture in the lowest strata of the atmosphere at

daybreak, by R. Rubenson — On the efflorescence of alum salts
and their influence on vegetation, by C. E. Bergstrand. — On the
conduction of heat in a cylinder, by G. Lundquist. — On the
situation of moraines and terraces on the banks of many inland
lakes, by A. Helland (with plate). — Insecta Transvaalensia, a
contribution to the insect fauna of the Transvaal Republic, South
Africa, by H. D. J. Wallengren.— On the low vegetation of
Omberg, by P. G. E. Theorin. These papers are all in Swedish,
with the exception of that by A. Helland, which is in the
Danish language.

Paris
Academy of Sciences, July 5. — M. Fremy in the chair. —
The following papers were read : — A note by M. Chevreul, on
the explanation of numerous phenomena which are a conse-
quence of old age. This is the abstract of a third memoir
on the subject. — On the distribution of magnetism in bundles of
an infinite length composed of very thin laminse, by M. J.
Jamin. — Second note on tabular electro-magnets with multiple
cores, by M. T. du Moncel, — The rain of Montpelier during
twenty-three years (1852-74), from observations at the Jardin
des Plantes, by M. Ch. Martins. — On the Devonian period in
the Pyrenees, by M, A. Leymerie. — A letter was read from P.
Secchi, accompanying the presentation of the second French edi-
tion of his work on the Sun. — Description of the group of the
Pleiades and micrometric measurements of the positions of the
principal stars which compose it, by M. "Wolf. The author
employed an object-glass of 0*3 im. aperture, the positions
being given to one-tenth of a minute of arc. The catalogue
comprises 499 stars from the 3rd to the 14th magnitude, con-
tained in a rectangle 135 min. long, and 90min. broad, 77 Tauri
occupying the centre. All tlie stars in the group are referable
to P. Secchi's first type with regard to their spectra. The differ-
ences between the author's measurements and those of Bessel
seem to point to the conclusion that the group has a proper
motion towards the north-west. — Researches on carbon mono-
sulphide, by M. Sidot. According to the author, this substance
is formed by the prolonged action of light on carbon disulphide.
It is described as a reddish brown powder possessing neither
taste nor smell. Analyses gave numbers agreeing with the
required formula CS.— On atmospheric currents, by M. J. A.
Broun. — Phylloxera in the Department of Gironde, by M.
Azam.— Planet 146 Lucii.e. Elements of the orbit calculated,
by M. E. Stephan.— On the processes of magnetisation, by M.
J. M. Gaugain. — The nut from Bancoul. Chemical studies of
the oleaginous fruits of tropical countries, by M. B. Corenwinder.
— On the gum in wine and its influence on the determination of
the glucose, by M. G. Chancel.— Chlorobrominated ethylene :
isomerism of its chloride and the bromide of perchlorinated
ethylene, by M. E. Bourgoin. — Influence of chalk on the dis-
tribution of the so-called "calcifuge" plants, by M. C. Conte-
jean. — On the absorption of coloured liquids, by M. Cauvet.

CONTENTS Pagk

Scientific "Worthies, "V.— George GAnniEL Stokes. By Prof. P. G.

'Xt.lT.V'S.^.Y.. {IVith Steel Engraving) 201

Science Educatio.n FROM Below 203

Darwin on Carnivorous Plants, I. By Alfred "W. Bennett,

F.LS. {With Illustrations) 206

Percy's Metallurgy 209

Our Book Shelf : —

Tyndall's " Sound " 211

Tyndall's " Lectures on Light " 211

Flagg's " Birds and Seasons of New England " 211

Jenkinson's " Practical Guide to Carlisle," &c 211

North Staffordshire Naturalists' Field Club 211

Letters to the Editor : —

The India Museum.— P. L. Sclater, F.R.S 212

Irish Cave Exploration.— G S. Boulger, F.G.S 212

Sea-power 212

Sea-Lions.— J. "W. Clark ; 211

Hereditary Affection of a Cat for a Dog 212

Scarcity of Birds.— R. M. Barrington 213

Our Astronomical Column : —

Variable Stars ^13

The Double-star 2 1785 213

The Total Solar Eclipse, 1927, June 29 213

Minor Planets 213

Science in Germany 213

New Discovery in connection with the Potato Disease . . . 214
History of the Plagiograph. By Dr. J. J. Sylvester, F,R.S.

\With /llustration) 214

Charcoal Vacua. By Professors Tait and DewAr 217

Addition to our Knowledge OF the Termites. By Lady Lubbock 218

Notes 218

Scientific Serials • 221

Societies and Academies 223

NATURE

225

THURSDAY, JULY 22, 1875

THE LIFE OF LANGUAGE
The Life and Gfoivth 0/ Language. By William D wight
Whitney, Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philo-
logy in Yale College. The " International Scientific
Series," vol. xvi. (London : King and Co., 1875.)

THIS is certainly a disappointing volume. When the
editors of the Internaiio}ial Scientific Series offered
us a treatise on Language by the side of such works as
Tyndall's " Forms of Water in Clouds and Rivers,"
Bagehot's " Physics and Politics," Bain's " Mind and
Body," Spencer's " Study of Sociology," we had a right
to expect something substantial, if not original. Instead
of this. Prof. Whitney presents us with what is to all
intents and purposes an abstract of his " Lectures on the
Study of Language," delivered in 1864. in Washington
and other places, lectures which in themselves contained
hardly more than a popular summary of some of the
results obtained by the researches of German, French,
and English scholars on the origin, the development, and
the classification of languages. " The old story," to let
Prof. Whitney speak for himself, " is told in a new way,
under changed aspects and with changed proportions,
and with considerably less fullness of exposition and
illustration." But why simply tell us the old story over
again ? Has the science of language made no progress
since 1864? Has Prof. Whitney himself worked up no
new materials ? Has he no discovery of his own to
record in his own special fields of labour ? Has he
brought none of the problems which, as he told us in
1864, still perplexed the students of the science of
language, nearer to a solution ? Or, at all events, has
he not found some more felicitous illustrations than those
with which he entertained his hearers ten years ago ? If
any one who knows the Professor's lectures, should read
his new treatise on what he strangely calls the "' Life and
Growth of Language," we doubt not which of the two
volumes he will keep on the shelves of his library, and
which he will assign to the corner of ephemeral litera^
ture. Prof. Whitney has set forth his good wine at the
beginning, and gives us now that which is worse. To
judge from other numbers of the International Series, the
rules imposed on the contributors do not seem to have
prevented them from treating their subjects in a thorough, if
not in an exhaustive way. Besides, there are in this volume
several lengthy discussions as to whether the science
of language should be called a physical or an historical
science, whether it deserves the name of a science at all,
whether a knowledge of psychology is essential to the
student of language or not ; discussions which, as far as
we arc able to judge, contain an " infinite deal of nothing,"
and add very little to what had already been written on
these subjects.

In one respect, however, we have to congratulate
Prof. Whitney most warmly on a great improvement
in these his second and more sober thoughts. From
beginning to end his new book is free from spite and
personal invective. Neither Humboldt, nor Bopp, nor
Renan, nor Schleicher, nor Bleeck, nor Steinthal, nor
Goldstiicker are held up to ridicule as ignorant of the
A B C of grammar and logic. There is here and there a
Vol. XII. — No. 299

groundswell and a distant rumble, but on the whole the
sea is between moderate and smooth, and we arrive at
Calais with a feeling of relief and sincere thankfulness.
It may be that these feehngs are not shared by all readers.
Man is by nature a pugnacious anima), and though in
later life but few like to use the cudgels themselves, they
still like to look on where there is a row. Prof. Whitney's
new book therefore may seem to some people more dull
than any of his former compositions ; yet his true friend$
will rejoice that for once he has chosen the better part of
valour, and in showing regard to others has shown respect
for himself.

In making this laudable effort, however. Prof. Whitney
seems to us to have fallen, involuntarily, no doubt, into a
mistake which we hope he will forgive us for pointing out.
Prof. Whitney, it is true, has not in this volume, as far as
we can trust our memory, abused anybody by name.
He himself takes credit for it at the end of his preface,
where he says : " I have on principle avoided anything
bearing the aspect of a personal controversy." But
neither has he thought it necessary to add any references
where he avails himself of the work done by other scho-
lars. On this point, too, we shall quote his own words :—
" And I have had to leave the text almost wholly without
references, although I may here again allege the compen-
dious cast of the work, which renders them little called
for. I trust that no injustice will be found to have been
done to any. The foundation of my discussion is {sic)
the now generally accessible facts of language, which are
no man's property more than another's."

This is not the first time that Prof. Whitney makes
these curious excuses. In the preface to his Lectures the
same or a very similar plea was put forth. We quote
again his ipsissima verba : — " The principal facts upon
which my reasonings are founded have been for some
time past the commonplaces of comparative philology, and
it was needless to refer for them to any particular autho-
rities. When I have consciously taken results recently
won by an individual, and to be regarded as his property,
I have been careful to acknowledge it. It is, however,
my duty and my pleasure here to confess my special obli-
gations to those eminent masters in linguistic science.
Professors Heinrich Steinthal, of Berlin, and August
Schleicher, of Jena, whose works I have had constantly
upon my table, and have freely consulted, deriving from
them great instruction and enlightenment, even when I
have been obliged to differ most strongly from some of
their theoretical views. Upon them I have been depen-
dent, above all, in preparing my eighth and ninth lectures ;
my independent acquaintance with the languages of
various type throughout the world beingjfar from suf-
ficient to enable me to describe them at first hand. I
have also borrowed here and there an illustration from
the ' Lectures on the Science of Language ' of Prof
Max Miiller, which are especially rich in such material."

Now, what we wish to point out with reference to these
repeated reservations on the part of Prof. Whitney is this.
Because an author refrains from personal invective, it
does not seem to us to follow that he may also dispense
with giving honour where honour is due. No doubt there
are a good many facts in the science of language which
by this time have become public property, nay, where it
would be extremely difficult^o say who was their original

226

NATURE

[July

1875

discoverer. That Sanskrit asti is the same as Latin est,
that Sanskrit tray as coincided with Latin tres, was pro-
bably seen by every scholar who ever opened a Sanskrit
grammar. In such cases it can be merely a matter of
historical interest to find out who was the first lucky
observer. It seems to us one of the chief merits, for
instance, of Curtius's Principles of Greek Etymology, that
he tells us in most cases, with the greatest conscientious-
ness, who were the scholars that first proposed or after-
wards defended and substantiated the etymology of
different words. Such references involved, no doubt,
considerable trouble, and we have no right to expect in a
popular work the same learned apparatus. But there are
limits here as everywhere else, which no one can overstep
with impunity. Every writer, unless his memory is
growing weak, knows perfectly well what comes out of his
brain, and what comes out of his pockets ; what he has
found out himself by dint of hard work, and what he has
simply borrowed from others. A large array of footnotes
and references may be in many cases a mere pedantic
display of learning, but to omit all indications of sources
and authorities is hardly defensible, nor can it be excused
on the ground of " the compendious cast " in a book where
we find, on the second page, references to two of Prof.
Whitney's own writings. This is really not a matter of
sentiment only, but a matter of serious import in the
world of letters. Dates are easily forgotten, and of late
it has happened several times that one writer has actually
been blamed for having borrowed from another without
acknowledgment, whereas he was the creditor and the other
the debtor. This leads to awkward explanations, some-
times to angry controversies, all of which can be avoided
by a frank compliance with rules long recognised in the
republic of letters.

If we confine ourselves to some of the principal subjects
treated in Prof. Whitney's new work, would it not have
been interesting to know who first pointed out the two
motive powers in the growth of language on which Prof.
Whitney dwells so largely — Phojietic Decay, and Dialectic
Growth or Variation ?

Again, when an intelligible and sufficient cause was
wanted for what was vaguely and metaphorically called
Phonetic Decay, who was it that first ventured to suggest
that there was nothing mysterious in that process,
and that it could be explained in a very homely way
as the result of laziness, or of economy of muscular
energy ?

There is one question which Prof. Whitney has treated
more fully in this than in his former work, viz., the true
meaning of dialect, and the relation between dialects and
languages. He exhibits most ably the inevitability of
dialectic variety in the very beginning of human speech,
and the gradual elimination of dialectic forms in the
later growth of language. Were there not others who
had strongly insisted on the dialectic nature inherent in
language, and had borne the brunt of the battle against
numerous unbelievers ?

We still remember the time when the leading philo-
logists in Germany protested against the introduction
of scientific Phonetics into Comparative Philology. If
at present phonetic and physiological discussions form
the introduction and groundwork to every treatise on
Comparative Philology, is it not well to remember the

names of those who were once ridiculed as the founders
of the Fonetik Nuz ?

It may be, as Prof. Whitney asserts, that though
Germany is the home of Comparative Philology, the
scholars of that country have distinguished them-
selves much less in that which We have called the
Science of Language. It iftay be easy, as he says in
another place, to note remarkable examples of men of
the present generation, enjoying high distinction as
comparative philologists, who, as soon as they attempt
to reason on the wider truths of linguistic science, fall
into incongruities and absurdities. But who were the first
to conceive a Science of Language as different from Com-
parative Philology, though beholden to it for its most
valuable materials ? Who first drew the outlines of that
science, collected the facts required for its illustration,
and established the leading principles for its study ?
Prof. Whitney could have answered all these questions
better than anybody else, whereas, by his reticence, he
may now leave on many of his readers the impression,
though no doubt very much against his own will, that the
science of language had its cradle in America, and that
German, English, and French scholars have added
nothing to it, except " incongruities and absurdities."

After having made these reservations in favour of
the founders of and former contributors to the science
of language, let us now see in what Prof. Whitney's own
contributions to that science consist. We shall have
no difficulty in doing this, for he tells us frequently in
the course of his writings what he himself has done for
rescuing the science of language from the " incongruities
and absurdities " of European scholars.

His first discovery is that Language is an Institution.
No one, we believe, would feel inclined to controvert this
statement. Language is an institution, and a most excel-
lent institution.

We therefore pass on to the next discovery, which is
that Language is aft Itistrutnent. This again is not a very
startling assertion. It is well known that Plato, in trying
to find out in his own Socratic method what language is,
begins with the same assertion.

" Soc. That which has to be cut has to be cut with some-
thing ?

''Her. Yes.

" Soc. And that which has to be woven or pierced has to be
woven or pierced with something ?

" Her. Certainly.

"Soc. And that which has to be named has to be named with
eomething ?

" Her. That is true.

" Soc. What is that with which we pierce ?

" Her. An awl.

" Soc. And with which we weave ?

" Her. A shuttle.

" Soc. And with which we name ?

" Her. A name.

''Soc. Very good. Then a name is an instrument."

The only difference between Plato and Prof. Whitney
is this, that with Plato this crude definition is but the first
link in a long chain of argument, a proposition made
simply in order to show its insufficiency ; while Prof.
Whitney seems to look upon it as free from all objections.

The third discovery which Prof. Whitney considers as
peculiarly his own is, that everybody learns his langtia^e
from his parents. While other writers on the origin of
language have " aimlessly expended a surprising amount

Jnly 22, 1875]

NATURE

227

of sapient philosophy," Prof, Whitney solves the whole
question on the first page. We must again quote his
own words : —

" There can be asked, respecting language, no other
question of a more elementary and at the same
time of a more fundamentally important character
than this: How is language obtained by us ? how does
each speaking individual become possessed of his speech?
Its true answer involves and determines well-nigh the
whole of linguistic philosophy. There are probably few
who would not at once reply that we learn our language ;
it is taught us by those among whom our lot is cast in
childhood. And this obvious and common-sense answer
is also, as we shall find on a more careful and considerate
inquiry, the correct one."

This third discovery, too, will hardly meet with any
objections. Prof. Whitney says, indeed, that two different
answers are conceivable, viz., that language is inherited
as a race-character, like colour, or that it is independently
produced by each individual ; but though we do not deny
the conceivableness of such propositions, we doubt
whether any being endowed with the gift of language
ever made them, and whether they required " the crushing
weight of facts " which Prof. Whitney brings out against
them. We do not blame an author, who for argument's
sake sets up what in German is called a Strohmatm, in
Sanskrit a Purvapakshaj but when we read on p. 145,
" There are those still who hold that words get themselves
attributed to things by a kind of mysterious natural pro-
cess, in which we have no part ; that there are organic
forces in speech itself, which by fermentation, or digestion,
or crystallisation, or something of the sort, produce new
material and alter old," Prof. Whitney would appear to
have allowed himself to be carried away a little too far
by his dramatic imagination.

To most people, however, be they scholars or philo-
sophers, it would seem that to be told that a child learns
his language from his mother, does not help them very
much towards a real insight into the origin of language.
We should go on from child to mother, from mother to
grandmother, and so forth, but this retrogression in
infinitum would land us exactly at the same point from
which we started, viz., How did the first mother get her
language ? Let us hear what Prof. Whitney has to say in
answer to this ever-recurring question. He tells us to
look around us and to see what takes place at present.
Thus, after explaining the recent discovery of a new tar
colour, which by its discoverer was called magenta, he
says : — " The word magenta is just as real and legitimate
a part of the English language as green, though vastly
younger and less important ; and those who acquire and
use the latter do so in precisely the same manner as the
former, and generally with equal ignorance and unconcern
as to its origin." And again, after referring to the wholly
arbitrary formation of the word gas by Van Helmont in
A.D. 1600, Prof. Whitney writes : — "We cannot follow so
clearly toward or to its source the word green, because it
is vastly older ; but we do seem to arrive by inference at
a connection of it with our word grow, and at seeing that
a green thing was named from its being a growing thing;
and this is a matter of no small interest as bearing on the
history of the word."

Here then we have arrived at last at what Prof. Whitney

would call the pivotal fact. The word green and all
other words were made in the same way in which Van
Helmont made the word gas, and the inventor of aniline
colours the word magenta. Green was made from to grow.
But, as we ventured to ask before in the case of the child,
the mother, and the grandmother, would it be impertinent
to ask what to grow was made from ?

We have endeavoured to give as full an account as
possible of what Prof. Whitney offers us as his own
science of language, free from all the " incongruities and
absurdities" of German scholars. If we have left out some
facts on which he himself may lay great stress, and which
he may consider as his own discoveries, we have done so
from no unkind motive. He dwells, for instance, very
strongly on the fact that men speak because they wish to
communicate, a theory which again will hardly rouse
violent opposition. However, in order to be quite just,
we shall once more quote the professor's ipsissima
verba : —

"Nor is it less plain what inaugurates the conversion
and becomes the main determining element in the whole
history of production of speech ; it is the desire of com-
munication. This turns the instinctive into the inten-
tional. As itself becomes more distinct and conscious, it
hfts expression of all kinds above its natural basis, and
makes it an instrumentality ; capable, as such, of inde-
finite extension and improvement. He who (as many do)
leaves this force out of account, cannot but make utter
shipwreck of his whole linguistic philosophy."

We should think he would. We only question whether
anybody was ever ignorant of the fact that speech was
meant for speaking.

On all the points hitherto mentioned, which Prof.
Whitney considers as fundamental or pivotal in his
Philosophy of Language, there can be little difference
of opinion, nor will they excite much alarm among
scholars or philosophers. There are, however, some other
points of real interest and importance where we should
have been extremely grateful to Prof. Whitney if he had
given us not only his opinions, but the ground on which
these opinions are based. It is well known that most
scholars count the Mongol language as a member of
the Ural-Altaic family. Prof. Whitney excludes Mon-
golic and Tungusic, not on linguistic, but on ethno-
logical grounds, from that family which he calls the
Scythian, a name, as Prof. Pott has already remarked,
" more nebulous than Turanian." He assures us that it
is not undue scepticism that leads him to limit the
Scythian family for the present to its demonstrated
branches, but that in this direction there has been such
an excess of unscientific and wholesale grouping, the
classification of ignorance, that a little even of over-
strained conservatism ought to have a wholesome effect.
If one considers that this reproof is administered to
scholars, such as Castren, Schott, and Boiler, who have
devoted the whole of their lives to the study of these
Turanian dialects, one cannot but look forward with the
deepest interest to the publication of the results of Prof.
Whitney's own studies in Mongol and Mandshu. But
while we admire his conservatism on this question,
we are still more struck by the boldness with which he
decides questions on which the most competent scholars
have hitherto spoken with great hesitation, arising not from

22:

NATURE

\yuly 22, 1875

sentiment, whether conservative or liberal, but from a
thorough appreciation of the weight of conflicting evidence.
Crawfurd and others notwithstanding, Prof. Whitney
assures us that the Malayan, the Polynesian, and the Me-
lanesian languages may henceforth be safely treated as one
family, as more closely related, therefore, than Mongolic
and Tartaric. One more instance. The Annamese or
Cochin Chinese, the Siamese, and the Burmese, whatever
their differences, are all alike, we are told, in the capital
point, that they are uninflected, and this cannot but be re-
garded as a strong indication of ultimate relationship.
Provisionally, therefore, they are to be classed together as
the South-eastern Asiatic, or Monosyllabic Family. All we
can say at present is that we hope this is the classifica-
tion of knowledge, and not of ignorance, and that we shall
soon have XhQ pieces justificatives, particularly with regard
to the Burmese and Siamese. Some new light may also
be expected from Prof. Whitney with regard to Chinese,
the literature of which, we are told, goes back to 2000
B.C., whatever sceptics may say to the contrary. On all
these points our expectations are raised to the highest
pitch, and we hope that the professor will soon find
leisure to give us not only his conclusions, but the facts
on which they are founded. As we said in the be-
ginning, we are disappointed by his present book ; we
are quite willing, however, to look upon it as a promise
and we have no doubt that the American scholar wil
soon redeem the pledges which he has given, and thus not
only relieve the science of language from " the incon-
gruities and absurdities " of English, German, and French
scholars, but enrich it by truly original American dis-
coveries.

We may point out a few of the inaccuracies as to
matters of fact which struck us in the Professor's new
book.

Prof. Whitney thinks that green may be derived from
to grow. Is not the root really HAR, and the transition
of meaning, to be bright, to be green, to grow (griinen) ?
See Curtius, s.v. x^orj.

Agra, as a Sanskrit word corresponding to aypis, is
probably a misprint only. The true Sanskrit word is
Ajra, field, with the palatal media, whereas ag;ra means
point.

The nasals are not formed by exit through the nose
(p. 63) ; on the contrary the more we shut the nostrils
the more nasal becomes our pronunciation. One of the
earhest phoneticians, De Brosses (1709-1778), remarked
very truly : " On s'exprime k contre-sens, quand on dit,
parler du tiezj c'est une espece d'antiphrase : on parlerait
du nez si on n'en avait point. S'il est bouchd, si I'air n'y
passe pas librement, on parlera, on chantera du nez."

The derivation of lutia from hccna (p. 83) is no longer
tenable, because we have to take into account the dialectic
form losna, presupposing an original loux-na as in illus.
tris for inluxtris.

On p. 215, in discussing words like brother and sister,
bull and cow, ram and ewe, Prof Whitney says : " Man
in its distinctive sense indicates a male animal, and we
have a different word, woman, for a female of the same
kind." The choice of the illustration is not quite happy,
considering that woman, as is well known to Prof.
Whitney, is only a corruption of wif-man.

M. M.

DARWIN ON CARNIVOROUS PLANTS *

II.

Insectivorous Plants. By Charles Darwin, M.A., F.R.S,,

&c. With Illustrations. (London : J. Murray, 1875.)

IN the Venus's Fly-trap, Dioncea muscipula (Fig. 5), we
have a further differentiation of the organs of assimila-
tion. The sensibility or irritabihty resides in three hairs —
termed by Mr. Darwin " filaments " — on each half of the
upper surface of the bilateral leaf; while the function of
absorption appears to belong only to a number of small
purplish almost sessile glands which thickly cover the
whole of the upper face. These glands have also the
power of secretion ; but only — and here we have another
variation from Drosera — when excited by the absorption
of nitrogenous matter. The filaments are sensitive both
to sudden impact and to contact with other substances,
except water ; the lobes of the leaf closing together, in
the former case very suddenly, in the latter more slowly. If
the leaf has closed in consequence of sudden impact or of
the contact of non-nitrogenous matter, the two lobes remain
concave, enclosing a considerable cavity ; shortly re-open
in perhaps twenty-four hours ; and are at once again irri-
table. When, however, the irritating foreign substance
contains soluble nitrogenous matter, the lobes of the leaf
become gradually pressed closely together, and remain
closed for a period of many (from nine to twenty-four) days ;
and when they again open, if they ever do so, are at first
scarcely sensitive to renewed irritation. The mode in
which (as Mr. Darwin shows) this arrangement is service-
able to the plant by securing the capture of large and
permitting the escape of small insects, is highly curious,
but too long to quote. The absorption of nitrogenous
matter by the glands is accompanied by an aggregation
of the protoplasm in the cells of the filaments, similar to
that observed in Drosera, but this result does not follow
the simple irritation of the filaments. The series of ex-
periments described appears to prove the existence of an
actual process of digestion in Dioncea, the closed leaf
forming a temporary stomach, within which the acid
secretion is poured out. The plant seems to be subject
to dyspepsia, which is even fatal when it has indulged too
freely in the pleasures of the table, or rather of the leaf.
These observations, however, come from America, where,
in its native land, its habits may possibly be more intem-
perate than in this country. Mr. Darwin believes the
motor impulse to be transmitted in ZJ/i^Wi^^ as in Drosera,
through the parenchymatous tissue of the leaf.

Aldrovanda, an aquatic, perfectly rootless genus, also
belonging to the order Droseraccce, presents phenomena
similar to those of Dioncea, possessing sensitive hairs
which cause the leaf to close, and glands which secrete a
digestive fluid and afterwards absorb the digested matter.
The order embraces, in addition, only three other genera,
Drosophyllum, Roridula, and Byblis, all of which are
provided with secreting glands, possessed, in all proba-
bility, of similar properties.

When the painful rumour gained circulation, not many
months ago, that Pingjiictda must be added to the list of
predatory plants, it was received with even greater incre-
dulity than the stories about Drosera. The facts are,
however, as patent as in the plants already described-

* Continued from p. 209.

July 22. 1875]

NA TURE

229

We have here no sensitive hairs, as in the Droseracere.
The upper surface of the leaf is studded with glandular
hairs of two kinds, one with longish stalks, the other nearly
sessile, both of which secrete an extremely viscid fluid ;
and the dull irritability resides in the blade of the leaf itself,

Fig. 5. — l^ionn'a ntjiscipula. Leaf viewed laterally in its expanded state-

which becomes slowly incurved at the margins over sub-
stances that excite its sensibility (Fig. 6). This move-
ment of the margin of the leaves (not the apex) is caused
either by continued pressure from a foreign solid sub-
stance, or by the absorption of nitrogenous matter ; water
or a solution of sugar or gum produces no curvature \ and
although the latter, if sufficiently dense, excite a copious
increased flow of the viscid secretion, this has no acid
reaction. The increased secretion, occasioned by contact
of nitrogenous solids or liquids with the glands, is, on the
contrary, invariably acid, and possesses the power of
rapidly dissolving and digesting insects and other nutrient
substances. Some vegetable substances containing nitro-

FiG. 6.
. 6. — Pingntcula

Fig.

ulgaris. Outline of leaf with left margin inflected
over a row of smal flies.
i'ig. 7.— Utricularia neglecta. Branch with the divided leaves be.-iring
bladders ; about twice enlarged.

gen, as some seeds and pollen-grains, are acted on in a
similar manner, so that the butterwort is a vegetable as
well as an animal feeder. The secretion appears to be
again absorbed into the glands, together with the nutrient
substance dissolved in it.
Until thelpublication of the present volume, very little was

known about the habits of the singular genus Utricularia or
Bladderwort (Fig. 7), of which several species are natives
of ditches, especially of very foul water, in this country.
The very finely divided leaves bear a number of minute
bladders about one-tenth of an inch in length, the form

— Utricularia neglecta. Valve of bladder ; greatly enlarged.

of which, as Mr. Darwin points out, bears a very singular
resemblance to that of a minute Entomostracan Crus-
tacean. Each bladder is furnished near its mouth with
two long prolongations, which Mr. Darwin calls "an-
tennae," branching into a number of pointed bristles. On
each side of the entrance to the bladder are also a number
of bristles ; and the entrance is itself almost entirely
closed by a movable valve (Fig. 8), which rests on a rim
or collar (the " peristome " of Cohn), dipping deeply into
the bladder, and can only open inwards. The surface of

Fig. 9.
Fig. 9 —Utricularia neglecta. One of the quadrifid processes greatly

enlarged.
Fig. jo.— Genlisea otnata. Portion of inside of neck leading into the
utricle, greatly enlarged, showing the downward pointed bristles, and
small quadrifid cells or processes.

the valve is furnished with a number of glands endowed
with the power of absorption, but apparently not of secre-
tion. The whole internal surface of the bladder, with the
exception of the valve, is covered with a number of minute
bodies— the "quadrifid processes" (Fig. 9)— consisting
of four divergent arms of unequal length and grea

230

NATURE

\7tily 22, 1875

flexibility ; the collar itself being furnished with similar
but two-armed bodies.

The use of these bladders is not merely, like the air-
bladders of Fticns, to support the plant in the water ; they
are employed to capture small aquatic insects and other
animals, which they do on a large scale. What it is that
attracts the animals to enter the bladders is at present
unknown ; but, having once entered by pressing down the
valve, escape is almost impossible ; they sometimes get
closely wedged between the valve and the collar, and thus
miserably perish. But the most mysterious part of the
structure of Utricularia is that this beautiful and compli-
cated arrangement for capturing prey is not accompanied
by any correspondingly perfect arrangement for its diges-
tion. No secretion whctever has been observed to exude
from either the glands or the quadrifid processes ; pieces
of meat and albumen inserted within the bladders re-
mained absolutely unchanged for three days ; and it is
only when the bodies of the captured animals begin to
decay that the products of decomposition are slowly
absorbed by the quadrifid processes ; and of even this
fact the evidence can only be said to be indirect, depend-
ing on a change observed in the appearance of the proto-
plasmic contents of the cells of the quadrifids and of the
glands on the valve and bifids on the collar, similar to
that which takes place in the tentacles of Drosera during
digestion.

The above description is taken from the rare Utricu-
laria iicglecta, the species first observed by Mr. Darwin ;
the phenomena are essentially the same in the other
British forms. An epiphytic South American species,
U. mo7itana, bears bladders of a similar structure in all
essential points, which capture a quantity of minute
animals. This species is also furnished on its rhizomes
with a number of small tubers, which appear to serve as
reservoirs of water during the dry season. Several other
species were examined, including the Brazilian U. ncliim-
bifolia, found only in a very remarkable habitat, floating
on the water which collects in the bottom of the leaves of
a large Tillandsia that inhabits abundantly an arid rocky
part of the Organ Mountains at an elevation of about
5,000 feet above the level of the sea. In addition to the
ordinary propagation by seed, this plant is said to put out
runners which are " always found directing themselves
towards the nearest Tillandsia, when they insert their
points into the water and give origin to a new plant,
which in its turn sends out another shoot."

It is very curious and suggestive to compare and con-
trast the contrivances displayed in the two genera,
Pinguicula and Utricularia, belonging to the same
natural order. In the latter case we have a most elabo-
rate and perfect contrivance for capturing insects, remind-
ing one of what Mr. Darwin describes elsewhere as
'■' transcending in an incomparable degree the contri-
vances and adaptations which the most fertile imagination
of the most imaginative man could suggest;" but, when
the insects are once captured, there is no contrivance for
hastening the decay of their tissues, or anything com-
parable to animal digestion. In Pinguicula, on the other
hand, the digestive apparatus is most complete ; but
there is no means whatever of capturing insects, except
the very perfectness of the digestive substance itself, the
extremely viscid nature of the secretion from the glands-

What was the primitive form which has developed into
such very diverse structures in these nearly-allied genera ?
Here we have a problem for the evolutionist to work out ;
and another for the natural selectionist — what benefit to
the plant were these contrivances in their elementary
rudimentary stage ? — a consideration necessary to the
hypothesis of their having been produced by the action of
selection. There is a difficulty in conjecturing what use
a digestive fluid can have been to the Pinguicula before
it attained a degree of perfection sufficient to capture
insects, or rudimentary bladders to the Utricularia, seeing
they were not endowed with the power of digestion.

The last genus examined by Mr. Darwin belongs also
to the Lentibulariaceae, the Brazilian Genlisea. It is also
utriculiferous ; but the bladders are of a very different
nature to those of Utricularia, being simply hollow
cavities in the very long petiole or narrow part of the
lamina of certain leaves specialised for this purpose. The
bladders are not more than g>gth of an inch in diameter,
and are surmounted by a long tube fifteen times as long
and only -^l^ inch in diameter, which branches at the
extremity into two arms coiled in a spiral manner. Very
little is known of the habits of the plant, of which only
dried specimens have been examined in this country. It
is probable that insects creep down the long tube into the
bladders, where their remains have been found, and
there perish ; but whether there is any process of diges-
tion is unknown. The escape of insects once captured is
prevented, not by a valve, as in Utricularia, but by rows
of long thin hairs pointing downwards and springing
from ridges which project from the inside of the tube, as
shown in fig. 10. The inside of the utricle and of the
neck are furnished in addition with a number of qua-
drifid processes, also represented in the figure, to which the
function of absorption is ascribed, and which are com-
pared to the " quadrifids " cf Urticularia. The drawing
of these processes, more than the description, reminds us
strongly of certain structures which occur in the leaves of
Drosera and Pinguicula, and which we do not find
referred to in the present volume ; nor do we know of
any description of them elsewhere. Imbedded in the
tissue of the leaf of both genera — in the former case often
beneath the tentacles — are a number of bodies consisting
of four cells and filled with a brown matter; and we
cannot but think that attention directed to these bodies
may be rewarded by a further insight into the processes
of digestion and absorption. They are quite distinct from
the papilte described by Mr. Darwin in the case of
Drosera. We have seen also analogous structures repre-
sented in drawings by Dr. Hooker of cither Nepenthes or
Sarracotia ; and similar bodies occur in the leaves of
some water-plants, as Callitriche, to which we are not
aware that any function has been assigned.

We have attempted in this notice to introduce our
readers only to some of the salient points of Mr. Darwin's
researches ; and cannot hope to give any idea of the
unwearying labour, the precision of the experiments, and
the wealth of illustration, for which we must refer all
interested in the subject to the volume itself. The novelty
of the results arrived at does not lie in the fact of plants
being found to feed on organic matter whether animal or
vegetable ; physiologists [have long been famihar with
this povrer in theease of parasites and saprophytes, the

Jtdy 22, 1875]

NATURE

231

former deriving their nourishment entirely from living-
organic matter, in some cases animal, in others vege-
table ; the latter from organic matter in a state
of decay ; but neither having the power of " assimi-
lating," or obtaining their food-materials direct from
the atmosphere and the inorganic constituents of the
soil. Saprohgnia and Cordiccps are as fully entitled
to the designation of carnivorous or even insecti-
vorous plants as Dioncpa or Droscra. The difference lies
chiefly in the localisation of the power of absorption,
which we have not generally considered to reside in the
foliar organs. By far the most interesting facts brought
out in this volume — and we think they are amongst the
most important published for many years — are the changes
from neutral to acid in the nature of the secretion poured
out by the glands of Drosera on their excitement by
contact with soluble nitrogenous substances ; and the
alleged " reflex " excitement of the tentacles of Drosera.
It is impossible to foretell to what these discoveries will
lead. We cannot but think that this volume will serve,
as the previous ones from the same hand have done, to
act as finger-posts to direct future observers in those lines
of research which are likely to be the most fruitful and
profitable. ALFRED W. Bennett

OUR BOOK SHELF

Proe^ress-Report upon Geographical aiid Geological Ex-
ploratio7is attd Surveys west of the \ooth Meridian in
1872, under the direction of Brigadier-General A. A.
Humphreys, Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army. By First
Lieutenant G. M. Wheeler. — Also Topogrciphica.1 Atlas
to illustrate Geographical Explorations west of the
looth Meridian. (Washington : Government Printing
Office, 1874.)

Our readers are no doubt aware that a large area of
the Western States of America is overrun by a number of
expeditions intended mainly for the topographical and
geological survey of that immense region. Some idea of
the number and constitution of these parties will be
obtained from two articles in Nature, vol. viii. pp. 331
and 385. The " Progress-Report " for 1872 of that under
charge of Lieut. G. M. Wheeler contains only brief notes
of the work done by the various parties ; detailed reports
will, no doubt, be published eventually, and will occupy
several volumes, besides atlases. The present brief report
comprises notes of work done, not only in geology and
topography, but also in astronomy, meteorology, natural
history, ethnology, and photography. Some idea of the
amount of work done may be obtained from the fact that
the areas covered topographically during the summer
months of 1872 exceeded 50,000 square miles lying in
Utah, Nevada, and Arizona. The length of hncs in the
vicinity of which surveys were made is 6,127 miles, in
addition to which other 2,067 miles had to be travelled
for various purposes. A large portion of the present pub-
lication is occupied with reports on the numerous mining-
stations which have been established in the district
surveyed, as also on irrigation, agriculture, routes of com-
munication, timber lands, and Indians ; from the latter
the expedition met with no interference, though of course
it was accompanied by a miUtary escort. One of the
principal features of this report are the lithographic illus-
trations from camera-negatives of some of the magnificent
caiions on the Colorado River ; one of these illustrations
gives a fine idea of a rain-sculptured rock at Salt-Creek
Cafion, Utah.

The atlas which accompanies this Report is a mag-
nificent work and reflects great credit on the U.S.

Government and especially on the topographic sec-
tion of Lieut. Wheeler's Expedition. Besides a general
map, it consists of eight sectional maps in photo-
lithography on the scale of one inch to eight miles, suffi-
ciently large to give one an excellent idea of the nature of
the country which has been surveyed. The maps are the
results of the expeditions under Lieut. Wheeler in the
years from 1869 to 1873, and embrace parts of California,
Nevada, Utah, and Arizona. Ever>' important feature is
shown by characteristic and intelligible signs — mountain
ranges, plateaux, canons, bluffs, hills, craters, salt beds,
sands, marshes, rivers, creeks, springs, &c., not to men-
tion artificial features, as roads, trails, railroads, towns,
&c. We understand that maps of the whole region west
of the looth meridian are to be published on this scale,
and in some cases on a more extended one. It will be a
magnificent work when complete, a work of which any
country might be proud.

Nach den Victoriafdllcti des Zambesi. Von Edouard

Mohr. 2 vols. (Leipzig : Hirt und Sohn, 1875.)
Notwithstanding that Herr Mohr went over ground
that had been traversed previously, a considerable part of
it being included in Livingstone's earlier travels, yet his
book contains a great deal that is new and well worth
publishing. From the time that he left Bremen in
November 1868 till his departure from Africa in the
beginning of 1871, the interest of his narrative never
flags ; the book contains frequent passages of genuine
eloquence, quite free from bombast or affectation. During
part of his journey, Mohr had as his companion the
geologist Adolf Pliibner, and their starting-point for the
Victoria Falls was Durban. From this point they went
almost directly to the falls, Hiibner, however, leaving his
companion before the Zambesi was reached, in order to
visit the recently discovered South African diamond
fields. Mohr, as we have indicated, tells the story of his
journey and its many interesting incidents, particularly
well, although, as might be expected, there were none of
the dangers to be encountered which face explorers in
less frequented parts of Africa. The book is full of valu-
able information of all kinds concerning the places
touched at or visited both on the voyage out and on the
journey from Durban to the Zambesi. The book must
be considered as a specially valuable contribution to our
knowledge of the natural history and geology, as well as
to the geography of the district passed through. To the
geographer the narrative will be found of very great value,
as it contains a record of the carefully ascertained latitude
and longitude of the prihcipal points at which halts were
made. Appended is a valuable paper by Hiibner on the
South African Diamond Fields. The work is illustrated
by many good woodcuts and a few brilliant chromo-
lithographs. There is also a small but clear map of
South Africa, showing not only Mohr's route, but the
routes of the principal travellers from Livingstone (1841)
downwards. Altogether, the work must be considered
a really valuable contribution to our knowledge of the
region traversed, and seems to us well worth translating
into EngUsh.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[ The Editor does not hold himself responsible por opinions expressed
by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return,
or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.'^

Spectroscopic provision of Rain with a High Barometer
That the spectroscope should play a part in the prediction of
weather for the common purpose's of life was an early thought
with many ; but I have not heard of its resources beiug very
distinctly appealed to in the late series of most memorable
fieTfoipa of the atmosphere which have passed over this country,
setting nearly at naught most other methods of prediction.

232

NATURE

\yuly 22, 1875

If the instrument has been so used please to correct me.

Otherwise permit me to say for myself, that being in Paris on
Wednesday July 7, when the great physical and astronomical
mathematician of the age, M. Leverrier, stood up in his place in
the Academy of Sciences to explain how it had come about that
the official predicter of the weather in the Obscrvatoire had
announced a fine dry period just before the destructive inunda-
tions in the South of France with all their train of frightful
national calamities began, — I paid attention to the conclusion of
his speech, which wound up with announcing " that all the bad
symptoms had now (July 7) passed away, that the barometer
was high in England, and that all the probabilities united
pointed to a fine time coming."

Every day after that for a week the weather only became
worse and worse, darker and wetter, in the usually gay city
of Paris ; and then I transferred myself to London, and
was there on the 14th, 15th, and part of the i6th of July, a
witness to, if possible, still worse weather, growing darker and
wetter all the time. So much, then, for the failure of the ordi-
nary methods of prediction, even in able hands; and. let us
be lenient to them, for who would or could have expected such
deluges of rain with a high barometer, and in the month of
July?

Now, however, comes an indication of where the spectroscope
seems capable of saying something meteorologically useful : for
in all that dark and wet weather in London a pocket spectro-
scope showed me from every part of the sky a broad dark band
on the less refrangible side of D, and partly in the place of it.
This band was so intense as to be the chief feature of the whole
spectrum; and though no doubt "telluric" in its origin, was
very different from the standard telluric effects seen at sunset in
ordinary weather.

I feared at the time that this grandly dark spectral band might
be of base artificial origin, such as an absorption effect by London
smoke ; and when journeying northward by rail on July 16, it
was certainly charming to find that in proportion as we left
London the rain ceased, the dark spectral band decreased, the
clouds (amongst which, by the way, there M'ere some remarkable
counter-motions chiefly from north to south) diminished, and by
the time we reached York fine weather prevailed. The ground
there was dry, the rivers low, and the sky spectrum not only
presented no dull bands, but the true D line was seen exquisitely
fine and neat, as the thinnest imaginable spider-line in a tele-
scope's illuminated field : so thin, fine, and clear indeed, as to
offer a delight to the eye, such as none but an earnest spectro-
scopist can have any idea of.

Thus far, it is true, we have only had oark nebulous bands in
place of fine sharp lines as accompaniments of rain, London rain
too, with a high and steady barometer in the pleasant month of
July. But mark, if you please, what follows.

The morning of the 17th of July, in Edinburgh, was glorious
with pure blue sky, transparent atmosphere, delicious tempera-
ture, and light N.E. Wind. So, too, it continued all the day
through, to the delight of thousands upon thousands in the
streets. No smoke either was issuing from any of the factory
chimneys, for there was a half-holiday or something more, and
the usually working population was enjoying itself in the open
air. The only clouds were a few briUiant and picturesque cur-
rents along the northern horizon, giving something like Alpine
mountain snowy tops to the lovely undulations of the Scottish
hills.

Simply beautiful were those bright cloud forms as an artistic
feature in the general landscape ; but in the spectroscope— why,
good gracious ! 1 could only say, what is the meaning of this ?
It was only a little pocket spectroscope, remember, without
scale, and with small dispersion ; but there was the D line ap-
pearing in seven times its usual strength, and with the London
smoky band, too, beginning on its less refrangible side. Of the
utterly abnormal intensification of D (or rather of some peculiar
telluric lines so very near D as not to be separable from it in so
small a spectroscope) in the light reflected from those clouds,
there could not be the slightest doubt ; for whenever the spectro-
scope was applied to a higher altitude than these clouds, there
was little or nothing of the kind ; only the usual Fraunhofer
lines, fine and clean as generally seen in fine weather. The
effect, too, was very different, both in spectrum place and distri-
bution, from what is characteristic of a low sun ; while the sun
was at the time not low, no sunset colouis had visibly begun,
the clouds which gave the black intensification of the D line
were almost absolutely white, and it was as yet only two o'clock
on a fine bright July afternoon.

So I merely made comparative drawings of the spectrum given
by these low white clouds, and that afforded by the general sky
above them in the Polar neighbourhood, inked them in, and
then waited to see what would follow.

And it was this. At 10 p.m. of that very fine day, and with-
out any sensible falling of the high barometer, the sky clouded
over completely. At 11 p.m. settled rain began. At 1.30 a.m.
it was still raining, and I have reason to believe that it continued
all night. It was certainly still raining in the morning of the
next day, Sunday, and continued more or less all that day and
all that night ; while this morning, Monday, July 19, after a
heavy thunderstorm, fog and heavier rain began and have
proved the order of the day. All this with a barometer still
nearly uninfluenced in its serene height and steadiness,* but not
so the spectroscope, for, excepting the E line, all the other lines
have disappeared in dull bands which occupy their places very
nearly, and the London band on the less refrangible side of, and
over D, is the main characteristic of all the visible spectral range,

15 Royal Terrace, Edinburgh, Piazzi Smyth

July 19 Astronomer Royal for Scotland

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN

The Triple-Star, South 503.-111 Astron. Nachr.,
No. 2,045, Baron Dembowski has published measures of
this star made in 1873-75, which exhibit large changes in
the relative situation of the components, as compared
with the measures of Sir James South early in the year
1825. Thus we have for A and B : —

South i825"i Position I34°T Distance 39"'94

Dembowski. i873*8o ,, 120 "3 ,, 8 '24

„ i875'2i ,, 118 -8 ,, 7 -07

And for A and C :—

South iS25'i Position 337° -3 Distance 201" -76

Dembowski. i875'2i ,, 335 -4 ,, 232 "04

Lalande observed A and C on Jan. 23, 1798 ; Bessel
observed all three components on March 6, 1823 ; and
Argelander has an observation of B on Feb, 16, 1856,

On inspecting the above measures there will arise at
first sight a suspicion that the change of distance
between A and C and in both elements between A
and B may be caused by proper motion of A nearly in
the line joining A and C, To put this to the test we may
take a mean between South's measures of 1825 and the
angle and distance of A and C deduced from Bessel's
meridian observations in 1823, and compare it with the
mean of Dembowski's measures of A and C in 1875.
Assuming the differences to be due to proper motion of
A, we find for the annual values : —

P.M. in R.A + o"-389

P.M. in Decl — o •461

And, if with this proper motion we reduce Dembowski's
mean of measures of A and B in 1875 to the epoch of
South's observations there results : —

For 1825-1 Position i36''-5 Distance 36"-5

Considering that the P.M. adopted is only an approxima-
tion, there appears to be little doubt that the changes to
which the Baron Dembowski has drawn attention in his

Meteorological Journal at Royal Observatory, Edinburgh, foi
I P.M. ea'-k day.

1875.

reduced to
sea-level.

Attached

Exterior

Direction of

Thermometer.

Thermometer.

wind.

July 14

29-961

56-2

58-4

N.E.

>. 15

30-060

56-3

55-4

E.N.E.

„ 16

30-098

57-1

58-1

N.E.

" \l ■

30-043

59 -o

596

N.E.

» 19

29-995

58-3

57 -o

NE.

July 2 2, 1875

NATURE

233

interesting note are really due to the proper motion of
the principal component of this triple star.

Lalande 23726 (CORVUS).— With reference to the
query as to actual brightness of this star, which has
been noted as high as a fifth magnitude by Heis 'Naturp;,
vol. xii. p. 27), Mr. J. E. Gore writes from Umballa, under
date June 8 : — " I last night examined its place and found
the star in question to be barely visible in an opera glass
or about mag. 8." It is evidently variable to a consider-
able extent, and should be closely watched. Mr. Gore
adds that " L. 23675-76 rated 7, 'j\ by Lalande, is now
about 6m., and brighter than the stars L. 23463 (6m.) and
23446 (6m.), a little to the west ; " the observations in the
Hjstoire Celeste, however, do not belong to the same
object, but to the two components of a double-star, which
is 2 1669, and in the Dorpat scale were both estimated
6*5 in Menstircp Micr., and 6'o in Positiones Media; their
distance about 5^". Bessel also observed both com-
ponents, judgmg'them of equal brightness and of the
seventh magnitude in his scale. The appearance of the
object to the naked eye as a bright sixth, remarked by
Mr. Gore, is thus accounted for.

Horizontal Refraction on VENUS.—In May 1849'
near the inferior conjunction of Venus with the sun,
Clausen having remarked that the crescent extended
beyond a semicircle, Miidler observed it with the Dorpat
telescope, with the view of approximating to the amount
of horizontal refraction in the planet's atmosphere.
Measures, properly so called, he found were hardly
feasible, owing to the extreme faintness of the cusps and
proximity of the planet to the sun, but estimations with a
position-wire in the field of view were made on six days
at distances varying from 3° 26' to 7° 37' ; fthe mean
gave for the horizontal refraction, 43'7. In 1866 Prof.
C. S. Lyman, by similar observations, obtained 45'*3 ; he
remarked : '* The planet was then (for the first time, as it
appears) seen as a very delicate luminous ring. The
cusps of the crescent, as the planet approached the sun,
had extended beyond a semicircle, until they at length
coalesced and formed a perfect ring of light." Last
December Prof. Lyman repeated these observations,
making use of a five-feet Clarke telescope of 4fj inches
aperture, and by measures of the extent of the crescent on
four days, deduces for the horizontal refraction of the
atmosphere of Venus, 44'*S, a value which is also the
mean of the three sets of observations. {American Journal
of Science and Arts, January 1875). At the next inferior
conjunction of Venus, she will have the following angular
distances from the sun's centre, at Greenwich noon : —

876, July II .

. (f 28'

July 14 ...

... 5° S'

» 12 .

• 5 35

„ 15 •.•

... 5 33

» 13 ■

• 5 5

„ 16

... 0 23

The formula used for finding the horizontal refraction
may be thus written, putting C for the observed extent of
the crescent, d for the angular distance of Venus from the
sun at the time of observation, s for the sun's semi-
diameter, which we may express in minutes of arc, and r
for the planet's radius-vector : —

Ilor. Refr.

Arc ?in d sin i (C — 180°)

The Sun's Parallax.— We have received Prof.
Galle's Bestinimung der Sonnen-Pai-allaxe aus cor-
Tcspondirenden Beobachtnnt^en dcs Planeten Flora (Bres-
lau, 1875), which contains the full details of his reduction
of the observations taken in both hemispheres near the
opposition of the planet in 1873, when it approached the
earth within about 0.87 of our mean distance from the
sun. The fing.l result for the parallax 8".873, as already
stated in this column, corresponds to 23,247 equatorial
semi-diameters of the earth, or, according to Galle,
19,979,000 geographical miles of 15 to the degree of
the equator.

SCIENCE JN SI AM.

"\^HEN the invitation of the King of Siam to observe
* * the late total echpse of the sun reached the Royal
Society, it was hailed with delight by those who took an
interest in the expedition. A few Europeans professing
to know something about the country wrote letters to news-
papers discouraging astronomers from accepting the invi-
tation. Happily no notice was taken of these anonymous
letters, and the result was that the members of the expe-
dition were surprised, not only by the good reception they
met with everywhere in Siam, but also by the great interest
the Siamese themselves took in the eclipse and in science
generally. The late king was well known for his love of
astronomy, but many might suppose that this was a soU-
tary case, and that with the death of the king science would
be left unprotected in the country. A short account of our
experience will show that the interest the Siamese take in
science is rather on the increase than on the decrease.

On our way to the observatory, which was erected at
Bangtelue, near Chulie Point, we had to stop twenty-four
hours in Bangkok until the steamer which was to take us
was ready. It happened that the evening of that day
the "Young Siamese Society" met in the house we
were staying at, and I was asked by the members to
give a lecture on spectrum analysis and its application
during solar eclipses. Mr. Alabaster, aided by the King's
private secretary and Prince Dewan, acted as interpreter.
The Siamese listened with the greatest interest, and by
the questions they asked after the lecture was over
showed that they fairly understood the subject. There
exists a Siamese translation of a book on chemistry, and
they had read up the subject in that book. H.R.H. Chowfa
Maha Mala, uncle of the King, is the chief astronomer
of the Siamese at the present time. He showed me
the way in which he had determined the time and dura-
tion of the eclipse at Bangkok. Taking the sun and
moon's apparent diameter from the Nautical Almanac,
he determined by means of the projection of their paths
and their apparent velocity the time of the different con-
tacts. The drawing was neatly executed and, I am told,
the time thus determined came very near the truth.

On the day of the eclipse several telescopes, one of which
had been lent to the King by Dr. Jansson, were set up on
the lawn in the front of the palace. The local time was
determined by Mr. Alabaster and Capt. Bush, in order to
find the exact time of the different contacts. As totality
approached, the King made a speech to the members of
the Royal Family, who were all assembled, telling them
why solar eclipses were observed, and why large sums of
money were spent for that purpose. During totality, his
Majesty observed the corona and the protuberances
through a telescope, carefully noting down what he saw
and making a sketch of the protuberances. He had
ordered one of the princes to take photographs of the
corona. Two photographs were thus secured, which by
no means are inferior to those taken at the Observatory of
Bangtelue. The original negatives of these photographs
have been sent to England as a present from the King to
the Royal Society.

At our camp the Siamese also showed a great interest
in the eclipse. The eagerness with which the ex-Regent
looked through his telescope contrasted in a characteristic
way with the quiet indifference with which his European
secretary went to sleep during totality.

The King of Siam informed us that he did not profess
to be an astronomer, and I was therefore rather surprised
to hear altcrsvards that on his journey to Calcutta he had
taken regular sights with the sextant, and calculated him-
self the position of the steamer.

But the taste of the Siamese for science is not merely
confined to astronomy. Wangna, the second king, is a
mineralogist. The country in which he lives gives him
ample opportunity to work ^t his favourite subject. He

234

NATURE

\7uly 22, 1875

has a large mineralogical collection and a nice chemical
laboratory, in which he makes his analyses.

Let us now turn from what the Siamese have done for
science to what they are going to do.

The King has instructed Dr. Gowan to erect an obser-
vatory in which regular barometric and thermometric
measurements are to be made. The rainfall and the
tides will also form a subject of measurements. Other
instruments will be added in time. As the Siamese have
a great fancy for photography, we shall perhaps soon
see regular photographs of the sun taken in Bangkok.
Various spectroscopes and telescopes are at the present
moment on their way out from England. It is also
intended to build a chemical laboratory in the palace.
The King's bodyguard are being instructed by Mr.
Alabaster in taking surveys. At the moment I write this,
they are out on a surveying expedition.

All this shows that the inhabitants of Siam have a great
fancy for science, if it does not show more. Strong hking
for a subject is generally accompanied with, if not caused
by, the ability to deal with it and to overcome its difficulties.
Let us hope that some of the Siamese will take up their
favourite subject, not as amateurs merely, but with all the
seriousness of a profession. Many of them visit Europe
for several years. If some of these were to go through a
course of science, the knowledge thus gained, added to
their natural intelligence and love of science, would soon
make them good observers and able experimenters.

In the meantime it will be interesting to watch the
growth and development of a country in which science is
the recognised and favourite study. English men of
science cannot refuse their sympathy to a king who, under
great difficulties, does his best to improve his country,
and who readily accords to science the position which
they are striving to obtain for it in their own land.

Arthur Schuster

THE RESTING-SPORES OF
FUNGUS

THE POTATO

"P OR some reason unknown to me (but probably owing
-*■ to meteorological conditions pertaining to this season
or the last) the potato fungus began its ravages this sum-
mer a month or six weeks earlier than usual. It not only
appeared out of season, but it came in a different form
from anything within the memory of the younger bota-
nists of the present generation. It is considered probable
that the present condition of the disease is similar with
that long ago known as " the curl," a pest known a con-
siderable time before Peronospsra infestans, Mont., was
described as European.

At the beginning of June I had potato-leaves sent to
me for examination from the office of the Journal of
Ho7-ticulture ; these leaves were badly diseased, spotted
and foetid, and from certain •f the stomata a few threads
of the Pero7wspora were emerging ; this fact, from the
unusually early appearance of the fungus, I made a
special note of.

On June 16 Mr, Berkeley brought leaves sent to him
for examination by Mr. Andrew Murray, (which were
spotted in an exactly similar manner with mine), to the
meeting of the Royal Horticultural Society. At the
same time Mr. Berkeley exhibited a sketch of two rather
large nodu»lose (or reticulated) bodies found by him within
these leaves, as a possible species of Proiomyces, but
since then known to be the resting-spores of Peroiwspora
infestans, Mont., here illustrated.

The presence of these warted bodies in the leaves, a« seen
by Mr. Berkeley, led me to make a searching examination
of the Chiswick plants then greatly suffering from the pest,
and I at once found similar bodies very sparingly diffused
amongst the tissues of the leaves, with a few branches of
Peroiwspora and threads of mycelium, and two semi-
transparent bodies of different sizes which were new to
me. On attempting to disengage these presumed speci-

mens of Protomyccs from the black, hard, and corroded
spots on the leaves by maceration in water, I found the
continued moisture greatly excited the growth of the
mycelium. After the lapse of a week the threads bore
(amongst the intercellular spaces of the leaves) the semi-
transparent bodies of two sizes which I had before seen
and measured, and which I now refer without doubt to
the oogonium and antheridium of the potato fungus. It
is very uncommon to find a fungus bearing sexual and
asexual fruit at the same period of growth, and in this
instance the old asexual fruit was very sparingly pro-
duced. I, however, afterwards found the fungus with
both forms of fruit and with ripe free resting-spores,
inside the cavities of the putrid stems, and I found the
ripe resting-spores and the sexual organs sometimes in
conjugation within the tissues of the potato tubers when
the substance was reduced by decomposition to the soft-
ness and semi-transparency of butter.

By keeping the potato-plants closely under observation
from that time to this, a period of from six to seven weeks,
I have seen and figured these bodies in every stage of
growth, and have been able to preserve some of the best
material for future careful mounting. Those who may
care to know in detail how, from the slightest clue at first,
the subject was worked out to its present aspect may refer
to the Gardener's Chronicle for July 10, 17, and 24 last,
and to this week's Journal of Horti culture.

Oogonium antheridium and mature resting spore of P eroiiospora in/esians ,
fS^^ L-Moiit. ^ ^

The aiitheridia,oogonia, and oospores (or resting-spores)
in Peronospora infestans, Mont, are very similar, with the
same bodies in other species of Peronospora, in fact when
they are drawn to scale and placed side by side there is
very httle difference to be detected. The accompanying
illustration shows the oogonium (a) and antheridium (b)
in contact as taken from the tissues of the leaf. At c is
shown a semi-mature resting- spore with its fecundating
tube attached and its coat of cellulose accidentally pushed
aside by maceration in water, as taken from a putrid
potato-stem. At E is illustrated the perfectly mature
resting-spore, free from its coat of cellulose taken from a
tuber in the last stage of decomposition. At F is shown
the resting-spore of Peronospora arenarice, Berk, drawn
to exactly the same scale to show similarity in size and
conformation. The figures in the cut are uniformly en-
larged seven hundred diameters, and the mature oospore
or resting-spore measures on the average •00142 inch in
in length, and '001 14 inch in breadth.

Worth iNGTON G. Smith

July 2 2, 1875I

NATURE

235

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE THERMOMETER
AND PYROMETER'''

THIS paper consists of three parts. The first treats of the
experiments made by Dr. Siemens, with a view of deter-
mining the law of the variation of electrical resistance in metallic
conductors, with variation of temperature, through a greater
range than had been before attempted. Tlie second describes
certain instruments, by whose use this law is applied to the
measurement of temperature. The third treats of a simple
method of measuring electrical resistance by means of the
differential voltameter.

Our author first refers to the previous experiments made by
Arnsted, by his brother, Dr. Werner Siemens, and by Dr.
Matthiessen, and to the law deduced by Clausius, " that the
electrical resistances of metals are directly proportional to their
absolute temperatures." The maximum range of these experi-
ments was 100° C. Dr. Siemens's experiments were made upon
copper, iron, steel, silver, aluminium, and platinum ; the last of
these has received the most attention at his hands, as, having the
highest melting point, it is the most valuable from a practical
point of view.

The method employed in one series of experiments was to
wind metal wire upon pipe-clay cylinders, having helical grooves
to prevent contact between the convolutions of the wire, and to
place these, together with three delicate thermometers, in a
copper vessel enclosed in a larger one
containing linseed oil, and having
hollow sides packed with sand to
diminish sudden variation of tempera-
ture. The bath was gradually heated
by means of Bunsen's burners to 340°
C, or close to the boiling point of
mercury, and the readings were made
with a Wheatstone's bridge and deli-
cate galvanometer. A second series
of experiments was made in a heated
air vessel having a metallic screen to
prevent irregular losses of heat by
hation or by atmospheric cun-cnts,
(,' other conditions being similar to
, ;se m the first series. The results
obtamed were found to accord gene-
rally with those of Matthiessen and tie
other observers within the limits of
their experiments, but pointed to a
different law of increase beyond those
limits. The formula hitherto known
as Matthiessen's is —

^ ^. ^.__

* I - -0037647^+ -00000834^'
and was the mean of the results ob-
tained on various metals. This for-
mula is shown to give discordant
results at the higher temperatures, as
the calculated resistance at 300° C.
is i-6l nearly of what it is at 0° C, whilst at 2000° C. it is "0373,
showing clearly that the formula is reliable only between very
narrow limits. . •,. , ,

We quote the author as to the law of resistance which he pro-
poses : "Now, if we apply the mechanical laws of work and
velocity to the vibratory motions of a body which represent its
free heat, we should define this heat as directly proportional to
the square of the velocity with which the atoms, or may be the
molecules, vibrate.

"We may fmther assume that the resistance which a metallic
body offers to the passage of an electrical impulse from atom to
atom, or from molecule to molecule, is directly proportional to
the velocity of the vibrations which represent its heat. In com-
bining these two assumptions, it (oUow's tliat the resistance of a
metallic body increases in the direct ratio of the square root of
the free heat communicated to it. Algebraically, if r represent
the resistance of a metallic conductor at the temperature T,
reckoning from the absolute zero, and o, an experimental coeffi-
cient of increase peculiar to the particular metal under considera-
tion, we should have the expression—
r = oxi.
This purely parabolic expression would make no allowance for
* Abstract of a Paper read at the Society of Telegraph Engineers by C
William Siemens, D.C.L., F.R.S., &c.

Fig. I.

the probable increase of resistance, due to the increasing distance
between adjoining particles with increase of heat, which would
depend upon the coefficient of expansion, and may be expressed
by /3 T, which would have to be added to the former expression.
To these factors a third would have to be added expressing an
ultimate constant resistance of the material itself at the absolute
zero, and which I call 7. The total resistance of a conductor at
any temperature, T, would, therefore, be expressed by the
formula —

Diagrams are given in which this hypothetical law is graphically
represented, and in which its results are compared with those
obtained by the experiments already cited, and by this means

the 'following formulae are arrived at for the diiTerent metals
named :—

For platinum

•0021448

r = -039369

r = -092183

For copper ... r= -026577

,, iron ... r = -072545

,, aluminium r — '0595 1436 li

,, silver ... r = -0060907 T-''

th +
xi -H
Xi-f-
xi +

•0024187 X
•00216407 X
•00007781 X
•0031443 X
•0038133 X
•00284603 X
•0035538 X

•30425
•24127

•50196

•29751
•23971
•76492
•07456

Dr. Siemens, however, has not been satisfied with limiting
his experiments to temperatures within the boiling point of mer-
cury, but compared the law he had deduced with experimental
results at higher temperatures obtained by the use of the metal
ball pyrometer shown in Fig i. Its principal parts are a
metal ball, whose heat capacity equals one-fiftieth of that
of an imperial pint of water, a copper vessel containing a pint of
water, and a thermometer having a fixed and sliding scale with
divisions of equal size, but each division in the latter being equi-
valent to fifty in the former. The zero of the sliding scale is
fixed to coincide with the position of the mercury level in the
thermometer. The ball, having been heated, is dropped into the
water, whose temperature is the sum of those indicated on the
fijced and sliding scales. By the use of this instrument, whose
readings were comparal with those of the mercury thermometer

236

NATURE

\ytily 22, 1875

up to the boiling-point of the latter metal, results at higher tem-
peratures were obtained. The first part concludes with several
pages of tabulated results of experimentF, which results are laid
down in a sheet of diagrams.

In the second part, Dr. Siemens describes the instruments he
has designed for the measurement of temperature by electrical
resistance, having first referred to the coils of silk-covered copper
wire, by which he was enabled to detect a dangerous rise of tem-
perature in the Malta and Alexandria Telegraph cable, coiled in
ship's hold, and saved that cable from being destroyed. The
simplest of these arrangements is shown in Fig. 2, and is em-
ployed for the measurement of temperature not exceeding
the boiling point of water. Insulated wire is wound round a
cylindrical piece of wood and is enclosed in a metal casing : one
end is joined to a thicker insulated wire, and the other to a
similar one soldered to it ; this is called the thermometric
resistance coil or thermometer coil. The thermometrical com-
parison coil is formed of an exactly similar wire, and has an
equal resistance with the other. The wire is wound upon a
metal tube, and is enclosed in a protecting capsule of metal, in

the open end of which is fitted a vulcanite stopper through which
are passed the leading wires attached to the coil. This is placed
in a movable tube having a flanged bottom and containing a
mercury thermometer; the tube is immersed in a cylindrical
vessel of water, wherein it is moved up and down, the flange
agitating and thus equalising the temperature of the water.
The thermometer coil, which may be at a distance from the
place of observation, is connected with the comparison coil
through a pair of equal resistances and a galvanometer. "When
electrical equilibrium is obtained, by adding hot or cold water to
the vessel containing the comparison coil until the galvanometer

needle is at the zero'of its scale,

A T +1
it is evident that jj —'~7i~]i

A and B representing the equal resistances, / and /' the equal
resistances of the leading wires, and T t' those of the thermo-
meter and resistance coils, or T = t', and the temperature of the
water in which the comparison coil is placed will be that of the
distant station.

In measuring deep-sea temperatures the coil must be so pro-
tected as to be perfectly insulated at the greatest depths, and the

Fig. 3.

wire so coiled as to be effected by slight variations of temperature
in its vicinity. The necessary instrument is shown in the
sketch Fig. 3, which represents an insulated wire coiled on a
metal tube ; ope end of the wire is soldered to the tube, the other
to a copper wire insulated with gutta percha, and carried through
a hole to the interior : over each end of the tube is drawn a piece
of vulcanised india-rubber pipe, and over the whole a larger
piece of india-rubber tubing, which, after being padded outside
with hemp yarn, is lashed tightly with a stout binding wire.
The gutta-percha covered wire is placed between the india-rubber
pipes b and c, its end being soldered to one of the leading wires,
the other leading wire being soldered to the brass tube. The
whole is carried at the end of the sounding line, which contains
the leading wires. These coils are tested under hydrostatic
pressure, and accurate readings are obtained tO a tenth of a
degree Fahrenheit.

The only difficulty that has hitherto arisen in tb© employment
of this instrument has been the obtaining of skilled observers to
note with accuracy the indications of the galvanoscope on board
ship.

The next instrument described is the electrical pyrometer, the

coil of which is made of platinum wire, wound on a hard baked
pipe-clay cylinder in which a doubled threaded helical groove is
formed, and which is shown in Fig. 4.

At each end of the spiral portion B B, it is provided with a
ring-formed projecting rim c and c', the purpose of which is to
keep the cylinder in place when it is inserted in the outer metal
case, and to prevent the possibility of contact between the case
and the platinum wire. Through the lower ring c' are the small
holes b b', and through the upper portion two others, a a. The
use of the upper holes a a' is for passing the ends of the platinum
wires through, before connecting them with the leading wires.
From these two holes downwards platinum wires are coiled in
parallel convolutions round the cylinder to the bottom, where
they are passed separately through the holes, bb'. Here they
are twisted, and by preference fused together by means of an
oxyhydrogen blow-pipe. At this end also the effective length
and resistance of the platinum wire can be adjusted, which is
accomplished by forming a return loop of the wire, and providing
a connecting screw-link of platinum, L, by which any portion of
the loop can be cut off from the electrical circuit.

The pipe-clay cylinder is inserted in the lower portion of the

protecting case seen in Fig. 6. This part of the case is made of
iron or platinum, and is fitted into the long tube, which is of
wrought iron, and serves as a handle. "When the lower end of
the casing is of iron, there is a platinum shield to protect the coil
on the pipe-clay cylinder. The purpose of the platinum casing
is to shield the resistance wire against hot gases, and against
accident. At the points A A, Fig. 4, the thick platinum wires
are joined to copper connections, over which pieced of ordinary
clay tobacco-pipe are drawn, and which terminate in binding
screws fitted to a block of pipe-clay, closing the end of the tube.
A third binding screw is provided, which is likewise connected
with one of the two copper connecting wires, and which serves
to eliminate disturbing resistances in the leading wires. The
pipe-clay cylinder is, when cold, highly insulating ; its conducting
power increases with heat, but not to an extent to produce error,
as the variation is inappreciable until a white heat is reached,
but in measuring temperatures above a white heat, the indica-
tions of the instrument are slightly below the true value. In
measuring temperatures with this instrument the differential
voltameter is employed, a wide range of resistances being

obtained ; this instrument forms the subject of the third part o
this paper, to which we now refer. The theory of differential mea
surement and the instrument employed are thus described by
Dr. Siemens : —

Faraday established the law that the decomposition of water
in a voltameter in an unit of time is a measure of the intensity cf
the current employed ; or, that

/ = ^;
t

— /being the intensity, Fthe volume, and t the time.

According to Ohm's general law, the intensity, /, is directly
governed by the electro-motive force, E, and, inversely, by the
resistance. A', of the electric circuit, or, it is

Combining the two laws we have

J?
which formula would enable us to determine any unknowr>.

JiUy 2 2, 1875]

NATURE

237

resistance, R, by the amount of decomposition effected in a
voltameter in a given time, and by means of a battery of known
elect romotive force.

Practically, however, such a result would be of no value,
because the electromotive force of the battery is counteracted by
the polarisation, or electrical tension, set up between the elec-
trodes of the voltameter, which depends upon the temperature
an d concentration of the acid employed, and upon the condition
of the platinum surfaces composing the electrodes. The resist-
ance to be measured would, moreover, comprise that of the
voltameter, which would have to be frequently ascertained by
other methods, and the notation of time would involve consider-
able inconvenience and error. For these reasons the voltameter
has been hitherto discarded as a measuring instrument, but the
disturbing causes just enumerated may be eliminated by com-
bining two similar voltameters in one instrument, which I pro-
pose calling a " differential voltameter," and which is represented
in the accompanying drawing.

It consists of two similar narrow glass tubes, A and B, of about
2 '5 millimetres in diameter, fixed vertically to a wooden frame,
F, with a scale behind them divided into millimetres or other
divisions. The lower ends of these tubes are enlarged to about
6 millimetres in diameter, and each of them is fitted with a
wooden stopper saturated with paraffin and pierced by two

Fig. 5.

platinum wires, the tapered ends of which reach about 25 milli-
metres above the level^ of the stopper. These form voltametric
electrodes.

From the enlarged portion of each of the two voltameter tubes
a branch tube emanates, connected, by means of an india-rubber
tube, the one to the moveable glass reservoir G, and the other to
g'. Fig. 5. These reservoirs are supported in sliding frames by
means of friction springs, and may be raised and lowered at
pleasure. The upper extremities of the voltameter tubes are cut
smooth and left open, but weighted levers, L and l/, are provided,
with india-rubber padr, which usually press down upon the open
ends, closing them, but admitting of their beir.g raised, with a
view of allowing the interior c f ihe tubes to be in open communi-
cation with the atmosphere. Ilavirg filled the adjustible reser-
voirs with dilute sulphuric acid on opening the ends of the volia-
meter tubes, the liquid in each tube will rise to a level with that
of its respective reservoir, and the latter is moved to its highest
position before al '.-wing the ends of the tubes to be closed by
the weighted and padded levers.

The ends of the platinum wire forming the electrodes may be
platinised with advantage, in order to increase the active surface
for the generation of the gases.

Fig. 6 represents the connections of the voltameter with the
pyrometer. One electrode of each voltameter is connected with
a common binding screw, which latter may be united, at will, to
either i)ole of the battery, vhibt the r< ma'uing two e'ec'rodes
are, at the same moment, connected with the other pole < f tlie

same battery ; the one through the constant resistance- coil, x,
and the other through the unknown resistance, x'. This un-
known resistance, x', is represented to be a pyrf meter-coil.

By turning the commutator seen at Fig. 5 e'tVer in a right or
left-hand direction from its central or neutral position (in which
position the contact-springs en either side rest on ebcni'e), the
current from the battery flows through the two circuits, causing
decomposition in the voltameters ; and the gases generated upon
the electrodes accumulate in the upper portions of the graduated
tubes. By turning the commutator half round every few seconds,
the current from the battery is rever ed, which prevents polarisa-
tion of the electrodes, as already stated.

The relative volumes, v and r', of the gases accumulated in an
arbitrary space of time within each tube must be inversely pro-
portional to the resistances, R and A", of the branch circuits,
because —

R A" '
and, therefore,

z' : t/' = A" : A'.
The resistance^ R and R' are composed, the one of the resistance

C, plus the resistance of the voltameter A, and the other of the
unknown resistance X, plus the resistance of the voltameter />.
But the instrument has been so adjusted that the resistances of
the two voltameters are alike, being made as small as possible,
or equal to about I mercury unit, to which has to be added the
resistances of the leading wires, which are also made equal to
each other, and to about half a unit ; these resistances may
therefore both of them be expressed by y.
We have, then —

z.' :v = C + y:X+y,
or —

A'=l(C+7)

(0

which is a convenient formula for calculating the unknown
resistance from the known quantities Card 7, and the observed
proportion of v and v'.

The constant of the instrument ('^) is easily deternuned, fiom
time to time, by substituting a known resistance for A", and
observing the volumes, v and </, after the current has been actng
during an arbitrary space of time, when in the above f< rmula, y,
has to be separated as the unknown quantity, giving it the
form —

y-±^Ei:'^ (^)

Tl e ccnditicn of er.urli'v 1 etwetn tl e int(inr.l nsislr.KCS of

238

NATURE

[July 22, 1875

both voltameters is ascertained by inserting equal known resist-
ances in both branch circuits, when

should be the 'result. Facing this, the bilance is generally
re-established by reversing the poles of the battery, the reason
being that hydrogen electrodes are liable to accumulate metallic
or other deposit upon their surfaces, which is effectually removed
by oxygen.

When the instrument is to be worked between wide ranges of
temperature, it is requisite that C should be variable, and nearly
equal to X, and that 7 should be very small compared with X.

By equating the values of the equations

X= -(C+7)-7 = r = -0393^9^1 +-00216407/— -24127,
1/
C and 7 in the instruments constructed being equal to 17 and
2 units, we arrive at

/°Cent.r= j {877-975 X 5 + ioi-8o877)J - 9-0960553 j ' - 274',

from which a table has been prepared to be used with the pyro-
meter.

The precautions which have to be taken to insure reliable
results in using the Differential Voltameter are : —

1st. The dilute acid employed in both tubes should be of
equal strength. *

2nd. After disuse, the equality of the resistances of the vol-
tametres and connection should be verified by passing the
current through them with equal resistances in each branch.

3rd. The bittery power should be proportional to the resist-
nnces to be measured, whilst owing to the voltameter exer-
cising an opposing electro-motive lorce by polarisation, less
than five Danieli's elements should not be employed.

4th. The india-rubber pads should be smeared from time to
time with a waxy substance such as resin ceratel

"With these precautions the measurements of the instrument
have been compared with a very perfect Wheatstone bridge
arrangement, and tables of results are given showing that it can
be relied upon to within one-half per cent, of error ot obser-
vation. Its principal advantages are stated to be : that the
resistance is measured in work done, and does not therefore
depend upon a momentary observation, that it is not influenced
by motion on board ship or by magnetic disturbances, and that
its construction is so simple that each part can be easily exa-
mined and verified.

It is regarded, however, only as a useful adjunct to the more
important subject of thermometry, wliich forms the principal
object of this paper.

THE GIGANTIC LAND TORTOISES OF THE
MASCARENE AND GALAPAGOS ISLANDS*

EVER since the foundation of Natural History Col-
lections in Europe, naturalists had their curiosity
excited by shells of Tortoises of enormous size that were
brought home in vessels coming from India. From the
accounts of travellers as well as from the great convexity
of their shell, these tortoises were known to be terrestrial
in their life, and totally distinct from the other giants of
the Chelonian order, the marine Turtles. Various loca-
lities having been given as their habitat, such as the Cape
of Good Hope, the Coast of Coromandel, Malacca,
China, &c., the impression prevailed that they were
found in many parts of India, and consequently nothing
could have been more appropriate than the name given
to them, Testudo indica.

It is not the object of the present article to treat in
detail of the divergent views held subsequently by zoolo-
gists, some distinguishing several species from the differ-
ence of the form of the shell alone, others maintaining
that there was one very variable species only which had
been carried by ships from its native place into various
parts of the globe where it became acclimatised, until

* The substance of this article is contained in a paper read by the
author before the Royal Society in June, 1874, which will appear in the
■forthcoming volume ot the " Philosophical Transactions," and to which I
must refer for the scientific portion and other details. Some facts which
have come to my knowledge subsequently to the reading of this paper,
Ore added.

E)r. Gray, the principal advocate of the latter opinion,
himself was compelled to admit that there must be at
least two kinds, one with a convex and the other with a
ilat skull. The scientific study of these tortoises may b2
said to have commenced with this distinction, but it com-
menced at a time when the work of disturbance and
extermination by man had already reduced the amount of
evidence so far as to well nigh bring the subject into the
domain of pateontological research.

From the accounts of voyagers of the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries we learn that these tortoises were
found at two most distant stations, one being the Gala-
pagos group in the Pacific, the other comprising some of
the islands of the Indian Ocean ; Mauritius, Rodriguez,
Aldabra, and probably Rdunion. Widely different as
these stations are in their physical characteristics, they
had that in common, that they were, at the time of their
discovery, uninhabited by man or even by any large
terrestrial mammal. There is not the slightest trace of
evidence that any of the intervening lands or islands have
ever been inhabited by them.

At first the Tortoises were found in immense numbers
and of extraordinary size. Leguat (1691) says that in
Rodriguez " you see two or three thousand of them in a
flock, so that you may go above a hundred paces on their
backs ;" and indeed, when we consider that these helpless
creatures lived for ages in perfect security from all
enemies, and that nature has endowed them with a most
extraordinary degree of longevity, so that the individuals
of many generations lived simultaneously in their island
home, we can well account for the multitudes found by
the first visitors to those islands. For a period of more
than a century they proved to be a source of great
benefit to the crews and passengers of ships, on account
of their excellent and wholesome meat. In times when a
voyage, now performed in a few weeks, took as many
months, when every vessel, for defence's sake and from
other causes, carried as many people as it was possible
to pack into her,- when provisions were rudely cured and
but few in kind, these tortoises which could be captured
in any number with the greatest ease in a few days, were
of the greatest importance to the famished and scorbutic
ship's company. The animals could be carried in the
hold of the ship for many months without food, and were
slaughtered as occasion required, each tortoise yielding
from 80 to 300 pounds of fresh wholesome food ; and we
read that ships leaving the Mauritius or the Galapagos
used to take upwards of 400 of these animals on board.

Although no account of the first discovery of the
Galapagos Islands appears to have been published, so
much is certain that it is due to the Spaniards, who
applied the Spanish word for tortoise to this group of
islands. It became the regular place of meeting and re-
fitting to the buccaneers and whalers, who provisioned
themselves chiefly with tortoises and turtles. But nume-
rous and constant as these visits were, the reckless de-
struction of animal life was limited chiefly to the coast-
belt, and numbers of the animals inhabiting the interior
escaped ; no regular or extensive settlement being
attempted, . the condition of the islands and of the
animals inhabiting them remained in the main un-
altered until the earlier portion of the present century.
From the accounts of that period I select that given
by Porter, a Captain in the United States Navy, as the
one which contains by far the most interesting ob-
servations (Journal of a cruise made to the Pacific
Ocean, New York, 1822, 8°). He found, in the year
1 8 13, the tortoises in greater or less abundance in all
the larger islands of the group which he visited,
viz., Hood's, Narborough, James, Charles, and Porter's
Islands. On Chatham Island he found only a few of their
shells and bones, which appear to have been lying there for
a long time, and possibly may have belonged to indi-
viduals transported from some other island. On Albe-

July 22, 1875]

NATURE

239

marie Island, the largest of the group, none were observed
by him, evidently because he landed here only for a few
hours on the south-western point. Abingdon, Binloe's,
Downe's and Barrington Islands were not visited by him.
He describes the steps of the tortoises as slow, regular,
and heavy ; they carry their body about a foot from the
ground, frequently erecting their neck, which is from
eighteen inches to two feet long, and very slender ; also
their head is comparatively small. In the daytime they
appeared remarkably quick-sighted and timid, drawing
their head into the shell on the slightest motion of any
object ; but they arc said to be entirely destitute of hear-
ing, as the loudest noise, even the firing of a gun, did not
seem to alarm them in the slightest degree. At James
Island Porter took on board as many as would weigh
about fourteen tons, the individuals averaging about sixty
pounds, that is, about 500 individuals ; and he states that
among the whole there were only three males which he
distinguished by their great size and by the greater
length of the tail. As the females were found in low
sandy bottoms, and all, without exception, were full of
eggs, he presumed that they came down from the moun-
tains for the purpose of laying ; the few males had. been
taken at a considerable distance from the shore, in the
hilly interior of the island. The eggs are perfectly round,
white, with a hard shell of a diameter of ih inches. He
found the blood of the tortoises to possess constantly a
temperature of 62°, whilst the general temperature of the
air in the Galapagos varies from 72° to 75°.

Very significant are Porter's remarks as regards the
differences of the tortoises from different islands. Those
of Porter's Island he describes as being g.enerally of an
enormous size, one (not by any means the largest)
measuring 5^ feet in length, 4!- feet in width, and 3 feet in
depth. The form of the shell of the race inhabiting
Charles's Island is elongate, turning up forward in the
manner of a Spanish saddle, of a brown colour and of
considerable thickness, whilst the tortoises of James
Island are round, plump, black as ebony, and remarkably
thin-shelled. The tortoises of Hood's Island, one of the
smallest of the group, were small, and as regards form,
similar to those from Charles's Island.

Twenty-two years had passed since Porter's Cruise,
when Darwin visited the Galapagos Archipelago in the
Beagle, in the year 1835. On his excursions in the in-
terior he still met with large individuals, but a change by
which the existence of these animals was much more
threatened than by the visits of whalers, &c., had taken
place. The Republic of Equador had taken possession
of the Archipelago, and a colony of between two and
three hundred people banished by the Government, had
been established on Charles Island, who reduced the
number of tortoises in this island so much that they were
driven by necessity to send parties to other islands to
catch tortoises and salt their meat. Also, pigs had mul-
tiplied and were roaming about in the woods in a feral
state, no doubt destroying the offspring of those which
hitherto had escaped.

After an interval of not quite eleven years H.M.S.
Herald followed the Beagle on a voyage of discovery and
survey. The naturalist of this expedition, which reached
the Galapagos in the year 1846, found that the progress of
civilisation had been great, or, in other words, that the dis-
placement of the indigenous fauna by man and his com-
panions had proceeded apace. On Charles Island the cattle
had increased wonderfully, and were estimated at 2,000
head, beside wild pigs, goats, and dogs; the wild dogs
keeping the goats and pigs very much down, whilst the
'tortoises had been exterminated between the visits of the
Herald and Beagle. On the other, hand, they were met
with on Chatham Island, but the largest individual mea-
sured only two feet two inches in length.

Recent accounts of visits to the Galapagos do not give
us the particulars of the present condition of the indi-

genous fauna, nor do they contain any information as
regards the survivors of its Chelonians. The specimens
which at rare intervals reach Europe vid Panama, are
young individuals not exceeding twenty inches in length
or about twenty-five pounds in weight. The giants of
their race appear to be extinct or nearly so, and it is
scarcely to be expected that (except under most favour-
able conditions) any of the surviving comparatively young
and small individuals of so slow-growing a form of animal
life will be allowed, by an increasing lawless population,
to live long enough to reach the dimensions of the indi-
viduals of former generations. Therefore, there is but
little hope that valuable additions will be made to the
scanty and incomplete material in our collections ; and
any information as regards the present occurrence of the
several races in the various islands, is to be received with
caution, as evidently the original distribution of the races
has been much interfered with in the course of time by
the carriage of tortoises from one island to the other.

The original condition and the fate of the tortoises of
the Mascarene Islands were precisely the same as in the
Galapagos. Their extreme abundance in the small
island of Rodriguez * has been referred to above. Down
to 1740 they continued to be numerous in the Mauritius ;
for Grant (" Hist. Maurit.," p. 194) writes in that year—
" We possess a great abundance of both land- and sea-
turtles, which are not only a great resource for the supply
of our ordinary wants, but serve to barter with the crews
of ships who put in here for refreshment on their voyage
to India." But they appear to have been much more
scattered in the larger islands than in Rodriguez ; and,
according to Admiral Kempinfeldt, who visited the latter
island in 1761, small vessels were constantly employed in
transporting these animals by thousands to Mauritius for
the service of the hospital. Soon, however, their number
appears to have been rapidly diminished ; and to the
causes which worked their destruction in the Galapagos,
here another was added, viz., widely spreading conflagra-
tion, by which the rank vegetation of the plains was
destroyed to make room for the plantations of the settler.
They did not long survive the Dodo or Solitaire, and
early in the present century the work of extermina-
tion was accomplished ; there is at present not a single
living example either in Rodriguez or Mauritius.

Our knowledge of the indigenous fauna of the Island
of Reunion is still extremely meagre. If we can trust
to tradition, a gigantic land-tortoise once inhabited this
island ; and if this be really the case, it must have
become extinct long before the Mauritius and Rodriguez
species, nor is there any evidence to show its affinity to
one of the other races. The Seychelles do'not appear to
have been inhabited by these animals, certainly not within
historical times, all the individuals found there having
been imported from Aldabra and kept in a semi-domesti-
cated condition.

The Island of Aldabra,' the only spot in the Indian
Ocean where this Chelonian type still lingers in a wild
state in small and gradually diminishing numbers, lies in
lat. 9° 25' S., long. 46° 20' E. In reality it consists of
three islands, separated from one another by a deep chan-
nel about half a mile wide. They are covered with ver-
dure, low tangled bushes interspersed with patches of
white sand ; two of the islands are rather low, hummocky
near the centre. The middle island is slightly the largest,
extending six or eight miles in length and three or four
miles in breadth ; it is much higher than the others, and
partly covered with very high trees that may be seen
eight or nine leagues from the deck of a moderate- size4
ship.

Albert Gunther
{To be continued.)

* Again amply testified by the rich collection of tortoise-bones made by
Mr. Slater, one of the naturalists appointed by the Royal Society tp accom-
pany the Transit of Venui Expedition to Rodriguez.

240

NA TURE

IJuly 22, 1875

NOTES
An attempt has been i.cently made to supply a great de-
sideratum for naturalists residing in or visiting London, in a
reading-room, in a central situation, where they may consult
recent publications and current periodical literature, English and
foreign. The Linnean Society has taken advantage of the ex-
cellent accommodation now afforded it in Burlington House,
Piccadilly, to utilise its council-room for this object when not
required for the purposes of the Society. The room is open
from ten to six (or four on Saturdays) to Fellows of the Society
and others properly introduced, and several tables are well
supplied with the newest literature in the two branches
of Biology, and others are furnished with accommodation
for writing, &c. It is also in immediate proximity to the
very fine library of standard works in natural history possessed
by the Society, where the librarian is always in attendance. If
we might make a suggestion to the Council of the Society for the
further development of this very useful movement, it would be
that means should be taken for a more prompt and regular sup-
ply of some of the leading foreign scientific journals, as, for
instance, the Comptes Rendus of the French Academy, in which
respect the reading-room of the Linnean Society still contrasts
unfavourably with that of the Royal College of Surgeons ; but
the longer hours are a great advantage. The room ought to
become the recognised rendezvous for naturalists in London.

The Royal Horticultural Society has awarded Mr. Worthington
G. Smith its Gold Banksian Medal for his discovery in connection
with the potato disease which we recorded last week. We
refer our readers to an article by Mr. Smith on the subject in
this week's Nature.

Dr. R. B, Walker, F.R.G.S., is on his way home from
Gaboon (where he has resided for the last ten years) with the
view of publishing his "Twenty-five years experience in Equa-
torial Africa." Extensively engaged in commerce and geo-
graphical research, and having visited all the principal colonies
and stations on the West Coast, his contributions to our knowledge
of the fauna and flora, anthropology, dialects, and natural pro-
ducts of commerce, ought to be valuable and certainly more
trustworthy than those of transient visitors.

The International Geographical Exhibition at Paris, which
was opened on the 15th inst, promises to be a decided success.
An immense number of visitors have already passed through the
galleries, although several nations have not yet completed their
preparations, and the annexes on the Terrace du bord de I'eau
are far from being ready. The objects exhibited are classed
into seven groups. Group i has to do with geographical
mathematics, geodesy and topography, and the instruments
pertaining to them. Group 2 deals with hydrography and mari-
time geography. Group 3 embraces physical geography, gene-
ral meteorology, general geology, botanical and geological
geography, and general anthropology. Group 4 is rich in ancient
treatises, printed and in manuscript, on geographical subjects ;
fantastically-designed old maps, old instruments, ethnographic
collections, and geographical dictionaries. Group 5 is de-
voted to statistics and to social, political, and agricultural
economy. Group 6 has to deal with the teaching and
diffusion of geography ; and Group 7 with explorations, scien-
tific and commercial voyages, and tours in search of the pic-
turesque. The following are some of the objects which have
proved most attractive to the public: — In the Salle des
Etats, where the general meeting will be held, is the map
of France constructed by the staff. This map is about sixty
feet high by forty wide, and many people look at it with
telescopes from a distance in order to find the details which

interest them. In the English section is a large map of the
polar regions, showing the route which the English expedition is
to follow ; also a large map of the Anglo-Indian Empire, the
collection of the proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society
and the magnificent instruments employed by the Indian Trigo-
nometrical Survey. The American section, in a remote part of
the building, is notable for the admirable collection of the maps
of the U.S. Signal Office, and the physical atlas constructed by
the venerable Prof. Henry. In the Russian department are
exhibited the jewels of the Khan of Khiva ; a large map of Asia
showing the itineraries of 150 Russian explorers who have tra-
velled in that part of the world during the last twenty years ;
specimens of the map of the frontier between Russia and China ;
specimens of the topographical maps drawn by officers during
the last Khivan expedition ; a map of the Oxus, showing the
old tract of the stream when it sent its waters into the Caspian
as well as into the Aral Sea ; a magnificent map of the Aral Sea,
and a collection of geodetical and meteorological instruments.
In the French section an attractive^object is the complete French
station used in observing the Transit of Venus at Saint Paul by
Mouchez, with several specimens of photographs of the transit.
There is expected from Sweden a meteorite so large that it will
have to be placed outside in the Terrace du bord de I'eau ;
also an artificial representation of the aurora borealis, which is
likely to prove of great interest. Dr. A. B. Meyer will exhibit
a manuscript map of his explorations in New Guinea. This will
doubtless be of great interest to geographers, as it is the first map
of that region which goes into detail.

We learn from the Scotiman that a meeting of the General
Committee appointed in Glasgow^ to make the necessary arrange-
ments for the meeting of the British Association to be held at
Glasgow next year, was held on Wednesday week. A letter
from the assistant-secretary of the Association to Sir William
Thomson was read by Prof. Young, and in the course of it the
name of Prof. Sir R, Christison, of Edinburgh, was mentioned
as president-elect.

The Paris Academy of Sciences on Monday last elected
Capt. Mouchez to fill the place in the Section of Astronomy
vacated by the death of the late M. Mathieu. The contest
was unusually severe, every member of the Academy having
taken part in the vote. Capt. Mouchez obtained 33 votes, and
M. Wolf 26 ; one vote was given to M. Tisserand,|the Director
or the Toulouse Observatory.

General regret will be felt at the death, — which took place
on Sunday, — of Lady Franklin, at the age of 83 years. Jane
Griffin, for such was her maiden name, was married to the great
and unfortunate Arctic explorer on Nov. 5, 1828, and accom-
panied him almost constantly in the fulfilment of his duties until
his departure on his last Arctic voyage of discovery in 1845.
She has naturally ever since taken the deepest interest in Arctic
exploration, and has herself directly done much to forward it by
fitting out expeditions either entirely or partly at her own ex-
pense. It was she who sent out the i^i?a- which in 1857-9, under
Sir Leopold M'Chntock, did important service in Arctic explo-
ration and in the discovery of the records and relics of the unfor-
tunate Franklin expedition. That her interest in Arctic enter-
prise was strong to the very last is shown by the fact that she
helped to equip the Pandora which so recently left our shores to
attempt the N. W. passage under Captain Allen Young. For
her services in this direction she received on the return of the
Fox the Gold Medal of the Royal Geographical Society ; she
was the first woman on whom it was conferred, the only other
one who obtained such a distinction being the late Mrs.
Somerville. Until within the last few years, when inca-
pacitated by old age and illness. Lady Franklin was herself an
almost constant traveller ; she had made a voyage round the

y^ay 22, i875]

NA TURE

i\\

world and visited many of the principal places in Europe,
North and South America, Asia, and Australasia. She was,
as might be surmised, a woman of superior intelligence, clear-
sightedness, and great determination ; her name will no doubt
live alongside of that of her renowned husband.

FROAt a circular letter of M. Leverrier to the Presidents of
the Meteorological Commissions of the Departments of France,
we learn that the '« Atlas Meteorologique " for the years 1872
and 1873 is in the press, and that concerted action of several
departments by regions is, if slowly, yet gradually being inaugu-
rated in different directions, particularly in the valleys of the
Seine, Gironde, Rhone, and Meuse, and the Mediterranean
sea-board. M. Fron resumes the discussion of thunderstorms,
and M. Belgrand undertakes that of the rainfall.

In connection with the recent disastrous inundation of the
Garonne, the following heights, above low-water, of the floods of
that river from 1804, as given by M. W. de Fonvielle inthe j5«/-
lain Hebdomadaire of the Scientific Association of France, Nos.
400 and 402, will be interesting :— July 1804, 217 feet ; August
1809, ii-Sfeet; May 1810, 21-8 feet; April 1812, 12-5 feet ;
June 1813, 17-8 feet; May 1815, 176 feet; April 1816, 167
feet; February 1817, 167 feet; November 1819, 10-9 feet;
March 1821, 15-4 feet; May 1824, 16-4 feet; October 1826,
18-9 feet ; May 1827, 23-3 feet ; May 1830, 11-5 feet ; October
1833, 17.4 feet; May 1835, 24-6 feet ; March and April 1836,
131 feet; February 1839, 15-4 feet; April 1842, 17-1 feet;
June 1845, 19-4 feet; February 1850, 18-4 feet; June 1853,
167 feet ; June 1854, l8-o feet ; June 1855, 23-6 feet ; and on
the 24th June, 1875, 26-2 feet, the last being thus a foot and a
half higher than any flood that has occurred in this valley during
the past seventy-one years, and 3-3 feet higher than the historic
flood of 1772.

Peterm ANN'S Miitheilungen for July contain a map of Asia
Minor, which by means of different colours shows the various
levels of that region in metres. The map is, moreover, a useful
one for general purposes, and is accompanied by a descriptive
article by Freiherr v. Schweizer-Lerchenfeld.

The same number of this Journal contains the continuation
of Dr. Chavanne's valuable paper on the condition of the ice in
the polar seas and the periodical changes to which it is subject.
This paper is the result of a minute and careful examination of
the reports of the most trustworthy observers, and contains two
valuable tableis, one showing the normal value of the winter and
summer temperatures in fifteen of the principal polar basins, and
the other the variation from the normal mean temperatures in
summer and winter of the same basins for the period 1800-74.
The paper is accom.panied by a graphic chart illustrative of these
tables, and also showing the secular variation in the condition of
the ice in the Dwina at Archangelsk from 1734 to 1854, in con-
nection with the secular variations in intensity of the Aurora
Borealis from 1722 to 1870.

Petermann's journal for August will contain a valuable
paper by Dr. G. Nachtigal, giving a historical and descriptive
account of the ^new Egyptian province, Dar Fur, and a brief
sketch of the traveller's journey from Kuka to Khartoum. A
map of the region referred to will accompany the paper, showing
not only Nachtigal's route, but those of Von Heuglin and
Schweinfurth.

In connection with the Arctic papers of the Geographical
Society, we recently referred to speculations on the condition of
the interior of Greenland. The August number of the Mii-
theilungen will contain a paper by Dr. Rink on this subject, and
on the possibility of crossing Greenland. The following are his
principal conclusions : — l . The so-called interior ice is pro-
bably only a wall or rind, inside which may be found val-

leys free from snow and ice, and possibly even wooded. 2.
All Greenland, probably, consists of a number of islands soldered
together by the universal ice covering. 3. Most probably in
two or three places, where the ice-fjords still disembogue, in
earlier times a sound must have extended right across from the
west to the east coast, 4. Glaciers and permanent snow are
probably on the increase all over the land. 5. Floating icebergs
are detached from the land by a sort of fall or downflow of the
land-ice glaciers. Dr. Rink thinks that by means of properly
constructed sledges drawn by men, and by carefully selecting a
route and establishing suitable stations, the Greenland continent
might be crossed from coast to coast.

While so much is being done for Arctic exploration, the
Germans in recent years have not been neglecting the explora-
tion of the Antarctic seas. In 1873 the German Arctic Society
of Hamburg, presided over by Albert Rosenthal, who has
contributed so much to the equipment of polar expeditions, sent
out an expedition to the south polar region under the command
of Capt. Dallmann. Some of the results of this expedition will
be found in the recently published expedition of Stieler's " Hand-
Atlas," and a few details will be found in the August number of
Petermann's Miitheilungen, especially with reference to Capt.
Dallmann's exploration of Graham Land, discovered by the
whaling Captain Biscoe, in 1832. Capt. Dallmann deserves
credit for having added considerably to our knowledge of this
hitherto little-known land. At the place where Biscoe saw nothing
but what appeared a continuous coast line, Dallmann has
discovered a strait from fifteen to eighteen nautical miles wide,
with highlands between as far as the eye could reach, and an
Archipelago of islands of about sixty nautical miles in extent,
which has been named after Kaiser Wilhelm. Two other deep
bays and many islands have been discovered and named, and
wiU be found on the map already referred to.

The prizes of the French Geographical Society have this year
been awarded as follows : — A gold medal to Father Armand
David, for his explorations in China and Mongolia; a gold
medal to Dr. G. Schweinfurth, for his travels in North Africa ;
a silver medal to Abbe Iimile Petitot, for his exploration of the
North American region which extends from Great Slave Lake
to the mouth of the Mackenzie ; a silver medal each to MM. de
Compiegne and Marche for their journey to the Gaboon and up
the River Ogove ; and the la Roquette gold medal to the family
of the late Capt. Hall of the Polaris Arctic Expedition.

M. Adrien Germain in the Bulletin of the French Geo-
logical Society discusses the propriety of having a common
meridian for all nations, and comes to the conclusion that the
French should decidedly not abandon the meridian of Paris as
their first, as it presents all the advantages which a first meridian
should have.

Mr. E. W. Prevost has succeeded Mr. Clowes as Science
Master at Queenwood College, Stockbridge.

Important changes are contemplated in the organisation of
the French National University, as a new law has been adopted
by the Assembly allowing, under certain conditions, the opening
of free Universities.

With regard to Mr.* Barrington's query in last week's
NatureJ(p. 213), relative to the sudden scarcity of blackbirds
and thrushes, Mr. G.Lingwood, of Alnwick, writes that in the dis-
trict where he resides, and with which he is well acquainted,
there is no such scarcity. Mr. J. Preston, writing from Belfast,
likewise testifies to their superabundance in that neighbourhood.

In an octavo volume of some eight hundred pages, the U.S.
Government has recently issued a handbook of the orruthology
of the region drained by the Missouri River and its tributaries.

242

NATURE

[July 22, 1875

entitled "Birds of the North-west, .from the pen of Dr. Elliott
Coues," There are no illustrations.

We are glad to see that among the Supplementary Estimates
just issued is a re-vote of 1,000/. for the Sub-Wealdeu Explora-
tion.

On Tuesday, the inaugural meeting of the Royal Archaeolo-
gical Institute took place at Canterbury.

A FINE male Chimpanzee, which has cut its front permanent
incisors and its anterior true molars, has just been presented to
the Zoological Society by Captain Lees, Governor of Lagos,
West Africa.

The recently issued part of Dr. H. G. Bronn's Thierreich
contains an account of the lower jaw and the teeth in the
different orders of the Mammalia, together with numerous
excellent outline drawings of the skulls of the same groups.

Messrs. Longmans are preparing for publication, in three
volumes, copiously illustrated, a treatise on galvanism and
electro-magnetism, by Prof. Gurtav Wiedemann, translated from
the second German edition, with the author's sanction and co-
operation, by G. Carey Foster, F.R. S., Professor of Physics in
University College, London.

The same publishers will issue in the autumn, a text-book of
Telegi-aphy, by W. H. Preece, C.E., and J. Sivewright, M.A.,
forming one of their series of "Text-books of Science."

Among the works Mr. John Murray will publish during the
ensuing season, the following will probably be found of interest
to our readers : — " Habits and Movements of Climbing Plants,"
by Charles Darwin, F.R.S. — "Eastern Seas, Coasts, and Har-
bours," being the cruise of H.M.S. Dwarf in China, Japan,
Formosa, and Russian Tartary from the Corea to the River
Amur, by Commander B. W. Bax, R.N. This book will be
illustrated by a map and engravings. — "A School Manual of
Modern Geography," edited by Dr. William Smith. — "A
Popular Account of Dr. Livingstone's Second Expedition to
Africa ; the Zambezi, Lakes Shirwa and Nyassa, with illustra-
tions."— A new edition, being the twelfth, of Sir Charles Lyell's
"Elements of Geology," in two octavo volumes; and "A
Natural History of Mammals, including Man," by Prof. St.
George Mivart, F.R.S., forming the first part of an introduction
to Zoology and Biology.

In yesterday's Times will be found an extremely interesting
account from Australia of a Frenchman, Narcisse Pierre Peltier,
of about thirty years of age, who has been living for seventeen
years among the savages of Night Island, off the north-east
coast of Queensland, in lat. 13° 10' S., long. 143° 35' E.
He was left on the island by some shipwrecked sailors when
twelve years old, was treated kindly by the savages, and soon
became identified with them in every respect. He is recovering
rapidly the use of his mother-tongue both in speaking, reading,
and writing, though he still retains some marked characteristics
of savage life. He has given much information concerning the
ribe among whom he lived so long ; their language does not
seem to have anything in common with the Malay or with any
of the Papuan dialects. If judiciously treated, Narcisse might
be made to yield valuable material to the anthropologist.

The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during
the past week include two Suricates {Suricata zenik) from South
Africa, presented by Mr. F. Ward ; two Golden Eagles {Aquila
chrysactos) from Scotland, presented by Lord Lilford ; a Chinese
Water Deer {Hydropotes inermis) from China, a Sumatran
Rhinoceros {Rhinoceros sumairensis) from Malacca, two Scarlet
Ibises (^Ibis rubra), a West India Rail {Aramides cajyennensis), a
Common Boa {Boa constrictor), a Tuberculated Lizard {Iguana

tuberculata) from South America, deposited ; three Spotted
Tinamous {Nothura maculosa) from Buenos Ayres, and two
Guiana Partridges {Odontophorus guianensis) from Guiana, re-
ceived from Southampton ; a Black-billed Sheathbill {Ckionis
minor) from the Kerguelen Island, purchased ; a Collared Fruit
Bat {Cynonycteris collaris), born in the Gardens.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

The Quarterly yournal of Microscopic Science may, at the
present time, be looked upon as the representative of the most
modem phase of biological thought. The current number
contains articles of much more than ordinary importance. The
first is by Mr. F. M. Balfour, being " A comparison of the early
stages in the Development of Vertebrates." The plate which
accompanies the memoir is coloured in a particularly instructive
manner, which illustrates the ultimate destination of the different
elements of the cellular layers of the blastoderm. Mr. Balfour's
observations are in favour of the blastopore becoming neither the
mouth nor the anus of the adult animal, but of its cicatrix being
a weak spot at which one or the other may subsequently be more
easily formed than elsewhere. The gap between the observed
structure of the developing amphibian and selachian is made more
simple by the introduction of a hypothetical intermediate form in
which the segmentation cavity is represented as if "it were sunk
down so as to be completely within the lower layer cells," a con-
dition not quite easy to comprehend. Many other very im-
portant theoretical points are discussed in this particularly
interesting paper. — The second paper is a reprint from the Privy
Council Reports, of Dr. Klein's observations on the pathology
of sheep-pox. — Mr. W. H. Jackson describes and figures a new
Peritrichous Infusorian, named Cyclochaeta spongilla, found in a
sponge from the river Chirwell. — Mr. A. A. W. Hubrecht of
Leyden makes ' ' some remarks about the minute anatomy of
Mediterranean Nemerteans," including notes on the dermal
tissues, nervous system, &c., of species of Meckelia, Folia,
Lineus, Ommatoplea,axidi.Drepanophorus{xi.g.) — Prof. Lankester
publishes in full his observations read before the Linnean Society,
" On some points in the structure of Amphioxus, and their
bearing on the morphology of vertebrata." The exact homology
of the atrial chamber and of the perivisceral cavity in the
Lancelet has been a fruitful source of discussion, and Prof.
Lankester's study of the question throws considerable additional
light on the subject. The conclusions to which his investiga-
tions lead are "first that the peritoneal cavity of the vertebrate
is the same thing as the coelom of the worm and of Amphioxus ;
second, that the earlier vertebrate ancestors (represented in a
degenerate form by Amphioxus) developed epipleura, which
coalesced in the median line postorally to form an atrium ;
third, that whilst Amphioxus retains this atrium in functional
activity, the other vertebrata have lost it by the coalescence of its
outer and inner bounding wall, respectively epipleura and soma-
topleura j fourth, that whilst the indications of the earlier histo-
rical steps of this process are suppressed in all craniate vertebrata
at present investigated, yet the Elasmobranchs do continue to
present to us an ontogenetic phase in which the somatopleura and
the epipleura are widely separated ; thus enclosing between them
an epicoel (the atrium of amphioxus)." — Mr. F. R. Lewis writes
on Nematode Haematozoa in the dog, closely allied to Filaria
sanguinolenta, found in the walls of the aorta. These are
figured, as are the parts of Amphiporous spectabilis and other
Nemerteans, described by Dr. M Tntosh in considerable detail.
— There is an admirable paper by Prof. Thiselton Dyer, con-
taining a review of the various modes of sexual reproduction
known among Thallophytes, with a sketch of the classification
of that section of Cryptogams — including Algse, Lichens, Fungi,
and Characeae — recently proposed by Prof. Sachs.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

London
Geological Society, June 23.*— Mr. John Evans, V.P.R.S.,
president, in the chair. — On the superficial geology of the Central
Region of North America, by Mr. G. M. Dawson, Geologist
to H. M. North American Boundary Commission.

Physical Geography of the Region. — The region under con-
sideration is that portion of the great tract of prairie of the
middle of North America from Mexico to the Arctic Sea, which
* Continued from p. 221.

Jtdy 2 2, 1875]

NATURE

243

lies between the forty-i.inih and fifty-fifth parallels, and extends
from the base of the Rocky Mountains to a ridge of Laurentian
rocks that runs norlh-west from Lake Superior towards the
Arctic Sea, and is called by the author the "Laurentian axis."
This plateau is crossed by two watersheds ; one, starting from
the base of the Kotky Mountains at about the forty- ninth parallel,
runs due east to the 105th meridian, when it turns to the south-
east, dividing the Red River from the Missouri ; the other
crosses from the Rocky Mountains to the Laurentian axis near
the fifty-fifth parallel. The whole region between these two
transverse watersheds slopes gradually eastward, but is divisible
into three prairie steppes or plateaus of different elevations. The
lowest includes Lake Winnipeg and the valley of the Red River;
its average altitude is 800 feet. The second, or the "Great
Plains," properly so called, has an average elevation of 1,600
feet. The third or highest is from 2,500 to 4,200 feet above the
sea, and is not so level as the other two.

Glacial Phenonuna of the Laurentian Axis. — The neighbour-
hood of the Lake of the Woods is taken by the author as fur-
nishing an example of the glaciation visible in many parts of the
Laurentian axis. This lake is seventy miles long, and has a
coast line of three hundred or four hundred miles. The details
of its outline closely follow the character of the rock, spreading
out over the schistose and thinly cleavable varieties, and becom-
ing narrow and tortuous where compact dioritic rocks, green-
stone, conglomerate, and gneiss prevail. The rocks both on the
shores and the islands in the lake are rounded, grooved, and
itriated. The direction of the stria; is from north-east to south-
west.

Drift Plateau of Northern Minnesota and Eastern Manitoba. —
This plateau consists of a great thickness of drift deposits resting
on the gently sloping foot of the Laurentian, and is composed
to a depth of sixty feet or more of fine sands and arenaceous
clays, with occasional beds of gravel and small boulders, pro-
bably reposing throughout on boulder-clay. The only fossil
found was a piece of wood apparently of the common cedar
( Thuja occidentalis). The surface of the plateau is strewn with
large erratics, derived chiefly from the Laurentian and Huronian
to the north ; but there are also many of white limestone. The
fossils in some of the latter bein^ of Upper Silurian age, tho
author is inclined to believe, with Dr. Bigsby, that an outcrop
of Upper Silurian is concealed by the drift deposits in the Lake
of the Woods region.

Lowest Prairie Levtl and Valley 0/ the Red River. — This prairie
presents an appearance of perfect horizontality. The soil con-
sists of fine silty deposits arranged in thin horizontal beds resting
on till or boulder-clay. Stones were exceedingly rare. The
western escarpment was terraced and covered with boulders.
It is therefore probable that this prairie is the bed of a pre-glacial
lake.

The Second Prairie Plateau is thickly covered with drift de-
posits, which consist in great part of local debris derived from tho
underlying soft formations, mixed with a considerable quantity
of transported material, especially in the upper layers. Large
erratics are in places abundant ; they consist mainly of Lauren-
tian rocks, but Silurian limestone also abounds. The following
is the percentage of the boulders from the different formation*
present in the drift :— Laurentian, 28-49; Huronian, 971 ;
Limestone, 54-01 ; (^uartiite Drift, 1-14. The last is derived
from the Rocky Mountains, the other three from the Laurentian
axis. There are also on the surface of this plateau some re-
markable elevated regions, apparently entirely composed of
accumulated drift materials.

Ed^e of the Third Pratrie Plateau, or the Missouri Coteau, is
a mass of glacial debris and travelled blocks averaging from
thirty to forty miles in breadth, and extending diagonally across
the country for a distance of about 800 miles.

'Third or Highest Plateau. — There is a marked charge in the
drift on this plateau, the quartzite drift of the Rocky Mountains
preponderating, seldom showing much glaciation. Its general
character may be seen from the following percentage of its com-
position : — Laurentian, 2705 ; Huronian, ?; Limestone, 15-84;
Quartzite drift, 52-10. Some of the lower parts of this steppe
show thick deposits of true till with wcU-glaciated stones, both
from the mountains and the east, and debris from underlying
tertiary beds, all in a hard yellowish sandy matrix. On the
higher prairie sloping up to the Rocky Mountains the_drift is
entirely composed of material derived from them.

The Rocky Mountains themselves show abundant traces of
glaciation. Nearly all the valleys hold remnants of moraines,
some of them still very perfect. 1 he harder locks show the

usual rounded foims, but striaticn was only observed in a single
locahty, and there coincided with the main direction of the
valley. The longer valleys generally terminate in cirques, with
almost perpendicular rock-walls, and containing small but deep
lakes.

State of the Tnterior Region of the Continent previi us to the
Glacial Period. — The author considers that previous to the glacial
epoch the country was at about its present elevation, and that
its main physical features and rivcr-diainage were already out-
lined. Subaiirial denudation had been in operation for a vast
period of time, and an enormous mass^of tertiary and cretaceous
strata removed,

Afode of Glaciation and Formation of the Drift Deposits. — The
author did not find any evidence rendering the supposition of a
great northern ice-cap necessary, but suggests that local glaciers
on the Laurentian axis furnished icebergs laden w.th boulden,
which were floated across the then submerged prairies towards
the Rocky Mountains.

On some important facts connected with the Boulders and
Drifts of the Eden Valley, and their bearing on the theory of a
Melting Ice-sheet charged throughout with rock-fragments, by
D. Mackintosh. In this paper the main object of the author is
to defend generally received opinions, especially as regards the
great glacial submergence, in opposition to the theory announced
in the Quart. Journ. Geul. Soc. for lait February (vol. xxxi.
p. 55). He brings forward a number of facts aird considerations,
founded on repeated observations, to show that the dispersion of
Criffell granite-boulders is so interwoven with that of boulders
of porphyry and syenite from the Lake-district as to be incom-
patible with the theory of transportation by currents of land-ice :
and that the limitation of Criffell boulders along the S. E.
border of the plain of Cumberland to about 400 feet above the
sea-level is inconsistent with the idea of a boulder-chargtd ice-
current 2,400 feet in thickness. His main argument against the
theory of land-ice " charged throughout with rock-fragments of
all sizes," is derived from the purity of the interiors of existing
ice-sheets ; and he quotes Prof. Wyvillc Thomson iu support of
his statements.

Observations on the unequal distribution of Drift on opposite
sides of the Pennine chain, in the country about the source of
the River Calder, with suggestions as to the causes which led to
that result, together with some notices on the high-level drift in
the upper part of the valley of the River Irwell, by John Aitken.
The author, in calling attention to the unequal distribution of
the drift on the opposite sides of the Pennine chain in this dis-
trict, points out that on the western side of that range an exten-
sive series of drift-deposits is found, spreading over the great
plains of Lancashire and Cheshire down to the Irish Sea. It
also occurs on the west flanks of the chain at elevations of from
1, 100 to 1,200 feet, thus rising several hundred feet above the
watersheds of some of the valleys penetrating that elevated
region. On the eastern side, however, there is, with one or two
slight exceptions, an entire absence of such accumulations, even
in the most sheltered and favourable situations, lor a distance of
twelve or fifteen miles from the water-parting of the country.
This absence of drift on the eastern side might, the author con-
isidcrs, be satisfactorily accounted for by supposing that the
transverse valleys of tne chain were, during the glacial epoch,
completely blocked up with congeaied snow or ice, by which
means all communications between the opposite sides of the
range would be entirely cut off. The southward flow of the ice,
which was probably not so thick as to cover the higher portions
of the chain, would, on encountering such an obstacle to its pro-
gress, be deflected westwards, and finally debouch into the
plains of South Lancashire, and would there deposit on its
retreat the debris it contained. — {To be continued.)

Geologists' Association, July 2. — Mr. Wm, Carruthers,
F.R.S., president, in the chair. — On some of the causes which
have contributed to shape the land on the North Wales border,
by D. C. Davies. In a series of diagrams the author showed
the probable results of an upheaving force acting upon different
kinds of strata ; and, in the second part of his paper, gave a
detailed account of several instances, along the Welsh border,
where important physical features now existing had been deter-
mined by faults and anticlmals. These were shown in a second
series of diagrams in which the actual relation of numerous
valleys, gorges, &c., to faults, <!i:c., was pointed out. The
various agents of erosion such as sea-water, rain-water, and ice
had modified, and in some cases altered, the features due to dis-
turbance ; but the author claimed that a proper regard should

244

NATURE

[jMly 22, 1875

be had to all the forces of nature, bolh internal and external to
the surface in producing liie contour as it now exists. — The York-
shire Oolites, Fart If., by W. II. Hudleston.

Entomological Society, July 5.— Sir Sidney Smith Saun-
ders, C. M.G., president, in the chair. — Mr. Dunning re-
marked that the Ormthoptera bred by Mr. Sealy from larva;
trtken at Cochin, South India, and exhibited by him at a recent
meeting had been identified as O. miuos. — Mr. Bond exhibited
two specimens of a Curculio, sent from Nova Fribourgo, Brazd,
which were attached to the same twig and were both attacked
by a fungus. Mr. Janson said that they belonged to the genus
Jlylopus, and were well known to be subject to such attacks. —
The President exhibited a lock taken irom a gate at Twickenham
entirely filled with the cells of a species of Osinia, which Mr.
Smith said was, most probably, O. btc»rnis, of which he had
known several instances in locks. He also exhibited an example
of the minute Hylechthrus rubri, one of the Stylopidic, parasitic
upon Ptosopis rubicola, recently obtained from briars imported
from Epirus, and remarked upon a method of expanding the
wings of Stylopidie. He also exhibited a scries of J/alictus
iiitidiuiculus , st)lopized, and recommended entomologists on the
south coast to search in August lor stylopized IlalicU, especially
among thistle-;. Finally, he remarked on the parasites of Osmia
and Anlhidium, and enumerated eleven insects attacking the
same species of Osmia in its different stages — some devouring
the egg and pollen-paste, some the larvte, and others attacking
the bee itself. — Mr. Champion exhibited a series of recently
captured individuals of Chrysoviila ctrealis, from Snowdon, its
only known British locality. Mr. M'Lachlan stated that he had
recently seen this species in the Department of Saone-et-Loire,
in France, in great numbers, each ear of wheat having several
of the beetles upon it, and remarked on the singular nature
of its sole habitat in Britain. — The Secretary exhibited nests
of a trap-door spider, sent from Uitenhage, rear Port Eliza-
beth, Cape Colony. The nests were not (as is usual) in
the eirth, but in cavities in the bark of trees; and the
"trap-door " appeared to be formed of a portion of the bark,
thus rendering it most difficult to detect the nests when in
a closed condition. — Mr. Charles V. Riley, State Entomologist
of Missouri, exhibited sundry insect pests that do so much
damage in the State, including the Army-worm {Leucania
impuncta), and the Rocky Mountain Locust {Caloptenus spretus),
and entered at some length into the habits of the latter insect
and the vast amount of destitution caused by it ; stating that in
a short jieriod it devoured almost every living plant, leaving
nothing but the leaves of the forest trees, and converting a fruit-
ful country into an absolute desert. From a knowledge of the
habits of the insect, and believing in its inability to exist in a
moist climate, he had predicted that its ravages would not extend
beyond a certain line, and he had seen these predictions fulfilled.
Having noticed that hogs and poultry grew excessively fat from
devouring locusts, and considering that the use of them as food
for man would tend to relieve some of the distress occasioned
in the devastated districts ; he had caused a number of them to
be prepared in various ways, and they were found to be well
suited for food, especially in the form of soup. — Mr. Riley also
stated that he was very desirous of taking a supply of cocoons of
Microgast;r giomeratus to America to lessen the ravages of the
larvae of the genus Pieris on that continent, and would be greatly
obliged to any entomologist who could assist him in obtaining
them. — The following papers were communicated : — Descrip-
tions of new Heteromerous Coleoptera belonging to the family
Blapsidw., by Prof. J. O. Westwood.— Description of a new
species of Mjriopod, from Mongolia, by Arthur G. Butler. —
Descriptions of new Coleoptera from Australia, by Charles O.
Waterhouse.

Paris

Academy of Sciences, July 12. —M. P'remy in the chair. —
W. Chevreul communicated the fourth extract from his third
memoir "on the explanation ol numerous phenomena which are
a consequence of old age." — Are the disasters caused by the
hurricane oi i860 near Reunion referable to the laws of Cyclones ?
Ly M. Faye. — M. J. Bertrand called the aitention of the Academy
to a passage in the second edition of P. Secchi's work on the sun,
and made some critical remarks thereon. — Note by M. G. A.
Hirn relative to the memoir of M. Kretz on elasticity in moving
machines. — Theory of perfect numbers, a memoir by M. J. Car-
yallo. — Magneto-chemical phenomena produced in rarefied gases
in Geissler tubes illuminated by means of induced currents, by
M. J. Chautard. The author describes the effect of magnets in

modifying the spectra of certain elements and compounds. De-
terminations of the wave-lengths of these modified s()ectra have
been made for chlorine, bromine, iodine ; the chloride, bromide
and fluoride of silicium, boric fluoride, hydrochloric acid, anti-
monious chloride, bismuthous chloride, mercuric chloride, and
the two chlorides of tin. The light of .sulphur and selenium is
immediately extinguished on " making " the- magnet. Oxygen
does not undergo much change. Nitrogen is modified in the
red and orange. Ttie hydrogen tube showed the D line on
" making " the magnet, the line instantly disappearing on break-
ing contact. The author explains this phenomenon by supposing
that the gas is projected suddenly against the side of the tube on
magnetisation and carries away sodium particles. — On the
"square mirror," an instrument for tracing right angles on
the earth, and for use in the rapid measurement of great
distances, by M. Gaumet. — On fused boric acid and its
tempering, by M. V. de Luynes. The hardness of this
substance (between 4 and 5) is between fluor spar and
apatite. The powdered glass combines energetically with
water, the temperature of the mixture rising to 100°. The
used acid poured on to a metallic surface gives rise to the forma-
tion of a vitreous plate, of which the lower surface is more
expanded than the upper, producing in consequence a bending
of the plate which is sometimes sufficient to rupture it. Poured
into oil, the fused acid forms small tailed drops, which break
under the same conditions as " Prince Rupert's drops." A plate
of the boric acid glass, with parallel faces, acts on polarised
li^ht like "toughened" glass, but preserves its property under
conditions which destroy the polarising power of glass. The
fused; acid, placed in water, undergoes hydration by lamina;
producing a true exfoliation. — On the laws of the exchanges of
ammonia between the seas, the atmoiphere, and continents, by
M. T. SchlcEsing. — Descrii:)tion and analysis of a mass of
meteoric ore which fell in Dickson County, Tennessee, by M.
Lawrence Smith. Its composition is Fe, 9i'i5 ; Ni, 8-oi ; Co,
072; Cu, 0"o6. Heated in vacuo, two volumes of gas were
given off, composed of H, 7i'04; Co, I5'03; Co^, I3'03. —
Planet 146 Lucine, discovered at the Observatory of Marseilles
by M. Borrelly, June 8, 1875 ; ephemeris calculated by M. E.
Stephan. — On the temporary magnetisation of steel, by M.
Bouty. — Theory of storms ; conclusions. A note by M. H.
Peslin. — Estimation of carbon disulphide in the alkaline sulpho-
carbonates of commerce, by MM. Delachanal and Mermet. — On
the preparation of tungsten and the composition of wolfram, by
M. F. Jean. — On some new derivatives of anethol, by M. 1".
Landolph. — Researches on emetine, by M. A. Glenard. — Dif-
ferential ophthalmoscopic signs of disturbance and contusion of
the brain, by M. Bouchut. — Of the causes of the spontaneous
coagulation of the blood on issuing from the organism, by M. B\
Glenard, — On the hailstorm which burst over Geneva and the
Rhone valley on the night of July 7-8, by M. Colladon. — On
clouds of ice observed during an aerostatic elevation on July 4,
by M. W. de Fonvielle.

CONTENTS Page

The Life of Language. By M. M 225

Dakwin on Carnivorous Plants, II. By Alfred W. Bennett,

Y.'LS. {H^itklilusirations) 228

Our Book Shklf: —

U.S. Geograpliicat Survey 231

Mohr's " Victoria Falls of the Zambesi " . . . . ' 231

Letters to the Editor : —

Spectroscopic/?-(?V/i-2V« of Rain with a Iligli Barometer.— By Prof

PiAZzi Smyth 231

Our Astronomical Column : —

The Triple-Star, South 503 232

Lalande 23726 (Corvus) 233

Hoiizonlal Refraction on Venus 233

The Sun's Parallax 233

Science in Siam. By Dr. Arthur Schuster 233

The Resting-Spores OF the Potato Fungus. By Worthingto-v

G. Smith {With lilnstration) 234

Electrical Resistance Thermometer a.nd Pvkometer. By C.

William Siemens, F.R.S. (M^iV/4///?«/m/«V;«j) 235

The Gigantic Land Tortoises of the Mascarene and Gala-
pagos Islands. By Dr. Albert GuNTHER, F.R.S 238

Notes 240

Scientific Serials 242

Societies and Academies 24a

NATURE

245

THURSDAY, JULY 29, 1875

PRACTICAL PHYSICS

WE propose in the present article to carry out the
intention expressed in a former number (vol.
xii. p. 206) of giving fuller details of the practical in-
struction in physics, which forms a part of the summer
course of instruction given to science teachers by the
Science and Art Department. The teaching of prac-
tical physics presents several difficulties, which have
no doubt largely militated against its general intro-
duction into the course of scientific education. It
has not yet been systematised. Unlike practical che-
mistry one cannot select a practical text-book on
physics and give it to the students ; for such text-books
do not yet exist in English. We are not forgetting the
translation of Weinhold's Experimental Physics, which
we lately reviewed in these columns ; but that book is
unsuitable for most students owing to its unwieldy size
and high price.

Even if works on practical physics were at hand,
another difficulty is encountered in the costly nature of
the apparatus involved in studying physics. This no doubt
is one of the main difficulties that the teacher has to over-
come, and in this respect physics differs widely from che-
mistry, for it is out of the question to provide a complete
set of physical apparatus for every two or three students.
To meet this difficulty' one may distribute diff"erent in-
struments among the students and allow them in turn
thoroughly to master what is put before them. This plan
might do for a small class, the members of which could
use their fingers already. But it is at best an unsatis-
factory method, for it leaves the student completely at sea
directly he begins to communicate the instruction he has
received, unless he can purchase what he has been in the
habit of using, and this is not often within his means to
do. Another course is first to teach the students how to
make simple apparatus for themselves, and then to show
them how to use it. The advantages of this plan are
apparent. Students unaccustomed to manipulation find
to their astonishment, when they begin, that all their
fingers have turned into thumbs, and are amazed at their
clumsiness and stupidity. Very soon, however, fingers
begin to reappear, and the first successful piece of appa-
ratus that is made gives them a confidence in themselves
which they had thought impossible to attain. The plea-
sure of having made an instrument is increased a hundred-
fold when it is found that by their own handiwork they
may verify some of the more important laws in physics ;
or make physical determinations, which before they would
have considered it presumption to attempt, even with
ready purchased apparatus. In order to carry out this
plan successfully, minutely detailed instructions must be
given to each student concerning the construction of
the apparatus he has to make, and it is moreover obvious
that the instruments should not take too long to make,
and that the first trials should be with the simplest appa-
ratus possible.

Let us now look at the science teachers at work at
South Kensington. Each one has given to him a page
of printed instructions for the day's work. These instruc-
VoL. XII.— No. 300

tions have grown up within the last few years under the
direction of those who have been associated with Dr.
Guthrie in this undertaking, namely. Professors G. C.
Foster and W. F. Barrett, together with the valuable aid
of Mr. W. J. Wilson.

In the teaching of Practical Physics perhaps no subject
lends itself more readily to practical work than Electricity
and Magnetism ; and as nearly every science student has
had some little practice in this direction, this branch of
physics commends itself as best fitted to begin with.

The first day's work on Electricity and Magnetism
commences with the construction of simple electrical
apparatus, as for example "Make a glass tube for
electrical excitation ; " then comes what to do in the way
of cutting the tube and closing the ends. This intro-
duces some to their first experience with the blow-pipe
and the manipulation of glass, in which they rapidly
gain courage and proficiency.

After this they are told to make a balanced glass tube
as follows : —

" Glass tube about 12 inches X | inch. Clean and dry
inside, close and round one end, nearly close other end.
Balance on edge of triangular file, mark centre with file.
Soften one side of tube at centre with Bunsen burner,
push in side with point so as to make conical cap. Avoid
having file scratch at apex of cap."

Rubbers, pith balls, proof- planes are made, and the
fundamental laws of electricity are tried before the day is
over. Next day a gold leaf electroscope has to be made,
and some capital instruments of this kind are turned out.
The insulation of these electroscopes is so high that we
have seen them retain a charge for an hour or more when
the body of the instrument was standing in water. The
secret of the insulation consists in using clean flake
shellac ; a little of this substance is melted in the hole
through which the wire stem of the instrument has to
pass, the stem is then warmed and pushed through the
shellac so as to leave about a quarter of an inch thickness
of shellac all round the wire. Without attempting to follow
each day's work, we notice in passing that the distribu-
tion of electricity is tried by using card-board cones and
cylinders covered with gilt paper, a Leyden jar with
movable coatings is constructed, an electrophorus is
made and various experiments tried with it, and even a
Thomson's quadrant electrometer is among the more
ambitious pieces of apparatus that are attempted.

Omitting Magnetism, which is not so fully developed
as the other subjects, we come to Current Electricity.
One of the first things that has now to be made is an
astatic galvanometer, which occupies the greater part of
one day's work. This instrument works so well, that for
the sake of other science students we quote the following
instructions for making it : —

" Wind about 50 feet of fine covered copper wire on
wood block ; remove wood ; secure coil by tying with
thread ; insulate and stiffen coil by soaking with melted
paraffin or shellac varnish. Make another similar coil ;
fix the two coils side by side on round wood block, leaving
about \ inch space between them and soldering two of
the free ends of coils together so as to make one con-
tinuous coil. Solder other two ends of wire to binding
screws fixed about \ inch from edge of block. Lead ends
of the wire also into two little hollows cut in wood block
by side of binding screws, so that these depressions may
serve as mercury cups ; they are convenient for shunting
• o

246

NATURE

\yuly 29, 1875

the galvanometer. Bend stout brass wire into flat-topped
arch and fix firmly in block ; the straight portion of wire
at top of arch having upon it a cork roller for raising or
lowering needles. Magnetise two sewing needles and fix
(with opposite poles adjoining) \ inch apart by means of
twisted fine copper wire. On same axis, \ inch above
upper needle, fix glass thread about 4 inches long to serve
as pointer. Suspend needles by silk fibre and attach
fibre to cork roller. Cut card into circle 4 inches diameter
and graduate circumference into degrees. Place (but do
not fix) card in proper position over coil, supporting it on
two corks cemented to board. Make needles as far as
possible astatic. Place them in position and cover all
with glass shade."

After some preliminary work with the galvanometer,
a Daniell's cell and a simple form of Wheatstone's bridge
are made ; then a rheochord and a set of resistance coils.
Then comes the following work with these instruments, in
each case the necessary instructions being printed under
the work to be done : —

" I. Measure relative resistances of different lengths of
the same copper wire by Wheatstone's Bridge. 2. Find
lengths of copper wires by measuring their relative resist-
ances, the length of one of the wires being known.

3. Ascertain relation between resistance and weight.

4. Ascertain effect of temperature on resistance. 5.
Experimentally establish the laws of divided circuits.
6. Measure the external resistance of your cell. 7. Com-
pare the electromotive force of your cell with that of a
Grove's cell."

In this direction there is, of course, an almost unlimited
field for practical work, but other parts of the subject
claim attention, and the time that can be given to the
whole is extremely limited. Our space will not allow us
to detail further what is done in electricity, nor can we
give more than a hasty glance to the other subjects that
are taken up in successive years by the science teachers.

Sound is not a very promising branch of Physics for
practical work; nevertheless, nine or ten days are use-
fully spent on this subject. A monochord is the piece de
resistance here, and when this is made the laws of the
transverse vibration of strings are verified, and the follow-
ing problems solved by its means : — " i. Weigh pieces of
metal of unknown weight. 2. The pitch of one tuning
fork being known, ascertain that of another unknown.
3. The diameter of a German silver wire being known,
ascertain its specific gravity." By means of the ordinary
shilling tuning forks some useful experiments are made,
and finally the velocities of sound in various solid, liquid,
and gaseous bodies are determined in different ways and
with a satisfactory approximation to the truth. This
will indicate merely the course of practical work in
sound.

Heat and Light offer more facilities for practical work.
In Heat, a differential air thermometer is first made, then
an alcohol thermometer is determined and graduated ; the
maximum density of water is tried by simple hydro-
meters ; a bulb tube is made, and here we quote two
experiments in which this bulb is used for determining
coefficients of expansion :• —

" Determine mean Coefficients of absolute expansion
of Water and Alcohol between temperature of the day
and 50° C. above.

" Weigh bulb tube filled with liquid at temperatures
/ and T. Calling weight of liquid at /, W and loss of
weight at J", w, the Coefficient of apparent expansion is

~W _ 1JJ "^^^ '^^^l expansion is obtained by adding to
this the Coefficient of expansion of the glass. (See next
experiment.)

" Determine mean Coefficient of expansion of glass of
thermometer tubing for 50° C. above the temperature of
the day.

" Weigh bulb tube full of mercury at temperatures t
and Z", and so obtain Coefficient of apparent expansion
of mercury ( = E). Then assuming Coefficient of real
expansion of mercury as '00018 {^ C),C — B = mean
Coefficient of glass."

The determination of specific and latent heat follows
this, and a few experiments on radiant heat conclude this
part.

In Light a large range of subjects is available for
practical work, but the necessary instruments are more
numerous, and require rather more skill in their manu-
facture. Nevertheless several experiments will occur to
every teacher which can be made with very little pre-
paration, such, for example, as trying the law of inverse
squares, comparing in various ways the illuminating
powers of different sources of light, &c. Here is some-
thing rather more difficult : —

" Make an instrument for measuring vertical heights by
reflection." Instructions for this are given, and the instru-
ment is then used for measuring the heights of ceilings,
doors, &c., after it has been fully explained.

Silvering solutions are prepared and employed for
many purposes ; little concave and convex mirrors, for
example, are made out of large watch-glasses silvered by
this process of deposition, and the foci of these mirrors
are then determined. A movable model is made to
illustrate the law of sines ; and the index of refraction of
water is determined as follows : —

" Graduate slip of glass about 8 CM. X i CM. to M.M.
Fix with sealing-wax two equal slips about 4 CM. long at
right angles to scale thus '— — 1 . Place in water so
that uprights are just below surface. Fix an eye-tube
(blackened inside) at some distance above water and in
line of scale, and note division at which top of nearest
upright appears on scale. Now carefully withdraw water
without disturbing apparatus, and again note division.
Let height of upright be //, and distances on scale from
upright respectively a and A, then - = tangent of angle

of incidence, and |, = tangent of angle of refraction.

From tangent calculate sines, using formula sine 6 —

tan (9

Index of refraction:

Sine of angle of incidence.

Sine of angle of refraction.

Vi -f tan2

Verify result by varying angles."

A bisulphide of {carbon lens is made frorri two watch
glasses with ground edges, a notch being cut across to
introduce the liquid. A bisulphide of carbon prism is
not so easy to make ; here is the method recom-
mended : —

" Cut-off and grind ends of glass tube about 2 inches
longX I inch diameter so that planes of ends make an
angle of about 60° with each other. Drill hole about ^
inch diameter in middle of tube with hardened point of
triangular file and turpentine. Glue pieces of thin sheet
glass on ends. Fill with Bisulphide of Carbon and cover
hole with glued paper."

By degrees a spectroscope is entirely built up, and with

July 29, 1875]

NATURE

247

it the spectra of various metallic vapours are examined
till some familiarity is acquired with different spectra.
Finally, a polariscope is made and different objects for
examination are devised. Our space is more than ex-
hausted, and we cannot follow the teachers further in their
work. Time will, no doubt, bring greater experience and
improve an already admirable course.

As we remarked in a former article, the good work done
by the Department must sooner or later indirectly affect
all classes. We trust the time is not far distant when the
pressure of public opinion will lead men and women alike
to feel but half educated if they have no acquaintance
with the living facts and solid ground of nature. The
happy results of such a change will soon become apparent.
Already, indeed, society is becoming more interested in
science. Some knowledge of the methods and results of
scientific inquiry is penetrating the population. New
habits of thought and modes of reasoning are spreading
widely. A juster estimate of the position of the scientific
explorer is being held. At the same time a truer know-
ledge of nature is diffusing more profound and doubtless
more reverent conceptions of the orderly mystery that
surrounds us.

CARUS AND GERSTAECKERS ''' HANDBUCH

DER ZOOLOGIES'
Handbuch dcr Zoologie. Von Jul. Victor Carus und
C. E. A. Gerstaecker. (Leipzig : Engelmann.)

THE second volume of this work appeared in
1863, the first part of the first volume in 1868,
and at length the book is completed by the appear-
ance of the second part of the first volume in 1875.
It is somewhat late in the day to review the earlier
parts of the undertaking, but looking at it as a whole,
we do not hesitate to say that the " Handbuch " in
which Prof. Carus has had the chief share (the Arthro-
pods alone are treated by Prof. Gerstaecker) is emi-
nently useful and worthy of his high reputation for
perspicacity and practical good sense. There are few
men to whom zoologists both in this country as well as in
his fatherland, are so much indebted for solid help in
their labours of research or of instruction as to Prof.
Victor Carus. Who has not felt grateful to him for the
" Bibliotheca Zoologica," which bears his name ? What
naturalist of this generation has not consulted, as a store-
house of inexhaustible treasure, the " Icones Zootomicas,"
which, after twenty years, continues to hold its place as
the most valuable pictorial treatise on the Invertebrata
which we possess ? Prof. Carus has further served his
countrymen by acting as the competent translator of
Mr. Darwin's works— and to us he has lent timely aid by
discharging for two years the duties of the Edinburgh
chair of Natural History in the absence of Prof. Wyville
Thomson. In an enumeration of the labours of this
kind for which zoologists have to thank Prof. Carus, we
must not omit the volume on the history of Zoology— pub-
lished in the Munich series of histories of the sciences —
a work which is full of the most interesting details of the
early beginnings and strange developments of the study
^f animal form.

It will not be out of place, whilst strongly recommending
this book to the reader as a most trustworthy, succinct, and
withal ample exposition of the facts of animal morpho-

logy in especial relation to the " system " or classification
of the Animal Kingdom — to say a few words as to its
method and order of treatment. The first volume (that
most recently published) contains the Vertebrata, the
MoUusca, and Molluscoidea. The second volume treats
of the Arthropoda, Echinodermata, Vermes, Coelenterata,
and Protozoa. The groups of the animal kingdom are
thus discussed in a descending order, beginning with the
highest : at the same time each section treating of a sub-
kingdom is complete in itself. The section of the work
treating of any one sub-kingdom starts with a brief defi-
nition of the group of some ten or fifteen lines in length.
Then follow several pages treating of the characteristic
disposition of the various organs and their variation in the
following order, (i) general form, (2) integument, (3)
muscular system, (4) skeleton, (5) nervous system, (6)
organs of sense, (7) digestive canal, (8) respiratory organs,
(9) vascular system, (10) urinary and generative organs,
(11) development, metamorphoses and reproduction of
parts, (12) geographical and geological distribution, (13)
chief systems of classification hitherto-proposed, with an
outline of the classification adopted by the author, brief
definitions (about ten lines each) off the classes being
introduced. After this we have the detailed consideration
of each class, the highest being taken first. The same
method is adopted in the exposition of the characters of
the class as in the treatment of the sub-kingdom — as
much as twenty-four pages being thus devoted to the
class Mammalia. To the class follows an enumeration of
its orders, each order being briefly characterised in the
list and then taken in turn, the highest first, for more
detailed treatment. Some additional facts with regard to
each order beyond those introduced in the brief definition
are given when it is thus taken in its turn, and
under it are placed in succession with their charac-
teristics briefly stated, the families and sub-famiUes
and genera, the enumeration of the latter being cotn-
plete. The principal genera are characterised — referred
to their authors whilst synonyms and sub-genera are
indicated. The work goes so far into detail as to cite
under the genera many of the commoner or more remark-
able species — with a statement of the geographical and
geological distribution of the genus. After the descrip-
tion of an order or other large group, we usually find a
bibliographical list referring the reader to the more impor-
tant monographs relating to the particular group. Thus
the " Handbuch " furnishes us— within the limits which
are possible in an ever-growing science— with a treatise
on comparative anatomy, combined with an exhaustive
enumeration of the genera hitherto distinguished by
zoologists, referred to a definite place in a scheme of
classification. As the latest complete systematic treatise
on the Animal Kingdom, and one executed with the exer-
cise of most conscientious care, and a very exceptional
knowledge of the vast variety of zoological publications
which now almost daily issue from the press — this work
is one which is sure to render eminent service to all
zoologists. We can speak to the usefulness of the earlier
volume, from an experience of some years, and there is
every reason to believe that the one just completed will
be found as efficient.

Having said thus much in favour of the " Handbuch," we
shall proceed to point out^me of its shortcomings, which

248

NATURE

[July 59, 1875

are rather theoretical than practical. Prof. Cams suffers
in this book as in his " History " of Zoology, from the un-
philosophic conception of the scope and tendencies of
that division of Biology, which its early history has forced
upon modern science. In England our newest and most
conservative University continues to draw a broad dis-
tinction between what is called Comparative Anatomy
and what is called Zoology. By some accident Zoology
is the term which has become connected with the special
work of arranging specimens and naming species which
is carried on in great museums, and which has gone on in
museums since the days when " objects of natural his-
tory," and other curiosities, first attracted serious attention
in the sixteenth century. Accordingly Zoology, in this
limited sense, has taken the direction indicated by the
requirements of the curators of museums, and is supposed
to consist in the study of animals not as they are in toto,
but as they are for the purposes of the species-maker and
collector. In this limited Zoology, external characters or
the characters of easily preserved parts which on account
of their conspicuousness or durability are valuable for the
ready discrimination of the various specific forms — have
acquired a first place in consideration to which their real
significance as evidence of affinity or separation does not
entitle them. From time to time the limited zoologists
have adopted or accepted from, the comparative anato-
mists hints or conclusions, and have worked them into
their schemes of classification. But it does seem to be
time in these days, when pretty nearly all persons are
agreed that the most natural classification of the Animal
Kingdom is that which is the nearest expression of the
Animal Pedigree, that systematic works on Zoology should
be emancipated from the hereditary tendencies of the old
treatises, and should present to us the classes and
orders of the Animal Kingdom defined not by the enu-
meration of easily recognised " marks," but by reference
to the deeper and more thorough-going characteristics
which indicate blood relationships. We have to note in
the " Handbuch " the not unfrequent citation of superficial
and insignificant characteristics in the brief diagnoses of
taxonomic groups, which seems in so excellent a work to
be due to a purposeless survival of the features of a mori-
bund zoology thatiWOuld know nothing of " insidcs," and
still less of the doctrine of filiation. For instance, the
very first thing which we are told of the Vertebrata in the
short diagnosis of the group, is that they are " animals
with laterally symmetrical, elongated, externally unseg-
mented bodies ; " of the Fishes, that they have the " skin
covered with scales or plates, seldom naked ; " of the
Mollusca, that they have a " laterally symmetrical, com-
pressed body devoid of segmentation, often enclosed in a
single (generally spirally-twisted) or double calcareous
shell." It would be unjust to suggest that Prof. Carus,
who long ago did so much to estabhsh zoological classi-
fication on an anatomical basis, is not fully alive to the
necessity, at the present day, of taking the wide bio-
logical view of animal morphology ; but certainly the
form in which parts of the book are cast, savours ot the
past epoch. It may be said that the object of the book
is to present the "facts" of Zoology in a logical order ; and
that this sufficiently explains the arrangements to which
objection might be taken as above, viz. the commencing
with the higher instead of the lower groups, the prominent

position assigned to external and little-significant cha-
racters, the absence of any recognition of the leading
doctrine of modern Zoology, the doctrine of filiation. To
this there is nothing to say excepting that of the very
many logical methods of treatment possible in a hand-
book of Zoology, many are easy to follow out, and that
one, which aims at presenting a logical classification of
the kind spoken of by Mill, in which objects "are arranged
in such groups, and those groups in such an order as
shall best conduce to the ascertainment and remem-
brance of their laws," is a very difficult one to follow out.
This kind of classification involves nothing less than an
attempt (however inadequate) to trace the Animal Pedi-
gree ; for the laws to be ascertained and remembered are
the laws of Heredity and Adaptation. We may regret
then that so able a zoologist as Prof. Carus has remained
in the old grooves and not ventured on to the inevitable
track where Gegenbaur and Haeckel have preceded
him.

It is in the same spirit that we draw attention to one
or two features in the logical — or as it is sometimes called
" objective " — classification adopted by Prof. Carus. He
recognises the MoUuscoidea as a main division of the
Animal Kingdom, and places in it besides the Brachio-
poda and the Bryozoa, the Tunicata. It certainly does
not seem likely that in the present year (which is that
which gives date to the volume containing the Mol-
luscoidea) he would, if attempting to indicate genea-
logical affinities in his classification, do what he does
whilst working on the old lines, namely, place the
Ascidians in association with forms so remote from them
as it now appears are the Brachiopods, and separate them
so entirely from their blood-relatives among Vertebrates.

It is also interesting to note how the desire to frame
symmetrical groups which can be easily defined in a few
words, and on the other hand the desire to mark the gaps
and the relative development of the branches of the
genealogical .tree, operate so as to lead individuals in-
fluenced respectively by one or other of those desires to
propose very different changes in commonly accepted
classifications. Both methods may have their use to-day,
but we cannot shut our eyes to the fact that the motive in
all classifications for the future must be genealogy. The
changes proposed in J. Miiller's classification of Fishes,
respectively by Carus and by Haeckel, exhibit well the
divergence of the tendencies of the "formal" (we cannot
grant them the monopoly of the word " logical ") and of
the " genealogical " school. Dr. Giinther of the British
Museum is followed by Pi-of. Carus in his proposal to
reduce Johannes Miiller's six sub-classes of Fish, viz.
Dipnoi, Teleostei, Ganoidei, Selachii, Cyclostomi, Lepto-
cardii, to four, by the fusion of the Dipnoi, Ganoidei, and
Selachii. The discovery of the Australian Ceratodus,
which does not possess a special aortic branch distri-
buted to the incipient lungs, and is different from Lepido-
siren and Protopterus in the structure of its aortic bulb
and its limbs, has been made the occasion for this
logical or rather formal simplification. On the other
hand. Prof Haeckel wishing to show the large gap — the
long series of intermediate forms— which tmist have inter-
vened between the development of certain of the branches
of the pedigree recognised by J. Miiller as sub-classes of
Fish, and wishing to express the relative distance of

July 29, 1875]

NATURE

249

these branches from one another has, first of all (and we
think with no exaggerated estimate of the gap to be
marked out), removed the Leptocardii altogether from
association with the other fish, and not only from associa-
tion with them but from association with the remaining
classes of Vertebrates. They stand alone as the group
Acrania, whilst the remaining Vertebrata are the Craniata.
The five remaining groups of Miiller's fishes find their
place with the Craniata, but one group is separated
within that large division as having no jaws, no hmbs,
and an unpaired nostril ; these are the Cyclostomi, which
are placed by Haeckel apart from all the remaining
Craniate Vertebrates. The steps of structural difi"erentia-
tion which must be passed through to connect the
Lampreys with the lowest of the remaining groups of J.
Miiller's Pisces seems to warrant this. They, the Dipnoi)
Ganoidei, Selachii, and Teleostei, all belong to the large
division of the double-nostrilled, jaw-bearing Craniata ;
but Haeckel cannot feel that the logic of his method is
fully carried out, if he does not mark more emphatically
the divergence of the structural characters of Dipnoi from
those of the remaining and dominant classes of Fish.
The class of Fishes is restricted to the three sub- classes of
Selachii, Ganoidei and Teleostei ; of which the first are
the nearest representatives of the common ancestors of
the Ganoidei and Teleostei, whilst the Dipnoi form a
separate class of the Gnathostomous Craniate Vertebrata,
reaching well forwards in the direction of the Amphibia,
which were derived from Paleozoic Dipnoi, these in turn
having been derived from Ganoidei. No doubt, it would
not be possible to make any distinction between the
ancestral Ganoidei and Dipnoi of Palaeozoic times, had
we them all before us ; but that is no reason why, in
framing our classifications, we should not use such breaks
and divisions of groups as will best indicate in the
tabular form the branching relationships of these and
neighbouring organisms. The consideration of a case
like the one just discussed renders it very obvious that
the whole method and point of view of the naturalist who
attempts to make classification the expression of the most
important laws of organic structure, and therefore a
genealogy, is different from that of the naturalist who
endeavours to make his groups as few as may be con-
venient, and such that a large number of propositions can
be affirmed with regard to them. The work of the latter
is marred by adhesion to a conventional form, that of the
former is inspired by a life-giving theory.

The absence of illustrations to Prof. Carus's " Hand-
buch " is not to be considered as a deficiency. In the
first place, adequate illustration would immensely in-
crease the price of the work ; in the second place, we
have already the " I cones," which may serve excellently
as an atlas for much of the second volume. "What we
want now from Prof. Carus is another volume of "Icones,"
to contain illustrations of the Vertebrata.

E. Ray Lankester

OUR SUMMER MIGRANTS

Our Stirnmer Migrants. By J. E. Harting, F.L.S.,

F.Z.S. (Bickers and Son, 1875.)

AMONG the many detailed differences between the
lives of country and town residents there is one
which has a marked influence on the lines of thought

adopted by each. The townsman as a rule finds that his
numerous avocations — more numerous as they must be
to enable him to survive in the severer competition for a
livelihood that is associated with the extra expense in-
volved in a non-rural life— give him but little time or
need for simple physical exercise as such. He has to
form his ideas of the outside world by noting, as he
passes through various thoroughfares, such things as
attract his attention whilst he is on his way from one
duty to another. When his work is over, his great idea is
rest. The animated creation, humanity excepted, is a
sealed book to him. The case of the country resident is
very different. Either his slow-moving occupation in the
open air allows him ample opportunity for looking around
him, or he is compelled to "take a walk" in order to
overcome the injurious influence of a sedentary employ-
ment. The charms of scenery soon, from frequent repe-
tition, lose much of their fascination, and the observation
of the surrounding changes continually occurring in the
animated world become the chief objects of attraction.
Of these none are more interesting than the movements
of the birds, especially of those species which, instead of
taking up their continuous abode with us, only condescend
to visit our shores during those seasons of the year which
best suit their delicate constitutions. These, our summer
migrants, form the subject of the work before us ; one
which will be particularly attractive, as here presented, to
all who have any predilections towards ornithology or the
observation of natural phenomena, both on account of the
valuable information it contains and the particularly
elegant way in which, both typographically and as far as
binding is concerned, the book has been brought out, and
Bewick's accurate engravings have been reproduced.

Mr. Harting's object has not been to write a systematic
work on the subject for beginners, but to collect the
results of his own and other more recent observations,
both as to the exact dates of arrival and departure of the
migratory species of our avifauna, as well as attested
facts with reference to the localities which they inhabit as
their winter- quarters. Prof. Newton's new edition of
" Yarrell's British Birds," Colonel Irby's " Ornithology of
the Straits of Gibraltar," and the investigations of the
late Mr. Edward Blyth, are amongst the most important
sources from which the author is enabled to collect the
observations which he classifies and employs so as to
make them of special interest with regard to each indi-
vidual species.

The controversy, not long ago revived, and carried
on partly in this journal during 1869 and 1870 by
Prof. Newton, concerning the eggs of the Cuckoo,
makes the chapter devoted to that bird of special
interest. On the subject of whether the hen bird is
in the habit of always laying her eggs in nests of
the same species of foster parent. Prof. Newton re-
marks (Nature, vol. i. p. 75), "without attributing
any wonderful sagacity to the Cuckoo, it does seem
likely that the bird which once successfully deposited
her eggs in a Reed Wren's, or a Titlark's nest (as the
case may be) when she had an egg to dispose of, and
that she should continue her practice from one season to
another. We know that year after year the same migra-
tory bird will return to the same locality, and build its
nest in almost the sam^ spot. Though the Cuckoo be

250

NATURE

{July 29, 1875

somewhat of a vagrant, there is no improbability of her
being subject to so much regularity of habit, and
indeed such has been asserted as an observed fact. If,
then, this be so, there is every probability of her offspring
inheriting the same habit, and the daughter of a Cuckoo
which always placed her egg in a Reed Wren's or a Tit-
lark's nest doing the like." To this Mr. Harting very justly
replies — " This would be an excellent argument in sup-
port of the theory (of Dr. Baldamus) were it not for one
expression, upon which the whole value of the argument
seems to me to depend. What is meant by the ex-
pression ' Once successfully deposited ? ' Does the
Cuckoo ever revisit a nest in which she has placed
an egg and satisfy herself that her offspring is hatched
and cared for? If not (and I believe such an event
is not usual, if indeed it has ever been known to
occur), then nothing has been gained by the selection of
a Reed Wren's or Titlark's nest (as the case may be), and
the Cuckoo can.have no reason for continuing the practice
of using the, same kind of nest from one season to
another." Mr. Harting therefore rejects the application
of this principle in the case of the Cuckoo. We will suggest
to him a modification of Prof, Newton's argument which
may perhaps lead him to return to it in its modified form.
The assumption that the bird which once successfully
deposited 'her eggs in a Reed Wren's or Titlark's nest,
would again seek for one of the same, species in other
seasons because of her sagacity, or her knowledge of its
successful hatching, is highly improbable in our estima-
mation, and not essential for the subsequent deductions,
in a Darwinian point of view. It is more logical to
suppose that ancestral Cuckoos deposited their eggs
broadcast. That those which got into Reed Wren's and
Titlark's nests (as in instances) all, or nearly all, hatched
out ; whilst those deposited elsewhere perished. The
young inherited those peculiarities of the mother birds
whose tendency was towards the utihsation of the Reed
Wren's and Titlark's ' nests, and as a result the modern
Cuckoo tends to place its eggs in those nests.

The evidently genuine sketch made by Mrs. Blackburn
of the nestling Cuckoo ejecting the young of the Titlark
along with which it was hatched, first published in the
introduction to Gould's " Birds of Great Britain," is
introduced as confirmatory evidence in favour of this, to
the foster-brethren, murderous propensity of the young
birds, with reference to which so many naturalists are
still sceptical.

The peculiarity in the distribution of the Nightingale
in this country is difficult to explain, especially as the
Wryneck keeps within nearly the same boundaries.
" When we find this bird in summer as far to the west-
ward as Spain and Portugal, and as far to the northward
as Sweden, we may well be surprised at its absence from
Wales, Ireland, and Scotland ; and yet it is the fact that
the boundary line, over which it seldom if ever flies,
excludes it from Cornwall, West Devon ; part of Somer-
set, Gloucester, and Hereford ; the whole of Wales
{a fortiori from Ireland), part of Shropshire, the whole of
Cheshire, Westmoreland, Cumberland, Durham, and
Northumberland." From these data it is not difficult to
recognise that with but few exceptions the Nightingale
only visits those parts of this country which are, covered
with secondary or tertiary geological formations ; and it I

has always seemed to us that it must be that the primary
soils do not produce food suitable for the insects on which
it feeds. It is true that the new red sandstone is the soil
of Cheshire, and that much of Yorkshire and Derbyshire
are primary formations, nevertheless the two boundaries
are so similar in other respects that it is hardly possible
that there is no relation between them.

There is another disputed point to which the author
more than once alludes. He remarks that " we cannot
help thinking that the Nightingale and many other birds
which visit us in summer and nest with us, must also
nest in what we term their winter-quarters ; otherwise it
would be impossible, considering the immense number
which are captured on their first arrival, not only in
England, but throughout central and southern Europe, to
account for the apparently undiminished forces which re-
appear in the succeeding spring." The late Mr. Blyth
was of an opposite opinion, and further observations are
necessary before this question can be settled.

Besides the information given on subjects like the
above, the nest and eggs of all the species, fifty in number,
are described ; whilst exact measurements are included
of closely allied forms, such as the Wood Warbler, the
Willow Warbler, and the Chiff Chaff; the Red Warbler,
the March Warbler, &c. Their plumage and nests are
also compared in detail.

To those who reside in the country and are fond of the
study of nature, this work by Mr. Harting will be found as
useful an addition to their libraries or their drawing-room
tables, as it will be to ornithologists generally.

OUR BOOK SHELF

Meteorology of West Cornwall and Scilly, 1871 atid 1874.
By W. P. Dymond. (Reprinted from the Annual Re-
ports of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society,
Falmouth.)

In the latter of these pamphlets Mr, Dymond gives an
interesting discussion of the temperature range correc-
tions for Falmouth, and an excellent resutne' of the sea-
temperature observations made at the same place during
the three years 1872-73-74, which have been made with
a just apprehension of the precautions which require to
be taken, if observations of sea temperature are to have
real scientific value. The omission of tables of daily
maximum and minimum atmospheric pressure, which
were given in the earlier issue, is a decided improvement ;
not so, however, is the omission of the table of the
amounts of the rainfall, with the different winds, N.,
N.E., E., &c., which supply information of great value
in defining local climates.

The five stations reported on are Scilly, Helston, Fal-
mouth, Truro, and Bodmin, ofwhich the most northern, as
well as most elevated, is Bodmin. If we compare the mean
temperatures of the stations for 1874, it is seen that at
Bodmin the mean was S3°'3, and at Falmouth only 5i°-8.
In some of the months the discrepancy is still greater.
Thus the mean temperature of Bodmin is about four
degrees higher than that of Falmouth in each of the
months from April to July inclusive, and about two
degrees higher than at Truro, Helston, or Scilly. It is
unnecessary to remark that these differences do not
represent the differences of the climates of these places, '
but are to a very large extent only due to the incomparable
modes of observation and of reduction of the observa-
tions adopted for the several stations. Thus, as regards
the exposure of the thermometers, at Bodmin they are
hung four-and-a-half feet above the ground, under a thatch

Jtily 29, 1875]

NATURE

251

roof, facing north ; at Truro they are placed on the roof
of the Royal Institution, about forty feet above the ground,
in a wooden shed through which the air passes freely ;
at Falmouth they are eleven feet above the ground, close
to a wall, and in a confined situation ; at Helston we
are not informed how they are placed ; and at the Scilly
station we are only told that they " are well placed " — a
statement which the observations themselves render very
doubtful.

The times of obser\^ation are hourly at Falmouth,
9 A.M. and 3 and 9 p.m. at Helston, and as respects the
other three stations we have no information. In redu-
cing the observations, " corrections for diurnal range " are
used in some cases, though the observations themselves
show that the range corrections adopted are plainly not
even approximately correct for the place.

A system of meteorological observation which would
furnish the data for an inquiry into the important question
of a comparison of the local climates of Cornwall requires
yet to be instituted. Such a system must secure at each
of the stations included within it, uniformity in exposure
of instruments, uniformity in hours of observation, and
uniformity in methods of reducing the observations. Till
this be done, such climatic anomalies, as we have pointed
out in the case of Bodmin, will continue to be published,
certainly misleading some, and probably leading others
to dispute the usefulness of meteorological observations.

We have much pleasure in referring to the additional
meteorological information given in the tables, which is
often of considerable value, particularly that supplied for
Helston by Mr. Moyle, whose tables have the merit of
giving the results for the individual hours of observation,
as well as deductions from these.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[ The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return,
or to correspond with the -writers of, rejected manuscripts.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications. ^

Vibrations of a Liquid in a Cylindrical Vessel

In Nature for July 15, there is a short notice of a paper
read before the Physical Society by Prof. Guthrie on the period
of vibration of water in cylindrical vessels. It may be of in-
terest to point out that the results arrived at by Prof. Guthrie
experimentally, and many others of a like nature, may also be
obtained from theory.

In the first place the fact, that the period of a given mode of
vibration of liquid in a cylindrical vessel of infinite depth and of
section always similar to itself {e.g. always circular) is propor-
tional to the square root of the linear dimension of the section,
follows from the theory of dimensions without any calculation.
For the only quantities on which the period t could depend ar«
(i) p the density of the liquid, (2) g the acceleration of gravity,
and (3) the linear dimension d. Now as in the case of a common
pendulum it is evident that t cannot depend upon p. If the
density of the liquid be doubled, the force which act upon it is
also doubled, and therefore the motion is the same as before the
change. Thus t, a time, is a function of d, a length, and g.
Since ^ is — 2 dimensions in time, t <= ^ - J, and therefore in
order to be independent of the unit of length, it must vary as ^i
inasmuch as^ is of one dimension in length. Hence t oc dh g-\.
This reasoning, it will be observed, only applies when the
depth may be treated as infinite.

The actual calculation of t for any given form of vessel involves,
of course, high mathematics, the case of a circular section
depending on liessel's functions. But there is an interesting con-
nection between the problem of the vibration of heavy liquid in a
cylindrical vessel of any section and of finite or inhnite depth,
and that of the vibration of gas in the same vessel, when the
motion is in two dimensions only, that is everywhere perpendi-
cular to the generating lines of the cylinder. If \ be the wave-
length of the vibration in the latter case,* which is a quantity
independent of the nature of the gas, and k = 2 w -^ A, the period

* Namely, the length of plane waves of the same period.

T of the similar vibrations in the liquid problem is given by

/ « —kl

/jk (6-6 ),
\/ U -kl

/ being the depth. The formula shows that in accordance with
Prof. Guthrie's observation t diminishes as / increases, and that
when / is sufficiently great

T = 2ir -f- ^g~k.
lix be the value of k, viz. 2 tt 4- A, for a circular vessel of radius
unity, then the values of x for the various modes of vibration are
given in the following table extracted from a paper on Bessel's
functions in the Philosophical Magazine for November 1872.

Number of
Internal

Order of Harmonic.

Spherical
Nodes.

0

1

3

3

0

I
2

3-832
7-015
IOI74

1-841
5-332
8.536

3-054
6-705

9-965

4:2012
8-015
"•344

Thus if d be the diameter of the vessel, the period t of the
liquid vibrations is given by

= ^'\/;

d_

2gX

so that if d be measured in inches, the number of vibrations per
minute, /;, is given by

30

n^/d =

/

24 X 32-19 X X.

For the symmetrical mode of vibration considered by Prof,
Guthrie, x — 3-832, giving

n \Jd = 519-4
agreeing closely with the experimental value, viz. 517-5. Even
the small difference which exists may perhaps be attributed to
the insufficient depth of the vessels employed.

This mode of vibration is not, however, the gravest of which
the liquid is capable. That corresponds to .x' = i -841, giving

nsj d— 360-1,
and belonging to a vibration in which the liquid is most raised at
one end ot a certain diameter, and most depressed at the other
end. The latter mode of vibration is more easily excited than
that experimented on by Prof. Guthrie, but inasmuch as it in-
Tolves a lateral a motion of the centre of inertia, it is necessary
that the vessel be held tight.

The next gravest mode gives x = 3.054, and corresponds to a
vibration in which the liquid is simultaneously raised at both
ends of one diameter, and depressed at both ends of the per-
pendicular diameter. In this case the value of n is given by
ni^d= 462-7

Teriing Place, Witham, Ravleigh

July 15

Insectivorous Plants

If further confirmation be needed of Mr. Darwin's discovery
of absorption by the leaves of the Drosera rotundifolia, it is
afforded amply by the following experiments which ,1 have just
concluded : —

Having deprived a quantity of silver sand of all organic matter, I
placed it in three pots, which I shall call A, B, and C. In each
of these pots I placed a number of plants of the D. rotundifolia
under the following conditions: — (i) Perfectly uninjured, but
washed all over repeatedly in distilled water. (2) Similarly
washed, but with all the roots pinched off close to the rosette,
and with the leaves all buried, only the budding flower stalk
appearing above the sand. (3) similarly washed, with the roots
and the flower stalk left on, but all the leaves pinched off, the
roots being buried in the sand, (4) Similarly washed, roots left
on, four leaves buried in the sand, two leaves flower stalk, and
roots left above the sand and the roots protected against the
possibility of their absorbing anything from the sand. All the
plants were carefully watchd!, so that no flies were caught.

252

NATURE

[July 29, 1875

I fed pot A with, pure distilled water, B with strong decoction
of beef, and C with -0026 per cent, solution of phosphate of
ammonia.

The results are briefly these, after seventeen days' experimen-
tation : In A all the plants are growing and looking perfectly
healthy, though those with four leaves buried and the roots
exposed, looked sickly for a few days. Now, however, they are
putting forth new leaves ; so are those with all the leaves pinched
off and the roots buried.

Those with the roots pinched off and all the leaves buried are
burstinc; into flower.

In B all the plants are greatly damaged, those with the leaves
only, and those with the roots only are quite dead. Those with
the. roots off and the leaves buried have their leaf stalks much
blackened, as described by Mr. Darwin as the result of over-
feeding. The pot smells strongly of ammonia.

In C the condition is very much as in A, but the growth has
been much more active, for some of the plants with the roots off
and leaves buried have pushed new leaves up through the sand,
and those whh only four leaves buried have put out numerous
new leaves, and their roots are quite dry. In one of these latter
I amputated the roots five days after it had been in the pot, and
it is as vigorous as the rest. About '03 of a grain of phosphate
of ammonia has been supplied to this pot during twelve days for
twelve plants.

It is, therefore, perfectly certain that the sun-dew can not only
absorb nutriment by its leaves, but that it can actually live by
their aid alone, and that it thrives better if supplied with nitro-
genous material in small quantities.

The nitrogenous matter is more readily absorbed by ihe leaves
than by the roots, for over-feeding kills the plant sooner by the
leaves alone than by the roots alone. But it is also certain that
the roots absorb nitrogenous matter.

On June 17 I read a paper to the Birmingham Natural History
Society, in which I announced that I had been able to separate
a substance closely resembling pepsine from the secretion of
the Di'osera didiotoma. Since then I have also separated it from
the fluid taken from the pitchers of various nepenthes.

The secretion from the Dichotonia was gathered on a feather
which was washed in pure distilled water. It made the water
very viscid, although probably the whole amount gathered from
the only available plant was not more than six or eight minims,
and an ounce of water was used. One cubic centimetre of this
solution to five cubic centimetres of fresh milk separated a thick
viscid mass, whh a very small quantity of whey, in about twelve
hours, at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere. This
mixture was kept in an open test glass three weeks, but it never
became putrid.

The remainder of the solution was accidulated with dilute
phosphoric acid, and then a thin mixture of chalk and water was
added drop by drop till effervescence ceased. The mixture was
allowed to stand for twenty -four hours and the clear fluid
removed.

The precipitate was treated with very dilute hydrochloric
acid, and the result treated with a saturated solution of pure
cholestearine made by Beneke's method, in a mixture of abso-
lute alcohol and absolute ether. The mass which separated
was then dissolved in absolute ether, and in the resulting water
was suspended a greyish flocculent matter which, on examina-
tion was found to be perfectly amorphous. It was dried at a
temperature of 42°, and weighed, roughly, a third of a grain.
It was partially soluble in distilled water, not at all in boiling
water, greatly soluble in glycerine, and it produced the charac-
teristic viscid change on a small quantity of fresh milk.

Fluid was taken from three nepenthe pitchers which had not
opened their valves, to the amount of 2-3 cubic centimetres. It
was treated in the same way as described above, and yielded a
trace of the flocculent matter. Seven cubic centimetres of fluid
from pitchers which had been long open and contained abundant
insect debris, yielded the same flocculent substance. It has a
specific gravity fractionally greater than water, and has reactions
quite similar to the substance separated from the D. dichotonia,
and which I propose to call droserine.

At Mr. Darwin's suggestion I have tried the action of the
fluid of four virgin pitchers of the Nepenthe phyllamphora on
cubes of albumen one millimetre in measurement. After twenty-
eight hours immersion there was no indication of change by any
one of the four fluids. Yet the chemical differences in all four
were very marked. One only was viscid, yet it contained not a
trace of the grey flocculent matter which I regard as the ferment.

One only was at all acid, the other three being absolutely
neutral. One contained quite a large quantity of the ferment,
whilst the fourth had no reaction in silver lactate, so that I ima-
gine it was only pure water. On the contrary, fluid taken from
pitchers into which flies have previously found their way is
always very acid, has a large quantity of the ferment, and acts in
a few hours on cubes of albumen, making them first yellow, then
transparent, and finally completely dissolving them.

The quantities obtained were too small to submit to analysis,
and I am not sufficiently an adept in chemical manipulation to
give a better account of this interesting substance.

When studying the nepenthes, I was puzzled to see the use of
the channel which exists on the back of the pitchers, and which
is formed by two ridges furnished with spikes in most of the
nepenthes, but not in all, which run up to the margin of the lip
of the pitcher.

I found that one plant under observation was infested by a
small red ant-like insect, numbers of which had found their way
into one particular pitcher, I observed two or three on the
leaf of this pitcher, and I carefully observed their movements.
They occasionally approached the edge of the leaf, but always
turned back when they encountered the spikes which run down
the margin, and which are the same as are seen on the ridges.
In all the mature pitchers the stalk hangs in contact with the
pitcher just between those two ridges, about half way between
the attachment of the stalk and the lip of the pitcher.

At this point of contact the insects marched on to the pitcher,
and then, of course, found themselves on the pathway between
the ridges. Here they again always turned back when they
encountered the spikes, so that they soon found their way to the
lip.

Here they paused, and seemed to enjoy some secretion which
seems to be poured out on the glazed surface of the lip. Then
they travelled onwards, and met the fate of their companions.
I found about thirty of these insects in this pitcher, and as they
were in various stages of digestion, I presume they were en-
trapped at different times. I could see no reason why they all
went to this pitcher, though no doubt there was one. The
secretion in which they were being digested was very viscid and
very acid. In the unopened pitcher the secretion is only faintly
acid and not at all viscid. The secretion is increased, therefore,
as Mr. Darwin has shown to be the case in Drosera, in quality
after food has been taken in.

The footpath extending from the petiole to the lip of the
pitcher, armed on each side with a chivaux-de-frise, to prevent the
prey wandering off, is a contrivance which is manifestly for the
advantage of the plant ; so also, is the umbrella which is extended
over the orifices of the pitchers in many of the nepenthes. Its
obvious use is to prevent dilution of their gastric juice. In some
the lid does not cover the orifice ; probably there is something
special in their habits.

The glands which line the pitchers differ considerably from
the Dioncca, and they are placed 'in curious little pockets of
epithelial cells, the meaning of which is not evident.

Lawson Tait

Curious Phenomenon in the Eclipse of 1927
On the morning of June 29, 1927, there will be the next solar
eclipse in England in which anything in the shape of totality
can be seen. In an examination of eclipses I made two or three
years ago, I considei-ed this one would be total for a brief period
in the north of England, as mentioned in Nature, vol, xii, p.
213. But the curious point worthy of notice is the following : —
As the moon's disc only just overlaps that of the sun, we may
expect to see the red flames visible, not as prominences, but as a
line of red light encircling the sun for a few moments. The
probable appearance of such a phenomenon in a slightly total
eclipse of the sun was pointed out by Prof, Grant in a paper in
the December Notices of the R.A.S., 1871 (q.v.) The eclipse
of June 29, 1927, seems to afford such an opportunity as the
Professor wished to find out. Although this eclipse, therefore,
is but an apology for a total one, it may acquire an interest of its
own for posterity. See my little work, "Eclipses Past and
Future" (Parkers) on this subject. Samuel J. Johnson

Upton Helions Rectory, Crediton, Devon

Spectroscopic previiion of Rain with a High Barometer

My letter of last Monday (in last week's Nature, p, 231)
having been sent off when we (in Edinburgh) were still in the

July 29, 1875]

NATURE

253

midst of heavy rain, N.E. wind, high barometric pressure, and
an abnormal sky-spectrum, you may be interested in hearing how
matters quieted down until this Monday, when we have a delight-
ful drj'ing west wind, high floating clouds, and a normal sky-
spectrum showing fine lines only.

On Tuesday the 20th then, there was a sensible alleviation of
Monday's abnormal spectrum bands, though they were still
there ; and the weather, though dark, began to clear.

On the 2 1 St and 22nd, the abnormal bands had almost disap-
peared, leaving the lines proper of the spectrum easily visible, and
the weather was fine.

Friday, the 23rd, however, was wet by day and very wet at
night; yet the sky-spectrum was good and nearly normal.
Note, however, from the Meteorological Journal below,* that
this rain came with a west wind, a low barometer, and a con-
siderable fall of temperature. And the wind has been westerly
ever since, and with a normal sky-spectrum.

Hence the intensification of the band on the less refrangible
side of D would seem to be thus far identifiable both in London
and Edinburgh with warm rain in an easterly wind and under a
high barometer.

While, that the said bahd really was intensified to a. very note-
worthy degree, and quite abnormally both with respect to the
broader band which appears on the more refrangible side of D
(or over W.L.L. 5830 — 5680), and to other telluric manifesta-
tions, at sunset— is demonstrated now most satisfactorily by my
having just heard irom my friend, Prof. P. G. Tait, M.A., whom
I had not seen for six weeks before, that he has been independ-
ently observing in Edinburgh the very same phenomenon, and
almost at the same times, and on the same days. He was much
struck too at obtaining the chief abnormal band on the most
marked days from all parts of the sky and at all hours, and had
considered what it might mean.

He has further pointed out to me since then, that Angstrom's
map shows fine telluric lines in the place of the grand smoky
band we observed with small spectroscopic power in W.L.L.
6000-5880 ; but makes them much less, instead of very much
more, dark than the well-known 5830-5680 evening band ; so
that the question 'now is, what is it that intensifies the former
and not the latter under the meteorological conditions noted ?

15 Royal Terrace, Edinburgh, PiAZZi Smyth

July 26 Astronomer Royal for Scotland

Sea-power

I OBSERVE that a correspondent at Giessen asks (Nature,
vol. xii. p. 2it) for information as to Sea-power. If he will
consult Sir Robert Kane's " Industrial Resources of Ireland " he
will find what he wants, with a view to what have been termed
"tidal mills." A. C.

I'.dinburgh, July 26

OUR BOTANICAL COLUMN
The Adelaide Botanic Garden. — From Dr. Schom-
burgk's Report on the progress and condition of the Adelaide
Botanic Garden and Government Plantations during the year
1874, we gather some facts relating not only to the capabilities
of the Garden in an educational point of view, but also with
regard to the acclimatisation of new plants, many of which are
valuable for their economical products, and others as horticultural
novelties. In what is called the class ground 130 natural orders
are represented and 750 genera. The plan adopted seems to be
similar to that adopted in most botanic gardens, namely, by
dividing the orders by strips of turf ; the aquatic plants, such as
the Nymphaiaceae, Vallisnerise, Butomacese, Alismaceoe, &c..

Meteorological Journal at

I P.M. Royal Observatory^ Edinburgh.

rate.

Barometer
reduced to
sea-level.

Attached
Thermometer.

Exterior

Thermometer,

in shade.

Direction of
wind.

1875.

July 20

,, 21

„ 22

„ 23

M 24

;; S :::;::

inches.
30-08
3001
29-74
29-58
29-49

30-24

°F.
60 'O
62-2

in

61 -8
57-4

58-0

"F.

6o-3

N.E.
N.E.

N.E.
W.
W.

w.

are arra.nged in a basin in the centre. Dr. Schomburgk point*
out what is apparent to all botanical students, that it is almost an
impossibility to lay out a systematic ground perfectly, as the
representatives of some orders are composed partly of natives of
cool and partly of tropical countries, while otiier orders are solely
tropical plants: the same difficulty also occurs in the lower orders
of plants, such as Cryptogams. As Dr. Schomburgk says, it is
to be hoped that this comparatively new feature in the plan of
the Adelaide Garden will be useful to the students at the Uni-
versity, the foundation of which we are told is now a fact, and
10 promote the study of botany in South Australia. In the
experimental garden great success seems to have been attained
in growing the Tussack grass {Dadylis ca:spitosa). As is well
known, this plant forms a most nutritious fodder ; a»d it is thought
that if it succeeds, it will prove a most valuable acquisition to the
scanty stock of good Australian fodder plants. The seed was
received in Adelaide in September last, and upon being at once
sown soon made its appearance above ground : the quickness of
growth is said to be surprising ; many of the plant.i in 4-inch
pots showed, at the time of writing the report at the latter end
of February, seventy to eighty shoots. About a dozen plants
were put out in 6-inch pots, and these in the same period had as
many as 123 shoots, the blades of which were remarkably sweet
and soft and of a good flavour. Dr. Schomburgk siys that he
is convinced, though the native countries of the Tussack are
much colder than Australia, it will do well in the hills ; he
has about 1,000 plants in pots, which are naturally sheltered
part of the day from the sun, and are also watered j many of the
plants are during the day more or less exposed to the sun, but
he has observed no difference in their growth. It is remarkable
that, notwithstanding all the pains that have been taken, both at
home and in Australia, to introduce many of these useful grasses,
little or no interest seems to be taken by the colonists themselves
in the matter for whose benefit they are specially undertaken.

The Liberian Coffee, about which so much has been said and
so much more is expected, has likewise found its way to Adelaide,
four healthy plants having been received from Mr. Bull, of
Chelsea. Among other economic plants recommended by Dr.
Schomburgk for trial in South Australia may be mentioned the
Liquorice {Glycyrrhtza glabra).

SuMBUL Root, the tincture of which is now so frequently
prescribed as a stimulating tonic, had, previous to the discovery
of the plant in 1869, a peculiar mystery attached to it regarding
its origin, and this mystery was all the more intense from the
fact that in commerce dealers distinguished Sumbul by two or
three different qualities, each of which was said to be derived
from different countries. Thus, the best kind was distinctly known
as Russian Sumbid, and the second quality as Indian Sumbul, a
variety or form of which was also known as China Sumbul, being
shipped to England viit China, while the Indian kind is brought
from Bombay. Of the plant furnishing this Indian or Chinese
product we know nothing. The root is described by Pereira in
his " Elements of Materia Medica " as being of a closer texture,
firmer, denser, and of a more reddish tint than the Russian sort,
and of a less powerful odour. The authors of the " Pharmaco-
graphia," however, consider it "to be a root different from
Sumbul," that is, the true or Russian Sumbul. The mystery
regarding the botanical origin of this latter has within the last few
years been cleared up by the discovery, in 1869, of living plants
in ♦he mountains near Pianjakent, a Russian town eastward of
Samarcand. The Botanic Garden at Moscow was fortunate
enough to receive a living plant which flowered in 1871, and
was thereupon named by KaufTmann Euryangium Sumbul. A
plant was introduced to the Royal Gardens, Kew, some two or
three years since, and planted in the open ground, where it has
flourished through; the summer, throwing up its strong, bright
green /vr«/(7-like leaves, and dying down to the earth in winter,
during which period it has received artificial protection. Up to
the present season the plant has never flowered, but recently
it has thrown Jup a strong and healthy umbel, some seven or
eight feet high. It is only in quite recent times (1867) that the
Sumbul has been admitted into the British Pharmacopoeia. In
the first edition, which was issued in 1864, it was not included.
It has now become largely used, and its application is still in-
creasing, being frequently administered in cases where quinine is
too powerful. The root is of a soft spongy nature, with nume-
rous interlacing fibres ; it has a bitter aromatic taste, and a strong
musk-like smell which it is capable of retaining for a great
length of time, the specimens contained in the Kew Museum,
where they have been for the last twenty-four years, retaining
gtill the odour in a marked degree.

254

NATURE

\7uly 29, 1875

THE FROGRESS OF THE TELEGRAPH *
IX.

In all submarine cables the copper conductor is com-
posed of seven small wires stranded together, an arrange-
ment which gives much greater flexibility and strength
than if a solid wire were employed. The general arrange-
ment of the signal apparatus in connection with the cable is
shown at Fig. 38. A, the battery, consists of a series of

cells of Daniell's arrangement; B, the contact keys for
passing the positive and negative currents into the
cable ; C, " switch," placing the cable in connection either
with the earth, instrument, or battery as required ; D, a
form of Sir William Thomson's reflecting galvanometer
placed in connection with the cable by switch c ; E, the
permanent magnet arrangement for steadying and
adjusting the coil-mirror (shown in section and detail,
Fig- 39) ; I, resistance coils interposed into the circuit

i H ^

Fig. 38. — Genera arrangement of apparatus for working a submarine circuit.

t

between the instrument and the earth ; j, a switch
for connecting the line to earth ; F, a darkened re-
cess to receive the scale upon which the spot of light
reflected from the lamp situated behind the partition, the
ray from which, passing through a slit in the direction R
is reflected back from the galvanometer mirror in the
direction r' ; the spot of light moves to the right or left of
the zero on the scale, according
as a positive or negative cur-
rent is passed through the cir-
cuit ; the several signals being
indicated by the successive
oscillations of the luminous
image, signals which corre-
spond to the conventional iil-
phabet of the Morse system.
The Morse alphabet is given
at Fig. 40.

A steam-engine without the
motive power, steam, is no-
thing but an arrangement of
iron levers, cranks, and
F18 39.— Section of coil of Thorn- throttle valves, useless so far

son's mirror galvanometer, show- ^g actual WOrk is COnCemcd.
iMg the mirror and magnetic t ti i i -u

netdle suspension. I" like manner a telegraph

instrument without the electric
current to actuate its parts and give vitality to the circuit
is valueless — a piece of apparatus to be inspected on a
museum shelf. A few remarks upon "Batteries" are
therefore necessary before an examination is made into the
chief laws which regulate the passage of electric currents
through metallic conductors.

* Gontitiuecl from p. 151.

In the production of a galvanic, or voltaic current, two
conditions are essential, either the presence of two metals
and a liquid, or two liquids and a metal. This will be
explained by reference to everyday phenomena.

a

a - —
b —-

n

J -~
k — -

1 - —

o
P

q

r
s
t
u
li

V

w

X

y
z
ch

Fig. 40.— The Morse Alphabetical Code.

A familiar example of the development of an electric
current by two metals and a liquid is continually pre-
sented to our notice in the wasting of the iron bars of
a railing close to their junction with the stone coping.
Here we have the two metals, the iron composing the

July 29, 1875]

NATURE

255

railing, and the lead by which the iron is fastened
into the stone, and rain or atmospheric moisture, as the
liquid or exciting medium. The wasting away of the iron
just above the coping stone is the result of the galvanic
action set up between the two metals (iron and lead)
and the liquid (the moisture of the atmosphere). To
preserve an iron railing therefore it becomes necessary to
dispense with the presence of lead ; nothing can be better

than the adoption of an iron coping in place of stone.
As knowledge spreads, so practical results follow, and
many modern examples of iron railings will be found to
fulfil the conditions above indicated as necessary to ensure
a "long life"

All connoisseurs of malt and hop beverages agree that
ale drinks much sharper and is more tasty to the palate out
of a pewter tankard than out of a glass. At a refreshment

Fig. 4t.— Voltiic Batlery.connected,in series, in illustration] Jof tl

nal resiiiatue of the battery.

bar the demand is more often for " half a pint of bitter "
(served in a metal vessel) than for a " glass of bitter ;" and
common belief in this instance is correct. Here we have
a galvanic current set up by two liquids and one metal ;
the effect of the electric current so generated being to
sharpen and improve the taste of the beverage to' the
palate by reason of electric action. In this example there
are the two liquids— the beverage, and the saliva of the
mouth — and one metal — that of the tankard— the resultant
effect on the palate of the consumer being an increased

Fig. 4«.— The Daniell Battery.

life or vigour in the taste of the beverage. Thus, even in
the trivialities of everyday life, electricity has a part to
play. The generation of the voltaic current for tele-
graphic purposes is based upon one or other of these
principles ; and it is essential in telegraphy that the
power of the current derived from the battery should
be adjusted to the circuit.
The strength of the current depends on the electro-

motive force of the battery and upon the rcsislaticc of the
circuit. The precise meaning to be attached to these
terms was first pointed out by Ohm in 1827, who showed
that the strength of the current is directly proportional to
the former and inversely proportional to the latter. The
statement of this relation is commonly spoken of as
"Ohm's Law." The total resistance of a telegraphic
circuit is made up partly of the resistance of the battery,
and its necessary connections, and partly of the resistance
of the metallic conductor constituting the litie. Conse-

quently the law established l>y Ohm may be expressed as
follows : —

Thejavailable effective force of any cunent = the electromotive
•..V force of the Battery— (the resistance of the Battery + the
{^^ V. resistance of the line wire).jj^

It has been found [that in any given case the electro-
motive force and resistance depend upon conditions that
may be thus stated :—

256

NATURE

[July 29, 1875

First, " The electromotive force of a voltaic circuit varies
Avith the number of the elements, and the nature of the
metals and liquids which constitute each element, but is
in no degree dependent on the dimensions of any of their
parts." Second, " The resistance of each element is directly-
proportional to the distances of the plates from each other
in the liquid, and to the specific resistance of the hquid ;
and is also inversely proportional to the surface of the
plates in contact with the liquids." Third, " The resistance
of the connecting wire of the circuit is directly proportional
to its length and to its specific resistance, and mversely
proportional to its section." Some of the more important
forms of battery in use will now be described.

Daniell's Battery, Fig. 42, consists of an earthenware
or glass vessel, within which a smaller jar of some porous
material is placed ; the space between the inner and outer
jars is filled with a dilute solution of sulphuric acid and
water, and within the porous jar a saturated solution of
sulphate of copper ; a cylinder of zinc is immersed in the
acid solution, and a cylinder of copper in the sulphate
solution, crystals of sulphate of copper being introduced
to maintain the strength of the copper medium. The
current from this battery is remarkably constant, a matter
of the greatest importance in the working of a telegraphic
circuit, as with a variation in the working strength of the
current, continued adjustment of the transmitting and
recording apparatus is rendered necessary. Bunsen's
battery (Fig. 43) in many respects resembles the Daniell
arrangement ; carbon is used within the porous cell in
place of the copper cylinder, and nitric acid replaces the
saturated solution of sulphate of copper. The current
produced is stronger, but less constant than that from the
Daniell's cell.

Many other arrangements for the generation of a voltaic
current for telegraphic purposes are in use, such as the
" Mari^ Davy " (Fig. 44), the " Leclanch^," and " Cal-
laud" batteries ; more or less, each has its special merits
and demerits : practically, the " Daniell " remains unsur-
passed. The essential condition of every practical form
of battery is that it shall produce a constant current be free
from local action, and possess mechanical facility of reno-
vation, with simplicity and economy of construction.

7?.

J_J^

Fig. 44.— The Msric Davj' sulphate of mercury Battery.

The measurement of the value of every telegraphic
line as regards electrical resistance, as compared with
some ascertained standard of resistance, is a matter of
vast importance. By this means the electrical insulation
of a submarine cable or a land wire is definitely ascer-
tained, and the existence of a fault, together with its
locality, defined. Without some established utiit of re-
sistance by which to compare the working circuit with its
electrical equivalent, no test of insulation can be main-
tained or restoration of a circuit carried out. By general
acceptance a standard of measurement has been adopted,
a unit of resistance known as the B.A. (British Associa-
tion) unit. It is unnecessary to enter into detail as to the
mechanical problems which determine this unit of resist-
ance ; it is sufficient to state that the electrical resistance
or value of every circuit, land wire and submarine cable,
is now by universal acceptance recorded in B.A. units.
For instance, a guttapercha submarine cable core may
be stated to be so many hundred mi]lions B.A. units of
insulation test ; while, again, an indiarubber core may be
stated to be so many thousand millions of B.A. units of
resistance ; a correct comparison is thus at once deter,
mined.

{To be continued.)

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN
The Transit of Venus, 1882 December 6.— The
Greenwich time of first internal contact in this transit at
any point in these islands, according to Leverrier's Tables
of Sun and Planet, may be accurately found by the
following equation, in which / is the geocentric latitude
of the place, p the corresponding radius of the earth, and
L the longitude, reckoned positive, if east of Greenwich,
and negative, if west : —

G.M.T. first Int. Cont. = Dec. 6d. 2h, i6m. i6s.
+ [2'585S] p sin / - [2*4774] 9 cos /cos (l — 85° 58' -6)
The quantities within square brackets are logarithms ;
the correction of course results in seconds. Direct com-
putations for Greenwich, Edinburgh, and Dublin, furnish
the following particulars of the first internal contact at
these places :—

Angle from
N. point.

,. i°5o 40 .
. 150 42 .
. 150 41 .

Angle from Sun's
Vertex. Altitude.

. 128 2 ... 9"2

. 132 8 ... 6-5
. 132 24 ... 9-6

Local Time,
d. h. m. s.
Greenwich ... Dec. 6 2 21 2
Edinburgh... „ 2 8 46
Dublin ... „ I 56 8
At Greenwich the sun sets just one hour and a half after
Venus has wholly entered upon the sun's disc.

The Sun's Parallax. — M. Liais, Director of the Im-
perial Observatory of Rio de Janeiro, has intimated his
intention to make a serious attempt to determine this
important element from the very favourable opposition of
the planet Mars, which will occur early in September
1877, being encouraged thereto by the success which
attended his observations about the opposition of i860,
when his instrumental appliances were very inferior to
what they are likely to be in 1877, The planet arrives at
perihelion on the 21st of August in that year, and in oppo-
sition at midnight on the 5th of September ; it is in
perigee on September 2nd at a distance of only 0*3767,
which is not far from the minimum, though slightly
greater than in the last three repetitions of the 79-year
period, as will appear from the following comparison : —

Opposition. Mars — Mean Anomaly.

1640-64 - 0° 12'

1719-65 + 2 31

1798-66 + 5 15

1877-68 + 7 58

The horizontal parallax of Mars will attain a value
which, as M. Liais remarks, will be sensibly equal to that
of Venus, diminished by that of the sun. With firm in-
struments and experienced observers, it is very probable
that the amount of solar parallax may be determined by
differential observations of Mars at the opposition of 1877,
with a precision which may be comparable with that
resulting from observations of a single transit of Venus.

A Third Comet in 1813 (?). — Bode, after mentioning
in his Miscellaneous Notices {Berl. Jahrl?. 181 8) that
Canon Stark of Augsburg had observed the first comet of
18 1 3 on the 19th of February, states that Stark had also
discovered on the same evening with a 3^- feet DoUond
telescope, a very small and exceedingly famt comet with-
out tail above the variable star Mira in Cetus, the position
of which, by comparison with the variable, he found to be
at 7h. 28m. 37s., m R.A. 31° 17' 23", and Decl. 1° 52' 9" S.
He saw the comet a second time on the 20th, and again
comparing it v/ith Mira, and another adjacent star, its
place at 7h. 32m. 13s. was in R.A. 33° 47' 3", and Decl.
5° 49' 7" S. Cloudy skies are said to have prevented
further observation. Bode remarks, with respect to this
comet, that it is strange that no other astronomer had
perceived it, " doch versichert Herr Stark," he adds,
"noch in seinemletzten Schreiben anmich,aufs Heiligste,
die Richtigkcit dieser Wahrnehmung." However sus-
picious this circumstance may have appeared, we know
that several of the comets of short period have been
revolving in such orbits for one or two centuries, visiting
these parts of space without doubt under favourable

July 29, 1875]

NATURE

257

circumstances for observation on more than one occasion,
yet entirely escaping detection, so that the mere fact of a
single observer only having seen a comet, is hardly a
sufficient argument against its existence. The late Prof,
d' Arrest even thought it worth while to submit the re-
puted observations of the D'Angos-Comet of 1784 to
further calculation, notwithstanding Encke's well-known
investigation in the " Correspondance Astronomique " of
the Baron de Zach, and we may have something to say
on this subject in a future column. Not having seen any
reference to " Stark's comet " in English astronomical
works, we have given the particulars recorded of it here.

The Great Comet of 1843. — There was some doubt
at the time, from the difficulty attending the determina-
tion of the orbit of this extraordinary body upon the
European observations, whether it had transited the sun's
disc on the day of perihelion or not. The definitive orbit
calculated by a most complete investigation by the late
Prof. Hubbard, of Washington, shows that a transit did
actually take place on the evening of February 27, Green-
wich time, and might have been observed in Australia.
In next week's " Astronomical Column " we shall give the
particulars of this interesting phenomenon, and reproduce
Hubbard's elements with some inferences drawn from
them,

D'Arrest's Comet in 1877.— The mean motion of this
comet at the last appearance in 1870, determined by M.
Leveau from an elaborate calculation of the perturba-
tions in the two preceding revolutions, would bring this
comet into perihelion again on April 17, 1877. The effect
of planetary attraction in the present revolution being
comparatively small, if we take this date for perihelion
passage, the computed path is not likely to differ ma-
terially from the true one. It is as follows : —

T^^ p T^ Distance.

^•^■^- from Earth.

loo'6 ... 2"03
97-2 ... 1-94
93-2 ... 189
89-2 ... 1-89
857 ... 1-90
It would appear from this track that the only chances of
observation will be with the aid of powerful telescopes in
the southern hemisphere. At the last return the comet
was excessively faint, and was only detected at a few of
the European observatories.

THE INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL
EXHIBITION

THE idea of holding an International Geographical
Exhibition at Paris, the opening of which we
announced last week, in connection with the Geographical
Congress which opens in a day or two, was a happy one,
and has so far been fruitful in results. The catalogue of
articles exhibited covers about 450 octavo pages, and the
daily number of visitors reaches thousands ; last Sunday it
was 12,000, including the Sultan of Zanzibar, and other
visitors of all ranks and classes of society. No better
method could have been adopted of showing the advances
made in geography in recent years ; how from being a
mere record of " hairbreadth 'scapes by flood and field," it
has become a complicated science, or rather meeting-
ground of all the sciences ; for, as the equipment of and
instructions to the English Arctic Expedition show, it re-
quires the aid of all the sciences to do its work well, and
in return carries contributions back to them all. We have
no doubt that the great majority of the visitors to the
Exhibition will be astonished that geography has so many
and so varied apparatus and results to show, and we hope
that the Exhibition and Congress will be the means of
awakening in France, as well as in other countries, an
increased interest in geography, lead to its being raised to

Obs. Greenwich.

R.A.

h. m.

1877 March 8

20 51

„ 28 .

. 22 6

April 17

• 23 16

May 7 •

0 25

„ 27

I 30

a higher platform in education, and to its being taught in
a more comprehensive and more scientific way than
hitherto. No doubt this will be but the first of a series of
such exhibitions and congresses, though probably not
annual, and we hope that the next one will be held in
London. We think they are well calculated to give a
strong stimulus to the scientific study of geography.

The arrangements of the Paris Exhibition make it
accessible to all classes, the price of admission in some
cases being as low as a penny. The articles are arranged
mainly according to countries, Britain occupying but a
comparatively narrow space in the catalogue. While
Russia has 42 pages, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark
about 40, Holland 30, Austria and Hungary 44, Great
Britain and her Colonies cover only 9 pages. Even Ger-
many has only 12 pages allotted to her. These apparent
anomalies no doubt arise from some imperfections in the
preliminary arrangements, and are probably to be looked
for in first attempts of this kind ; no doubt the organisers
of the next Geographical Exhibition will profit by the
defects of the present, and have one complete all round.

As our readers are aware, the objects exhibited are
classified into seven groups ; an indication of what is
included in each group will convey some idea of the
nature of the objects exhibited, as well as of the compre-
hensive nature of modern geography.

Group I., Mathematical Geography, Geodesy, and To-
pography, includes of course instruments of practical
geometry, surveying, topography, geodesy and astronomy ;
tables of projection and calculation, maps according to the
various systems of projection, sidereal maps, maps of
triangulation, maps showing the curves of magnetic decli-
nation, &c. In the second group, that of Hydrography
and Maritime Geography, is included a great variety of
instruments besides those used on board all sea-going
ships ; there are dredging and sounding apparatus with
specimens of what is brought up from the sea-bottom,
sounding thermometers and charts, and publications of
various kinds. The third group is an interesting one ;
it includes Physical Geography, General Meteorology,
General Geology, Botanical and Geological Geography,
and General Anthropology. These are illustrated by in-
struments used in the observation of the principal meteoro-
logical phenomena, by maps, atlases and globes repre-
senting the essential facts belonging to the domain of
Physical Geography, Meteorology, and the other sciences
referred to, as well as publications bearing upon them. In
group IV., that of Historical Geography, History of
Geography, Ethnography, and Philology, are included,
works and MSS., ancient and modern, bearing on these
subjects, ancient globes and maps, antiquated instru-
ments, ethnographic collections, and dictionaries of geo-
graphy.

As might be expected, the fifth group. Economic,
Commercial, and Statistical Geography is a large and
varied one ; it includes works and maps bearing on popu-
lation, agriculture, industry, commerce, ways of commu-
nication, ports, colonisation, emigration, &:c., plans and
models of bridges, tunnels, railways, routes, telegraph
lines ; new apparatus for piercing rocks, manufactures
or mineral objects pecuhar to any country, collections of
all kinds of commercial products, machinery used in
manufactures of such products, produce and apparatus of
deep-sea fishing, &c. Group VI., Education and the Dif-
fusion of Geography, includes of course works, maps,
charts, globes, models and instruments of various kinds,
and deserves the attention of all engaged in education.
Group VII. comprehends Explorations, Scientific, Com-
mercial, and Picturesque Voyages, and, as might be
expected, includes a great variety of objects. There are
astronomical, topographical, meteorological, and photo-
graphic instruments of various kinds ; collections of
every kind bearing on voyages of exploration, including
cooking apparatus and drugs ; native implements and

258

NATURE

[July 29, 1875

weapons ; tents and boats of various kinds, special in-
struments and apparatus for polar expeditions, &c., not
to mention narratives and publications of every kind
relating to voyages.

How varied the programme of this exhibition is will be
seen from the above, as well as the fact that the geo-
graphy of the present day is a very complicated and all-
embracing province of knowledge indeed.

It is impossible here to analyse in detail the exhibits
of each country ; we can only at present refer to some of
the objects which, as we learn from a correspondent, have
attracted considerable attention.

The fine set of instruments for travellers exhibited by
our Royal Geographical Society, and invented by Capt.
Georges, R.N., seems to have excited considerable atten-
tion ; it includes a double pocket sextant, an artificial
horizon, and a barometer ; the latter especially, on
account of its ingenious construction, making it useful in
mountaineering, is said to have attracted the attention of
the New French Alpine Club.

From Norway comes a very simple declimeter hav-
ing a crank working on a small notched wheel which
multiplies by ten the number of degrees on the limb on
which the readings are taken ; a close approximation can
thus be obtained by a very simple contrivance.

A Russian marine officer has sent a compass magnifi-
cently fitted up, and a lead for taking soundings, and
samples of the bottom in lakes and shallow seas. It
was used with success on Ladoga, the Caspian, and the
Baltic. The apparatus is very simple, cheap, and not
ponderous.

Mohn's map of churches struck by lightning in Norway
is exhibited in order to illustrate the special danger of
lightning to churches. It shows that two churches in
every three years are struck and one of the two is utterly
destroyed, and that in a climate where thunderstorms are
relatively infrequent.

Sweden exhibits two wonderful pieces of apparatus.
The first is a meteorograph for printing in numbers the
degrees of dry and wet bulb thermometer, barometer, and
the force of the wind. The types are placed on wheels
which are moved every quarter of an hour by electricity.
The barometer is a syphon one, and the thermometers
open by the top a needle which descends every quarter of
an hour into the mercury and gives the degree. The
apparatus works regularly at the University of Upsal
and at the Vienna Observatory, where the readings have
been found quite correct. The printed sheets obtained at
Upsal are posted on the wall of the Geographical Ex-
hibition.

A Swedish engineer has invented a machine to show
where to find beds of iron ore, and to determine also the
depth to which it is necessary to descend. The miracle is
performed by tracing on a map isodynamic magnetic
curves, with a compass exposed to the perturbating influ-
ence of a magnetic needle placed at a distance. Two
systems of isodynamic curves are to be traced, and the
distance between both centres is proved to indicate the
depth. Experiments and explorations with this extraordi-
nary instrument have proved successful.

The Belgian universal meteorograph, as used in Ghent,
is said to be the great success of the Exhibition. It is
expected to create a revolution in weather-warnings and
in meteorology generally, and will leave the famous
Greenwich registering apparatus far behind. A reading
is taken every quarter of an hour and engraved on copper
ready for going through the press. The inventor is M. Van
Ry sselberghe. Professor to the N avigation S chool of O stend.
The members of the several juries visited the galleries
of the Exhibition on Monday last for the first time. Many
members of the Academy of Science — MM. Leverrier,
Faye, Quatrefages, and others — were present, as well as
the foreign commissioners. We hope to give further
details next week.

THE REGULATION OF RIVERS

nr HE recent disastrous floods in France and England
-»■ call attention to the question whether it is practi-
cable so to regulate the flow of the water in rivers as to
prevent, or at least greatly diminish, such misfortunes for
the future. Facts and numerical data exist which show
that such regulation is practicable with much less difficulty
and cost than would be thought by any one who had not
made the necessary calculations.

It is perhaps scarcely necessary to say that the method
of keeping the floods off the lands by means of embank-
ments, which is the only possible resource when we have
to contend against the sea or tidal rivers, is totally inappli-
cable to the case of the inundations of mountain streams
like the Garonne. There need not be any difficulty as
to the strength of the embankments, but it would be im-
practicable to make them high enough to contain between
them such torrents as that of the Garonne when in flood.
The only way in which mountain torrents can be regu-
lated is by constructing reservoirs to retain the flood-
water : and the more this plan is looked at, the more
feasible it will appear.

We shall first refer to a paper by Charles EUett, jun.,
C.E., on " the Physical Geography of the Mississippi
Valley, with suggestions for the improvement of the navi-
gation of the Ohio and other Rivers," forming part of the
" Smithsonian Contributions to knowledge " for 185 1, pub-
lished by the Smithsonian Institution, Washington.

This paper contains the tabulated results of an elaborate
series of observations made by the author in the spring
and summer of 1849 on the flow of the Ohio, at Wheeling,
between Pittsburg and Cincinnati. The flow varied from
10,158,000 cubic feet per hour, with a depth of 2.20
feet on the bar at Wheeling, to 736,000,000 cubic feet,
with a depth of 31 '25 feet on the bar.

" The average volume of water annually flowing down
the Ohio is 835,000,000,000 (eight hundred and thirty-five
thousand million) cubic feet. This volume would fill a
lake 100 feet deep and 17J miles square. To have regu-
lated the supply of the river in 1848, so as to have kept
the depth on the bar at Wheeling uniform throughout the
year, would have required reservoirs capable of holding
240,000,000,000 cubic feet, which is equivalent to a single
lake 100 feet deep, and 9 J miles square. There is no
difficulty, on any of the principal tributaries of the upper
Ohio, in obtaining reservoirs capable of holding from
twelve to twenty thousand millions of cubic feet. It can
scarcely be doubted that twelve or fifteen sites for dams
may be selected capacious enough to hold all the excess
of water, and equalise the annual discharge so nearly that
the depth may be kept within a very few feet of an in-
variable height."

To control the floods of the river, however, much less
than this would be needed. Mr. Ellett takes the case of
the flood of March 1841, as being that in which the
greatest quantity of water passed down of all the floods
concerning which he has information. He takes 25 feet
of depth on the bar as the high-water mark, above which
the river is in flood ; he estimates that during nine days
of flood the river passed down 159,000,000,000 cubic feet
of water, while during the same time, had it been steady
at the high-water mark, the discharge would have been
only 115,000,000,000. If consequently the excess of
44,000,000,000 had been kept back in reservoirs, the flood
would have been prevented.

The volume it is here proposed to deal with —
44,000,000,000 cubic feet — is "just equal to the quan-
tity the river would discharge in fifty days when there is
a depth of five feet in the channel."

The valley of the upper Alleghany, one of the [tribu-
taries of the Ohio, is about a third of a mile in width, A
dam from 55 to 60 feet in height, thrown across the
trough of this valley, so as to submerge not only the main

July 29, 1875]

NATURE

259

illey but its branches, would, according to Mr. Ellett,
• probably form a lake covering from 16 to 18 square
miles, with an average depth of nearly 30 feet, and con-
taining more than 12,000,000,000 cubic feet of water."
" It follows then that we should need but four dams, such
as we have described, to secure the valley of the Upper
Ohio against all destructive floods.

This however assumes that at the beginning of a flood
the reservoirs will be empty— a condition on which it
would not be safe to rely. It also seems that the shape
of the valleys of the tributaries of the Ohio is everything
that could be wished by an engineer who desired to
convert them by means of dams into artificial lakes.
They are trough-shaped, moderately wide, long, and not
too steep. This last is a great advantage, because the
steeper the valley the shorter is the lake that will be
formed by a dam across it. It is likely that the Garonne
and its tributaries are less favourably circumstanced, but
nevertheless in a country of such varied contour as the
south-west of France, there must be many eligible sites
for reservoirs. In another way also the Garonne will
certainly be found a less manageable river than the Ohio,
namely that the volume of its floods bears a much higher
ratio to its ordinary flow.

After the disastrous floods of the Loire in 1855, the late
Emperor wrote a letter to his Minister of Public Works
recommending the control of the floods by means of a
number of small reservoirs to be formed by building dams
across the mountain valleys. This however was lost sight
of, and we see the result in the ruins of Toulouse.

A most useful work of this kind has been in operation
for many years in Ireland. The following particulars are
taken from a paper " on the Industrial Uses of the Upper
Bann River," by John Smyth, jun., C.E., read at the
Belfast Meeting of the British Association last year, and
ordered by the General Committee to be printed in
extenso.

The purpose of the reservoirs on the Bann is not to
prevent floods, which, so far as we are aware, were never
particularly disastrous on that river, but to equalise the flow
of the river for water-power. "In 1835 the principal mill-
owners formed themselves into a provisional committee to
take steps to procure a better and more regular supply of
vvater by the construction of reservoirs. They placed the
matter in the hands of Sir "William Fairbairn, who,
assisted by J. F. Bateman, Esq., surveyed the collecting
grounds of the river Bann and its several tributaries."
Under their advice two reservoirs were constructed at
Lough Island Reavy and Corbet Lough.

The Lough Island Reavy reservoir is 250 acres in
extent, and contains 270,000,000 cubic feet. It cost
15,000/. to construct, besides 6,000/. for land. It is 430
feet above the sea-level, and is supplied by two mountain-
streams. Its drainage area, including the lake itself, is
only about five square miles, and it is filled and emptied
only once in the year.

The Corbet reservoir is lower down than the other, and
is chiefly filled from the Bann itself. Its extent is 70
acres, and its capacity 28,000,000 cubic feet. It "has
been of much more service than its capacity would lead
one to expect, as it may be filled and emptied four or five
times in each year by small floods in the river, and all
the Sunday water can be sent into it, and let down to
the mills on Monday and Tuesday. It is generally
exhausted before the upper reservoir is called on, and
keeps up a supply when there is a scarcity in frosty
weather."

The purpose of regulating the supply has been tolerably
well attained. "A register of the daily height of the
water in Lough Island Reavy has been kept since 1847.
It shows that this reservoir has been of great service, as
during 26 years an average supplementary supply of about
two-fifths of the standard summer discharge allowed over
Ervin's Weir, or about 30 cubic feet per second, has been

granted, for, on an average, 102 days yearly : and the
reservoir has been empty, on an average, eleven and a
half days yearly." " The register of the Corbet reservoir
has not been kept so long or so accurately as that of
Lough Island Reavy ; from the average of three years,
however, and comparison with the register of Lough
Island Reavy, Ifcalculate it has given 120,000,000 cubic
feet in the year, exactly one half that of Lough Island
Reavy, or a good supply for fifty-one days ; add to this
the Lough Island Reavy supply, and there is a total of
153 days of twenty-four hours each." "As the supply
from the reservoirs has only failed, on an average, eleven
and a half days yearly, the standard water power may be
said to have been almost constantly maintained : —
indeed it is almost as good as steam-power, but at much
less cost."

The income of the Company which has made the
reservoirs is derived from a charge authorised by their
Act of Parliament of 10/. per annum per foot of fall
occupied by manufactories, and half of this when occu-
pied by flax scutching mills and country corn-mills. The
total fall from the upper reservoir to the bottom of the
lowest fall is 350 feet, of which 180 are occupied by
machinery. The capital of the Company is 31,000/., and
the dividend about three per cent., with a certainty of
increase, if the advance in the price of coals, and the
expected opening of the higher part of the district by
railway, lead to more of the falls being occupied.

We think the calculations we have quoted from the
American engineer, and the example of what has been
done on a comparatively small scale in Ireland, are
enough to show that the most difficult problems of the
regulation of the flow of rivers may be approached with
great hope of success.

THE GIGANTIC LAND TORTOISES OF THE
MASCARENE AND GALAPAGOS ISLANDS*

II.
A LTHOUGH the island of Aldabra is a British pos-
-^"^ session, its distance from the Mauritius and the
Seychelles renders a supervision on the part of the Govern-
ment very difficult, and no control whatever can be exer-
cised on crews of ships who land there chiefly for the
purpose of cutting wood, which they require for curing
fish, &c. Information having reached England in the
course of last year that it was intended to lodge perma-
nently wood-cutting parties on the island, the speedy
extinction of the tortoises seemed imminent ; and the
time to prevent this seemed all the more opportune, as
the then Governor of the Mauritius, Sir Arthur Gordon,
was known to take great interest in all matters relating
to natural history'. Consequently the following memorial
was addressed to him, signed by the presidents of the
Royal and Royal Geographical Societies, and other men
of science who had made researches into the extinct fauna
of these islands : —

To His Excellency the Hon. Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon,
K. C. M. G.y Governor and Commander-in- Chief of Mauritius
and its dependencies.

We, the undersigned, respectfully beg to call the attention of
the Colonial Government of Mauritius to the imminent exter-
mination of the Gigantic Land Tortoises of the Mascarenes,
commonly called " Indian Tortoises."

2. These animals were formerly abundant in the Mauritius,
Reunion, Rodriguez, and perhaps other islands 6f the western
part of the Indian Ocean. Being highly esteeiiied as food, easy
of capture and transport, they formed tor .many years a staple
supply to ships touching at those islands for refreshment.

* The nib>t.nnce of this article is contained in a paper read by the
author before tlie Rcyal Society in June, 1874, which will appear in the
forthcomioR volume of the " Philosophical Transactions," and to which I
must refer for the scientific portion and other details. Sonic facts which
have come to my knowledge subsequently to the reading of this paper,
are added. Continued from p. 339.

26o

NATURE

{July 29, 1875

3. No means being taken for thteir protection, they have
become extinct in nearly allthc-e islands, and Aldabra is now
the only locality where the Iiut lemains of this animal form are
known now to exist in a state of nature.

4. We have been informed that the Government of Mauritius
have granted a concession of Aldabra to parties who intend to
cut the timber on this island. If this project be carried out,
or if otherwise the island is occupied, it is to be feared, nay
certain, that all the tortoises remaining in this limited area will
be destroyed by the workmen employed.

5. We would, therefore, earnestly submit it to the considera-
tion of Your Excellency whether it would not be practicable that
the Government of Mauritius should cause as many of these
animals as possible to be collected before the wood-cutting parties
or others land, with the view of their being transferred to the
Mauritius or the Seychelle Islands, where they might be depo-
sited in some enclosed ground or park belonging to the Govern-
ment, and protected as property of the Colony.

6. In support of the statements above made and the plan now
submitted to the Mauritius Government, the following passages
may be quoted from Grant's "History of Mauritius" (1801,
4to.) :—

"We (in Mauritius) possess a great abundance of both land
and sea turtle, which are not only a great resource for the
supply of our ordinary wants, but serve to barter with the crews
of ships" (p. 194).

"The best production of Rodriguez is the land-turtle, which
is in great abundance. Small vessels are constantly employed
in transporting them by thousands to the Isle of Mauritius for
the service of the hospital " (p. lOo).

" The principal point of view (in Rodriguez) is, first, the
French Governor's house, or rather that of the Superintendent,
appointed by the Governor of the Isle of France, to direct the
cultivation of the gardens there and to overlook the park of
land-turtles. Secondly, the park of land-turtles, which is on
the sea-shore facing the house." (p. loi.)

7. The rescue and protection of these animals is, however,
recommended to the Colonial Government less on account of their
utility (which nowadays might be questioned in consideration of
their diminished number, reduced size, and slow growth, and of
the greatly improved system of provisioning ships which renders
the crews independent of such casual assistance), than on account
of the great scientific interest attached to them. With the excep-
tion of a similar tortoise in the Galapagos Islands (now also fast
disappearing), that of the Mascarenes is the only surviving link
reminding us of those still more gigantic forms which once inha-
bited the Continent of India in a past geological age. It is one
of the few remnants of a curious group of animals once existing
on a large submerged continent, of which the Mascarenes formed
the highest points.

It flourished with the Dodo and Solitaire, and whilst it is a
matter of lasting regret that not even a few individuals of these
curious birds should have had a chance of surviving the lawless and
disturbed condition of past centuries, it is confidently hoped that
the present Government and people who support the " Natural
History Society of Mauritius " will find the means of saving the
last examples of a contemporary of the Dodo and Solitaire.

London, April 1874

\^Hree follow the signatures. "]

This memorial was most favourably received by Sir A.
Gordon, who in his reply states that, although the inten-
tion of conceding the island to parties for the purpose of
cutting wood had not yet actually been carried out, the
extermination of the tortoises is proceeding quite as
rapidly as if this were the case. Not only are the animals
destroyed by the whalers, but (as he was informed by
visitors to the island) the pigs, which are supposed to
have been left there by a passing ship some years ago,
and which have rapidly multiplied, turn up the eggs in
great numbers, and even devour the very young tortoises.
The lessee should be bound to protect the animals and to
remit annually to Mauritius a pair of living ones which,
with others acquired by purchase, would be preserved in a
paddock of the Botanic Gardens at Pamplemousses. He
adds that in several of the Seychelle Islands such pad-
docks exist, the young tortoises being esteemed as articles
of food ; at four years they appear to be considered fit for
eating ; but he never observed that any are allowed to
grow up as breeding stock to replace the original pain

We confidently hope that Sir A. Gordon's successor
will not lose sight of this matter and that the Royal
Society of Arts and Sciences of Mauritius, to whom a
copy of the memorial has been sent, with the request to
support the appeal of their fellow-labourers in England,
will recognise it as one of their duties to watch that the
existence of one of the most interesting animal types
within the limits of their own special domain, is- not only
prolonged but insured for all times.

We owe it chiefly to the kind mediation of Sir A.
Gordon that a living pair]! of the Aldabra Tortoises are at
present in London. Anxious to acquire this pair for the
collection of the British Museum, the male being known
to be the finest individual of the species in existence, I
requested Sir A. Gordon to assist me in their acquisition,
the owner being at first reluctant to part with them. To
the excellent arrangements of the Hon. C. S. Salmon, Chief
Commissioner of the Seychelles, and to the most fortu-
nate circumstance that Dr. Brooks, the Government
Medical Officer, accompanied and took charge of the
animals on their journey to Europe, we have to thank
that they arrived in the most perfect state of health. The
Zoological Garden being clearly the most appropriate
place for them during their lifetime, I handed them over
to the Zoological Society, and have no doubt that, with
the interest taken in this subject by Mr. Sclater, and with
the care bestowed on them by Mr. Bartlett, these animals
have a better chance of surviving their transmission into
our severe climate than the specimens imported some
thirty or forty years ago.* Mr. Salmon writes that
both the tortoises are natives of Aldabra, though not
of the same breed. The larger, the male, has been in
the Seychelles for about seventy years ; its last pro-
prietor, M. Deny Calais, kept it with the female in a semi-
domesticated state on Cerf Island. His weight is about
800 lbs. ; the length of the shell 5 ft, 5 in. (in a straight
line), the width 5 ft. 9 in. ; f circumference of the shell,
8 ft I in. ; circumference of fore leg, i ft. 11 in., and of
hind leg, 1 ft. 6 in. ; length of head and neck, i f t. 9 in. ;
width of head, 6 in. The female is much smaller, and I
have no information as regards the time she was brought
to the Seychelles. The length of her shell is 3 ft. 4 in.,
the width 3 ft. 10 in., the circumference 5 ft. 4 in. She
lays thrice every year, in the months of July, August, and
September, each time from fifteen to twenty round hard-
shelled eggs. There is every reason to believe that the
laying of eggs will not be interrupted by the transmis-
sion of the animals to England,

Every one who sees these two tortoises side by side is
at once struck by the great difference in form and sculp-
ture of the shell. That of the male is remarkably high,
with a rounded outline, each plate being raised into a
hummock, and deeply sculptured with concentric furrows
along the margins. The female, on the other hand, has
a perfectly smooth shell with an oval outline, without
either furrows or raised portions. The shell of the male
is brownish, that of the female black. The male has also
a comparatively longer neck and tail than the female. It
is quite possible that these are sexual differences, the
males being known to grow to a much larger size than the
females. But as Aldabra consists of three islands, sepa-
rated by channels of the sea which are impassable bar-
riers to animals which may float but cannot swim, it may
be presumed that the two animals come from distinct
islands, each island of the group being inhabited by a
distinct race, as in the Galapagos. This is a question

* I have kept young specimens of the Aldabra Tortoise (two of which are
the offspring of the very individuals now imported), as well as half-grown
ones of the Galapagos species, for years. Want of water and a twenty-four
hours' exposure to a temperature below 50° are fatal to them. In the
autumn and winter they must be kept in a greenhouse where the tempera-
ture should be kept at about 70°. With a plentiful and varied supply of
vegetables, they thrive well and grow perceptibly.

t A large example, probably of the Rodriguez species, which formerly
lived in the Zoological Gardens, and is described in Proc. Zool. Soc, 1833,
p. 81, weighed 289 lbs., the shell being 4 ft, 4J in. in length (over the curve),
and 4 ft, 9 in, in widthi

July 29, 1875]

NATURE

261

the investigation of which I would particularly recommend
to persons visiting Aldabra.

Mr. Salmon states that the male shows himself to be
annoyed when the female is disturbed, and there is no
doubt that he exhibits affection for her, as was especially
evident on board the steamer, when he tried to break
out of his cage as soon as he got sight of the female, who
was transported in a separate cage. The circumstance
that the two animals are a pair, increases the chances in
favour of their being kept alive for a lengthened period.
And they will be well worth all the care we can bestow
on them, as it is extremely doubtful whether we shall ever
succeed again in obtaining a pair of full-grown examples.
The male is without doubt the largest and most powerful
individual of its race, far exceeding in size any of the
few other individuals kept in the Seychelles. Nor is it
likely that in Aldabra itself a similarly large example
should have succeeded in evading the search of the
numerous crews which have landed there.

From the historical evidence given above, it is evident :

1. That the presence of the Gigantic Tortoises at two
so distant stations as the Galapagos and Mascarenes
cannot be accounted for by the agency of man, and there-
fore that these animals must be regarded as indigenous.

2. That, although frequently transported by the early
navigators to distant and apparently suitable localities
(Sandwich Islands, Masa Fuero, and Ceylon), they never
established themselves permanently, but there is no evi-
dence to show whether this failure is due to an innate
inability of the species to become acclimatised when far
removed from its native place, or to the destructiveness
of the inhabitants of those localities.

3. That the different islands of the Galapagos group
were inhabited by distinct races.

4. That possibly the animals even of so small a group
as Aldabra were differentiated in the different islands.

5. That although these animals are still lingering in
the Galapagos and Aldabra their numbers are yearly
diminishing, and that their growth to perfect maturity is
interrupted ; that with respect to the races of the Gala-
pagos Tortoise, the elucidation of the irdistinctive charac-
ters and original distribution, we are, and probably shall
be, dependent chiefly on the materials already preserved
in zoological museums.

6. That the Tortoises of Mauritius and Rodriguez are
entirely extinct. It is probable that in some museums
shells, or even entire animals of these once so numerous
races exist, but it will be a matter of great difficulty to
trace their origin ; therefore our examination is limited
at present to the osseous remains transmitted from the
Mauritius and Rodriguez. Albert Gunther

{To be continued)

NOTES

We are glad to hear that both a zoological and botanical col-
lector will form part of the retinue of the Prince of Wales, in
his approaching visit to India.

Dr. Vogel (not the photographer of that name), the Director
of the newly established " Sonnenwarte" of Berlin, is now in
this country.

The rate of propagation of the recent inundation waves in the
south of France has been determined along the banks of the
Garonne. It was found to have been no more than two miles an
hour in a run of 140 miles in the district where the principal cala-
mities occurred. The consequence is that an immense amount of
property and life could have been saved if a system of warnings
had been adopted. Wise as usual after the event, the authorities
intend to establish such a system as is already in operation at
Lyons for the Rhone, and at Paris for the Seine. In an article
in the July number of Symons's Monthly Mtteorolo^cal Maga-
zine, on the French floods, is an interesting calculation which
will give Londoners some idea of what a " flood " means. Sup-

posing we had a flood in the' Thames, it would cover on the
south bank, the whole of Battersea Park, Lambeth, Southwark,
Bermondsey, and Deptford ; and on the north bank, Fulham,
Chelsea, Brompton, Belgravia, Westminster, and St. James's
Park ; while, as for the new embankment, a steamer might ply
over the top of it

It is suggested that the unusual violence of the floods on the
continent are attributable not only to the abnormal amount of
rain and the sudden melting of snow and ice in the mountain
districts, but also to the increasing destruction of forests which is
taking place in nearly every country. For some years past the
violence of the spring and summer floods has been increasing,
and it is remarkable that this increase in their force is contempo-
raneous with the gradual extinction of forests and woodlands*
The existence of forests has a great effect in equalising the distri-
bution of water, and in checking the too rapid melting of snow
and ice under the influence of the summer heat. At the same time
the growth of timber on hill sides prevents the rapid flow of
surface-water which takes place where trees do not exist. The
question of maintaining forests, instead of destroying them, with-
out making provision for the future, is one which demands the
serious attention of the governments of every country, and parti-
cularly of those countries where, by the existence of hills and
mountains, and consequently rapid rivers, the liability to floods
is increased.

We have been informed that during the recent very bad
weather there has been an unusual number of icebergs met with
in the North Atlantic, and that fogs in Labrador and New-
foundland have been extraordinarily severe and frequent. It is
to be hoped that some general inquiry into the recent peculiar
weather and its accompaniments will be instituted ; no doubt
valuable results would be obtained.

The Austrian Commission to the International Geographical
Exhibition has intimated that they intend to present to the
French Geographical Society all the books they are exhibiting.
As this example will, we are informed, be followed by other
Commissions, a magnificent Geographical Library will be one
of the results of the meeting of the Congress.

The work of the Sub-Wealden Exploration is temporarily
arrested at 1,672 feet from increasing deposit from the sandy
beds. The original problem was dependent on the opinion of
geologists that palreozoic rocks would be found at a depth vaiy-
ing from 700 to 1,700 feet. So far, however, the strata are
mesozoic ; but the latest fossils give some indications of a
palaeozoic rock. Much hope is therefore entertained of solving
the problem.

Parts 19 to 24 of the quarto work published by authority of
the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, on the Zoology of
the Voyage of H.M.S. Erebus and Terror, conclude the descrip-
tions of the Mammalia by the late Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. ; the
Birds by Mr. R. B. Sharpe ; the Reptiles by Dr. A. Gunther,
F.R.S. ; and the Insecta by Mr. A. G. Butler. Part 20 is by
Mr. E. J. Miers on the Crustacea, and Part 21 by Mr. E. A. Smith
on the Mollusca.

The Rev. E. Ledger, M.A., rector of Duxford, Cambridge-
shire, was yesterday elected to the Gresham Professorship of
Astronomy in the City of London. Mr. Ledger was a Carpenter
and Beaufoy Scholar of the City of London School, and after-
wards Fellow and Lecturer of Corpus Christi College, Cam-
bridge. He was fourth Wrangler in 1863, and also University
Scholar of the University of London.

An International Horticultural Exhibition and Congress is to
be held in Amsterdam in 1876, similar to the one held in
Florence last year. A strong committee has been appointed,

262

NATURE

\7uly 29, 1875

who desire the co-operation of the various horticultural societies
throughout Europe in making the undertaking as complete and
successful as possible. The President is to be Mr. J. H. Krelage,
and the Secretary Mr. II. Groenewegen.

Mr. Thiselton Dyer, in consequence of his recent appoint-
ment to Kew, has resigned the Professorship of Botany at the
Royal Horticultural Society.

Dr. Hoffmann, of Giessen, contributes an interesting article
oh the influence of inland-water on the vegetation of shore-
lands to the Oesterreichisches Lanlwirthschaftliches Wochenhlatt
of July 10. His object is to prove that large bodies of water
tend to produce an equable climate, and that a large percentage of
heat and light is due to the reflected rays of the sun from the
surface of the water. To illustrate his argument he selects that
part of the river Rhine which flows from east to west, from
Biebrich to Niederwald, where the northern bank more particu-
larly in the immediate vicinity of the water produces the best
grapes in Germany. Moreover, he states that the fogs rising
from the water in the month of May protect the tender shoots of
the vine from being injured by late frosts. This, at any rate,
does not agree with our experience in this country.

It is stated that, in consequence of pressure of business, the
Government is not likely to be in a position, during the present
session, to return any final answers to the applications for aid
made on behalf of King's College, London ; Owens College,
Manchester ; the University College of Wales ; and other educa-
tional bodies throughout the country.

Lord Aberdare has been elected President of the Social
Science Association for the ensuing year.

In a pit about half a mile east of Erith Railway Station, where
an old and deserted bed of the Thames is excavated for brick
earth, and which has yielded the bones of two species of British
elephant and one of lion. Dr. Gladstone, F.R. S, , was so fortunate
as to find, on Saturday last, a large flint implement of palaeolithic
make. The implement is seven inches in length, slightly convex,
and chipped on the outer curve with three longitudinal faces ;
consequently it has four working edges. At the butt end an
echinus, or sea urchin, is embedded in the flint.

In some excavations which have recently been undertaken
during the construction of the continuation of the Thames em-
bankment westwards, some probably prehistoric remains have
been brought to light, which include a human lower jawbone
with all the teeth present. At about the same spot a flint knife
was discovered and other animal remains, some mixed with
freshwater shells.

In the Proceedings of the Bristol Naturalists' Society (Vol. I.
Partii.) will be found the translation, by Dr. Fripp, of a valu-
able paper by Dr. E. Abbe, of Jena, entitled, " A Contribution
to the Theory of the Microscope, and the Nature of Microscopic
Vision."

The University of California has organised a summer explor-
ing party, which will be occupied about nine weeks in journeying
through the Sierra Nevada Mountains in Mariposa, Mono, and
Inyo counties, and will bestow particular attention to geology,
palaeontology, and mineralogy. The party will be in charge of
Dr. Joseph Le Conte, assisted by Mr. Henry Edwards, Mr. F. P.
M'Lean, and Mr. F. Slate.

Sir Charles Locock, Bart., F.R.S,, First Physician-
Accoucheur to the Queen, died on Friday last, at the age of
seventy-six years.

■ The British Archseological Association meets this year at
Evesham, on Monday, August 16, when the President, the
Marquis of Hertford, will deliver the inaugural address.

A Reuter's telegram states that an attack has been made on
the Palestine exploring party, none of whom have, however, been
hurt. The assailants were repulsed.

The rector of the Catholic University of Louvain (Belgium) has
gone to Paris in order to consult with the ecclesiastics now engaged
in preparing to establish a Catholic University in that city.
The site has been already chosen, and is close to the place where
La Bastille was erected during the old Monarchy. The liberals
are not likely to establish a University of their own, if the
existing University satisfies their principal claims.

A capital weekly journal, the Elctrical News and Tele-
graphic Reporter, whose first appearance we intimated a few
weeks ago, has just completed the first month of its existence.
It is edited with care and ability by Mr. Crookes, and is uniform
in size and price with the Chemical News. In the number for
July 22 there are nine articles of considerable scientific value and
others of no less general interest. We notice especially the
paper on Quadruplex Telegraphy and the Telegraph in China.
The notes are interesting, and the reports of electrical science from
the foreign journals are well done. We are glad to be able to
bring this useful journal under the notice of our readers.

An examination will be held at Exeter College, Oxford, on
Thursday Oct. 14, for the purpose of election to two scholarships
in Natural Science, of the annual value of 80/. each, tenable for
five years.

We have received the " Second Appendix" to the " Flora of
Liverpool," issued by the members of the Field Club. It con-
tains additional habitats for many species, and also include*
several species not previously recorded as growing in the dis-
trict, some of them of considerable rarity, as : Ranuncultit
Jluitans, Barbatea stricta, Carduus nutans, Doronicum Farda-
lianches, Cusenta Europaa, Mentha rubra, Siachys ambigua,
Atriphx triangularis, Rinnex pratensis, Alisme natans, Carex
divulsa, axillaris and fulva. Local " floras " are becoming so
numerous now, and the directions for finding certain plants so
minute, that there is some point in the remark of a facetious
foreign professor of botany, who said that we should soon have
have all our British plants separately labelled. This defect (in
our opinion) is rather conspicuous in the Appendix to the Flora
of Liverpool. It may be desirable to know something about th«
number of individuals of exceedingly rare though undoubtedly
indigenous species.

Mr. Dall has presented a report to the United States Coast
Survey on the tides, currents, and meteorology of the Northern
Pacific. He finds proof of the existence of a northerly current,
denominated by him " the Alaska current," which had previously
been surmised.

Vol. VI. of Mr. F. V. Hayden's Report of the U.S. Geolo.
gical Survey consists of a monograph, by Mr, Leo Lesquereux
on the Cretaceous Flora of the Western Territories, profusely
illustrated. Mr. H. Gannett, under the same direction, has
issued the third edition of a List of Elevations west of the Mis-
souri River.

The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the
past week include, a Chimpanzee ( Troglodytes niger) from W.
Africa, presented by Capt. Lees, Govenor of Lagos, W. Africa ;
three Amherst Pheasants ( Thaumalea amherstice) ; a Geoffroy's
Blood Pheasant {Ithaginis Geo^royii) and five Tettiminck's Tra-
gopans ( Ceriornis Temminckii) from China, deposited ; a Sam-
bur Deer [Cervus arisiotelis), two Brown Indian Antelopes
{Tetraceros subquadricornutus) from India, a Tora Antelope
{Alcelaphus tora) from Upper Nubia, an Elate Hornbill {Buceros
elatus), an Electric Silurus {Melapterurus beninensis) from W.
Africa, a Naked-throated Bell Bird {Chasmorhynchus nudicollis),
a Pectoral Tanager {Ramphoccelus brasilius), a Festive Tanager
(Calliste fesHva) from Brazil, purchased.

July 29, 1 875 J

NATURE

263

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

London

Geological Society, June 23.*— Mr. John Evan?, V.P.R.S.,
president, in the chair. — On the Granitoid and associated Meta-
morphic Rocks of the Lake-dis-trict, by J. Clifton Ward.

Part I. On the Liquid CavitiiS in the Quartz- bearing Rocks of the
Lake-disttict. — The object of this paper was to examine into the
evidence afforded by the liquid cavities of the granitoid rocks of
the Lake-district, with reference to the pressure under which these
rocks may have consolidated. In the first division of the subject the
geological relations of the three granitic centres of the district
were considered, and it was shown that these several granitic
masses probably solidified at depths varying from 14,000 feet to
30,000 feet. The most probable maxnnum depth for the Skidda'v
granite was stated as 30,000 feet ; the maximum for the Eskdale
granite 22,000 leet ; and for the Shap granite 14,000 feet. These
maximum depths were arrived at by estimating the greatest
thickness of strata that were ever, at one time, accumulated
above the horizon of the top of the Skiddaw slates. The mode
of microscopic examination, together with a description of the
precautions taken in measuring the relative sizes of the cavities
and their contained vacuities, formed the second division of the
paper. It was stated that all the measurements used in the
calculations were made from cases in which the vacuity mixed
freely in the liquid of the cavity, and an approximately ptrftct
case for measurement was defined to be one in which the outline
of the liquid cavity was sharply defined all round in one fo.us,
and in which the vacuity moved freely to every part of the cavity
without going out cf focus. Then followed the general results of
the examination. Restricting the measurements to such cases as
those above mentioned, the results were found to be generally
consistent with one another, and with those previously obtained
by Mr. Sorby in his examination of other granitic districts.
From the fact that the calculated pressure in feet of rock was in
all cases greatly in excess of the pressure which could have
resulted from the thickness of overlying rocks, it was inferred as
probable that these granitic masses were not directly connected
with volcanic action, by which the pressure might have been
relieved, but that the surplus pressure was spent in the work of
elevation and contortion of the overlying rocks. Microscopic,
combined with field evidence, was thought to indicate that the
Shap granite, though mainly formed at a depth similar to that
at which the Eskdale granite consolidated, was yet itself finally
consolidated at a much less depth, the mass having eaten its way
upwards at a certain point, and perhaps representing an unsuc-
cessful effort towards the formation of a volcanic centre. The
examination showed that the mean of the pressures under which
the Lake-district granites probably consolidated was nearly the
same as the mean which Mr. Sorby arrived at for those of Corn-
wall. In conclusion the author stated that he wished these
results to be considered as preliminary only, since the complete
investigation would necessarily occupy far more time than was
at his disposal ; at the same time he ventured to hope xhnigeneral
accuracy was insured, while pointing to the many little-known
causes which might affect the conclusions.

Part II. On the Eskdale and Shap Granites, with thiir associated
Metamorphic Rocks. — The author brought forward evidence in
this paper to prove the possibility of the formation of granite by
the extreme metamorphism of volcanic rocks. The passage is
shown in the field, and may be observed in a complete series of
hand specimens. Frequently, indeed, the actual junction is well
marked, but in other cases the transition is gradual ; and there
occur at some little distance from the main mass, inlying patches
of what may be called bastard granite. The microscopic exami-
nation proves the passage from a distinctly fragmentary (ash) to
a distinctly crystalline rock, and to granite itself. Also the
chemical composition of the altered rocks agrees very closely
with that of the granite. Both Eskdale and Shap granite were
believed to have been foiined mainly from the rocks of the
volcanic series by metamorphism at considerable depths ; but
the granite of Shap was thought to be in great measure intrusive
amongst those particular beds which are now seen around it . A
decided increase in the proportion of phosphoric acid was noted
in the volcanic recks on approaching the granite, and a decrease
in carbonic acid.

On the Correlation of the Deposits in Cefn and Ponlnewjdd
Caves, with the Drifts of the neighbourhood, by Mr.D. Mackintosh.
Believing that the time has arrived for making some attempt to

* Continued from p. 243.

correlate cavern-deposits with glacial and interglacial drifts, the
author ventures to bring forward the results of a personal exami-
nation of the remnants of the deposits in Cefn and Pontnewydd
caves, compared with old accounts given by Mr. Joshua Trimmer
and others. He has been led to regard the following as the
sequence of deposits before the caves were nearly cleared out
(order ascending) :— i. Loam with bones and smoothly rounded
pebbles, nearly all local (cemented into conglomerate in Pont-
newydd cave). As a few foreign pebbles of felstone have beea
found in this bed, it could not have been deposited by the adja-
cent river Elwy before the great glacial submergence ; and the
author gives reasons for believing that it was not introduced by
a freshwater stream from the boulder-clay above in Post- glacial
times, but that it may possibly represent the middle drift of the
plains, and may have been washed in by the sea during the rise
of the land. After emergence, and during a comparatively mild
interglacial period, bones of animals may have been introduced
by rain through fissures in the roof of the cave, and these may
have become partly mixed up with the underlying pebbly deposit.
2. Stalagmite, from less than an inch to two feet in thickness, accu-
mulated during a continuance of favourable conditions (apparently
absent in Pontnewydd cave). Bones of animals were again
brought in by rain or by hyaenas, and were afterwards worked
up into the Ibllowing deposit : — 3. Clay, with bones, angular
and Eubangular fragments of limestone, pebbles of Denbighshire
sandstone, felstone, <S:c. (palaeolithic flint implements and a
human touth in Pontnewydd cave according to Prof. T. -M 'Kenny
Hughes). This clay once filled the Cefn cave nearly to the roof.
There are reasons for believing that it was principally introduced
through the mouth of the cave, that it is of the same age with
the neighbouring upper boulder-clay, and that it is not a fresh-
water redeposit of that clay. It was probably washed in during
a second limited submergence. 4. Loam and coarse sand charged
with minute iragments of sea-shells. Portions of this deposit
may still be found in the Cefn cave ; and it may have been intro-
duced through fissures in the roof by the sea as the land wag
finally emerging.

Geological Notes from the State of New York, by Mr. T. G.
B. Lloyd, C. E. The substance of this paper comprises notes,
accompanied by drawings and sketches of various matters of
geological interest which fell under the author's observation
whilst residing some years ago in the State of New York. The
different subjects are divided under the following heads : — (l)
Groovings and channelings in limestone running across the bed
of Black River at Waterlovvn, Jefferson co. (2) Descriptions of
the superficial beds of boulder-clay, sand, and gravel which were
exposed to view in the district around the village of Theresa
during the construction of the Black River and Morristown rail-
road. (3) A description, with a general and detailed drawing to
scale, of a remarkable "Giant's Kettle" near Oxbow, in Jeffer-
son CO. (4) An account of some peculiar flower-pot-shaped
blocks of sandstone discovered in a quarry of Potsdam sandstone
at the village of Theresa. The author in conclusion refers to a
statement in a paper on Niagara by Mr. Belt, F.G.S., published
in the Quart. Journ. of Science for April 1875, in which it is stated
that the sections described as occurring near the Falls are typical
of the superficial beds that mantle the whole of the northern
part of the State of New York and Ohio and much of Canada,
lie is unable to find any description of a deposit which bears a
near resemblance to the boulder-clay occurring in the district
around the village of Theresa, in the descriptions of various
authors of the superficial deposits of the northern part of the
State of New York and Canada. He therefore ventures to
remark that no section can be considered as typical of the whole
of the north part of the State of New York which does not
recognise the existence of the deposit in question.

On a Vertebrate Fossil from the Gault of Folkestone, which
also occurs in the Cambridge Greensand, by Prof. II. G. Seeley,
F.L.S. The author describes a bone having the general form
of an incisor tooth obtained from the Gault of Folkestone by Mr.
f . S. Gardner, F.G.S. The flattened cylindrical end of a speci-
men from the Cambridge Greensand has been figured as a caudal
vertebra of Pterodactylits simus. A microscopic section of the
expanded end of a specimen from the Cambridge Greensand
exhibits ordinary osseous tissue, showing that the fossil is
probably a dermal spine from the tail of a Dinosaur. The
Gault specimen is smaller than tlie examples from Cambridge.

Royal Horticultural Society, July 7.— Scientific Com-
mittee.—J. D. Hooker, F.R.S., in the chair. — A paper on the
resting-spores of the potato disease was read by Worthington

264

NATURE

\yuly 29, 1875

Smith, F.L.S. These were identified with the bodies which
Mr. Berkeley had lately regarded as a species oi Frotomyces, and
the cause of a new malady in the potato. The following are the
principal points in this very important communication : — On re-
ceiving authentic specimens of diseased plants from Mr. Barron,
Gardener-in-Chief to the Society, the brown spots on the potato-
leaves at once called to mind the figures of some species of Fro-
tomyces, and the dimensions agreed tolerably well with some
described plants of that genus, but the spots, when seen under a
high power, appeared very unlike any fungus, and they were very
sparingly mixed with other bodies much smaller in diameter, and
with a greater external resemblance to true fungus spores. These
latter spore-like bodies were of two sizes — one transparent and of
exactly the same size as the cells of the leaf (and therefore very
easily overlooked), and the other dark, reticulated, and much
smaller. A few mycelial threads might be seen winding amongst
the cellular tissue. The author's opinion, therefore, was soon
formed that the " new " potato disease was no other than the old
Feronospora infesians in an unusual and excited condition. That
climatic conditions had thrown the growth of this fungus forward
and out of season was probable ; but the idea that the pest would
not at length attack all and every sort of potato seemed un-
reasonable, though the more tender sorts might be the first to
suffer. From day to day the diseased leaves and stems and tubers
were kept between pieces of very wet calico, in plates under
glass, and it was immediately noticed that the continued moisture
greatly excited the growth of the mycelial threads. So rapid
was now the growth of this mycelium, that after a week had
elapsed some decayed parts of the lamina of the leaf were tra-
versed in every direction by the spawn. In about ten days the
mycelium produced a tolerably abundant crop, especially in the
abortive tubers, of the two-sized boaies previously seen in
the fresh leaves. The larger of these bodies Mr. Smith was
disposed to consider the "oospore" of the potato fungus, and
the smaller bodies as the ' ' antheridia " of the same fungus,
which are often terminal in position. The filaments of the latter
are commonly much articulated, and sometimes more or less
moniliform or necklace-like. Both oospore and antheridium are
very similar in nature and size to those described as belonging to
Feronospora alsinearum and F. umbelli/erarum, and this is another
reason (beyond the occurrence of undoubted F. injestans on potato-
leaves at the beginning of June) why he was disposed to look upon
these bodies as the oospore and antheridium of the potato fungus.
The larger bodies are at first transparent, thin, pale brown, fur-
nished with a thick dark outer wall, and filled with granules ; at
length a number (usually three) of vacuities or nuclei appear.
The smaller bodies are darker in colour, and the external coat is
marked with a few reticulations, possibly owing to the collapsing
of the outer wall. At present he had been unable to detect any
fecundating tube (described as belonging to the antheridium of
other species of Feronospora), but he had observed the two
bodies in contact in several instances. After fertilisation has
taken place, the outer coat of the oospore enlarges, and appears
to be cast off. Both antheridium and resting-spore are so slightly
articulated to the threads on which they are borne that they are
detached by the slightest touch, but with a little care it is not
reaDy difficult to see both bodies in situ ; and my observations
lead me to think that conjugation frequently takes place after
both organs are quite free. The antheridia and oospores are
best seen in the wettest and most thoroughly decomposing tuber,
but they occur also in both the stem and leaf. The author was
also disposed to regard Montague's Artotrogus as identical with
the resting-spore of Feronospora infestans, an opinion which had
long been held by Mr. Berkeley.

Paris
Academy of Sciences, July 19.— M. Fremy in the chair. —
The following papers were read : — On M. Espy's meteorological
theory, by M. Faye. — On the continuation which it will be
necessary to make of experimental researches on plasticodyna-
mics, by M. de Saint-Verant. This new branch of mechanics
treats of the internal motions of solid bodies in a state of plas-
ticity. M. Tresca added some remarks on the same subject. —
Experimental and clinical considerations on the nervous system
with regard to its function in actions governed by the sensitive,
instinctive and intellectual faculties, as well as in the so-called
voluntary locomotive actions, by M. Bouillaud. The author
arrives at the following conclusions : — The cerebrum and the
cerebellum are both absolutely necessary for all actions v/hich
are governed by the various faculties of mind or intelligence.
The cerebellum is the seat of co-ordination of the movements of

walking, the cerebrum being the seat of the co-ordinating centres
of the movements necessary for the execution of a great number
of intellectual actions, speech in particular. — On a distinc-
tion between natural and artificial organic products. The
author repeats the distinction made by him in i860, in reply to
a statement by M. Schutzenberger. This distinction is that
natural bodies are always unsymmetrical. — Observations relating
to M. Hirn's communication of June 23. Importance of basing
the new theory of heat on the hypothesis of the vibratory state
of bodies, by M. A. Ledieu. — Note on the chronology and
geography of the plague in the Caucasus, in Armenia, and in
Anatolic during the first half of the nineteenth century, by
M. J. D, Tholozan. — On the development of the spiny rays in
the scale of Gobius Niger, by M. L. Vaillant. — On d' Arrest's
periodic comet, by M. Leveau. — Observations of Jupiter's satel-
lites during the oppositions of 1874 and 1875. Determination of
their differences of aspect and of their variation of brilliancy, by
M. Flammarion. In size the decreasing order is III., IV., I., II.
Intrinsic luminosity for equal surfaces I., II., III., IV. Vari-
ability in decreasing order IV., I., II., III. — Note on magnetism;
reply to an observation of M. Jamin, by M. J. M. Gaugain. —
Oxy-uvitic and the cresol derived from it, by MM. A. Oppen-
heim and S. Pfaff. The cresol is metacresol. — On a compound
of methyl oxide and hydrochloric acid, by M. C. Friedel. — On the
diethylic ether of xanthoacetic acid, by MM. C. O. Cech and A.
Steiner. — On the estimation of carbon disulphide in the sulpho-
carbonates of potassium and sodium, by MM. David and
Rommier. — On the mode of action of the pillars of the dia-
phragm, by M. G. Carlet. — On the reproduction of eels, by M.
C. Dareste. — The morphological elements of the oblong leaves
of the monocotyledons, by M. D. Clos. — On a claim of
priority relative to a fact of botanical geography, by M. Ch.
Contejean. — During the meeting M. Mouchez was elected a
member of the Astronomical section to replace the late M.
Mathieu.

BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

British.— Chambers' Encyclopaedia. lo vols., new and revised edition
(W. and R. Chambers). — Reports of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council
and Local Government Board. New Series, No. 3 (.^pottis»oode). — On the
Inequalities of the Earth's Surface viewed in connection with the Secular
Cooling: Osmond Fisher, M.A. (Cambridge Philosophical Transactions). —
Flora of Eastbourne : F. C. S. Roper, F.L.S. (Van Voorst). — Travels in
Portugal : John Latouche (Ward, Lock, and Tyler) — Second Supplement
to Watts's Dictionary of Chemistry (Longmans). — Transactions of the Man-
chester Geological Society, Vol. xiii. Part 10. — Health in the House : Cathe-
rine M. Buckton (Longmans). — Hydrology of South Africa: J. Croumbie
Brown, LL.D. (H. S. King and Co.) — Rudiments of Geology: Samuel
Sharp, F.S.A., F.G.S (E. Stanford). -The Skull and Brain; thcr Indica-
tions of Character and Anatomical Relations : Nicholas Morgan (Longmans).
North Staffordshire Naturalists' Field Club Addresses, Papers, &c. — On the
ScnsatioBS ot Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music, by H.
Helmholtz; translated by A J. Ellis, F.R.S. (Longmans). — Reports and
Proceedings of the Miners' Association of Cornwall and Devon for 1874.

CONTENTS Pags

Practical Physics 245

Carus and Gerstaecker's " Handbuch der Zoologie." By Prof.

E. Ray Lankestek, F.R.S 247

Our Summer Migrants 249

Our Book Shelf : —

Dymond's " Meteorology of West Cornwall and Scilly " . . . . 250
Letters to the Editor : —

Vibrations of a Liquid in a Cylindrical Vessel. — Lord Ravleigh,

FR.S 25t

Insectivorous Plants — Dr. Lawson Tait 251

Curious Phenomenon in the Eclipse of 1927. — Rev. S. J. Johnson^ 252
Spectroscopic pr^visioi of Rain with a High Barometer. — Prof.

Piazzi Smyth 252

Sea-power — A. C 253

Our Botanical Column : —

The Adelaide Botanic Garden 253

Sumbul Root 253

The Progress of the Telegraph, IX. (IVith Illustrations) ... 254
Our Astronomical Column : —

The Transit of Venus, 1882 December 6 256

The Sun's Parallax 256

A Third Comet in 1813 (?) 256

The Great Comet of 1843 257

D'Arrest's Comet in 1877 257

The International Geographical Exhibition 257

The Regulation of Rivers 259

The Gigantic Land Tortoises of the Mascarene and Gala-
pagos Islands, II. By Dr. Albert Gunther, F.R.S 259

Notes ... 261

Societies and Academies 263

Books and Pamphlets Received 264

Errata. — Page 232, col. i, line 24 from bottom, for "currents" read
" cumuli " ; line 22 from bottom, for "lovely " read " lowly."

NATURE

265

THURSDAY, AUGUST 5, 187S

AMERICAN GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS

THE United States of America have certainly done
noble work in the exploration and mapping of their
vast empire. Most of the long-settled States have for
many years possessed elaborate maps and reports upon
the topography, geology, and agricultural features of their
territory. The central Government has likewise carried
on extensive and admirable coast surveys, besides innu-
merable expeditions and surveys for opening up the less
known or wholly unvisited regions of the interior of the
continent. Were all the literature connected with this
subject gathered together it would be found to form of
itself a goodly library. Some of it has been published in
most costly and indeed luxurious style ; other portions,
and these sometimes not the least interesting or valuable,
have to be unearthed from the pages of flimsily printed
" blue-books." But whatever be their external guise,
these narratives are pervaded by an earnestness and
enthusiasm, a consciousness of the magnitude of the scale
on which the phenomena have been produced, and yet a
restrained style of quiet description, which cannot but
strike the reader. Their writers have evidently had their
feelings of awe and admiration worked sometimes up to
the highest pitch, yet they contrive on the whole to pre-
sent just such plain frank statements of facts as to convey
clear and definite notions of the regions they describe.
Though little is said about hardships and hair-breadth
escapes, one can see that these bold explorers could not
have accomplished what they so modestly and quietly
narrate without a vast amount of privation and danger.
Some of them, indeed, like poor young Loring in 1871,
have lost their lives by Indian assassins, others have
fallen victims to the disease and debility necessarily
attendant on so much exposure. But on the whole the
work seems to be healthy, and the men engaged upon it
like it and keep to it.

Leaving for the present the consideration of what has
been done and is now doing in the more settled States,
let us turn to those vast territories lying to the west and
stretching across the Rocky Mountains to the shores of
the Pacific. At the beginning of this century compara-
tively little was known of these regions. But the Govern-
ment then resolved to gather some information on the
subject, and with that end despatched an expedition in
1804 which penetrated the wilderness, reached the western
sea-board, and after much hardship brought back a first
instalment of knowledge regarding this part of the con-
tinent. During the period preceding the year 185 1,
somewhere about forty exploring and survey parties were
sent by the War Department into the tracts lying to the
west of the Mississippi. But in the next twenty years,
viz., from 1850 to 1870, the same Department conducted
forty-six of these surveys, not merely for military purposes,
but to aid in the general opening up of the vast unex-
plored territories. As a rule, however, and until com-
paratively recently, these expeditions could make no
pretensions to geographical accuracy. Their object was
merely to fix as well and as rapidly as might be the
positions of main landmarks, and to collect such informa*
Vol. XII. — No. 301

tion as to the nature of the country as was most needful,
with the view to its early settlement.

But the discovery of gold in California at once drew
attention to the western slope, and awakened a strong
desire to open up a better and more expeditious commu-
nication with it than had previously been in use. The
Pacific Railroad was projected, and surveys were made to
ascertain the best routes. In the course of these explora-
tions much additional information was obtained, but still
in such necessarily rapid work there could be little done
towards accurate geographical and topographical deter-
minations. Hence we find that prominent points were
sometimes placed from three to twenty miles out of their
true position. Nor could much be attempted of any
value in a geological point of view. It is seldom that a
single traverse of the rocks of a wide region can be un-
derstood without a knowledge of the country lying on
either side of it.

In a region of which no reliable maps exist, it is of
course impossible to conduct a geological survey except
in connection with a topographical one. The geologists
must either make their own topographical maps, or be
accompanied by surveyors who do that for them. Pre-
vious to the year 1867 no special geological exploration
seems to have been carried on in the territories as the
work of any Government Department. But in that year
no fewer than three separate and independent geological
surveys were organised. One of these, under the direc-
tion of the War Department, but conducted entirely by
civilians, with Mr. Clarence King at their head, made a
careful examination of a tract about a hundred miles
broad, stretching along the fortieth parallel, from the
eastern boundary of Cahfornia to the eastern slope of the
Rocky Mountains. A second survey, under the direction
of the Smithsonian Institution, with Mr. J W. Powell in
charge, had as its task the exploration of the Colorado of
the West and its tributaries. A third survey, or series of
surveys, has been conducted with great zeal by the De-
partment of the Interior over a vast range of country
embracing Nebraska, parts of Colorado and New Mexico,
Wyoming, Utah, Montana, and Idaho. These surveys
have been under the guidance of Dr. F. V, Hayden.

There appears to have been no concert between the
different Government Departments in the organisation
and conduct of these various geological explorations.
Each survey party was sent out as if it had the boundless
wilderness to subdue without the aid of any compatriots
or even the chance of seeing human beings save hostile
Indians. The Territories, though vast, were not infinite,
and it was to be expected that some time or other the
independent survey parties should meet. This does not
seem to have happened for some years. Meanwhile,
however. Dr. Hayden's expedition, supported by increas-
ingly liberal grants from Congress, was doing most excel-
lent work, making a good general map, and at the same
time bringing before the world an annual report full of
most interesting and valuable and sometimes remarkably
novel information regarding the geology and natural his-
tory of the regions visited. The War Department, with
a far more powerful organisation, and with the help of a
staff of trained civilians, was much more deliberate in its
movements. Very little of its work had seen the light,
though of the excellence and copiousness of that work

p

266

NATURE

\Aug. 5, 1875

there was no reason to doubt. As the Department had
been for more than half a century in undisputed com-
mand of the exploratory expeditions of those western
regions, perhaps some of its more zealous functionaries
may have grown somewhat jealous of the increasing
popularity of the work done by the Department of the
Interior, and may have looked upon that work as an
unwarrantable encroachment upon the recognised pro-
vince of the military corps. Be this as it may, a chance
meeting of two independent survey parties in 1873, and
the fact that to a certain extent they both surveyed the
same ground, led to a battle royal in the spring of last
year, wherein appeared the chiefs of the Departments
with President Grant at their head, military men, geolo-
gists, naturalists, topographers, and several cohorts of
professors. Evidently some of the parties knew that the
contest would come sooner or later, and were prepared
accordingly. The first bomb-shell was thrown as it were
by an outsider, on the 15th of April, 1874, when Mr,
Lazarus D. Shoemaker carried a resolution in Congress
requesting the President to inform the House what geo-
graphical and geological surveys were carried on by the
Government in the same or contiguous areas of territory
lying to the west of the Mississippi, and whether these
could not be combined under one Department, or at
least have their respective geographical limits defined.

The question thus raised turn out to be really whether
the War Department should have entire control of the
surveys, both those intended for military and those for
purely civil purposes. The President replied that they
would be more economically and quite as efficiently
carried on by the military authorities. Not content with
this recommendation of its military chief, Congress
referred the matter to its Committee on Public Lands.
A careful investigation followed, and though the military
side fought hard for its supremacy, the Committee
decided against the purposed consolidation. Their con-
clusions ran thus : " That the Surveys under the War
Department, so far as the same are necessary for military
purposes, should be continued ; that all other Surveys for
geographical, geological, topographical, and scientific
purposes should be continued under the Department of
the Interior, and that suitable appropriations should be
made by Congress to accomplish these results."

There can be little doubt that though it must have
chagrined some sanguine partisans whose ebullitions of
temper iorm an amusing feature in the congressional
blue-book, this decision of the Committee was in the cir-
cumstances a wise one, and one which, followed out by
the Government, will have an important influence in the
development of the vast and still unexplored regions over
which the surveys have yet to extend. It is impossible
that the corps of Engineers, weighted with all the
numerous and arduous duties which form its ordinary
work, should be able to furnish the necessary complement
of trained geologists, botanists, naturalists, and other
scientific men for the adequate exploration of the territories.
In fact, the scientific work of that corps has all along been
done in great measure by civilians. But it is neither
needful nor desirable that civilians of high training in
- practical scientific work should be placed under military
direction. They move more freely without it. And as
in the Western Territories they declare that they no

longer need the protection of an escort, the sole remaining
reason for a military supervision would seem to be
removed.

The Surveys of the Department] of the Interior
claim the first place from their voluminousness and
from the wide area to which they refer. As already
mentioned, they have been carried on since their be-
ginning by Dr. F. V. Hayden, to whose skill in geo-
logical work, and tact in diplomatic relations with
Government bureaux, officials, and fellow-labourers in
science, their success is certainly in large measure
due. For the last twenty-two years he has given himself
to the exploration of the north-western territories. In the
spring of 1853 he ascended the Missouri in one of the
American Fur Company's steamboats and spent three
years up there, during which time he accumulated con-
siderable collections in natural history. In 1856 he joined
an expedition of the Engineer Topographical Corps to
that region as surgeon and naturaUst. On the outbreak
of the Civil War he took service in the Federal Army, as
Surgeon of Volunteers, and served four years. But
when the war ended, finding himself out of employment,
he in 1866 returned to the north-west on his own resources,
and resumed his researches in the natural history of that
region. In the following year. Congress having made a
small grant of $5,000 towards a Geological Survey of
Nebraska, Dr. Hayden received the charge of it. This
was the beginning of his career as Government geologist.
But his path was not strewn with roses, either amid the
hills of Nebraska or in the Government Offices at Wash-
ington. The sum appropriated for his survey in 1867
was the unexpended balance of the grant for the legis-
lative expenses of the territory. He had a sore fight to
get it renewed next year. But in 1869 Congress took up
the question in a broader spirit, and sanctioned a general
geological survey of the Territories of the United States,
with an appropriation of |io,ooo to be administered by
the Department of the Interior. Since that date, owmg
no doubt to the marked success of the Survey, the gran
has grown rapidly in amount, till at present it stands at
875,000.

This great increase in the amount of funds at his dis-
posal has enabled Dr. Hayden to augment and equip his
staff to an extent very different from that of his modest
beginning in 1867. According to his last published
report he organises his force into three geological parties,
each completely furnished and able to act independently,
so that if desired it could be transferred to any portion of
the public domain. Each of these parties consists of a
topographer, an assistant topographer, a geologist, two
packers, a cook, and usually two or three others as
general assistants or collectors in natural history. But
besides these he has still three other parties, one for
the purpose of carrying on the primary triangulation of
the country and thus correcting and harmonising the
trigonometrical work of the other or geological explorers,
a second for procuring photographs and information
likely to be useful to the other parties and the public,
and a third, and not least important, the quartermaster's
party, for furnishing supplies to all the others. These
three last-named parties traverse the entire field of work.

A mere inspection of the catalogue of the publications
of the Geological Survey of the Territories is enough to

Aug. 5, 1875]

NATURE

267

show what an enormous amount of work has been got
through in seven years. First of all there is an Annual
Report of Progress, in which, without waiting for com-
pleted surveys, the general results of each year's work are
given, in geology, palaeontology, mineralogy, natural his-
tory, meteorology, archaeology, and economic products of
every kind. Then come what are called Miscellaneous
PubHcations and " Bulletins"— little pamphlets giving
data in meteorology, topography, natural history, or other
information gathered in the course of the Survey. Next
we have large quarto monographs, admirably printed and
illustrated, devoted to the discussion of the more technical
and matured results, such, for instance, as the palaeon-
tology of a wide region or of a formation. Lastly, a series
of topographical maps of parts of the districts surveyed
has been published. These will be of great value as a
basis for the general map to be afterwards constructed.
Geologists in this country accustomed to the elaborate
geological maps issued by our Government, may perhaps
at first wonder why geological maps, properly so called,
do not appear among the publications of the Geological
Survey of the Territories. But the delay in the issuing of
a general map is as necessary as it is prudent. A report
may be written of what one sees. It is complete in itself;
and if it is found to contain errors, these can be corrected
in a subsequent report. But a sheet of a geological map
must fit accurately to its neighbours. If it is surveyed
and published without waiting for the investigation of the
surrounding area, it will most probably be found some-
where, at least, erroneous ; and to make it harmonise with
adjoining sheets may require so much alteration as to
demand, perhaps, even the cancelling of the old and the
engraving of a new plate. Therefore we are content to
wait for Dr. Hayden's geological map of the Territories
in confident anticipation that it will be worthy of the high
reputation which he and his staff have already gained.

It should be added, that with the most praiseworthy
liberality the publications of the Survey are distributed as
gifts to learned bodies and scientific men all over the
world. All that is asked is that, where possible, the scien-
tific publications of the recipients of the volumes may be
sent in exchange. It is to be hoped that this generous
spirit has called forth a similar feeling elsewhere, and that
the library of the Geological Survey of the Territories is
continually augmented by presents from all parts of the
world. Arch. Geikie

FISKE'S ''COSMIC PHILOSOPHY"
Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy^ based on the Doctrine of
Evolution, with Criticisms on the Positive Philosophy.
By John Fiske, M.A., LL.B., Assistant Librarian, and
formerly Lecturer on Philosophy, at Harvard Uni-
versity. 2 vols. (London : Macmillan and Co., 1874.)
WE have repeatedly expressed our admiration of the
system of philosophy which Mr. Spencer is en-
gaged in working out. Mr. Fiske, in giving an outline of
this philosophy, has called it Cosmic; a name which he
thinks peculiarly fitting, because " the term ' Cosmos *
connotes the orderly succession of phenomena quite as
forcibly as it denotes the totality of phenomena ; and with
anything absolute or ontological, with anything save the
' Mundus ' or orderly world of phenomena, it has nothing

whatever to do." But Mr. Spencer is far from ignoring
the absolute, and the ontological element in his specula-
tions has frequently been the subject of criticism ; and
surely Mr. Fiske goes beyond an account of the orderly
succession of phenomena in all that he has to say about
the " Infinite Power manifested in the world of pheno-
mena," which he finds that we are : clearly bound to
symbolise as quasi-psychical rather than as quasi-mate-
rial, so that we may say with meaning, " God is Spirit,
though we may not say, in the 'materialistic sense, that
God is Force."

As the Evolution-Philosophy, which is for the most
part but higher science, has swallowed up the rival
systems of former times, and now stands itself without a
rival, we need not pause to speak of its." merits. Our first
duty then is to acknowledge that Mr. Fiske has succeeded
in giving a very faithful and attractive sketch of Mr.
Spencer's philosophy. He has made all the thoughts his
own, and has, we should think, secured for himself a
recognised place among the most advanced thinkers of
our time. But Mr. Fiske claims that his work shall be
regarded as more than a mere reproduction of Mr.
Spencer's thoughts. It contains "much new matter,
both critical and constructive." In relation to the evolu-
tion of society, the author supposes he has anticipated
what " will doubtless be much more thoroughly and satis-
factorily presented by Mr. Spencer in his forthcoming
work on Sociology." Without stopping to inquire
whether a love of system may not here, as elsewhere,
have led to a slight waste of energy and a straining of
words, it must without doubt be recognised that Mr.
Fiske has expressed with clearness and ability many
large and important truths, the recognition of which must
have a very healthy and elevating effect. Nothing can
be better than for people to reflect that moral progress
consists in the continual " adaptation of the desires of
each individual to the requirements arising from the co-
existent desires of all neighbouring individuals." Again,
the superiority of a true philosophy over some modes of
thought which still claim to be the most advanced, may
be learned from Mr. Fiske's profound appreciation of the
vital part played by the Roman Church in the evolution
of European civilisation.

The original matter, however, on which the author lays
most stress, refers to the genesis of man. He works out
a theory as to the part taken by the prolongation of
human infancy in originating social evolution, which, in
his own words, " is entirely new in all its features." To
account for the passage from mere gregariousness to
sociality as marked by permanent family groups, is the
problem Mr. Fiske has set himself, and his solution is
this :— Mr. Wallace has given a most beautiful exposition
of the operation of natural selection at that point in the
evolution of man from a lower form when variations in
intelligence began to be seized on and preserved rather
than variations in bodily structure. It was then that our
remote progenitors began to clothe their bodies and to
prepare their food, that the ape of many devices survived
where his perhaps stronger or swifter contemporaries
perished. Now, increase in intelligence, says Mr. P'iske,
implies increase in size and complexity of brain ; and, as
a matter of observation, this structure, as it becomes more
and more complex, is less and less definitely organised at

268

NATURE

[Aug, 5, 1875

birth ; then arises the phenomenon of infancy. The orang-
outang, until about a month old, "lies on its back, tossing
about and examining its hands and feet ; " with the lowest
savages the period of helplessness is much longer, and
as civilisation advances, the period during which the child
must depend on the parent for support, becomes still
longer. Mr. Fiske believes that these considerations
supply " a very thorough and satisfactory explanation of
the change from gregariousness to sociality." " The pro-
longed helplessness of the offspring must keep the
parents together for longer and longer periods in succes-
sive epochs ; and when at last the association is so long
kept up that the older children are growing mature, while
the younger ones still need protection, the family relations
begin to become permanent. The parents have lived so
long in company that to seek new companionships
involves some disturbance of ingrained habits ; and
meanwhile the older sons are more likely to continue their
original association with each other than to establish
associations with strangers, since they have common
objects to achieve, and common enmities, bequeathed and
acquired, with neighbouring families. As the parent
dies, the headship of the family thus established devolves
upon the oldest, or bravest, or most sagacious male
remaining. Thus the little group gradually becomes a
clan, the members of which are united by ties considerably
stronger than those which ally them to members of
adjacent clans, with whom they may indeed combine to
resist the aggressions of yet further outlying clans, or of
formidable beasts, but towards whom their feelings are
usually those of hostile rivalry." " In this new sugges-
tion," says Mr. Fiske, " as to the causes and the effects
of the prolonged infancy of man, I believe we have a
suggestion as fruitful as the one which we owe to Mr.
Wallace," and " the clue to the solution of the entire
problem " of the origin of the human race.

Towards the end of the second volume there is a good
deal of more or less original matter relating to religion,
much of which we think open to serious criticism, but on
which we cannot enter here. There is, however, in the
writings of Mr. Spencer, a view (adopted by Mr. Fiske)
with respect to the relation of feeling to movement which
appears to us to be nothing more than a popular fallacy,
and which, as it seems to us, spreads much confusion
through the psychological part of his system. The
assumption against which we would direct some criticism
is, that feelings stand in a causal relation to bodily
movements. The point has recently occupied some
attention, but we must reserve our remarks for another
article.

Though we admire the far-reaching speculations of
Mr. Spencer as more wonderfully consistent than the
thoughts of any other thinker of equal range, we cannot
regard his writings as criticism-proof at all points. Mr.
Fiske, in arguing against the volitional theory of causation,
says : " Phenomenally we know of will only as the cause
of certain limited and very peculiar kinds of activity dis-
played by the nerves and muscles of the higher animals.
And to argue from this that all other kinds of activity are
equally caused by will . . . is as monstrous a stretch of
assumption as can well be imagined." " Because this is
the only cause of which we are conscious, ... we are
asked to assume, without further evidence, that through-

out the infinitely multitudinous and heterogeneous pheno-
mena of nature no other kind of cause exists. A more
amazing example of the audacity of the subjective method
could hardly be found." We hope soon to see the evolu-
tion philosophy rendered at once more consistent with
itself, and able to give to the volitionist a more complete
answer than is to be found in this " crushing refutation ;"
at which the volitionist will but smile, believing the strong
language to be but^a make- weight to the weak argument.
The argument, as it stands, is Mr. Fiske's ; it is in the
admission made to the volitionist, viz. that certain move-
ments are caused by feeling, that he follows Mr. Spencer.
We contrariwise maintain that an antecedent feeling is
never the cause of any movement whatever, that there is
no evidence of its being so, that the phenomena of life
and motion can be wholly accounted for without such
assumption ; that the assumption, that feeling causes
movements, though it can be expressed in words, cannot
be represented in thought ; and that the thing asserted is
inconsistent with the physical explanation of the objective
side of the universe — of all physical phenomena, and
movements are such — which is a fundamental idea in
Mr. Spencer's philosophy. When this is accepted, the
answer to the volitionist will be, that he takes for the
cause of all action not that which is phenomenally known
" only as the cause of certain limited and very peculiar
kinds of activity," but that which is not known to be, and
cannot be conceived of as, the cause of any activity.

Justice cannot be done to this criticism in a review
article in these columns. We shall therefore content
ourselves with calling attention to some of the confusion
which, as it seems to us, this popular fallacy introduces
into the philosophy Mr. Fiske expounds in these volumes.
First, let us have no misunderstanding, if that be possible
among philosophers. Certain states of consciousness, which
precede certain bodily movements, and which are called
by the learned "volitions," have in all ages been believed to
be the cause of these movements. This opinion is perhaps
as ancient as the human mind, more ancient than, and
the father of, the earliest conceptions of deity. It is still
the all but universal opinion, not of the vulgar, but of the
most cultured. Quoting from Mr. J, S. Mill, Mr. Fiske
says : " Our will causes our bodily actions in the same
sense (and in no other) in which cold causes ice or a
spark causes an explosion of gunpowder." In a passage
quoted from Sir William Hamilton, also with approval,
we have this definite expression : " A multitude of soUd
and fluid parts must be set in motion by the will."

Now let us in effect deny all this in Mr. Fiske's own
words. Speaking of what he calls " the closed circuit of
motion, motion, motion," he says : "No conceivable
advance in physical discovery can get us out of this
closed circuit, and into this circuit psychical phenomena
do not enter. Psychical phenomena stand outside this
circuit, parallel with that brief segment of it which is
made up of molecular motions in nerve-tissue." " How-
ever strict the parallelism may be, within the limits of our
experience, between the phenomena of mind and this
segment of the circuit of motions, the task of transcending
or abolishing the radical antithesis between the pheno-
mena of mind and the phenomena of motions of matter
must always remain an impracticable task. For in order
to transcend or abolish this radical antithesis we must be

A^g' 5. 1875]

NATURE

269

prepared to show how a given quantity of molecular
motion in nerve-tissue can become transformed into a
definable amount of ideation or feeling." Strange that it
does not occur to our philosophers that they just leap
this impassable gulf from the other side when they talk
about a multitude of solid and fluid parts being set in
motion by the will, in the same sense in which a spark
causes an explosion of gunpowder. Either the volition
is itself a mode of motion, which Mr. Fiske solemnly
denies, or the circuit is not closed, which he as solemnly
asserts it to be.

The inconsistency and consequent error, to which we
have called attention, cause much more widespread con-
fusion than might at first be supposed. In one direction
we have seen the closed circuit of motion broken in on.
In the opposite direction we have elaborate attempts to
evolve mind out of matter, all specific and impressive
declarations to the contrary notwithstanding. In this
direction Mr. Lewes has gone forward with a more un-
compromising logic than is to be found in the volumes
before us. Mr. Fiske agrees with Mr. Lewes that both
" life and mind are processes," but we do not find that he
goes on to picture consciousness " as a mass of stationary
waves formed out of the individual waves of neural
tremors." The evolution philosophy, starting from the
primeval nebula, finds every science a specialised part of
some more general science. Biology is a specialised part
of geology, and psychology is a specialised part of bio-
logy. " Mind here appears," says Mr. Fiske, " to be but
the highest form of Life," and life, as admirably defined by
Mr. Spencer, " is the definite combination of heterogeneous
changes, both simultaneous and successive, in corre-
spondence with external co-existences and sequences."
Truly the study of the higher forms of these phenomena
may be called a specialised part of biology. But may we
call any adjustment of internal relations to external rela-
tions Mind? We think not, and in this Mr. Fiske
heartily agrees with us, for he hastens to tell us that
" push our researches in biology as far as we may, the
most we can ever ascertain is that certain nerve-changes
succeed certain other nerve-changes or certain external
stimuli in a certain definite order. But all this of itself
can render no account of the simplest phenomenon of
consciousness." And Mr. Spencer is equally emphatic :—
" The thoughts and feeling whick constitute a conscious-
ness form an existence that has no place among the exist-
ences with which the rest of the sciences deal." But
where are we now? If in psychology any part of the
phenomena studied are those given directly in conscious-
ness, then they are not the phenomena which form a
specialised part of biology. Consciousness, then, is not
evolved out of the primeval nebula. It creeps in surrep-
tiously somewhere in the course of the evolution of
organised beings, and appears in man, the highest pro-
duct of evolution, as a power guiding his movements.
This, to our mind, is the weak point in Mr. Spencer's
philosophy. .

Let us glance at Mr. Fiske's chapter on the Evolution
of Mind, which he tells us " was mostly written, and the
theory contained therein entirely worked out,before thepub-
lication of Part V. of the second edition of Mr. Spencer's
' Principles of Psychology.' " In so far as this so-called the-
ory of the evolution of jnind is an account of the evolution

of the nervous system, it may be open to no serious criti-
cism. But what happens is this : From talking of waves
of molecular disturbance passing along finished channels
and findmg for themselves new courses in lines of least
resistance, the language gradually changes ; a process
entirely physical, " reflex action, which is unaccompanied
by consciousness," is called " the simplest form of psychi-
cal life." Instinct is found to be compound reflex action.
And in the higher organisms " there will be a number of
permanent transit-lines and a number of such lines in
process of formation, along with a continual tendency
towards the establishment of new ones. The con-
sequences of this are obvious. In becoming more and
more complex, the correspondence becomes less and less
instantaneous and decided. ' They gradually lose their
distinctly automatic character, and that which we call
instinct merges into something higher.'" What is the
something higher into which all these nervous operations
merge ? Into mind as we see it in man, who is supposed
to perform actions " with the assistance of reason, volition,
and conscious memory."

It is, however, when specially engaged with the con-
sideration of voluntary action that the confusion may be
said to reach a climax. But Mr. Fiske has no misgiving ;
he proceeds, confident that he has clear ideas to expound,
and that he is expounding them in clear and consistent
language. " Volition," he tells us, " is that transforma-
tion of feeling into action which is attended by a conscious
comparison of impressions." If feeling may be trans-
formed into action, why may not motion be transformed
into feeling ? Having written this he cannot well afford
to sneer at the materialist. Though mind and motion, as
we are often told, have no kinship, yet here are a few
sentences which are perhaps expected to help us towards a
mental picture of the curious "dynamic process" "where-
by feeling initiates action." — " In a complex aggregate,
like the human or animal organism, such a state of equili-
brium (as the ass between the two bundles of hay) cannot
be of long continuance. Sooner or later — either from the
greater vividness with which one of the desired objects is
mentally realised, or from any one of a thousand other
disturbing circumstances down to those of a purely
physical nature — one desire will become stronger than
the other, and instantly thereupon, the surplus nervous
tension remaining after the weaker desire is neutrahsed,
will pass into nervous vis viva., or, in other words, volition
will take place." It will be almost a sufficient criticism
of these statements to place alongside of them a sentence
from Mr. Fiske's next paragraph. " To say exphcitly that
volition does not follow the strongest motive, is to say
implicitly that motion does not always follow the line of
least resistance ; which is to deny the persistence of
force." With this last statement we agree ; but how is it
to be reconciled with the preceding sentences.? Can
mental vividness, or anything else not purely physical,
either help or hinder motion in following the line of least
resistance ? To say so is to deny the persistence of force.

Having found that philosophers are very like other
people, that they are sometimes aUnost as anxious to be
thought infallible as to have any inconsistency in their
writings pointed out (Mr. J. S. Mill was a grand excep-
tion), it may perhaps be as well to say that in bringing
together a few passages which seem to us after careful

270

NATURE

\_Aug. 5, 1875

consideration to be hopelessly inconsistent, we have been
inspired by no other feeling than a desire to see the
philosophy we admire purified from an error that greatly
mars its beauty. Let it be accepted that states of con-
sciousness really stand outside the circuit of motions and
therefore can never be a cause of any movement, and the
occasion of all the confusion of which we have spoken
disappears.

Mr. Spencer, who has been so kind as to read the
proof of this article, tells me by letter that he thinks I
have not quite remembered his point of view and its
implications. He says : — " The implication of your argu-
ment seems to be that I identify motion as it actually
exists with motion as manifested to our consciousness. Did
I do this there would be the inconsistency you allege in
the supposition that feeling is transformable into motion
and motion' into feeling. . . . But that transformation
which I assume to take place (though without in the
least understanding how) is the transformation of the
subjective activity we call feeling (unknowable in its
ultimate nature) into the objective activity we call motion
(also unknowable in its ultimate nature)." On the meta-
physical question my own view probably does not differ
much from Mr. Spencer's ; but I would have it kept dis-
tinct from the question of ordinal y science, which deals
only with the relations of things as manifested to our
consciousness. And I leave it to Mr. Fiske and his
readers to determine whether in the passages I have
quoted from his work he means motion and feeling as
known to us — the motion and feeling of science, or the
ontological entities of the metaphysician, with which in
his preface he has told us his system ''has nothing what-
ever to do." Douglas A. Spalding

OUR BOOK SHELF
Notes on the Fertilisation of the Cereals. By A. S. Wilson.

(Reprinted from the " Transactions of the Botanical

Society of Edinburgh.")
Notwithstanding the practical importance to the
farmer of a knowledge of the mode in which our cereal
crops are fertilised, it is singular that different views still
prevail on several essential particulars. One point ap-
pears to be generally conceded, that insects have nothing
to do with it ; the ovules are either self-fertilised, or cross-
fertilised by the agency of the wind. Dr. Boswell-Syme
and the present author incline towards the former ; Del-
pino and Hildebrand to the latter view, at all events in
the case of wheat ; and Belgian farmers still trail ropes
over their flowering wheat to insure complete fertilisation.
Although we cannot altogether agree with Mr. Wilson's
conclusions, he has added some most valuable obser-
vations to our knowledge of the subject, especially
with regard to the remarkable extension of the fila-
ments immediately previous to, or concurrently with,
the discharge of the pollen. If a rye-flower, he states, is
opened a moment before the natural time of flowering,
the filaments will be found to measure about one-sixteenth
of an inch in length. In the course of five minutes, or
less, from the instant the pales begin to open, the fila-
ments will, in many cases, have grown to twelve-sixteenths,
and the whole of the pollen will have fallen out ; and this
rapid extension is not a mere straightening out of a doubled-
up thread, but an actual growth. In oats and barley a
similar extension takes place ; in the latter case the fila-
ments may be seen, under an ordinary pocket lens, to be
visibly growing at the rate of six inches an hour. The
result at which Mr. Wilson arrives is, that the " European

cereals are self-fertilised, and that the act of fertilisation,
in those cases in which the flower opens, is probably per-
formed in the opening, and is necessarily confined to the
twenty or thirty minutes during which the flower remains
open." We must confess that we are not convinced of the
validity of the train of reasoning which led the author to
this conclusion. The remarkable phenomenon of the ex-
tension of the filaments would appear to be quite useless for
this purpose, Mr. Wilson's drawing showing that its effect
is to remove the anthers from the immediate proximity of
the stigmas to a considerable distance from them. The
whole mechanism of the " versatile " anthers, lightly sus-
pended at the end of very slender filaments, the immense
quantity of light dry pollen, and the sudden jerk by which
the flowers are opened, appear to lead prima facie to an
opposite conclusion, and to suggest the agency of the wind.
On two other points Mr. Wilson seems to us to have been
led into some confusion by an incorrect use of terms.
He speaks of the meaning of the word " fertilisation " as
being " partly a matter of convention ; it may mean that
act of the anthers by which they project or discharge the
pollen, which, falling directly on the pistil, shall produce
the embryo ; or it may mean the falling of the pollen on
the ovule after being carried a distance by the wind ; or it
may apply to the instant in which the elements of the
pollen set up that action in the ovule which produces a
new plant ; " and he employs the word throughout in the
first of these meanings. Now we believe that all our best
writers use the term as synonymous with '• impregnation "
or " fecundation ; " and that the correct expression for the
falling of the pollen on the stigma — the German '' Bestiiu-
bung" — is '■ pollination " ; Mr. Wilson's "fertilisation"
being simply the discharge of the pollen from the anther,
which may or may not " pollinate" the stigma and " fer-
tilise " the ovules. He also finds fault with those botanists
who distinguish between "cross-fertilisation " and "self-
fertilisation "—the fertilisation of ovules by pollen from a
different or from the same flower — without being able to
define accurately the physiological difference between the
two processes. The terms are, however, currently used,
and we think quite correctly, to express an actual external
difference, which we know from experience to be fre-
quently accompanied by results of a different character ;
even though we are not at present able to trace this
difference to its physiological causes. Notwithstanding
these points, to which we have felt bound to call atten-
tion, the present treatise is one of the most important
contributions yet made to our knowledge of the remark-
able phenomena connected with fertilisation.

A. W. B.

Official Guide to the Kew Museutnsj a Handbook to the
Museums of Economic Bota7iy of the Royal Gardens,
Kew. By Daniel Oliver, F.R.S. Sixth edition, with
additions by J. R. Jackson, A.L.S., Curator of the
Museums. (J. R. Jackson, Museum, Kew. 8vo., 92
pages.)

Although this is by no means a complete catalogue or
guide to all the objects exhibited in the museums at Kew,
very few substances of commercial importance have been
overlooked. Necessarily in so small a book, little is said
of the relative value, &c., of different fibres and other
vegetable substances ; but it will be found useful to all
interested in applied botany, inasmuch as it embodies all
recent discoveries of interest to the druggist, manu-
facturer, or artist. The products are arranged in families
according to their affinities, and by means of this guide,
which has a complete index of trivial and technical names,
the visitor can readily find any article of which he may be
in search. One thing, however, is certain, the Govern-
ment might, by a small grant in aid of a more compre-
hensive publication, render the fine collection of vegetable
products at Kew of infinitely more service to the general
public.

Aug. 5, 1875J

NATURE

271

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return,
or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.^
On the Mechanical Work done in exhausting a Muscle
I BEG leave to make some reply to the comments (Nature,
vol. xi. pp. 464, 488) of Prof. Haughton on my paper,

I. In regard to the relative value of my earlier and later expe-
riments, it is to be said, that in one sense they are all equally
valuable. My object, however, was to find the work of exhaus-
tion when the intervals of work and rest were equal, the work to
be expended only in lifting the weight. Hence the experiments
were made in such a way as to eliminate the fatigue caused by
the falling weight. Prof. Preston and myself practised for several
weeks, until we were able to keep accurate time, before the
published series was begun. All who saw the experiments were
then satisfied that the later method of experiment was an im-
provement. The two series first published were made with equal
care, an I I am therefore at some loss to know what has been

Prof. Haughton's criterion in deciding that one was good and
the other bad.

2. In dealing with Prof. Haughton's equation —

A.t

fif'

(2)

when it was said that the co-ordmated values of " and «V formed a

t

curve, the meaning could only have been that p is not a constant.
Prof. Haughton is of course right in saying that the observations
thus co-ordinated " may be represented by a straight line." He
might also have added that for properly chosen limits, any other
observations may also be represented by a straight line. ^ The
point is, whether these lines give any evidence qf regular devia-
tions. It seems to me that " any one accustomed to such obser-
vations" ought to be able to see such evidence in .the diagrams
of Prof. Haughton in Nature, loc. cit. In this connec-
tion I wish to give a series of experiments, the time of lift i
being variable and equal to the interval of rest. The values of
« are the means of four experiments, and are uncorrected;for
variations in strength. The experiments were made with the

a^KB^^^^^^^^^^^^HBI^^Ii^B^S^^^BD^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^I

apparatus described in my last paper (Nature, vol. xi. pp. 256,

276) and my right arm.

JRaising weight of^'S kgr. through 070 in t sec.

t

n

n
t

n-t

I'OO

317

317

317

1-25

387

306

48-4

1 50

45-5

30-3

68-3

200

54 'o

27 0

1080

2-50

647

25*9

161 -8

3-00

692

231

207-6

400

66-5

166

2660

4-50

56 0

'^'\

252-0

500

54-0

IO-8

270-0

600

42-5

1 '■■

255-0

The values of n and t are represented in the diagram by the
dotted line. It will be seen that « reaches a maximum where
t = 3-4-

The values of / — j and {n't) are also represented by the

full line. It will be observed tliat the observations on
opposite sides of the maximum n are not continuous. A com-
parison of this line with those given by Prof. Haughton in
Nature, vol. xi. p. 465, will be found instructive.

3. In the case just considered, the time of exhaustion depends
upon the velocity of disintegration and recuperation of the
muscles. It is well known that the velocities of such operations,
taking place in time, are represented by the binomial curve. I
have satisfied myself that the values of n in the above series are
represented by the terms of the expanded binomial (/> + ^)"»
where p -^q = I ; where / and q are unequal, and where
m — I represents the total number of chances. This point is
reserved for future investigation.

4. In my paper in the American Journal of Science (Feb.
1875, pp. 130-137), the accuracy with which Prof. Haughton's
formula represents my experiments, was shown. Assuming

(w+ o) hn = ,,

(w + a)

where a is the reduced weight of the arm, and Prof. Haughton's
law demands that v = unity. It turns out to be 2 •6. Prof.

272

NATURE

[Aug. 5, 1875

Haughton refers the difficulty to my experiments, and I refer the
difficulty to his theory.

5. Prof. Haughton objects to my reduction for variations in
strength. In reply, it is to be said that an increase of from
13 "66 kgr. to 14 "84 kgr. in the strength of Mr. Myer's arm,
caused n to vary from 78 to 1366. The weight used was 5*00
kgr. For a weight of one or two kgr. my own arm also varies
thus greatly. I therefore conclude that this reduction is not
only not improper, but that it is essential.

6. I beg leave to state that I alone am responsible for the
paper published in Nature, vol. xi, pp. 256-276. I ac-
knowledged therein all the aid that I am conscious of having
received. F. E. Nipher

Washington University, St. Louis

P.S. — I find that one important point in Prof. Haughton's
paper has been overlooked in my reply. Objection is made to
my last series of experiments, on the ground that all the muscles
thrown into action are not exhausted. If this objection is well
taken, it applies also to the former series of mine, so "highly
confirmatory of the Law of Fatigue," the agreement of which
with Prof. Haughton's formula is so " complete and satisfactory."
The H/Hng of the weight was done in precisely the same way.

Domestic Economy of Blackbirds
Two Blackbirds having built their nest in full view of my
bedroom window, 1 have been much interested in watching the
process of feeding their young, &c. The cock bird is the prin-
cipal forager, and the food generally brought are worms. My
object in writing is to draw attention to one feature which may
be unknown to most of your readers as relates to the disposal of
the young birds' droppings. If left in the nest, it would become
filthy, if thrown aside the accuroulalion would lead to detection,
and I believe the general impression is that the old birds carry
the soil away ; but on watching them closely I never saw the
droppings carried away but on one occasion, and that by the
hen ; in every other instance after being fed, the young birds in
turn lift up their tails and the droppings are taken by the old
bird and actually swallowed. On the 15th July the young birds
being fully fledged, were literally washed out of their nest by the
downpour of ram on that day, but, with a little care, they all
survived, On the 22nd the hen again returned to her nest,
and she is now sitting closely on three eggs, and I hope to get
the next brood photographed, I enclose my card and address,
and should any readers of Nature desire to witness what I have
described, I shall be very glad to afford them an opportunity.
Woolwich Comnaon, 2nd Aug., 1875 E, R, W.

Scarcity of Birds

Mr, Barrington, writing from the Co. Wicklow, in
Nature, vol. xii. p. 213, says that he finds Blackbirds and
Thrushes unusually scarce this year. I have not heard of this
anywhere else, and certainly it is not the case here.

Old Forge, Dunmurry, Joseph John Murphy

Co. Antrim, July 26

Hay Crops of 1875

Let me record in Nature the extraordinary fact that on
Monday, July 26, in one of my meadows here, the first crop was
carried while the second crop, or after-math, was being cut.

Valentines, Ilford C. M. Ingleby

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN
Variable Stars.— The last number of Vierteljahrs-
schrift der Astronomischen Gesellschaft (x. Jahrgang,
weites Heft), received within a few days, contains an
ephemeris of most of the known variables, including those
of short period, for the year 1876, drawn up by Dr.
Schcenfeld, chiefly from the data in his catalogue of 1875.
This early publication will, no doubt, be very acceptable
to observers who are devoting attention to these interest-
ing and puzzling objects.

The Great Cluster, Messier ii.— As the first
special publication of the Observatory of Hamburg, we
have Prof. Helmert's memoir detailing the results of his

micrometrical observations on the components of this
well-known cluster in the constellation Aquila, or in
Clypeiim or Scuiiiin Sobieski, as many of the Continental
astronomers continue to call that part of the heavens in
which it is situate. The memoir has a particular interest
from the circumstance of Dr. Lamont having similarly
employed the Munich refractor in the years 1836-39. The
investigation of any changes that may take place in the
constituents of these groups of stars, as regards position
or brightness, becomes a very attractive one, and as we
know from the excellent work of Herr Pihl on the
Perseus cluster, it is not one always requiring the use of
large instruments, such as have been employed in the
hands of Lamont and Helmert, upon Messier 1 1. D'Arrest
terms this cluster "magnifica innumerabihum stellarum
coacervatio" ; the amateur will remember Admiral Smyth's
comparison of the configuration of the components to " a
flight of wild ducks."

New Minor Planet.— No. 147 of this group was
detected by Herr Schulhof, at the observatory of Vienna,
on July 10, in the vicinity of ^ Capricorni. It is of the
twelfth magnitude, and Prof. Littrow, the director, pro-

Eoses to caU it *^ Protogeneia," perhaps in allusion to it
eing the first minor planet discovered at this observa-
tory. It may be presumed that he has satisfied himself
of its distinctness from any of the minors which are now
adrift.

The Great Comet of 1843. — The elements of the
orbit of this remarkable body, finally derived by the late
Prof. Hubbard, of the Naval Observatory, Washington,
after a very masterly discussion of the whole series of
observations, are as follow : —

Perihelion Passage 1843 February 27 "4 1051 G.M.T.
Longitude of Perihelion ... 278° 40' 17" ) t^ -p .•._
,, Ascending Node i 14 55 j ^' ^^- "'^3-

Inclination of Orbit 35 40 39

Excentricity 0-9999 157; 7

Perihelion Distance 00055383

Motion — retrograde.
From which we have the following additional figures : —
Mean Distance from the Sun ... 65711

Aphelion Distance 131 '42

I^eriod of Revolution 5327 years.

The distance from the sun at the perihelion is less
than that of any other comet so far computed ; the
famous comet of 1680, according to Enckes definitive
calculations, making also a very close approach, though
not so near as in the present case. If Leverrier's semi-
diameter of the sun be adopted, with 8""875 for the solar
parallax, we find —

Sun's semi-diameter 428,7x0 English miles.

Comet's perihelion distance .. . 510,140 ,,

Whence it would appear that a httle before 10 p.m. on
February 27, the comet passed within 81,500 miles from
the sun's surface, and if we compute the orbital velocity
at the time, we find it 348'5 miles per second. The comet
was less than 2J: hours on the north side of the ecliptic,
passing from ascending to descending node in ah. 134m.
On examining with the above elements the track of the
comet on the day of perihelion passage,, it results that a
transit over the sun's disc must have taken place at the
descending node, the ingress (geocentric) occurring at
iih. 28m. Greenwich time, 241° Irom the sun's N. point
towards E., and the egress at I2h. 29m., at 187° similarly
reckoned. The transit might have been observed in
Australia ; the times for Sydney being, Feb. 27, 2ih. 33m.
for ingress and 22h. 34m. for egress. Such a transit
brings to recollection an observation recorded in the
Paris Astronomical Bulletin at the time as having been
made by M. Aristide Coumbary at the observatory ot
Constantinople, on the morning of the 8th of May, 1865,
from which it would appear that a dark spot moved over
a space of 21' upon the sun's disc, in a httle over three-

Aug: 5, 1875J

NATURE

^n

quarters of an hour. From the data published by Coum-
bary we might infer on the hypothesis of circular' motion,
that the body, whatever its nature, had moved at a dis-
tance of about 415,000 miles from the sun's surface, and
as we know from the experience afforded by the great
comet of 1843, there is nothing improbable in a comet
having so passed. Perhaps when the sun's disc is more
systematically and widely watched, a comet may be caught
in transit and properly observed. The case of the comet
of 1 8 19 is not a satisfactoiy one, Pastorfif's observation at
least attributing to it a position upon the sun's disc which
it could not have occupied at the time he assigns to his
observation.

Comet 1874 (II). — The comet detected by M. Coggia
at Marseilles on April 17, 1874, which presented so fine
an appearance in our northern heavens in July, was
observed at Melbourne, and by Mr. Tebbutt, near
Sydney, until the end of the first week in October.
Comparing the Melbourne observation on the 6th of
this month with the place given by the elliptic ele-
ments of Prof Tietjen, the difference is found to be less
than a minute of arc, and the European observations
to the middle of July are very accurately represented by
these elements. Between April 17th and October 6th
the comet traversed an arc of 205° of true anomaly, and
the near agreement of Prof. Tietjen's orbit throughout,
shows that the comet when it attracted so much attention
was really moving in an ellipse of very long period,
though no doubt this element may be considerably varied
without largely increasing the differences between calcu-
lation and observation. The period of revolution in
Tietjen's ellipse is nearly 9,000 years. When a similar
complete investigation has been made for this comet to
that so skilfully performed by Dr. von Asten in the case
of Donati's great comet of 1858, some kind of limits may
be assigned to the time of revolution, but in all proba-
bility it must extend to some thousands of years. We
remark that the Melbourne observations of Coggia's
comet were made with a telescope of only \\ inches aper-
ture ; no doubt the comet might have been followed some
time longer with larger instruments, but it is possible
that the Melbourne reflector may have been under pre-
paration for the transit of Venus, and not conveniently
available for cometary observations.

PROF. LOO MIS ON THE U.S. WEATHER
MAPS*

THIS paper is in continuation of a similar paper pub-
lished in July last year, in which the American
Weather Maps for 1872-73 were discussed. The results
then arrived at are compared with the observations of
1874, and the whole is thereafter combined into a three
years' average.

The principal conclusions from the three years' obser-
vations are these : —

The mean direction of the onward course of stormi is
N. 81° E., or a little to the north of east, being most
southerly in July (E. 7° S.), and most northerly in April
and October (N. 72° E. and N. 74° E.). The mean
velocity is 26 miles per hour — the maximum monthly
velocity, 32 miles, being in February, and the minimum
i8'4 miles in August. As regards particular storms, wide
deviations from these figures take place, it being found
that the actual motion of the storm's centre may have a
path in any direction whatever, and the velocity of pro-
gress may vary from 15 miles per hour towards the west,
to 60 miles per hour towards the east. From the tri-
daily observations it is found that the average velocity of
storms from 4*35 P.M. to 11 P.M. is about 25 per cent,
greater than for the rest of the day, and that while this

• Results derived from an examination of the United States Weather
Maps for 1872-7^-74. By Prof. Elias Loomis, Yale College. P'rom the
American jfournal of Science and Arts, vol. x.j^uly 1875.

varies in different months from 14 to 32 per cent., the
most rapid progress occurs in every month during this
portion of the day. Prof Loomis suggests that as this is
the time of the day when the temperature is falling most
rapidly, the fall of rain may be thereby accelerated, and
the velocity of the storms' progress be increased by the
more rapid extension of the rain-area which would follow.
The meteorological system of the States fortunately
furnishes the required data for the examination of this im^
portant point, and we shall look forward with great
interest to discussions of the daily rainfall of the States in
this connection.

It would appear that an unusual extension of the rain-
area of a storm is generally accompanied by a velocity
of progress greater than the mean. The average extent
of the rain-area eastward from the centre of the storm is
542 miles ; but when the eastern extent of this area is 100
miles greater than the mean, the hourly velocity of the
storm's progress is increased 13I miles ; and when on the
other hand, the eastern extent of the rain-area is 100
miles less than the mean, the hourly velocity of progress
is diminished gi miles. Whilst the extent of the rain-
area exercises an important influence on the storm's pro-
gress, the inclination of its axis would also appear to
influence to some extent the course of the storm. Pro-
fessor Loomis is of opinion that the direction and velocity
of the storm's progress may be predicted with some con-
fidence, in cases when the precise limits of the rain-area
are known. It is thus most desirable that rain observa-
tions form an integrant part of all weather telegrams.

The influence of areas of high barometer on the
velocity and direction of a storm's course is important in
connection with the prediction and theory of storms, but
further observations are required for its elucidation,
among the more important of which are the movements
of the upper currents of the atmosphere as disclosed by
observations of the cirrus cloud.

The reports of General Myer, Chief Signal Officer, for
1872-73-74 show by the barometric results for Denver and
the other elevated stations on the spurs of the Rocky
Mountains, that the relative distribution of atmospheric
pressure at these great heights is just the reverse in sum-
mer and winter of what obtains at lower levels to east-
ward in these respective seasons. The point is a vitally im-
portant one in its bearings on the weather and meteorology
of the States. In connection with it, we have examined with
much interest the tables at pp. 10 and 1 1 which give the
number of times during 1873 and 1874 on which the daily
change of temperature amounted at the different stations
to 40° and upwards. This large temperature fluctuation
occurs most frequently at Colorado Springs, Denver, and
the other high stations in the west. The most remarkable
of these changes occured at Denver on the 14th of
January 1875, at which place the temperature was below
zero all day, and the wind N.E. At 9 p M., the tempera-
ture was i°.o and the wind suddenly shifted to S.W. ; at
9.15 P.M., the temperature had risen to 20°. o at 9.20 p.m.
to 27°.o ; at 9.30 p.m., to 36°.o ; and at 9.35 P.M., to 40°.o,
after which there was little change till the following morn-
ing. At 11.30 A.M. of the 15th, the temperature was
52°.o and at this time the wind suddenly backed to N.E. ;
at 12.30 P.M., the temperature had fallen to 4°.o Thus in
the evening of the 14th, the temperature rose 39°.o at
Denver in the short space of 35 minutes, and about
noon of the following day fell 48°. o in one hour.

ON THE HORIZONTAL PHOTOGRAPHIC
TELESCOPE OF LONG FOCUS*

IN what I have now to say in regard to the methods
of Photography employed in observing the recent
Transit of Venus, I shall confine myself to the subject of

* This paper was read by the late Prof. Wenlock to a private scientific
Club in Cambridge, U.S., shortljpbefore his death ; it has been forwarded
to us for publication, at the request of the Club, by Prof. Asa Gray.

2 74

NATURE

[Au§- 5, 1875

the instruments used, having especially in view the ex-
planation of the advantages of the horizontal telescope
and its origin.

I should not have thought it worth while to make any
communication on this subject, but since it has been a
matter of discussion in the French Academy, and several
pamphlets have been written on the subject, it may not
be uninteresting to explain here the connection of the
Observatory of Harvard College with it.

In the spring of 1869, when it became necessary to
begin preparations for observations of the Solar Eclipse
of August 7th of that year, my attention was called espe-
cially to the subject of Solar Photography for the first
time. Mr. Warren De La Rue in England, and Mr.
Rutherford in America, had devoted themselves almost
exclusively to astronomical photography for many years,
and they were the authorities on this subject. The
methods employed by them were substantially the same ;
each used an equatorial telescope with clock move-
ment, and enlarged the image formed by the object-glass
by means of another system of lenses, and photographed
this magnified image. Mr. De La Rue corrected his
object-glass to secure as nearly as possible the foci
of chemical and visual rays, and Mr. Rutherford cor-
rected his so as to obtain the best echromatic combi-
nation of the chemical rays without regard to the visual
focus.

Mr. De La Rue first undertook a series of daily photo-
graphs of the sun at Kew some time previous to i860.
In making my own preparations for the Solar Eclipse of
1869, I collected what information I could about the
extent and brightness of the corona, and the nature
of Mr. De La Rue's photoheliograph which he em-
ployed in observing the total eclipse of i860 in Spain.
In the first part of the volume of 'the " Philosophical
Transactions" for 1869, I found a paper which was read
May 31, 1868, which contains the results of the first at-
tempt to measure the heliographical positions and areas
of sun-spots observed with the Kew photoheliograph.
From the examinations of the measurements in this
paper I became convinced that no trustworthy measures
of photographs taken in this way could be made. The
magnified image is so much distorted by the eyepiece, or
the equivalent system of lenses used to form the image in
the camera, that no satisfactory scale could be obtained ;
in fact the scale was found to vary irregularly from the
centre to the circumference of the image ; and even if this
irregular scale could be investigated, a slight displace-
ment of the centre of the picture from the axis of the
telescope would introduce confusion. Mr. De La Rue's
method of investigation consisted in photographing the
pinnacle of a pagoda which was composed of rings and
chains of known dimensions, and then attempting to find
the scales of the different parts of the pictures from the
images of this pinnacle.

The result, as I have said, satisfied me that this was a
method to be avoided. The difficulty arising from the
distortion of the image, and the apprehension that the
light of the. corona might be so enfeebled by enlargement
that it would not make an impression on the plate, deter-
mined me to photograph the image in the principal focus
of the object-glass.

All of the many other parties fitted out for photograph-
ing the total phase of this eclipse followed the method of
De la Rue and Rutherford ; the expedition from the Ob-
servatory of Harvard College was the only one that suc-
ceeded in getting a picture of the corona. The method
of De la Rue was employed in the preceding eclipse of
1 868, and no photograph of the corona was secured. I
mention these facts simply to show how little the disad-
vantages of enlarging the image by an eye-piece were
appreciated. In the next eclipse no party went into the
field with De la Rue's plan ; every one of them photo-
graphed in the principal locus, but this time, on account

of the weather, the American party in Spain alone suc-
ceeded in getting the corona.

In 187 1, in India, this method was again followed by
all the parties, and was successful. My preparatory ex-
periments in 1869 were made with an equatorial of 7 feet
focal length, which gave an image of about three-fourths
of an inch, and with the great equatorial of 24 feet, which
gave an image of 2} inches diameter.

Measurements o! photographs of the smaller image
seemed to indicate that under a microscope an accuracy
comparable with that of the best meridian circles was
attainable ; but believing that a larger image would be
better, I thought that four inches would be a convenient
size. In order to get such an image free from the distor-
tion of the eye-piece, I must have a telescope 40 feet in
length. Immediately on my return from the eclipse of

1869, I ordered a lens of Messrs. Clark and Sons, of 40
feet focus, and a micrometer capable of measuring con-
veniently an image of four inches diameter. Thus the
long telescope was adopted to escape the distortion.

Then of course the difficulty of mounting and handling
a telescope of this length, especially when extreme pre-
cision in measuring was the main object, naturally pre-
sented itself. To obviate this I resorted to the very
simple expedient of placing the telescope horizontally, so
that it need not be moved at all, and reflecting the light
of the sun through it by means of a plane mirror.
This seemed likely to meet all of the difficulties of the
case ; the well-known methods of mounting and directing
collimators rendered the utmost degree of accuracy at-
tainable in directing such a telescope, and by putting the
object-glass on one pier and the camera on another, using
a tube which should touch neither, only for excluding the
light, all disturbance of the focus by the expansion of the
long tube was avoided.

Other information obtained by my preparatory experi-
ments had an important bearing upon my plan at this
time. I had found how difficult it was to get an exposure
of the plate short enough. It became necessary to reduce
the apertures of the equatorials to one or two inches,
and then throw the slide across with a strong sprmg.
From this I derived two important suggestions : one,
that a heliostat driven by clockwork was not indispen-
sable, as the picture would be instantaneous, so that the
motion of the sun during the exposure would be of no
consequence. The other was that I might reduce the
light by using a transparent glass reflector, and not be
compelled to reduce the aperture of the telescope so much.
By these means the cost of the experiment was greatly
reduced, saving the expense both of a heliostat and of
a silvered mirror. Messrs. Clark and Sons did not get
the apparatus ready for use at the Observatory until July

1870, although it was tried at their shop previously.
A series of daily photographs was begun with it, July 4,
1870, and has been kept up with little interruption to the
present time.

At this time and for a year or two after, I had not
heard of this method being thought of by any one. No
one of my acquaintances seemed to have any knowledge
of any other claimant of the method. Mr. Rutherford,
with whom I had frequent communication, and who had
been occupied with the subject for twenty years, regarded
it as new and original. It was described in Mr.
Lockyer's paper in 1870, and attributed to me; Mr.
Newcomb, in the latter part of 1872, speaks of it
as a method devised by me, and in successful opera-
tion for several years, and also independently proposed
by Faye. Lord Lindsay adopted it for his expedi-
tion to the Mauritius. Mr. De La Rue in several com-
munications down to 1873 spoke of it as the method of
the American Astronomers. It was afterwards, about
this time, called the method invented by Foucault and
Prof. Winlock independently. Then, in 1873, I received
a book by M. Edmond Dubois, claiming it as a French

AuQ' 5, 1875]

NATURE

^1S

invention, and giving the whole credit to Capt. Laussedat,
closing with the remark that if it should be successful the
glory would belong to France. Afterwards I received a
pamphlet of twenty-six pages, by Capt, Laussedat, in
which, ignoring me entirely, he tried to sustain his claims
against those of Faye, Foucault, and Fizeau.

In 1873, after the horizontal telescope had been in
successful operation for three years, after specimens, both
negatives and lithographic copies had been distributed in
Europe, the French Commission, which had up to this
time been making their preparations to use the method
of de La Rue, adopted the horizontal telescope. It would
appear from this, that whatever might have been done or
said on this subject by the Frenchmen named above, it
had not contributed much to a clear appreciation of the
advantages of the method until after they had been de-
monstrated here.

Without caring anything about credit for priority of
suggestion in such matters, being satisfied that no similar
instrument was in use or had been used before the one
at Harvard College, I was yet interested enough in the
matter to look up the claims put forth by these gentlemen,
and to see why they happened to be overlooked for so
long a time, even by their own countrymen. I find
that credit is accorded to Foucault, mainly for his per-
fection of the heliostat, both for the plane mirror and
for the uniform motion. He published nothing in re-
gard to its application to photography. After his death
his friend, St. Claire Deville, spoke of it as one of
the things that Foucault intended to do. He at the
same time contemplated the use of the siderostat in
£ll kinds of astronomical observations. M. Laussedat
is unwilling to give him any share of credit for the hori-
zontal telescope. M. Faye gives him credit only for the
heliostat.

M. Faye himself took some photographs of the sun
with a very long telescope of one M. Porro, of 15 meters
focal length. The telescope was pointed directly at the
sun. M . Faye's remarks on them before the Academy
related only to the advantage of their size and their distinct-
ness. He had nothing to say about the peculiar advantages
of the long telescope, but he anticipated all succeeding
inventions in the application of Photography to astronomy
by predicting its early use in meridian and every other
class of observations.

His next communication on this subject was on March
14, 1870, on the occasion of presenting a letter from M.
Laussedat on the subject' of a horizontal telescope. This
was six months after my apparatus was ordered, and after
some experiments had been made with it. In this
communication he appears at first glance to have
suggested the whole arrangement now adopted ; but
on closer examination he does not seem to have had any
clear ideas about it. He recommends the use of a long
telescope because he had seen good pictures with a long
telescope ; he nowhere speaks of his reasons for dispensing
with the eyepiece, and in fact it does not clearly appear
that he did dispense with it. In September, 1872, after
it had been in use for two years and several accounts
of it had been pubhshed, in his comments before the
Academy on a paper of Warren De la Rue's, he seems to
have understood for the first time the true theory of the
long horizontal telescope.

Capt. Laussedat appears to have the most substantial
claim of any that have been mentioned thus far. He used
a horizontal telescope in Algeria in i860, in observing the
total eclipse of that year ; but he used a very short tele-
scope and had an eyepiece to enlarge and distort the
image. His own account of what led him to this method
was that he had no equatorial mounting for his little tele-
scope and that no means were furnished him to buy one,
but he had a good heliostat, and he resorted to the
method as a makeshift. He fully appreciated, however,
the advantages over the other method in the accuracy of

orientation and in the certainty with which fixed lines of
reference could be had on the plates.

M. Faye, in his communication of Sept. 1872, seriously
claims that his use of the long telescope pointed to the
sun in 1858 — because M. Porro happened to have one,
and Capt. Laussedat's use of a short one, placed horizon-
tal, because he had no equatorial stand and clock move-
ment—together make up the invention of the telescope as
it is now used.

But, after all that has been said about the priority of
suggestion, that question is settled finally by some one * in
England finding that the wole arrangement was suggested
by Hooke in 1676. A late communication on the subject
in the New York Times calls it a method suggested by
Hooke and perfected by Foucault.

In Hooke's day they had none but very long telescopes,
but they had no heliostats. No practical application of
his suggestion, however, seems to have been made.

ON THE CARDIOGRAPH TRACE

TD Y placing the sphyginograph, as constructed by M.
J-' Marey, over that portion of the chest where the heart
can be best felt beating, instead of on the wrist-pulse for
which the instrument is constructed, tracings called
cardiograms can be obtained which bring to light physio-
logical facts not otherwise ascertainable. In the last-
published volume of the Guy's Hospital Reports there is
a paper by Dr. Galabin, on the interpretation of these
tracings, which will be read with interest by physiologists
on account of the considerable difficulty there is con-
nected with all attempts to explain the numerous ups and
downs which they present between any two pulsations of
the heart, and also because of the comparatively slight
attention which they have had paid to them.

Dr. Galabin, in the paper under consideration, limits
his observations almost entirely to the vertical variations
in the curves under consideration, paying but httle atten-
tion to the differences in the relative lengths of systole
and diastole which they so clearly indicate, and which
cannot be recognised with any degree of accuracy by any
other means at our disposal. From a study of the cardio-
graph trace, he is led to the conclusion that the two most
important elevations in the systolic portion of each curve
are produced by the muscular movements in the heart
itself, because " the more the heart is hypertrophied (by
disease) the more prominent in comparison do these two
become," and under these circumstances, "the effect of
any oscillations, either of the blood or of any solid struc-
tures, would become less noticeable in proportion." It is
remarked that " Marey's figures (of tracings indicating
intracardial pressures) prove that the first, at any rate, of
the cardiac impulse is not due to any stroke against the
ribs caused by locomotion of the heart as a whole, which
could only commence after the opening of the semilunar
valves," because " the aortic valves do not open until the
ventricular pressure has nearly reached its first maximum."
It must, however, be noted that other tracings, obtained
by the same illustrious physiologist, demonstrate equally
clearly that the maximum of intracardial pressure is
reached some appreciable time before the first major
systolic cardiograph rise in the trace from the chest-wall,
so that it may still be reasonably argued that the rise
referred to depends upon the locomotion of the heart en
masse.

To explain the second main systolic rise. Dr. Galabin
makes a statement which needs considerably more de-
monstration before it can be considered to be proved.
He refers to " inverted tracings," by which are understood
curves in which all the rises in an ordinary tiace are
represented by depressions, in such a way that " to see
more clearly their correspondence with positive tracings

* A correapondent in Nature.— Ed.

276

NATURE

{Aug. 5, 1S75

they should be turned upside down and read from right
to left," instead of from left to right. Are we to believe,
on the simple dictum of Dr. Galabin that inverted tracings,
as above explained, are developed ; that every elevation
in the apex cardiograph trace is the result of a movement
which is represented by a fairly proportionate fall in a
trace a little distance from that spot ; that every apical
propulsion is a lateral suction ? This may possibly be the
case, but it requires a considerable amount of proof before
it can be accepted as true. The relative duration, or, in
other words, the horizontal projections of the different
undulations, is not in favour of the assumption, which
seems to be based on an accidental similarity between
that apex trace and the reversed one from its neighbour-
hood. Till Dr. Galabin introduced his view, it has been
assumed that the negative trace differs from the other
positive trace in the fact that in the latter some of the
undulations are longer in the up than in the down stroke ;
whilst in the former the reverse is the case. There is need
for positive disproof of this explanation before the other
is even considered.

Dr. Galabin concludes that the second main systolic
rise " corresponds in time to the maximum contraction of
the ventricle," and that it is due to the locomotion of the
heart, dependent on the consequent injection of the aorta
and the propulsion of the blood. This explanation
might be tenable Avere it not for the results obtained by
the employment of the haemodromometer of Chauveau,
tracings taken with which can be found in Marey's
" Circulation du Sang " (p. 273). These show that
there is a regurgitant current in the carotid arteries for
some appreciable period before the closure of the aortic
valve, which can only exist in connection with a similar
one in the ventricular cavity. It is the haemodromometer
trace which has led the writer of this article to lay more
than usual stress on the interval between the termination
of the cardiac systole and the moment of closure of the
aortic valves, termed by him the diaspasis.

Dr. Galabin remarks, " Mr. Garrod attributes the ele-
vation d (the first main systolic rise), solely to the loco-
motion of the heart caused by the lengthening of the
aorta. The rise / (the second main rise) he considers to
intervene between the end of systole and the closure of
the aortic valves, and to be due to the initial relaxation of
the ventricle. It appears to be impossible that the relax-
ation of the ventricle, apart from its repletion, could pro-
duce an elevation in the curve except in those cases in
which its hardening produces a depression either at the
commencement or towards the conclusion of systole."
In the explanation here referred to the elevation under
consideration is, however, not supposed to be the result
o^ the relaxation of the muscular walls of the ventricles,
or to have anything to do with that phenomenon, but to
be caused by the reflux of blood from the aorta and pul-
monary artery into the ventricles which, when it has
attained a sufficient velocity, closes the semilunar valves.

Dr. Galabin, by employing the stethoscope in conjunc-
tion with the cardiograph, watching the development of
the trace whilst listening to the heart-sounds, has been
able to satisfactorily verify the observation that the first
sound occurs during the primary up-stroke, and that the
instant at which the second sound is heard corresponds to
a point on the principal down-stroke, and before the
succeeding small and constant rise. This is further
verified by the superposition of the sphygmograph trace on
the cardiograph trace taken at the same time, a method
which has elsewhere been shown to lead to particularly
important theoretical results.

No particular stress is laid by Dr. Galabin on the
peculiarities of the cardiograph trace associated with
■ different rapidity of pulse and nothing else. The thorough
study of the subject necessitates this point being taken
into consideration, as is demonstrated by the great differ-
ences there are always found in the curves derived from

the same individual when the heart beats at say 45 and
125 a minute.

Most of the paper under consideration is devoted to
pathological points, especially mitral stenosis or contrac-
tion. With this we cannot here deal. One particularly
interesting tracing proves that in some extremely slow
pulses {e.g. twenty-five a minute) there may be an abortive
attempt towards an intermediate contraction, perceptible
in the cardiograph tracing, but not seen in that from the
arterial pulse.

Whilst on this subject it may be mentioned that Dr. C.
Hanfield Jones has recently read a paper before the
Royal Society on reversed sphygmograph tracings, or
tracings in which the systole is represented by a fall in-
stead of a rise. These he explains on the assumption
that they are produced by the brass end-pad of Dr. San-
derson's modified instrument resting on the artery instead
of the spring-pad. This is no doubt the true cause in
many cases'; these tracings are, however, in our experi-
ence sometimes produced when Marey's unmodified instru-
ment is employed. They may sometimes result from the
fact that a curved artery is, during systole, rendered part
of a larger curve, and so slips from under the spring-pad
at that time. A. H. Garrod

SIR JAMES KAY-SHUTTLE WORTH ON
SCIENTIFIC TRAINING

ON the occasion of presenting the prizes to the suc-
cessful students at the Giggleswick Grammar School,
near Settle, on July 28, Sir J. Kay-Shuttleworth made
some forcible remarks on the above subject. Sir James
points out with so much wisdom the relative position which
science and literature ought to hold in the training of
youth, that his remarks deserve the serious attention of all
interested in education. Our columns constantly bear
witness to the increasing prominence given to science in
education, both at the higher schools and universities.
Sir James, after noticing this and other features in the
progress of the Giggleswick School, and referring to some
of the results of the training of the school, went on to say : —
"You will perceive that among them are proofs of
the influence of the practical teaching in natural science
in opening a career to our pupils in the universities. In
the growth of any institution on a new basis, time must be
allowed for its development. Difficulties will be encoun-
tered in discipUne, in domestic management, and in the
attainment of the ideal to which its course of studies is
expected to rise. Yet it is well to keep that ideal closely
in view as the goal of all efforts ; to retain a firm hold on
the principles of action, and while confessing the length
and the arduous character of the way, to press forward,
undismayed by any partial failure, towards the summit of
our hopes. I find in the examination papers a continu-
ally higher standard. They embrace a wide range of
studies. But it must not be supposed that we are so pre-
sumptuous as to expect that even the elite of the school
could attain a high degree in the whole range of these
studies. No error could be more fatal than that they
should be obligatory on all our pupils. Indeed, we must,
in the first place, point out that in consideration of the
prominence given to modern languages and to practical
instruction in natural science, Greek is not among the
subjects comprised in the scheme of the school, though it
will be taught to all boys preparing for the universities,
or for any of the public examinations. To determine
how best the faculties of those not gifted with average
energy and capacity can be developed requires a delicate
and thoughtful discrimination. But the curriculum is
open to boys in proportion to the mental and physical
vigour which they bring to the task. I have said that
Greek is not one of the subjects of instruction made obli-
gatory by the scheme, and the reasons for this will become
more apparent as I proceed, but among these reasons is

^^g' 5, 1875J

NATURE

277

no want of appreciation of the ancient classical literature,
or of the classical languages as means of mental culture.
It may, therefore, be desirable to say that we appreciate
the treasures bequeathed to us by them in philosophy,
poetry, history, and art, and in the principles of juris-
prudence." After speaking in high terms of the value
of the classical languages as pedagogical instruments, Sir
James went on : —

" But while we thus emphatically express our sense of
the value of the classical languages as instruments of
mental training and sources of the highest literary culture,
the curriculum of this school includes pure and applied
mathematics. These studies, which stretch back to the
period of Greek civilisation, have grown with the deve-
lopment of astronomical and physical research. They
are the instruments of the abstract investigation of physi-
cal laws. But we have also sought to place the school
practically in relation with nature! science. The question
has been much discussed whether science should be thus
taught through the whole school course, or whether it
should be interstratified with the other studies. We shall
endeavour to solve these questions by introducing in the
junior forms the cultivation of the faculties of observation
by the practical study of botany and physical geography,
for both of which this neighbourhood affords consi-
derable opportunities. For somewhat more advanced
students we have built a good chemical laboratory, and
we are about to extend this building so as to provide
separate rooms and apparatus, and for the practical study
of experimental physics. The thorough knowledge of
any branch of experimental science involves an acquaint-
ance with the instruments and modes of investigation, as
well as skill in manipulation. These are not to be ac-
quired from books. It is indispensable that pupils should
become familiar with the phenomena of the operation of
natural forces. They must learn to observe, to practise
the philosophy of induction by following the footsteps of
the great masters of research in preparation for inde-
pendent efforts. The faculties exercised in such pursuits
are not altogether the same as those employed in literary
studies. They may be compared without the deprecia-
tion of either. The student of literature has opportunities
to cultivate what is metaphysical — whatever relates to art,
to poetry, to history, philosophy, or language ; while the
student of nature may more successfully develop the facul-
ties of observation and those brought into play in the
processes of inductive and deductive reasoning. The
search for hidden truths trains the ripe student in habits
of scrupulous exactitude. To record such observations is
an exercise in accuracy of thought and language.

" The scientific habit of mind which is the result of a
thorough practical training in one or more branches of
science is not to be attained by any devotion to language
or literature, just as the development of taste in litera-
ture, or of critical skill, or of the power of philological
research and discovery cannot be gained in the labora-
tory. These distinctions between literature and science
are in harmony with the diverse capacities of boys, and
they may be employed as auxiliaries in the development
of boys of limited or one-sided capacity. Some pupils
who have low grammatical and linguistic power may yet
exhibit facility in mathematical processes. Others in
whom both these faculties are feeble, awaken to intel-
lectual life as observers of nature. To some minds the
facts and principles of science become easy only when
they are in contact with the actual phenomena. Hence
one part of the value of practical studies in the field and
the laboratory. It may be confidently asserted that when
any of these classes of mental power is feeble, the develop-
ment of that part of the brain which is most easily
awakened to activity will communicate vigour to the rest ;
the whole brain will become more healthy and active. A
boy incapable of successful literary effort, but who has
power as an observer, may, by that form of mental cul-

ture, by-and-by become more capable of literary applica-
tion and success. Thus the literary, the mathematical,
and the practical scientific studies of schools become, in
the hands of a thoughtful and skilful master, preparatory
or co-ordinate instruments of mental development.

** There has been of late a'new era in the development
of the natural sciences. This commenced with the dis-
coveries of great mathematicians and astronomers, and
extended to every department of physical research. After
Kepler and Newton, mathematics in their apphcation to
experimental physics and astronomy established them-
selves, especially at Cambridge, as a prominent part of the
studies of the European Universities. But during the
present century, the rapid development of every depart-
ment of natural science has created new claims for the in-
troduction of new courses of study, for which the universi-
ties are gradually increasing their means and appliances,
and towards the successful cultivation of which they are ex-
tending their honours and rewards. What tiappened at the
revival of learning with respect to the classical literature
is about to happen in the fuller recognition in the univer-
sities of every department of natural science. The Chan-
cellor of the University of Cambridge has recently
munificently founded a physical laboratory in that uni-
versity. Certain of the colleges have established chemical
and biological laboratories. The Geological Museum
lectures and fieldwork continue to develope. These are
preliminary steps towards practical instruction in every
department of natural science. At Oxford, the univer-
sity has built an admirable museum, with which are con-
nected laboratories for chemical and biological studies,
and for those of experimental physics and geology. Cer-
tain of the colleges have also laboratories, and readers or
demonstrators of practical science. The Commission on
Scientific Instruction, which has just closed its five years'
labours, has made many suggestions as to the facilities to
be granted to students of natural science in both univer-
sities. For example, it recommends the freer admission
of those who are successful to the honours of the univer-
sity, as well as to the scholarships, fellowships, and
government of the colleges. The Commission had such
opportunities of ascertaining to what extent these recom-
mendations expressed the opinions of the governing
minds of the universities, that there can be no doubt that
no insurmountable obstacle will be encountered in the
estabhshment of studies in natural science in a position,
in relation to their honours and rewards, which will duly
represent the part which science has to play in the edu-
cation of the country.

" The methods and results of natural science have now
so far affected all our modes of thought that they claim
their place in the arena of all forms of discussion. They
must, therefore, also take their place in the studies
of the public and grammar schools, and of the colleges
and universities which would fitly train men for the work
of life. It would be a grave disadvantage to this nation
if its rulers in Parliament and in the Cabinet should repre-
sent chiefly literary culture, without a familiarity with the
physical sciences. Such a result could not now long exist
without a neglect of opportunities of promoting scientific
culture and research, which would be injurious to the
education of the country and prejudicial to the develop-
ment of its material resources. Perhaps it would be a
much graver misfortune if there should grow up in the
country two forms of thought — one derived from the
exclusive contemplation of the metaphysical, and the
other resulting from purely physical and materialistic
studies. Moreover, to a man of education, however ripe
and complete maybe his classical accomplishments, it must
be a great misfortune to have had no training in the
natural sciences. He must have a sense of partial deve-
lopment, and of the deprivation of a great source of
mental pleasure. These are, doubtless, among the reasons
why, in the great public schools, instruction in natura

278

NATURE

{_Aug. 5, 1875

science has recently been introduced by the appointment
of skilled teachers, by the building of laboratories and the
establishment of museums, and by the regulations of the
commission of public schools as to the time to be allotted
to such studies. Among our provincial grammar schools
Manchester has provided laboratories and the means of
highly skilled scientific instruction. At Burnley, also,
laboratories have been built, and the head master, Mr.
Hough, is distinguished by his scientific knowledge and
practical skill. He, doubtless, will diligently employ the
means at his command. The Commission on Scientific
Instruction has carefully collected the experience of the
schools which have introduced practical scientific teach-
ing. They strongly recommend that such instruction
should take its place at the side of that which is literary
throughout the whole school course. We had practically
anticipated this suggestion at Giggleswick. I do not
prominently put forward the adaptation of such studies to
the wants of the great manufacturing districts of York-
shire, Lancashire and Cumberland, which are contiguous
to us, or of the Durham and Northumberland coalfield.
Yet many of the sons of wealthy men in these districts,
as well as of those engaged in scientific professions, will
complete their education at school. In these trades and
professions the practical commencement of a scientific
training is often of great value. As I have already said,
it forms the scientific habit of mind ; it familiarises the
youth with the phenomena of the operation of natural
laws, and with the manipulation of instruments. It deve-
lopes the faculty of observation and the power of inductive
and deductive reasoning. Moreover the facts of physical
science learned in the laboratory are an invaluable posses-
sion to the engineer, the chemist, the miner, the physiolo-
gist, and to every professional man who has to use these facts,
principles, and processes as a part of his daily occupation.
This school is intended to offer, in the first place, a sound
preparation in elementary knowledge in the English lan-
guage, its grammar, composition, and some acquaintance
with English history and literature. Within the range of
its studies are the ancient classical literature and modern
languages. It would fail in its purpose if the humble
elements of arithmetic were not faithfully cultivated as
the basis of mathematical knowledge and scientific calcu-
lation. It is on this broad basis that we wish and hope
to rear the structure of a sound and scientific culture.

"The questions which the governors of this school hive
attempted, through years of patient labour, to solve, are
also awaitmg solution in all similar schools. What are
in future to be the relative positions of the hterary and
scientific education of our youth ? How, as in this
school, can the financial resources be developed so as to
provide laboratories, and a larger skilled staff of teachers,
in order to ensure a sound literary culture, together with
scientific instruction ? Inseparable from these questions
is the formidable one, Whence are the skilled teachers of
science, capable of giving practical instruction in labora-
tories to be provided, if science in this sense is to form
part of the curriculum of all schools ? Where the income
of the school is small, that difficulty is at present insur-
mountable, for a separate science master cannot be
afforded in such schools. Nor will it be removed until
some means be devised for the training of teachers by
which they v ill be enabled to add practical skill in scien-
tific instruction to a sound basis of Uterary culture. Then
a single master may fulfil the double function in a school.
The commission on scientific instruction points to this,
among many other reasons, for the establishment, within
the universities and elsewhere, of a system of training for
masters of schools above the elementary in the art and
practice of teaching, and in a practical knowledge of
science. The governors of this school of King Edward
the Sixth of Giggleswick have not been negligent of the
■bearing of their labours on these wide general questions.
So far as they have proceeded, they are satisfied that a

sound literary culture may not only subsist with practical
instruction in science, but that, under earnest and thought-
ful guidance, these departments of instruction may each
contribute to the intellectual activity and to the success
of every form of teaching in the school."

THE INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL
CONGRESS AND EXHIBITION

THIS Congress, which has been looked forward to
with considerable expectation, was opened in the
Salle des Etats of the Tuileries, on Sunday last, in pre-
sence of the President of the French Republic, many of
the dignitaries of State, foreign ambassadors, and other
eminent persons. There was a large attendance of the
general public, and addresses were given by the Presi-
dent of the Congress, Admiral de la Ronci^re le Noury,
Baron von Richthofen, Sir Henry Rawlinson, and other
delegates of the various nations represented at the
Congress.

The regular work of the Congress commenced on Mon-
day, and the sittings will be continued till the iithinst.,
when a distribution of medals will take place. We
believe a few prizes will be awarded to England, but not
many, as our country has contributed but scantily to the
exhibition. To-day a visit will be made to the Paris
Observatory, and to-morrow one to the Historical Mu,
seum of National Antiquities (mostly pre -historic) at St.
Germain.

Juries have been appointed to decide on the awards in
the various sections of the Exhibition, and a notable fea-
ture of these is that not a single Frenchman has been
appointed a president ; this, we believe, is the result 01
characteristic delicacy on the part of the French authori-
ties. Col. Montgomerie and Major Wilson are the Eng-
lish representatives.

The Exhibition continues to be well attended, and we
hope the receipts will be sufficient to reimburse the Com-
mittee, who have become responsible for a large sum, the
French Government and Geographical Society having
contributed a very small amount.

In the English Section the books of photographs illus-
trating the people of India and China and the Chinese
have proved very attractive. The photographs exhibited
in the Russian annexe are very numerous, and relate to
people of every tribe and condition inhabiting the empire,
Austria h;dS also been very successful in this respect,
having exhibited photographs and drawings illustrating
thefchief incidents of the Te i(e thoff FoldiX Expedition.

A special room has been set apart lor the several Alpine
clubs, which have been created in imitation of the English
Alpine Club. The publications of the parental associa-
tion, and the scientific and other apparatus used in
Alpine climbing by the English, French, and Italian clubs,
are exhibited, and are inspected with evident interest.

The French Government exhibits the results of the
missions sent out by the Ministry of Public Instruction.
These have been numerous and successful. Independently
of the Transit of Venus Expedition, we must mention a
series of pictures showing the Bay of Santorin, in the
several successive stages of creation of the new volcanic
island. These illustrate happily how continents come
into existence.

The Hall of National Antiquities (Pre-historic) is a
compendium of the Saint Germain Museum, which will
be visited by the Congress. A number of highly instruc-
tive maps, showing the distribution of relics of the Stone
Age, Iron Age, &c., have been pubhshed, and are ex-
hibited by the Historical Commission on the Gauls, which
was created by Napoleon III. while writing his "Life of
Caesar," and will be continued for a lengthened period.

Amongst the real curiosities of the Exhibition, we must
mention a microscopic photograph of the French map by
the staff. This photograph was executed by M. Dagron,

Aug. 5, 1875]

NATURE

279

the inventor of microscopic photographs for carrier
pigeons during the war. The 250 maps, covering a space
of more than a hundred yards square, are so reduced on
glass, that they can be packed in a portfoho weighing
half a pound when full, and examined with a small micro-
scope with perfect facility and clearness.

M. Bouvier, a French naturalist, has presented a col-
lection of almost all the known species of Algce collected
in the fish market at Paris.

NOTES
The following are the officers of the forty-fifth meeting of the
British Association which will commence at Bristol on Wednes-
day, August 25, 1875 : — President-elect— Sir John Hawkshaw,
F.R.S. Vice- Presidents-elect— The Right Hon. the Earl of
Ducie, F.R.S., the Right Hon. Sir Stafford H. Northcote,
Bart., F.R.S., the Mayor of Bristol, Major-General Sir Henry
C. Rawlinson, F.R.S., Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. , W.
Sanders, F.R.S. General Secretaries — Capt. Douglas Galton,
F.R.S., Dr. Michael Foster, F.R.S. Assistant General Secre-
tary—George Griffith, F.C.S. General Treasurer- Prof, A. W.
^YiHiamson, F.R.S. Local Secretaries— W. Lant Carpenter,
F.C.S., John H. Clarke. Local Treasurer— Proctor Baker.
The sections are the following : — Section A : Mathematical and
Physical Science. President — Prof. Balfour Stewart, P\R.S.
Section B : Chemical Science. President — A. G. Vernon Har-
court, F.R.S. Section C : Geology. President — Dr. T.
Wright, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Section D: Biology. President
— P. L. Sclater, F.R.S. Department of Zoology and Botany,
]:)r. P. L. Sclater, F.R.S. (President), will preside. Depart-
ment of Anatomy and Physiology. Prof. Clebnd, F.R.S.
(Vice-President), will preside. Department of Anthropology.
Prof. RoUeston, F.R.S. (Vice-President), will preside. Sec-
tion E : Geography. President — Major-General Strachey,
F.R.S. Section F: Economic Science and Statistics. Pre-
sident—James Heywood, F.R.S., Pres.;.S. S. Section G:
Mechanical Science. President— William Froude, F.R.S.
The First General Meeting will be held on Wednesday,
August 25, at 8 P.M. when Prof. Tyndall, F.R.S., will
resign the chair, and Sir John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S.,
President-elect, will assume the presidency, and deliver an
acMress. On Thursday evening, August 26, at 8 P.M., a
soiree; on Friday evening, August 27, at 8.30 p.m., a Dis-
course by W. Spottiswoode, LL.D., F.R.S., on "The Colours
of Polarised Light ; " on Monday evening, August 30, at 8.30
P.M., a Discourse by F. J. Bramwell, C.E., F.R.S., on " Rail-
way Safety Appliances;" on Tuesday evening, August 31, at
8 P.M., & soiree; on Wednesday, September I, the Concluding
General Meeting will be held at 2.30 P.M. A special lecture to
working-men will be given by Dr. Carpenter, F.R.S., on the
evening of Saturday, Aug. 28; the subject will be "a piece of
limestone." The Local Committee have done everything in
their power to make the Bristol meeting a success. All the non-
local sectional secretaries will be lodged at the Queen's Hotel, close
to the reception-room, at the Local Committee's expense ; this
will no doubt conduce much to the easy working of the meeting.
The experiment of a room for the exhibition of specimens and
apparatus, tried first last year at Belfast, will be repeated this year.
The President will be the guest of the Mayor, who will occupy
for the first time the new Mansion House just given to the city
by Thos. Proctor, Esq. Most of the other office-holders, as
also all the foreign members, who have intimated their intention of
being present, and several English members, have received pri-
vate invitations from gentlemen resident in Bristol and neigh-
bourhood. Many other hospitable arrangements have, we
believe, been made, and altogether, so far as enjoyment and
comfort are concerned, this promises to be one of the most satis-

factory meetings of the Association. As we previously inti-
mated, a specially prepared Guide, compiled by several gentle-
men, will be pubhshed by Wright and Co. , of Bristol ; a
lodging list with useful map will be issued this week. The
whole of the Victoria Rooms, Clifton, will be used as a recep-
tion-room. All the evening meetings and soirks will take place
at the Celston Hall, and satisfactory arrangements have been
made for the meetings of sections. Several interesting excur-
sions have been arranged for, including two to the Mendips, and.
handsome offers of entertainment have been made by those
gentlemen to whose neighbourhood the excursions are to be
made.

A NEW physical observatory is to be erected at Fontenay, the
head of which will be M. Janssen. It will be erected on the very
spot where it was intended to build one when it was proposed
some years back to remove the Paris Observatory. In a few
months, then, Paris will have four observatories — the National,
the Physical, and two meteorological observatories — one at
Montsouris under M. Marie-Davy, and another which is being
built at the Acclimatisation Gardens. It is said that some
members of the Municipal Council will propose to connect
all these observatories with the National one by a special wire
to register automatically all the meteorological observations by
the Rysselberghe process, which we noticed last week in con.
nection with the Geographical Exhibition.

The Smithsonian Institute and the Indian Bureau are engaged
in forming for the U.S. Centennial, a collection exhibiting the
past and present history of the Aboriginal races of America.

"The German Abyssinian Company." — A company has
been incorporated in Ikrlin which proposes to found at Choa,
the most southern province of Abyssinia, a permanent settle-
ment, in order from thence to send out scientific expeditions into
the unexplored portion of Africa, and to develop the commerce
of the country. The objects of the Company are, however, sup-
posed to be more commercial than scientific.

The Khedive has issued a decree ordering the enforcement of
the metrical system in Egypt from the 1st of January, 1876.

Dr. Hawtrey Benson, of Dublin, writing to the Dublin
Daily Expi ess under date July 27, describes a remarkable shower
of small pieces of hay which he witnessed at Monkstown that
morning. It appeared in the form of "a number of dark floccu-
lent bodies floating slowly down through the air from a great
height, appearing as if falling from a very heavy dark cloud,
which hung over the house." The pieces of hay picked up v/ere
wet, "as if a very heavy dew had been deposited on it. The
average weight of the larger flocks was probably not more than
one or two ounces, and, from that, all sizes were perceptible
down to a simple blade. The air was very calm, with a gentle
under-current from S.E. ; the clouds were moving in an upper-
current from S.S.W." The air was tolerably warm and dry,
and the phenomenon is thus accounted for by Dr. J. W. Moore :
** The coincidence of a hot sun and two air currents probably
caused the development of a whirlwind some distance to the
south of Monkstown. By it the hay was raised into the air, to
fall, as already described, over Monkstown and the adjoining
district."

In the Paris Bulletin International for July 30 last Prof.
Raulin of Bordeaux gives the result of an examination of a com-
parison of the gross amount of the rainfall for the ten years 1851-
60 with that for the ten years 1861-70, from which it is shown
that, as regards the southern half of France, the rainfall during
the former of these decennial periods exceeded that of the latter
at forty-six out of the fifty-three stations at which observations
were made for the twenty years. A similar distribution of the
rainfall during these two dfcennial periods appears to have taken

28o

NATURE

[Aug. 5, 1875

place, with few exceptions, over' a large area, embracing the
British Isles, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, the basin of the
Mediterranean, and Algiers. The point is an interesting one, and
we hope that meteorologists will inquire how far the rainfall
observations of their respective countries agree with the result
obtained by Prof, Raulin for the southern half of France.

In the Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society for
1874-5, J"s*^ published, will be found a long and elaborate paper
by Mr. A. Buchan and Dr. Mitchell, on the Influence of Weather
on Mortality from different diseases and at different ages ; some
of the results which have been arrived at will be found in an
abstract by Mr. Buchan, which we publish to-day. Other papers
in the Journal are on proposed portable Iron Barometers, and
on a simple form of Anemometer, by Mr. T. Stevenson, C.E. ;
Meteorological Register at Inveresk for 1874 ; Table of Obser-
vations connected with the periodical return of the Seasons ;
Additional Rainfall returns for 1874 ; and Meteorological
returns, with notes of the prevailing weather and state of vege-
tation at the Society's stations for the year ; besides reports of
the general meetings of the Society held on July 3, 1874, and
February 10, 1875.

It is expected that an important meeting of the Council of
the Paris Observatory will be held to-day, a member of the
Academy having been desired to explain his assertions relating
to astronomical observations. The results will very likely be
made public.

The recent French inundations have recalled to memory an
experiment which was tried twelve years ago before Napoleon III.
The design was to manufacture mattresses of cork, so that any
one on board a ship or in a house which could be flooded would
have in his bed a ready-made raft capable of floating under a
weight of more than i cwt. for any length of time. Cork is a
material so soft that mattresses made of it are not inferior to any
other for comfort.

A MEMORIAL in marble of Sir John Franklin was uncovered
on Saturday by Sir George Back in Westminster Abbey. The
monument has been erected by the late Lady Franklin, and con-
tains some appropriate lines by Mr. Tennyson.

The recent attack upon Lieut. Conder's Palestine exploring
party occurred near Acre. Lieut. Conder was badly, but not
dangerously, wounded.

The election to the vacant Professorship of Medicine in the
University of St. Andrews will take place on Sept. 22 next.

The Shearwater, which was commissioned by Capt. Nares
(now commanding the Arctic Expedition) on July 20, 1871, for
surveying service on the Mediterranean Station, arrived at Sheer-
ness on July 23 last. In Saturday's Times will be found a brief
account of the work done by the ship during her four year's
service. During part of the cruise in the Mediterranean Dr.
Carpenter was on board to investigate the results of soundings
and dredgings. Commander W. J. L. Wharton took command
of the ship on Capt. Nares leaving to join the Challenger.
After having been two years in the Mediterranean the Shearwater
proceeded to Zanzibar, in order to survey the island and the
opposite coast. In February 1874 the ship proceeded to the
Cape of Good Hope, leaving Cape Town on July 14 with the
Rodriguez Transit party. At Rodriguez the ship was constantly
employed on work connected with the Transit, running meridian
distances, surveying the island, and assisting the shore party in
various ways. After landing the Transit party at Mauritius, the
Shearwater again proceeded to Zanzibar to continue surveying
work, officers and men, however, suffering greatly from fever.
Zanzibar was left on May 8, and the Shearwater reached Eng-
land as we have said on July 23 last. During the four years the
ship has been in commission, she has surveyed in detail 790

miles of coast line and sounded closely over an area of 5,900
square miles. Most of the earlier surveys have been published.

In the new part for May 1875 of Hoffmann's Nieder-
Idndisehes Archiv Jiir Zoologie there are two papers of
interest— one by Dr. A. A. W. Hubrecht, on the Nemertines
of the Gulf of Naples, the other by Prof. P. Harting, on the
eggs of Cyanea- Otoliths of Cyanea, and Chrysaora-nerve ring
and organs of sense of Eucope-Chromatophores of the embryonic
Loligo ; being notes made during a stay at Scheveningue.

The following candidates have been successful in the compe-
tition for the Whitworth Scholarships, 1875 :— Joseph Harrison,
21, Mechanical Engineer ; George Goodwin, 20, Mechanical
Engineer; John Alldred, 21, Locomotive Engine Fitter;
Franklin Garside, 20, Pattern Maker ; Frank W. Dick, 21,
Mechanical Engineer ; Joseph Poole, 20, Fitter and Turner.

The forty-third meeting of the British Medical Association
opened on Tuesday in Edinburgh. Sir Robert Christison, the
President, in his inaugural address, treated of the subject of
Medical Education, entering into a complete history of the
Medical School of Edinburgh.

The twelfth number of Mr. Hermann Strecker's quarto work
upon indigenous and exotic lepidoptera has lately been published
by him at Reading, Pennsylvania, and contains, as usual, one
plate filled with figures of butterflies. Among them are several
very conspicuous forms, the most prominent being that called by
him Eudamonia Jehovah, a term to which very serious objec-
tion has been raised on account of its apparent irreverence, but
which he stoutly defends. Several new species are described ;
one of them being figured under the name of Hepiolus thule.

The Report of the Agri-Horticultural Society of Madras, for
1874, shows that the Society is effecting much substantial benefit
in its district, especially in the assistance and encouragement it
offers in the introduction and cultivation of useful plants, that
will thrive in the different climatal regions of Southern India,
European vegetables, fibre-producing plants, coffee, tea, tobacco,
indigo, &c. The cultivation and preparation of tea is strongly
encouraged, and substantial prizes awarded for the best sample
of different sorts. Some of the samples submitted to the brokers
at Calcutta for their judgment are described as being of superior
quality. A flower, fruit, and vegetable show is held annually,
and it is worthy of note that all the prizes for ferns and other
plants with ornamental foliage were gained by native gentlemen.
There was last year a special class for the vegetable production*
of native market gardeners, and the European vegetables exhi-
bited are reported to have been of fair quality. The " list of
new plants introduced in 1874" is remarkable for the very small
proportion of correctly spelt names.

In reference to Tidal Mills (vol. xii., p. 212), a correspondent
writes that they have engaged the attention of Gregory, Barlow,
Belidor, and Aldini, as will be seen on turning to the article on
Tidal Mills in the " Penny Cyclopaedia."

The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the
past week include a Punjaub Wild Sheep ( Ovis cycloceros) from
Muscat, presented by Commander Yarforth ; a Ruffed Lemur
{Lemur varius), a Mongoose Lemur {Letnur mongoz) from
Madagascar, two Rheas {Rhea americana), a West Indian Rail
(Aramides cayennensis) from S. America, a Golden-naped Amazon
{Chry soils auripalliata) from Central America, two Yarrell's
Curassows {Crax carunculata) from S.E. Brazil, two Razor-
billed Curassowi {Mitua tuberosd) from Guiana, deposited ; a
Short-tailed Muntjac {Cervulus micrurus), a Crested Pigeon
(Ocyphaps lophotes), five Amherst Pheasants {Thaumalea am-
herstice), and six Japanese Pheasants {Phasianus versicolor), bred
in the Gardens.

^»^. 5. 1875]

NATURE

281

THE MORTALITY OF THE LARGE TOWNS

OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS IN RELATION

TO WEATHER*

'TTHE materials for this inquiry have been obtained from the

-*■ Weekly Reports of the Registrars'-General for England

and Scotland for the ten years, 1865-74. The data discussed

embrace returns of deaths from all causes and at all ages, deaths

of persons under one year of age, of persons above sixty years of

age, and deaths from diarrhoea. The weekly averages have

been calculated on the annual rate of mortality per i,ocX) of the

population.

The results for'every one of the large iown?, show during the

vnxvitx months an excess above the average mortality. A
regards the English towns, that excess is greatest at Norwich,
Wolverhampton, and Nottingham, and least at Bradford, Leeds,
Salford, and most other towns in the north. In Scotland the
winter excess is greatest at Aberdeen, and least at Leith and
Greenock. At Dublin, the largest monthly mortality, 22 per
cent, above the weekly average, occurs during February and
March, being from a month to six weeks later than the time of
the maximum of the English and Scottish towns.

In all the English towns, the minimum mortality of the year
is in the spring months, the amounts below the averages of each
town being greatest at Norwich, Wolverhampton, Birmingham,
Leicester, and Nottingham. In Scotland, on the other hand,

§^

Fig.

-Showing the Weekly Deaths among Infants under one year of age on the Annual Mortality po
Leicester, Curve i ; Liverpool, 2 ; I^ondon, 3 ; and Bristol, 4.

of the^whole population. For

autumn is the healthiest season. In Glasgow and Edinburgh
the deaths fall about 20 per cent, below the average in the month
of September.

It is, however, to the summer death-rate that the greatest \
nterest attaches, since it is during the hottest weeks of the year I
that the differences in the rates of mortality of the different I
British towns stand most prominently out. During the period
of high temperature in summer, every one of [the large towns of
England shows an excess of deaths above the average, with the single |
exception of Bristol, at which place, while there occurs an increased j
mortality at this season, it only comes near to, but never quite j
reaches, the average. As regards the time of absolute maximum,
it occurs in London in the end of July, but at other places more

generally about the beginning and middle of August. Taking
any two consecutive weeks which indicate the highest mortality,
the excess per cent, above the average is for Wolverhampton, 6 ;
Manchester, 8 ; Portsmouth, 12 ; London, 14 ; Hull, 20 ; and
Leicester, 47. The excess above the average at Leicester being
thus eight times greater than that of Wolverhampton.

In Scotland no town exceeds its average during the hottest
weeks of the year, but on the contrary the death-rate everywhere
is under the average, and in most cases very considerably so.
At Aberdeen the rate below the average is 18 per cent, during
each of the months, July, August, and September ; and at Dublin
the annual minimum occurs in July, when the death-rate falls
25 per cent, below the average during the second and third

Jan. Feb. March. April. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct

Fig. 2.— Showing the Weekly Deaths from Diarrhoea on the Annual Mortality per t.ooo of the whole population.
Liverpool, 2 ; London, 3 ; Bristol, 4 ; Portsmouth, 5 ; and Edinburgh, 6..

For Leicester,. Curve i;

weeks of that month. Though none of the Scottish towns
exceed the average at this season, yet Glasgow and Dundee show
a decidedly increased mortahty, their curves though rising towards
never quite reach the average.

In a paper on the mortality of London by Dr. Arthur Mitchell
and myself, it has been shown that if the deaths of children
under one year of age be deducted from the total mortality, the
summer excess disappears from the curve ; and it is further showni
that, if deaths from diarrhcea be deducted from the whole mor-
tality, the summer excess disappears equally as in the former
case. Now, these results hold good for every one of the large
towms for which the required data have been published. It
follows, therefore, that curves of the death-rate for infants and

• The substance of this paper was read at th« jeneral raetting of the
Scottish Meteorological Soaety, held at Edinburgh on July 13, 1875.

diarrhoea have a peculiar interest in discussions of this nature.
Fig. I gives for Bristol, London, Liverpool, and Leicester
curves representing the average weekly mortality among children
under one year of age, calculated on the annual mortality of
I, coo of the whole population, the .'averages being dealt with
after Mr. Bloxam's method, according to which each average is
calculated so as to include that of the week immediately preced-
ng and that of the week immediately following.

Of all the large towns of England, Bristol has the least summer
excess of infant mortality, the highest average of any week being
only at the rate of eight calculated on an annual mortality of
I, coo of the whole population. In London, the rate rises to ten
in the end of July and beginning of August ; and in Liverpool it
rises to sixteen, a rate which is also reached by the deaths in
Leeds, Hull, and Sheffield, and closely approached_by a number

282

NATURE

\_Aug. 5, 1875

of the other English towns. At I cicester, however, it shoots
up to twenty-two, and twenty-four on the second and third weeks
of August. As regards the whole year, the lowest averages of
infant mortality are — Portsmouth, 4*9 ; London, 5'7 ; and Bristol,
5 "9 : and the highest, Leeds, 8 '4; Liverpool, 9"i ; and Leicester,
9 "4. The season of minimum infant mortality is everywhere
during the spring months in the sixteen large towns of Eng-
land. The smallest spring mortality occurs at Portsmouth, the
smallest summer mortality at Bristol, the largest summer mor-
tality at Leicester, and the largest mortality during the other
nine months of the year at Liverpool.

Fig. 2 shows the distribution of the mortality from diarrhoea
through the weeks of the year, in six large towns, the curves
being constructed similarly to, and on the same scale as, those
of Fig. I.

The differences in the rates of mortality from diarrhoea indi-
cated by these curves, which are strictly comparable inter se, are
very great, and a comparison of the two extremes, Leicester and
Edinburgh, is startling ; the figures showing that for every one
who dies from diarrhoea in Edinburgh during the summer
months, eight die in Leicester from the same disease in propor-
tion to the population.

From the beginning of November to the summer solstice, the
mortality from diarrhoea is everywhere small, being double, how-
ever, in Liverpool and Manchester as compared with London
and Portsmouth. It will be observed from Fig. 2 that the curves
begin to open out and diverge from each other in the end of
June. The curve for Edinburgh on no week reaches the annual
rate of 2 per 1,000 of the population. The highest for any week
are — Bristol, 3 '6; Portsmouth, 3*9; London, 5*5; Liverpool,
io'5 ; and Leicester, 15 '8, these two last places again standing
higher than any other of the towns.

The following is a list' of all the large towns of Great Britain,
arranged in the order of the greater or less prevalence of fatal
cases of diarrhoea, during July, August, and September, the
figures being the average weekly death-rate for the thirteen
weeks, calculated on the annual mortality per 1,000 of the popu-
lation ; — In England: Leicester, 9*56; Salford, 7*15 ; Leeds,
7"02; Manchester, 7'Oo; Liverpool, 6*28; Sheffield, 6'20;
Birmingham, 578; Hull, 5*56; Nottingham, 5*36; Norwich,
5 "02 ; Newcastle, 4'6i ; Bradlord, 4*42 ; Wolverhampton, 4*03 ;
Sunderland, 3*89; London, 3*45 ; Portsmouth, 2*94 ; and
Bristol, 2"38 ; and in Scotland : Dundee, 2'I4 ; Glasgow, 1'90;
Greenock, 175; Paisley, 171 ; Leith, i'45 ; Edinburgh, 1-23;
Perth, I "08; and Aberdeen, 0-96.

From these results it will be seen that the influence of climate
is unmistakable. The summer temperature of the Scottish
large towns is several degrees lower than that of the English
towns, and we see that every one of the Scottish towns has a
mortality from diarrhoea lower than the lowest mortality of any
one of the English towns. Of all the large towns of Great
Britain the lowest death-rate from diarrhoea is that of Aberdeen,
which is at the same time characterised by the lowest summer
temperature. Further, the diarrhoea mortality of each town is
found from year to year to rise proportionally with the increase
of temperature, but the rate of increase differs very greatly in
different towns. This points to other causes than mere weather,
or the relative temperature and humidity of the place, as deter-
mining the absolute mortality. Thus the summer temperature
of Dundee and Perth is nearly the same, and that of Glasgow
and Edinburgh is also nearly alike, the excess being rather in
favour of Perth and Edinburgh ; and yet the diarrhoea mortality
of these two towns is respectively less than that of Dundee and
Glasgow. It may therefore be assumed that there is something
in the topographical, social, or sanitary conditions of Dundee
and Glasgow, which intensifies the evil effects of hot weather on
tie health of the people, so as to swell, for instance, the death-
rate from diarrhoea at Dundee to double that of Perth. At
Leicester the summer temperature does not exceed that of
Bristol ; but while the summer death-rate from diarrhoea at
Bristol is 2*38, at Leicester it is 9' 56 ; in other words, it may be
assumed that there are local peculiarities affecting the population
of Leicester, the effect of which is to quadruple the death-rate
from diarrhoea in that town as compared with Bristol. It is to
these local conditions we must look for an explanation of the
great differences in the death-rate of the different towns. The
highest average death-rate per annum for the ^period under dis-
cussion is Liverpool 30-6, Glasgow 30*5, Manchester 30*2,
Greenock 39*3, and Paisley 29-0 ; and the lowest is Portsmouth
20-6, London 23 'o, and Aberdeen 23 "3. Thus, for every two

who die at Portsmouth, three die at Liverpool, Glasgow, and
Manchester,

These facts'suggest large inquiries which call for instant and
serious attention. As one of the first steps of the inquiry, it is
most desirable to know exactly from a weekly registration of the
facts, whether the infant mortality is equally distributed among
all infants, however nursed, or whether it may not rather be dis-
tributed among them in very unequal proportion, according to the
manner in which they are fed. Those, for instance nursed at
the breast may be much less liable to succumb to diarrhoea in
summer than those fed on cow's milk or those fed on slops. The
unusually low temperature of December last very largely in-
creased the death-rate everywhere in the British Islands, particu-
larly from diseases of the respiratory organs and from many
diseases connected with the nervous system and the skin. The
gross number of deaths registered in the different large towns
showed that the excess of deaths thereby caused was very
unequally distributed over the country. If there had been a
more complete system of registration, for all the large towns, it
might have been possible, reasoning from the specific diseases
which proved to be unusually fatal at each place, to lay
the finger on those local conditions, inimical to health, to
which the high rate of mortality in each case was due. During
the cold months of the year — December, January, and Feb-
ruary— the mortality among females is very considerably in
excess of that among males in London ; for while during these
thirteen weeks the average death-rate among males rises 7 '8 per
cent, above the weekly average of the year, the death-rate among
females rises to 1 1 "2 per cent, above the average. Since the
facts of mortality for sex are only registered for all causes and
all ages, it is impossible to say from the present system of regis-
tration how much of the excess of mortality among females in
winter is due to sex, and how much to occupation, or even to
fashion.

A comparison of the meteorological with the moitality records
shows in an impressive manner the influence of particular types
of weather in largely increasing or diminishing the number of
deaths from particular complaints. Thus, periods of unusual
cold combined with dampness in the end of autumn, cold with
drought in spring, cold in winter, or heat in summer, are accom-
panied with a proportionally increased mortality from scarlet
fever, whooping-cough (if these diseases be epidemic at the
time), bronchial affections, and bowel complaints respectively.
Again, as regards diarrhoea, for example, there appear to be
certain critical temperatures, such as 55°, 60°, 63°, and 65', at
which as they are reached, the mortality rises successively to
greatly accelerated rates. To work out the problem of the rela-
tion of the weather and mortality of our large towns, it is indis-
pensable for the comparison of the different towns with each
other, that the system of observation be uniform at all places,
particularly as regards the hours and modes of observing the
temperature, humidity, and movements of the air, and the rain-
fall ; and it is further indispensable that several meteorological
stations be established in each of the large towns.

Alexander Buchan

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Mental Science yournals, January, April, July. — The January
number opens with an article by Samuel Wilks, M.D., "The
Study of the Human Mind from a Physiological View. " Dr. Wilks
finds no more difficulty as regards the relation of the mind and
brain than in ' ' the association of other functions with their
respective organs." The main purpose of the writer seems to
be to show that men are very much of automata. In this he
thinks he has followed Dr. Huxley, who however, if he meant
anything, meant that men are a Itogether automata. The illus-
trations of the automatism of doctors must be alarming to the
nervous and ailing. Example: " Up to the present time I have
never seen a single case of leucocythoemia of the lympathic
glands, or the spleen, or simple idiopathic anaemia, without the
patient's having been saturated by iodine, quinine, and iron ;
but no case is yet recorded of these remedies having done the
slightest good." — David Nicholson, M.B., continues his "Mor-
bid Psychology of Criminals," and shows his vigorous common
sense in refusing to see that suicide is always an insane act, or
that there is any "madness in an idle- minded fellow preferring
to live ' like a gentleman ' by helping himself directly from
moneyed pockets, instead of sweating his life out witli a pick

Au^. 5, 1875]

NATURE

283

and shovel at fourteen shillings a week. " — This number contains
an interesting paper on the Hallucinations of Mahomet and
others, by W. W. Ireland, M.D. — In the April number we find
the Morisonian lectures on Insanity for 1873, this time written
entirely by Dr. Clouston ; the Morbid Psychology of Criminals
continues ; an article on the Family Care of the Insane in Scot-
land, by Prof. Friedrich Jolly, of Strasburg, is valuable, inas-
much as it helps us "to see ourselves as others see us," and
pleasing, as this time we may look and be not ashamed. "This
visit," says Prof. Jolly, "and the information furnished by these
gentlemen, as well as a more careful study of the Scottish Re-
ports and their appendices, convinced me that it is no ' Gheel
in the North ' with which we have to do, but an organisation
which rests on a quite different and much sounder basis." —
George Shearer, M. D., communicates notes to show that "Dis-
eases of the general nervous system are by no means infrequent
amongst the Chinese, but cases of ahenation of mind are com-
paratively iGVf.'" — Mr. E. Thompson continues and concludes
his paper on the Physiology of General Paralysis of the Insane
and of Epilepsy. The worst things in the paper are a few un-
seemly remarks directed against Dr. Hughlings Jackson. — The
July number opens with a Chapter on some Organic Laws of
Personal and Ancestral Memory, by J. Laycock, M.D. — The
Morisonian lectures on Insanity are continued from the previous
number. — David Nicholson M.B., furnishes his excellent articles
on the Morbid Psychology of Criminals, which we have always
read with much pleasure. — S. Messenger, F.R.C.S., writes under
the title, " Moral Responsibility," to show that we all are what
we are because, given our parents and our circumstances, we
could not have been otherwise. The moral of " this theory of
no-moral of responsibility " is very good, " we should be more
generally charitable in our judgments, more universal in our
forbearance." It is a pity that the men who are continually
claiming to be the only scientific men cannot reach such simple
conclusions without outraging language and common sense in
order to show, by the way, that they are not metaphysicians.
Mr. Messenger describes the manufacture of thought as similar
to the manufacture of gastric juice — the action of the brain is
like ' ' that of the stomach, whose peptic glands secrete the gastric
juice from the circulating blood, but need the stimulus ot food
to excite the process." It would be a great advantage to the
scientific men of this stamp if they would try " the means of ob-
servation which metaphysicians employ," or any other that might
help them to see that intelligence is not a juice.

In the Scottish Naturalist for April and July 1875, ^^ difficult
subject of the relationship between the mental development of
man and of the lower animals occupies a rather prominent place,
in a series of articles by Dr. Lauder Lindsay, on " Illustrations
of Animal Reason," and one by the Rev. J. Wardrop, on
"Animal Psychosis." — The former writer also contributes a paper
on " The Auriferous Quartzites of Scotland," in which he brings
forward evidence in support of the view long since published by
him of the auriferous character of the whole Lower Silurian area
of Scotland ; the rocks being identical stratigraphically with those
of the gold-fields of the province of Otago, in New Zealand. —
There are several other good geological papers, especially one by
Mr. R. Walker, " On Clays containing Ophiolepis gracilis, &c.,
near St. Andrew's." — The zoological and botanical papers are
mostly descriptive, and we have continuations of the " Lepido-
ptera of Scotland," by Dr. Buchanan White, and the " Coleo-
ptera of Scotland," by Dr. D. Sharp.

The numbers of the Journal of Ikitany from March to July
contain many articles of interest ; and nearly every number is
now illustrated by at least one original drawing. Those in the
numbers now under notice are the fruit of the Bitter Cola, an
undescribed species of Clusiacete from Wesetm Tropical Africa,
nearly allied to Garcinia, several species or new or rare Hymeno-
mycelous Fungi (coloured), i9«V/a/«i<z Thompsoniatia, a remarkable
species of Passifloraceae, and Carex ornithopoda, a newly discovered
British species. Besides a number of abstracts and short notes,
the following are the more important original articles in these
numbers : — Descriptions of a number of new and unpublished
species by Dr. Masters, Dr. Trimen, Mr. J. G. Baker, Dr.
Hance, and others. In Cryptogamy, Mr. Worthington Smith
describes a number of new species of fungi ; the Rev. J. M.
Crombie the additions to the British lichen flora since his last
notice ; and Mr. J. G. Baker several new ferns. One of the
best papers in these numbers is by Mr. A. H. Church, with an
account of some recent investigations in phyto-chemistry at the
laboratory at Cirencester. An analysis of the dried substance of

a fungus ( Geoqlossum difforme), and of a lichen {Collema furvum),
showed the former to contain 19 and the latter as much. as
28 per cent, of albuminoids ; while the former contains the very
large proportion of 13-87, and the latter 6-57 per cent, of ash.
Cotton, generally considered to be almost pure cellulose, was
analysed with the following result : —

Water 7*56 per cent.

Oil and fat o'5i

Albuminoids 0*50 ,,

Gummy matters o"i7 ,,

Ash o-ii „

Cellulose 91*15 ,,

The composition of the pollen of Cupressus Jragrans was deter-
mined as under : —

Carbohydrates and undetermined 85 76 per cent.

Oil and fat 1-87 „

Albuminoids ... ... ... 8 67

Ash

370

Zeitschrift der Oesterreichischen Gesdlschaft fiir Meteorologie,
June 15. — This number contains a paper by Herr Hellmann, of
Berlin, on the extension of a short series of observations on tem-
perature by means of the long series of a neighbouring station.
It was one of Dove's result's that series of mean temperatures of
two neighbouring places derived from a different number of
years might be reduced so as to extend over equal periods. His
hypothesis has proved a fruitful one. The object of Herr Hell-
mann was to confirm its value, and this he did by taking mean
temperatures already obtained by observation for long and equal
periods at two neighbouring places ; then assuming that, say for
the last five years, no observations had been made at one of
them, and calculating from those of the other the required means
for the whole period. The difference between the real values
and those calculated expresses about the amount of error in-
curred, which is surprisingly small. Thus, out of eighty-four
monthly means for seven pairs of similarly situated stations, only
four differences exceeded one-tenth of a degree. But when a
hill station is compared with a valley station the agreement is
not so good, and it appears that with increase of height the
climate becomes more uniform ; between an inland and a coast
station the difference is still greater, but rarely exceeds half a
degree. We may conclude that observations made at a place
situated on a plain may safely be employed for the extension of
a shorter series of observations made at another place at no
great distance, similarly situated, and that the error will be
greater when stations different in position are compared.

July I. — This number contains a review of Mr. Symons's pub-
lications on British Rainfall, by M. Raulin, of Bordeaux, and,
among the " Kleinere Mittheilungen," a paper on th« production
of centres of cold in winter.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

London

Royal Horticultural Society, July 7.— General Meeting.—
Hon. and Rev. J. T. Boscawen in the chair.— The Rev. M.J,
Berkeley briefly alluded to Mr. Worthington Smith's paper be-
fore the Scientific Committee.

July 21. — Scientific Committee. — M. T. Masters, M.D.,
F.R.S., in the chair — Mr. Bennett exhibited a fine specimen of
a fasciated cucumber stem bearing two cucumbers. — Mr. W. G.
Smith made a further communication on the resting spores of the
potato fungus. — A letter was read from Mr. C. E. Broome, in-
cluding a sketch of DiplodiaASkz bodies met with in the mycelial
filaments. — Mr. Renny made a communication on the same sub-
ject, and exhibited a species of Pythium (Saprolegniea;), which,
without care, might be mistaken for the state of Peronospora
described by Mr. Smith. — A letter was read from Lady Mathi-
son, accompanying specimens of various larvae which proved very
destructive to the otherwise thriving plantation of Falkland
Island Tussock grass {Dactylis acspitosa) in the island of Lewis.
— Mr. Alfred Bennett called attention to the rapid growth of the
flower-stalk of Vallisneria spiralis, which he had observed to
grow as much as 12 inches in twenty-four hours. — A letter, com-
municated by Dr. Hooker, P.I^S., was read from Dr. Imray, of

284

NATURE

\_Aug. 5, 1875

Dominica, accompanied by an excellent series of specimens of
the minute moth ( Cemiostoma coffeella) which injures the leaves of
the coffee plant in Dominica.— Dr Masters exhibited a flower of
a hybrid Tacsonia in which the anthers were replaced by petals,
while from the apex of the tube formed by the filaments, a
second corona of blue threads proceeded. Dr, Masters also
exhibited a flower of a Cattleya, in which there were three equal
sepals and four petals all lip-like. From the arrangement of
the parts Dr. Masters concluded that there was in this specimen
a passage from the whorled to the spiral arrangement.

General Meeting. — Hon. and Rev. J. T. Boscawen in the
chair.— The Rev. M. J. Berkeley commented upon the objects
exhibited and also upon Mr. W. G. Smith's further observations
upon the resting spores of the potato-disease fungus. — Prof.
Thiselton Dyer made some observations upon a fine pan of
Droseras from the New Forest, exhibited by the Chairman. — Dr.
Masters commented on the splendid pitchers of Nepenthes sent
by Mr. D. Thomson, gardener to the Duke of Buccleugh at
Drumlanrig.

Quekett Microscopical Club, July 23.— Annual Meeting.
— Dr. Matthews, president, in the chair. — The report showed
that the club had completed the tenth year of its existence
and that it continued to make most satisfactory progress ; the
meetings had been well attended, excellent papers had been
read and useful work accomplished, whilst the library and
cabinet were in good order, and the field excursions had been
very successful. The treasurer's statement showed that the
year's income from all sources amounted to 291/. 13^'. \id., and
that there was a balance in hand of 73/. 9^. ()d. Votes of thanks
to the president and officers were duly passed, as was also a
Special vote of thanks to the Council of University College for
their continued kindness in allowing the meetings to be held in
the library of that building. — The annual address was delivered
by the President, and upon its conclusion a ballot took place for
the election of officers and committee for the ensuing year. Dr.
J. Matthews was re-elected President. Messrs. J. Crisp, R. T.
Lewis, B T. Lowne, and T. C. White, Vice-Presidents. As
Hon. Sec, Mr. Ingpen ; as Treasurer, Mr. Gay. Hon. Sec.
for Foreign Correspondence, Dr. M. C. Cooke. And to fill the
four vacancies on Committee, Messrs. M. H. Johnson, F. Oxley,
T. Rogers, and Joseph A. Smith.

Berlin

German Chemical Society, June 28. — A. W. Hofmann,
president, in the chair. — Messrs. von Dechen and Wichelhaus
have studied the action of nitrobenzole on aniline. They obtain
an amorphous violet colouring substance to which they give the
formula (C6H4)3"N2 ; explaining its formation by the equa-
tions—

1, CgHslNOs) -t- 2C6H5NH2 = H2O -h {C6H5)3N3
Nitrobenzole. Aniline. Violaniline.

2. {C6H5)3N3 = NH3 -f (C6H,)3"N2

(new substance).

Messrs. Oppenheim and Pfaff have continued their researches on

(OH
oxyuvitinic acid, CgH, \ CH3 . They have prepared the

( (CO,H),
methylic ether and the first anhydride of this acid, which they
have found to be produced not only by the action of chloroform
but also by that of chloral, of trichloroacetic ether, and of the
chloride of carbon C CI4 on the sodium- compound of acetic
ether. They have prepared 150 grammes of pure cresol from
this acid and by transforming this cresol into cresotinic acid,
methylic and ethylic ethers, methyloxy benzoic, ethyloxybenzoic,
and oxybenzoic acids, and studying the properties of these
bodies they have determined the cresol obtained to be metacrtsol.
This leads them to allege the following position to the lateral
groups of oxyuvitinic acid —

CH3 : OH : CO2H : COgH =1:3:4:6.

The same chemists have found anisic acid to have the melting-
point 184* -2 and methyloxy benzoic acid 106-107°, the melting-
points formerly given bemg 10° too low. — P. Griess has trans-
formed diazocyanobenzol into cyanophenol, by heating its
sulphate with water —

C8H3CN N2 + HgO = CgHiCN OH.

Hydrochloric acid splits it into ammonia and meta-oxybenroic
acid. The cyananiline necessary for preparing the diazo com-

pound had been prepared by heating uramidobenzoic acid with
phosphoric anhydride —

_NH-C0-NH2 _phCN ,ro-^HO
C6H4_c00H -^6^4 NH2 + ^"2 ^ ^^O.

— A. Ladenburg has repeated Mr. Fittica's experiments without
obtaining a trace of his presumed and inexplicable isomers of Ni-
trobenzoic acid. — O. Witt, by treating diphenylamine with nitrous
ether has transformed it into yellow brilliant crystals of diphenyl-

nitrosamine N— NO . —A Pinner has transformed C3H2Cl2into

\C«H5
a nitrochloroallylene, which, with tin and hydrochloric acid
yields C3II4CI3NH2 trichloropropylamine. Sodium acts on
C3H2CI2 m a peculiar way. It forms with it a solid compound
decomposed by water into chloride of sodium and CgHg a gas
forming the bromide C3H2Br.2. — A. W. Hofmann has distilled
the compound ammonium (CH3)3NC2H30H, hoping to obtain
vinylic alcohol ; he obtained, however, trimethylamine, water,
and acetylene.

Paris
Academy of Natural Sciences, July 26. — M. Fremy in the
chair. The following papers were read : — Researches on the theory
of aberration, and considerations on the influence of the proper
motion of the solar system in the phenomenon of aberration, by
M. Yvon Villarceau.— Onthe latitude of Abbadia near Hendaye
(Basses Pyrenees), by M. A. D'Abbadie.~On the distribution of
magnetism in compound bundles of very thin bars of finite length,
by M. J. Jamin. — Note by M. Chevreul on the Compte Rendu
of the meeting of July 19- — Complementary notice on the con-
temporaneous formation of minerals by the thermal springs of
Bourbonne-les- Bains (Haute Marne) ; production of phosgenite,
by M. Daubree. — Researches on the phenomena produced by
electric currents of high tension, and their analogy with natural
phenomena, by M. G. Plante. — Action of electrolytic oxygen on
glycerine, by M. Ad. Renard. The author finds as the result of
this action formic and acetic acids and the first glyceric aldehyde.
— Study of the pyrites employed in France for the manufacture
of sulphuric acid, by MM. A. Girard and H. Morin. — On the
toxic properties of the fermentation alcohols, by MM. Dujardin-
Beaumetz and Audige.— On amyloxanthate of potassium (for the
destruction of Phylloxera), by MM. Zoeller and Grete. — On the
thermal phenomenon accompanying inversion, by M. G. Fleury.
The author concludes that the inversion of sugar by acids is an
exothermal phenomenon. — Note on a substance serving to
adulterate guanos, by M. F. Jean. — New researches on germi-
nation, by M. P. P. Deherain. — Experiments showing that the
mammae removed from young female guinea pigs are not repro-
duced, by M. J. M. Philipeaux.

BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

British.— British Wild Flowers. Parts 14 and 15: J. E. Sowerby (Van
Voorst).— Sound. New Edition : J Tyndall, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. (Long-
mans).—Six Lectures on Light, delivered in America, 1872-73. New Edition :
J. Tyndall, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. (Longmans).— Geometrical Contributeins
to the Educational Times : T. Archer Hirst, F.R.S. (Hodgson and Son).—
Report of the Inspectors of Irish Fisheries for 1874 (Dublin, Thom).—
Insectivorous Plants : Charles Darwin, M.A., F.R.S. (John Murray).

CONTENTS Page

American Geological Surveys. By Prof. Arch. Gkikie, F.R.S. . 265

Fiske's " Cosmic Philosophy." By Douglas A. Spalding ... 267
OuK Book Shklf : —

Wilson on ' Fertilisation of the Cereals " 270

Oliver's "Official Guide to the Kew Museums" 270

Letters to the Editor : —

On the Mechanical Work done in exhausting a Muscle —Prof.

F. E. Nipher (IVit/i Ittustration) 271

Domestic Economy of Blackbirds— E.R.W 272

Scarcity of Birds — Joseph John Murphy 272

Hay Crops of 1875 —Dr. C. M. Ingleby 272

Our Astronomical Column :—

Variable Stars 272

The Great Cluster, Messier 11 272

New Minor Planet 272

The Great Comet of 1843 272

Comet 1874 (II.) 273

Prof. LooMis ON THE U.S. Weather Maps 273

On the Horizontal Photographic Telescope of Long Focus . 273
On the Cardiograph Trace. By Prof. A H. Garrod, F.Z.S. , . 27s
Sir James Kav-Shuttleworth on Scientific Training .... 276
The International Geographical Congress and Exhibition . 278
Notes .... . ■ . ■ • ■ 279
The Mortality of the Large Towns of the British Islands in
Relation to Weather. By Alexander Buchan (With Illus-
trations) • • 281

Scientific Serials 282

Societies and Academies 283

Books and Pamphlets KECKrvED 284

I

NATURE

285

THURSDAY, AUGUST 12, 1875

THE SCIENCE COMMISSION REPORT ON
THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

SINCE our last week's issue two Reports of the above
Commission have been issued, one of them, the
Eighth and Final Report, dealing especially with the
Advancement of Science.

We attach so much importance to this branch of the
inquiry entrusted to the Commission, that we shall deal
with the Eighth Report first ; and as the Recommendations
which the Commission make and the Considerations which
have led up to them have long been anxiously looked for,
we shall defer any remarks of our own this week, in order to
give the Considerations and Recommendations in extcnso.
The following are the various branches into which the
Report is divided : —

1. The Scientific Work carried on by Departments of
the Government.

2. The Assistance at present given by the State towards
the promotion of Scientific Research.

3. The Assistance which it is desirable the State should
give towards that object.

4. The Central Organisation which is best calculated
to enable the Government to determine its action in all
questions affecting Science.

The general remarks made by the Commission on the
evidence adduced on the first three heads are as follows : —

" The great advances in physical science which have
been made in this country, and within this century, by
such men as Dalton, Davy, and Faraday, without aid
from the State ; the existence of our numerous learned
societies, and the devotion of some few rich individuals
to the current work of science, at first sight appear to
reduce the limits within which State aid to research is
required in this country.

" But whilst we have reason to be proud of the contri-
butions of some great Englishmen to our knowledge of
the aws of nature, it must be admitted that at the present
day scientific investigation is carried on abroad to an
extent and with a completeness of organisation to which
this country can offer no parallel. The work done in this
country by private individuals, although of great value, is
small when compared with that which is needed in the
interests of science ; and the efforts of the learned societies,
not excepting the Royal Society, are directed to the dis-
cussion and publication of the scientific facts brought
under their notice ; these societies do not consider it any
part of their corporate functions to undertake or conduct
research.

"It will have been seen, from the extracts from the
evidence, that amongst the witnesses who have advocated
an increase of State assistance are some who have made
great sacrifices in time and money in the cause of scien-
tific research.

" But whatever may be the disposition of individuals to
conduct researches at their own cost, the advancement of
modern science requires investigations and observations
extending over areas so large and periods so long that
the means and lives of nations are alone^ commensurate
with them.

" Hence the progress of scientific research must in a
great degree depend upon the aid of Governments. As a
nation we ought to take a share of the current scientific
work of the world ; much of this work has always been
voluntarily undertaken by individuals, and it is not desir-
able that Government should supersede such efforts ; but
Vol. XII.— No. 302

it is bound to assume that large portion of the national
duty which individuals do not attempt to perform, or
cannot satisfactorily accomplish.

" The following considerations have been suggested to
us by the heads of evidence relating to (i) Laboratories,
(2) Observatories, (3) Meteorology, (4) Tidal Observa-
tions, and (5) the Payment of scientific workers.

" I. The first condition of scientific investigation is that
there should be collections, laboratories, and observatories
accessible to qualified persons. The evidence has shown
that at present, for certain branches, these do not exist or
are incomplete.

" Moreover, there can be no doubt that the Govern-
ment service should, to a great extent, contain within
itself the means of carrying on investigations specially
connected with the departments. Even having regard
only to the current wants of the State, additional appli-
ances are necessary.

" Three distinct ways have been suggested in which the
State might assist in providing the aids to investigation
which are required by private individuals. It has been
proposed : first, that competent investigators should
receive grants in money enabling them to provide
themselves with means for conducting their researches ;
secondly, that laboratories, designed primarily for the
service of the State, and those of Universities and other
similar institutions receiving aid from the State, should be
placed, under proper conditions, at the disposal of such
inquirers ; thirdly, that laboratories should be erected by
the Government specially designed for the use of private
investigators, though of course also available for the ser-
vice of the State. Wherever the first of these methods
can be conveniently and economically adopted, we are
disposed to consider that it is the simplest and the best ;
but it must be remembered that for many researches
apparatus of a costly but durable character are among
the primary requisites ; and that to provide these sepa-
rately for each investigator would involve a large and
unnecessary expenditure. It appears to us that the diffi-
culty thus arising might be adequately met by the adop-
tion of the second of the above suggestions. Our atten-
tion has, indeed, been called to the inconveniences which
might arise from the admission of independent workers
into University or State laboratories. But, notwith-
standing this difficulty, we think the experiment is one
which ought to be tried, and till it has been tried we
should hesitate to recommend the erection by the State,
for the especial use of private investigators, of laboratories
which would certainly be costly, and might possibly be
only imperfectly utiHsed.

" 2. Upon a review of the whole of the evidence
relating to the subject of Astronomical Physics, we
are of opinion that an observatory for that branch of
science should be established by the State. In the study
of Solar Physics, continuity of the observations is of the
greatest importance ; and owing to our variable climate,
continuous observations of the sun in this country are
subject to pecuhar difficulties which should be duly con-
sidered in the site for such an observatory. The neigh-
bourhood of London is less favourable to physical obser-
vations than many other sites which might be found, and
for this reason we should prefer that a physical obser-
vatory should be placed elsewhere than at Greenwich.
On other grounds, also, we think that the Observatory for
Astronomical Physics should be an institution entirely
distinct from any of the national observatories for Mathe-
matical Astronomy. The subject of Mathematical Astro-
nomy is vast enough to occupy adequately the whole
energies of a director, and it is especially important that
Astronomical Physics should have the undivided atten-
tion of the head of an observatory, because its methods,
which are of very recent invention, are as yet incom-
pletely developed, and because, depending, as they do, on
a continual comparison of Celestial phenomena with the

NATURE

\Aug.

875

results of experiments in the laboratory, they are entirely
different from those of Mathematical Astronomy.

" Our opinion as to the desirability of such an institu-
tion is confirmed by the example of foreign nations ;
observatories for astronomical physics being already at
work in various parts of Italy, and their immediate erec-
tion having been determined on at Berlin and at Paris.

" We venture to express the hope that similar institu-
tions may before long be established in various parts of
the British Empire. The regularity of the climatic con-
ditions of India, and the possibility ^of obtaining there
favourable stations at considerable heights, render it
especially desirable that arrangements should be made
for carrying on physical observations of the sun in that
country.

"3. With respect to Meteorology we are of opinion
that the operations of the Meteorological Office have
been attended with great advantage to science and to the
country. The subject of Meteorology is a very vast one,
and any scheme for its proper cultivation or extension
must comprise — (i) Arrangements for observing and regis-
tering meteorological facts ; (2) Arrangements for the
reduction, discussion, and publication of the observa-
tions ; (3) Researches undertaken for the purpose of dis-
covering the physical causes of the phenomena observed.
The resources placed at the disposal of the Committee
are inadequate to cover the whole of this wide field ; and,
having due regard to all the circumstances of the case,
we believe that in selecting certain parts of it, as the
objects of their special attention, they have been guided
by a sound discretion.

" We are also disposed to consider that although, as
we have already said, the Meteorological Committee
occupies an anomalous position, no other form of organ-
isation could advantageously have been adopted under
the actual conditions. We think, however, that if, as we
shall hereinafter recommend, a Ministry of Science should
be established, the head of the Meteorological Office
should be made responsible to the Minister. We fully
concur with the opinion expressed by the witnesses that
many branches of meteorology can only be effectually pro-
moted by an organisation having the support of Govern-,
ment ; and we would draw especial attention to the con-
sideration that if meteorology is to take rank as a branch
of terrestrial physics, the observations must be made at
stations widely dispersed over all parts of the earth's sur-
face, and those taken by observers of different nations
must be so arranged as to be comparable with one an-
other. It is obvious that the intervention of Government
would greatly facilitate the attainment of both these
objects.

" We are very unwilling that any scientific observations
which can adequately be carried on by individuals or
associations of individuals, should be undertaken by a
department of the Government. So far as the local in-
terests connected with climatic meteorology suffice to
ensure due attention being paid to that branch of science,
we should prefer to see it left mainly to scientific societies,
any assistance the Government might afford being merely
subsidiary. That useful results may be obtained by
voluntary effort is evident from the work carried on under
the direction of Mr. Glaisher, and from the case of the
Scottish Meteorological Society, which has succeeded,
with very narrow means, in organising a valuable system
of observations on the meteorology of Scotland. It is,
however, important that any grants for the promotion of
meteorological observations in aid of voluntary efforts
should be made on some systematic principle \ and the
attainment of this object would be furthered ; by making
them subject to the control of a minister, who would be
cognisant of all the facts relating to the expenditure of the
Government upon meteorology.

" We may point out that the returns furnished by the
Scottish Meteorological Society and Mr. Glaisher, are

adopted by the Registrars General, and are reco.cjnised
by Committees of Parhament in discussions affecting the
public health, the supply of water, and other matters of
the same kind. The value of observations undertaken,
as in this case, by private individuals or voluntary asso-
ciations, must vary from time to time, according to the
efficiency of the persons principally concerned in their
superintendence. We feel, therefore, that the question
how far it is proper that such observations should receive
official sanction, cannot be decided a priori, and must be
left to the judgment of the responsible Minister for the
time being.

" 4. With regard to tidal observations, it will be seen
that, in the opinion of the witnesses, these have not
hitherto been conducted and reduced systematically.
Considering the agencies which the Government can
employ for the purpose of making these observations, the
importance of providing proper superintendence for them,
and of securing their reduction, we think it desirable that
they should be carried on under Government control.
The expense involved would chiefly consist in the esta-
blishment at proper points, and verification, of tide
gauges, and in the reduction of the observations ; these
being entrusted to officers of Government already sta-
tioned at the ports and on the various coasts of the
Empire.

"5. The witnesses have expressed themselves strongly
as to the justice and pohcy of remuneration to investi-
gators for their time and trouble, and the ; evidence also
shows by implication how great must have been the sacri-
fices of those who without private fortune have hitherto
devoted their great talents and their valuable time to
such work without any remuneration whatever.

"It has hitherto been a rule in the granting of Govern-
ment aid to scientific investigators, subject, so far as we
have been able to ascertain, to but very few exceptions,
that such aid should be limited to what was necessary to
meet the expenditure actually incurred on instruments,
materials, and assistance.

" To grants made under these conditions we think that
considerable extension might be given.

" It is hardly necessary to assert the principle that
when scientific work is undertaken at the request of the
Government, the State is not only justified in paying, but
is under obligation to pay for what is done on its behalf
and for its service. But we desire to express our belief
that there are many instances of unremunerative research
in which the benefit conferred on the nation by those who
have voluntarily engaged in it establishes a claim upon
the State for compensation for their time and labour.
Without such compensation much important work must
remain unperformed, because it must be expected that
many of the best men will not be in circumstances
enabling them to devote long periods of time to unre-
munerated labour.

" It is a matter of course that State aid shall only be
given to investigators whose capacity and industry have
been placed beyond a reasonable doubt."

With regard to head IV., the Commissioners make the
following general remarks :—

" The functions of the Government with regard to
science may be summed up under the three following
heads : —

" I. The treatment of the scientific questions incident
to the business of the public departments.

"2. The direction of scientific instruction when given
under the superintendence or control of the State.

" 3. The consideration of all questions involving State
aid towards the advancement of science, and of adminis-
trative questions arising out of such aid.

" It would be difficult to enumerate exhaustively all the
various topics comprehended under these three heads, and
it will be sufficient for the purpose of showing how wide

lug. 12, 1875J

NATURE

287

.s the field of action of the State in regard to science, if
we point out that under one or other of these heads are
included all scientific questions affecting the army, the
naxy, the public health, the mercantile marine, public
works, Government scientific establishments ; the ele-
mentary instruction in science under the department of
education in primary schools, in the science classes con-
nected with the Science and Art Department, and in
secondary schools so far as they are subject to Govern-
ment control ; the aid which is now given, or which it is
desirable should be given, to universities and other bodies
not directly connected with the State, for the middle and
higher scientific instruction, and the control which the
State either does or should exercise over them in virtue
of such aid or otherwise ; the appointments to all scien-
tific offices in the gift of the Crown ; grants to museums
and their control by the State ; aid to scientific expedi-
tions of every kind ; the establishment and direction of
State laboratories and observatories ; grants in aid of
such laboratories not under State direction, and in aid of
scientific research ; and generally the allotment and con-
trol of public funds for similar purposes.

" The majority of the witnesses who have given evi-
dence in relation to this branch of the inquiry, express
dissatisfaction with the manner in which questions under
the preceding heads are now determined, and either re-
commend the appointment of a special minister of science
or of a minister of science and education,

" In most cases the witnesses recommend that such a
minister should, in regard to science, be advised by a
council. Others, however, are of opinion that the func-
tions of such a council might be exercised by an adminis-
trative staff of the usual kind."

After adducing a mass of evidence with regard to this
subject, the establishment of a Ministry and Council of
Science, the Commission thus discusses it : —

" We have given careful consideration to this part of
the Inquiry entrusted to us ; and, in the course of our
deliberations we have been led to attach much importance
to the facts stated in the first part of our report, which
show that the scientific work of the Government is at
present carried on by many different departments.

" There is nothing to prevent analogous, if not actually
identical, investigations being made in each of these, or
to secure to one department an adequate knowledge of the
results obtained, and the circumstances under which they
were obtained, by another.

" Investigations admitted to be desirable, nay, practical
questions, the solution of which is of the greatest impor-
tance to the public administration, are stated by the
witnesses to be set aside because there is no recognised
machinery for dealing with them ; while, in other cases,
investigations are conducted in such a manner as to
involve a needless outlay of time and money, because they
were originally planned without consultation with com-
petent men of science.

" Passing to the question of the advancement of science,
we have arrived at the conclusion that much has to be
done which will require continuous efforts on the part of
the administration unless we are content to fall behind
other nations in the encouragement which we give to pure
science, and, as a consequence, to incur the danger of
losing our pre-eminence in regard to its applications.

" These considerations, together with others which have
come before us in the course of our inquiry, have im-
pressed upon us the conviction that the creation of a
special Ministry dealing with science and with education
is a necessity of the public service.

" This Ministry would be occupied (i) with all questions
relating to scientific and general education, so far as these
come under the notice of government ; (2) with all ques-
tions incidental to the application of national funds for
the advancement of science ; and (3) with all scientific

problems in the solution of which the other departments
may desire external scientific advice or information. It
would also be desirable that the department should receive
information as to scientific investigation proposed by
other branches of the Government, and record their
progress and results.

" It is not within our province to express an opinion as
to whether the subject of art should be included among
the functions of this department ; but we are satisfied that
the Minister's attention should not be distracted by any
immediate responsibility for affairs which have no con-
nection with science, education, or art.

" We have considered whether the official staff of such a
Ministry, however carefully selected, could be expected to
deal satisfactorily with all the varied and complicated
questions which would come before the department. We
have given full weight to the objections which have been
raised against the creation of a special council of science,
and to the arguments in favour of referring scientific
questions to learned societies, or to special committees
appointed for the purpose, or to private individuals ; but
nevertheless we have arrived at the conclusion that an
additional organisation is required through which the
Minister of Science may obtain advice on questions in-
volving scientific considerations, whether arising in his
own department or referred to him by other departments
of the Government.

" Such questions have from time to time been referred
to the Council of the Royal Society, in which the best
scientific knowledge of the time is fairly represented.
The Committee chosen by that Council for the adminis-
tration of the government grant of 1,000/. per annum in
aid of scientific investigations has performed its work to
the satisfaction of the Government, of men of science, and
of the public. But if much more is to be done for the
advancement of science than at 1 present, and if the
Departments in conducting their investigations are to
have the benefit of the scientific advice which appears
now to be frequently wanting, the Council of the Royal
Society, chosen as it is for other purposes, could scarcely
be expected to take upon itself functions which, it is true,
are not different in kind, but which would involve in-
creased responsibility and the expenditure of additional
time and trouble. Moreover, amongst the questions on
which the departments would require scientific advice,
there would no doubt be many requiring a knowledge of
the peculiar exigencies of the public service, which would
be more readily understood and solved if some persons in
direct relation with the departments formed a part of the
body to be consulted. It is obviously of great importance
that the council should be so constituted as to possess the
confidence of the scientific world, and we believe that this
confidence would be extended to a council composed of
men of science selected by the Council of the Royal
Society, together with representatives of other important
scientific societies in the United Kingdom, and a certain
number of persons nominated by the Government. We
also believe that such a body would deserve and receive
the confidence of the Government, and that it would be
well quaUfied to administer grants for the promotion of
pure science.

"The general opinion we have expressed as to the
proper remuneration of scientific work would be applicable
to the members of this Council, but the degree and
manner in which the principle should be applied in this
instance must be so largely dependent on circumstances
that we cannot make any specific recommendation on the
subject.

" It would be impossible that the Council should in all
cases undertake the direct solution, by itself or even by
sub-committees, of the problems submitted to it. In
many instances, especially when experimental investiga-
tions are required, its duty would be accurately to define
the problem to be solved, and to advise the Minister as

NATURE

[Aug. 12, 1875

to the proper persons to be charged with the investiga-
tion.

" We are of opinion that the Council should not have
the power of initiating investigations ; it should, however,
not be precluded, in exceptional cases, from 'offering to
the Minister such suggestions as it may have occasion to
make in the public interest.

" We believe that reference to such a council would be
found to be so useful and convenient that it would become
the usual course in cases of difficulty, but we would not
diminish the responsibility or fetter the discretion of any
Minister by making such reference obligatory, or by pre-
venting a reference to committees or to individuals chosen
by him, whenever that course might appear to him to be
more desirable.

Finally the Report concludes with the following " Con-
clusions and Recommendations " : —

" I, The assistance given by the State for the promo-
tion of scientific research is inadequate, and it does not
appear that the concession or refusal of assistance takes
place upon sufficiently well-defined principles.

"II. More complete means are urgently required for
scientific investigations in connection with certain Govern-
ment departments ; and physical as well as other Labora-
tories and apparatus for such investigations ought to be
provided.

"III. Important classes of phenomena relating to Phy-
sical Meteorology, and to Terrestrial and Astronomical
Physics, require observations of such a character that
they cannot be advantageously carried on otherwise than
under the direction of the Government.

" Institutions for the study of such phenomena should
be maintained by the Government ; and, in particular, an
observatory should be founded specially devoted to Astro-
nomical Physics, and an organisation should be esta-
blished for the more complete observation of tidal pheno-
mena and for the reduction of the observations.

" IV. We have stated in a previous Report that the
national collections of Natural History are accessible to
private investigators, and that it is desirable that they
should be made still more useful for purposes of research
than they are at present. We would now express the
opinion that corresponding aid ought to be afforded to
persons engaged in important physical and chemical
investigations ; and that whenever practicable such per-
sons should be allowed access, under proper limitations,
to such laboratories as may be established or aided by
the State.

" V. It has been the practice to restrict grants of money
made to private investigators for purposes of research to
the expenditure actually incurred by them. We think
that such grants might be considerably increased. We
are also of opinion that the restriction to which we have
referred, however desirable as a general rule, should not
be maintained in all cases, but that, under certain circum-
stances and with proper safeguards, investigators should
be remunerated for their time and labour.

" VI. The grant of 1,000/., administered by the Royal
Society, has contributed greatly to the promotion of
research, and the amount of this grant may with advan-
tage be considerably increased.

"In the case of researches which involve, and are of
sufficient importance to deserve, exceptional expenditure,
direct grants in addition to the annual grant made to the
Royal Society, should be made in aid of the inves-
tigations.

**VII. The proper allocation of funds for research ; the
establishment and extension of laboratories and obser-
servatories ; and, generally, the advancement of science
and the promotion of scientific instruction as an essential
part of public education, would be most effectually dealt
with by a ministry of science and education. And we
consider the creation of such a ministry to be of primary
mportance.

" VIII. The various departments of the Government
have from time to time referred scientific questions to the
Council of the Royal Society for its advice ; and we
believe that the work of a minister of science, even if
aided by a well-organised scientific staff, and also the
work of the other departments, would be materially
assisted if they were able to obtain, in all cases of excep-
tional importance or difficulty, the advice of a council
representing the scientific knowledge of the nation.

" This council should represent the chief scientific
bodies in the United Kingdom. With this view its com-
position need not differ very greatly from that of the pre-
sent Government Grant Committee of the Royal Society.
It might consist of men of science selected by the
Council of the Royal Society, together with represen-
tatives of other important scientific societies, and a
certain number of persons nominated by the Government.
We think that the functions at present exercised by the
Government Grant Committee might be advantageously
transferred to the proposed Council."

HINRICHS' ''PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY''

The Principles of Chemistry and Molecular Mechanics.

By Dr. Gustavus Hinrichs, Professor of Physical

Science in the State University of Iowa. (Davenport,

Iowa, U.S. : Day, Egbert, and Fidlar, 1874.)

THIS work constitutes the second volume of a treatise
on " The Principles of the Physical Sciences," and
its main object is to present theoretical chemistry in its
most modern aspect and to discuss its laws from a
dynamical point of view. It is divided into two portions :
" Molecular Statics," and " Molecular Dynamics." The
former commences with an account of chemical atoms, it
being premised that the conception of a chemical atom is
the basis of the modern chemical theory. Although the
author tells, us that the chemical atom is a reality, while
the philosophic atom is only a possibility, we have a little
difficulty in accepting his definition of a chemical atom
as "a -very minute, relatively indivisible particle of
matter." For it is surely unwise to retain a term so pre-
cise in its etymological significance if we admit its divisi-
bility. We are told that " an atom of lead sulphide "
can be divided into an atom of lead and an atom of
sulphur; and further (p. 19), that "the molecule of
gaseous compounds consists of one atom of the com-
pound." But a molecule is defined as a " group of atoms "
elsewhere, so that it would appear that a molecule is
sometimes an atom, and an atom is sometimes a mole-
cule, and such confusion of ideas must be most detri-
mental to the acquirement of exact knowledge by the
student.

It is useless for us to protest against variations in the
mode of writing formulas, for such protestations have
been made any time during the last ten years in vain ;
but we are quite justified in saying that such changes
harass the student to an extent to which the authors of
them can scarcely be aware. Why should NaCl be
written NaCl''»% and KaNOs, KaN«"=, and so with all sul-
phates, oxalates, nitrates, and a host of other salts ? And
why, when the almost universal custom is to write sul-
phates as MSO^, and nitrates as MNO3, does our author
write MO4S and MO3N ?

We are glad to notice the introduction of the recent
surmises as to the absolute weight of atoms, although at
present we believe that such ideas cannot be of much

Aug. 12, 1875I

NA TURE

289

real use to the student. We are told that a millifram of hy-
drogen contains' about 400,000000,000000,000000 atoms of
hydrogen, and a milligram of gold 2,000000,000000,000000
atoms, while the atomic weight of gold is given as 196 ;
if this is admitted, the milligram of gold will contain
some 408 1 6,000000,000000' atoms in excess of the number
given above, and the omission of this will in itself show
the extreme generality of such statements. A curious
deduction as to ^tform of atoms is drawn from the fact
that many minerals are observed, when reduced to pow-
der, to preserve their normal crystalline form ; hence,
says our author, " we conclude the compound atom
possesses form closely related to the cleavage form."

The law of Dulong and Petit is very concisely stated,
and its importance in modem chemistry is well illus-
trated. It is crudely formulated thus : — if a represents
the atomic weight and s the specific heat, the product
a s will be the specific heat 6" of a gram-atom of the sub-
stance, and S = as nearly equal to 6*3.

Or again, if the specific heat 6" of an element be known,
an approximate determination of the atomic weight can
be found as follows : —

a — nearly -^
s

Thus the specific heat of lead = o'03i, consequently

,-— - = 200, the exact atomic weight of lead being 207.

The service afforded by the application of this law to the
determination of the right atomic weight of an element
is also shown in this case of lead, for from the analysis
of oxide of lead the atomic weight of lead might be 207,
or 103.5, or 69, or 414, or 621, for although we find
that sixteen parts by weight of oxygen are united with
207 of lead, we have no direct chemical proof that the
207 represents one atom ; but the law of Dulong and
Petit now steps in and shows us that the right atomic
weight is 207, because it alone satisfies the conditions of
that law. And so for other elements the vapour density
of whose compounds cannot be determined. The section
on Atomicity or valence would be much improved by the
introduction of a complete list of the elements with their
atomicities, and a discussion of doubtful atomicities.

In the seventh section the author passes at once from
what were once called inorganic compounds to the discus-
sion of organic substitutions as shown in the great methyl
series of compounds. Such comprehensive statements
as, " the binary marsh gas,'also called methane^ CH^, is tho
basis of all organic compounds," are of great use to the
student, and in this instance the statement at once justifies
the passage from mineral chemistry to so-called organic
chemistry without one word of introduction or comment.
We do not think that the attempted graphical representa-
tion of chemical constitution in the eighth section can be
productive of anything but confusion^to the. student. The
crosses and dots and three-limbed signs have themselves
to be remembered, and cannot give any.precise idea of the
constitution of a complex compound. A somewhat detailed
account of the constitution and syntheses of various serial
compounds concludes that portion of the work devoted to
Molecular Statics.

The second part commences with an account of the
motions of molecules, and it is asserted that since mole-
cules are not spherical, their impact against each other

will not alone produce motion of translation, but also
motion of rotation, and this is partially illustrated by the
motion of a boomerang. The following definitions are
stated on the authority of the author : —

1. " The molecules of a body in the gaseous condition
have a motion of translation, and also a motion of rota-
tion around their natural axis of maximum moment of
inertia."

2. " The molecules of a body when in the' solid state
have only a vibratory motion about a position of equi-
librium."

3. " The molecules of a body when in the liquid state
have a vibratory motion, as in the solid state, and also a
motion of rotation around their natural axis of minimum
moment of inertia."

Among the concluding sections of the book is a very
interesting and suggestive account of caloraiioti, that is
the amount of heat produced or absorbed in any chemical
process. The treatment (p. 153), from a caloration point
of view, of the reactions of hydrogen, chlorine, iodine,
and silver, is worthy of careful study. A few pages at the
end ot the book treat of Systematic Chemistry and.
Applied Chemistry.

Dr. Hinrich's book must be used in connection with his
former works, " Elements of Chemistry " and " Elements
of Physics," to which frequent references are made. It is
mainly intended ar, a guide to the student, and must be
used with the assistance of a teacher. To the advanced
student it will be found to be of great use, and most emi-
nently suggestive ; but it will be almost useless to any
reader who has not before acquired the main principles of
chemical science, together with a large storehouse of
chemical facts. The work is somewhat disfigured by
numerous misprints — dissociotio7i (p. 21), amides (p. 73),
reductian (p. 109), enery (p. 113), &c., and we think the
two plates at the end are extremely confusing ; but these
minor matters are easily remedied in a second edition,
and need not detract greatly from the value of a really
useful and comprehensive work.

G. F. RODWELL

THE ZOOLOGY OF THE ''EREBUS" AND
« TERROR."

The Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. " Erebus " and
" Terror" under the command of Captain Sir James
Clark Ross, R.N., F.R.S., during the years 1839 to
1843. By authority of the- Lords Commissioners of
the Admiralty. Edited by John Richardson, M.D.,
F.R.S., &c., and John Edward Gray, Esq., Ph.D.
F.R.S., &c.

No. XIX. — Insects , (conclusion). By Arthur Gardiner
Butler, F.L.S., F.Z.S., &c. 1874.

No. XX.— Crustacea. By Edward J. Miers. 1874.

No. XXl.—Mollusca. By Edgar A. Smith, F.Z.S., &c.

No. XXII. — Birds (conclusion). By R. Bowdler Sharpe,
F.L.S., F.Z.S., &c. 1875.

No. XXIU.— Mammalia (conclusion). By John Edward
Gray, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., &c. 1875.

No. XXIY.— Reptiles (conclusion). By Albert" Giinther,
M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P.Z.S. 1875.

THE non-completion of the " Zoology of the Voyage
of the Erebus and Terror" has long been a
public scandal. The celebrated voyage of these ships,

290

NATURE

\_Aug. 12, 1875

commonly known as the "Antarctic Expedition," took
place in 1839, and the four following years. Dr.
Hooker, under the title of " Assistant Surgeon " to
the E7'ebus, was the Naturalist of the Expedition,
and assisted by Messrs. M'Cormack and Robertson, the
medical officers of the vessels, made an extensive collec-
tion of specimens in every department of zoology and
l)otany. The botanical specimens were sent to Kew ; the
zoological to the British Museum. Dr. Hooker under-
took the working out and publication of the former, and
Dr. Gray of the latter. At the recommendation of the
Admiralty the Government granted the sum of 2,000/.
for the illustration of the work, half of which was assigned
to the botanical and half to the zoological portion. Dr.
Hooker's labours resulted in the two large quarto volumes
which form the well-known "Botany of the Antarctic
Expedition," and remain to the present day the standard
authority upon the plants of the southern hemisphere.
Very different were the results achieved by the thousand
pounds bestowed upon the zoological portion of the work.
After the publication of eighteen numbers, the various
sections assigned to the different naturalists were left, one
and all, incomplete, and have thus remained until the
present day. Whether this untoward result was occa-
sioned by the fault of the editor or of the publisher, or
by misunderstandings between the two, has never been
divulged to the public, nor does it now much concern us
to inquire. Whichever may have been the case, the
result was equally discreditable to the parties concerned.
It is with pleasure, however, we see that the scandal exists
no longer. An enterprising publisher has bought up the
'' remainder " of the plates of the unfinished work, and
made arrangements for its completion. Whether it was
justifiable on the part of the vendor to sell what had
been produced, by public money may be open to some
doubt, but the purchaser, Mr. Janssen, is at all events
entitled to the credit of having done all he could to bring
this long neglected work to a satisfactory conclusion.
The six numbers of the "Zoology of the Erebus and
Terror" now before us, conclude the different sections,
and enable the subscribers after twenty years of patient
expectation to send their copies to the binders. On
turning over the pages of the lately issued numbers, we
find many admirably executed plates among them, and
much valuable contribution to Zoological science. Dr.
Giinther's synopsis of the Australian Lizards is of special
interest, and will, we are sure, prove most acceptable to
the vforking naturalists of the Australian Colonies. As
regards some of the illustrations of the birds, we may
remark that the colouring is not very well executed — notice
especially the figures of the King and Emperor Penguins.
This is the more the pity, as the figures themselves are
the productions of Mr, Wolf's artistic pencil.

OUR BOOK SHELF

Flora of Eastbourne. Being an Introduction to the
Flowering Plants, Ferns, &c., of the Cuckmere District,
East Sussex, with a Map, by F. C, S. Roper, F.L.S.,
&c,. President of the Eastbourne Natural History
Society, 8vo, pp, 165, (London, Van Voorst.)

This is an admirable little book of its kind, the greatest
care and conscientiousness having evidently been exercised

in its compilation. *rhe plan adopted by the author was
to include only such species as he had actually gathered
himself, or of which he had seen authentic specimens,
hence a considerable number of species which we know,
from personal observation, to grow within the limits of
the Cuckmere district are omitted, or only given in an ap-
pendix. However, Mr, Roper will doubtless soon publish
a supplement, and the basis upon which he has started is
far preferable to the indiscriminate admission of every-
thing from sources of uncertain value. Another cause for
the absence of certain species is the quite recent extension
of the field of operations to coincide with the Cuckmere
drainage district of Mr. Hemsley's projected flora of the
whole county. This forms an irregular triangle, having
its apex on the ridge of the weald at Cross-in-hand, and
its base running along the coast from the Signal House,
east of Seaford, to St. Leonards. Its area is about 150
square miles, and it comprises a great variety of soils and
situations, but there is very little boggy land, consequently
a paucity of bog plants. Mr. Roper's list numbers 700
species, which further explorations will probably augment
by about one hundred. It is surprising that such plants
as Papaver dubiuni, Arenaria trinervis, Rubus discolor,
Campanula rotundifolia, Qphrys muscifera, Jtmcus
mariiimus, Airaflexuosa, Broimis giganteus, &c,, should
have escaped observation ; but such is the case, and they
are not included in the Flora. Among the more inte-
resting plants of this part of Sussex, and not found else-
where in the county, we may mention Phyteuma spicattini,
Pyrola juinor, Btipleurtim aristatum, Seseli Libanotis,
Sibthorpia europcea, and Bartsia viscosa. The Pyrola
was recently discovered in Sussex for the first time by
Mr. Roper, so the botanist should never despair of finding
something new. The F'lora of Eastbourne has appeared
just at the right time for visitors to Eastbourne this
season, who will find it a valuable guide, and all the more
welcome, perhaps, [because there is a chance of adding
to the number of species it includes. We should add
that, like most local floras of recent publication, it
simply treats of the distribution of the plants, but
the book before us differs from most others in its co-
pious references to other works, which will be useful to
amateurs who may have occasion to consult descriptions
or plates.

We may here mention that we have received a circular
from the Lewes and East Sussex Natural History Society
respecting a projected Fauna and Flora of East Sussex,
which will be forwarded to any person interested in the
work on application to the Secretary, Mr. J. H, A, Jenner,
Lewes.

Repertorium der Natiirwissenschaften. Monatliche Ueber-
sicht der neuesten Arbeiten auf dem Gebiete der Natur-
wissenschaften, Herausgegeben von der Redaction des
Naturforscher. (January to June 1875, Nos, i to 6,
Berhn.)

This is a useful supplementary publication to Der Natur-
forscher. It consists of sixteen columns (the columns are
numbered and not the pages) in quarto form. The
number for May is made up of twenty-four columns, and
gives the titles of more than 600 papers, which are pub-
lished in upwards of eighty separate works. The periodi-
cals thus indexed are the Monatsberichte (Berlin), Coinptes
Rendus (Paris), Botanische Zeitung (Leipzig), Flora
(Regensburg), Hedwigia (Dresden), Proceedings of the
Royal Society (London), American Journal of Sciences
and Arts (New Haven), Geographical Magazine {"London),
Messenger of Mathematics, Astronomische Nachrichten
(Kiel), &c. Though there are several publications we
miss, both English and foreign, it will be seen that a good
beginning is here made, andjthat there is a prospect in time
of students being fairly informed of what is being done in
science in this country and elsewhere in a compact publi-
cation issued at a reasonable rate.

Aug. 12, 1875]

NATURE

291

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[l^he Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return,
or to correspond with the ruriters of, rejected manuscripts.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.']

Properties of Selenium

In a letter headed "Anomalous behaviour of Selenium,"
which appeared in Nature (vol. xii., p. 187), Mr. Gordon
states that "it has lately been observed that the electrical
resistance of selenium is greater in light than in the dark." I
am anxious to learn where an account of this remarkable obser-
vation is to be found.

Mr. Gordon afterwards announces the discovery that a bar of
granular selenium belonging to the Cavendish Laboratory ex-
hibits a decrease of resistance under the influence of light. This
phenomenon was well-known outside the Cavendish Laboratory
more than two years ago. Mr. Gordon also states that the very
high resistance of a certain medal of selenium did not sensibly
alter under the influence of light; and concludes that "the
physical form of the metal " seems to have some influence on its
electrical properties. From his description of the medal it would
appear that it is made of vitreous selenium. I am therefore
surprised that its resistance was so low, A conducting form of
selenium having the appearance of black-lead is certainly a
novelty.

It is perhaps not generally known that the electrical properties
of selenium are very variable. In a paper by Mr. Henry Draper
and myself which appeared in the " Proceedings of the Royal
Irish Academy" (vol. i. ser. ii. (Sci.)p. 529), we have shown that
there is a granular variety of the element which is, at ordinary
temperatures, apparently as good a non-conductor as the vitreous
variety. Unlike the latter, howevor, it cannot be rendered elec-
trical by friction. Another granular modification of the element
was found to conduct electricity comparatively well in darkness,
and scarcely any better under the influence of light ; while there
is an intermediate state of the element which appears to possess
a molecular structure so susceptible of change, that light is
capable of converting it temporarily into the form which con-
ducts comparatively well. Some bars which we prepared of
this sensitive variety exhibited an increased conductivity of
100 per cent, under the influence of sun-light. In appear-
ance there is not the slightest difference between this and
the non-conducting granular variety, both exhibiting a gray
granular fracture resembling that of the metal cobalt. In
the course of our experiments JNIr. Draper and I prepared a
large number of bars and plates of various shapes and sizes, but
we have not observed any unusual connection between the shape
of the bars or plates and their resistance. There is a great diffi-
culty in making observations witli reference to this point, as we
are as yet unable to produce two or more bars of the sensitive
variety possessing the same electrical properties. Thin plates
are generally more sensitive to light than cylindrical bars, but
we have occasionally prepared bars as sensitive in proportion as
a plate measuring 75 x 15 mm., and only 0*5 mm. in thickness.

I have not as yet been able to learn the contents of Trof.
Adams's recent paper on this subject, but Mr. Gordon says that
he has shown that the phenomenon is a purely optical one. I
may state that Mr. Draper and I have long since shown that, so
far as the effect of heat on electrical resistance is concerned,
some forms of granular selenium conform to the metallic type.
This was demonstrated by placing a plate of selenium inside a
spiral of platinum, at a distance of about 4 mm. from the wire.
The usual decrease of resistance took place when the plate was
exposed to light ; but on heating the surrounding platinum wire
by passing a current of electricity through it, the resistance of
the selenium increased considerably. The effect of light is
therefore partially counterbalanced by the effect of the heat
which usually accompanies it. This partly explains the increase
of resistance that is known to follow prolonged exposure to light.
A portion of this increase being doubtless due to the slight eleva-
tion of temperature that must result from the passage of the cur-
rent through the selenium. The opposite action of light and
heat is very remarkable, especially as the longest light undula-
tions are those that cause the greatest decrease of resistance. It
is remarkable, also, that a thin film of non-conducting vitreous
selenium transmits these red rays, while an equally thin film of
granular selenium is perfectly opaque to them.

KiCHARD J. Moss

Mr. Darwin and Prof. Dana on the Influence of Volcanic
Action in preventing the growth of Corals

In his critique on the new edition of Mr. Darwin's work on
Coral Reefs (Nature, vol. x., pp. 408-410), Prof. Dana adduces
four examples of islands in which he thinks comparatively recent
volcanic action has prevented the formation of extensive coral
reefs. One of these is Savaii, the largest island of Samoa.

Some time ago I read Prof. Dana's " Corals and Coral
Islands," while on a tour on Savaii, and on the margin of page
302 I noted this very point now brought forward by the author
in his paper in Nature, intending, at some future time, to show
that his view respecting this island is based upon imperfect know-
ledge, and is altogether incorrect.

I do not intend to enter here into all the details respecting
Prof. Dana's incorrect statements, but will confine myself to the
one point on which his views and those of Mr. Darwin are at
variance. In his work (p. 302) Prof. Dana says : " Savaii
abounds in extinct craters and lava streams, and much resembles
Hawaii in character ; it bears proof in every part of being the
last seat of the volcanic fires of the Samoan Group. Its reefs
are consiquently few and small.'" In Nature (vol. x. p. 409), he
says : " Savaii has coral reefs on its wtstern (eastern) and
northern shores, while elsewhere without them. 1 failed to find
evidence in the case of either of these volcanic regions that they are
situated zvithin areas of elevation rather than subsidence. Only
ten miles west (this should be east) of Savaii lies the large island
of Upolu, having very extensive reefs — on some parts of the
north side three-fourths of a mUe wide ; and it has not seemed
safe to conclude that while Upolu thus bears evidence of no
movement or of but little subsidence, Savaii was one of elevation;
or that the north and west {east) sides of Savaii have differed in
change of level frojii the rest of thi island."

In the above passage Prof. Dana has reversed the relative
positions of Savaii and Upolu. Savaii is west of Upolu, and its
reefs are on the eastern end next to Upolu, and extend for some
distance on its north-eastern side. Its south, west, and north-
west sides are free from coral reefs except in bays, where they are
verj' narrow.

Now what Prof. Dana did not consider it "safe to conclude,"
viz., that part of Savaii had "differed in change of level from
the rest of the island," is nevertheless a fact. And more than
that, those parts of the island which present unmistakable evi-
dence of upheaval are destitute of a coral reef on their shores,
except the narrow fringes above mentioned.

The elevated portions of the island commence at the south-
eastern point, in a line with three small islands which stand in
the straits between Upolu and Savaii, and which doubtless indi-
cate the line of fissure. I have traced the upheaval for many
miles along the southern coast. In some places there are old
water-worn cliffs from twenty to thirty feet above the cliffs which
at present form the coast line, and which are themselves fronr
twenty to thirty feet above high-water mark. These old cliffs
are usually within two or three hundred yards of the present
coast line, but are sometimes more distant. I have not at pre-
sent traced this upheaval around the entire western end of
Savaii, but I have observed the point at which it commences on
the northern side, as well as at the south-eastern extremity.

How this fact tells on the point on which Prof Dana's view
differs from Mr. Darwin's, I may leave to those who are familiar
with the subject to decide. My own conviction is, that instead
of furnishing proof of the correctness of Prof. Dana's view,
Savaii supplies a remarkable example of the correctness of that
of Mr. Darwin, that, ceteris paribus, the extent of coral reefs is
chiefly determined by the depth of water on the coast.

I have visited and examined a good many intertropical islands
of the Pacific belonging to the three orders : i. Volcanic islands
with fringing coral reefs, such as Samoa, the New Hebrides, lic.
2. Atolls, such as the Low Archipelago, Ellice, Gilbert Islands,
&c. 3. Upraised coral islands, such as Nine or Savage Island,
part of the Friendly, the Loyalty Islands, &c. I have studied
their structure with Mr. Darwin's " Coral Reefs " as my text-
book ; and the further I have gone the more firmly have I been
convinced of the correctness o.f his theory.

Prof. Dana is, without doubt, correct in his opinion that sub-
marine or littoral volcanic action would destroy living corals
which came within its influence ; and it might for a time, even
after the volcano became quiescent, prevent the spread of corals
within the area affected by it. But the fact that in some of the
areas where extensive reefs are not found, narrow coral fringes
exist in bays (as at Savaii), where the slope of the shore is less

292

NATURE

{Atig. 12, 1875

steep, is positive proof that the non-existence of extensive reefs
cannot in such places be owing to any deleterious influences
arising from volcanic action, but must be on account of the
depth of water on the coast. S. J. Whitmee

Vpolu, Samoa

Mirage on Snowdon

On Monday, July 12, I, with a party, ascended Snowdon. The
atmosphere was clear until we had reached within half a mile of
the summit, when a light cloud rising stealthily from amongst the
southern peaks enveloped it. Drifting towards us, when very near,
the cloud dropped over the eastern shoulder of the mountain just
where it dips towards Capel Curig. As we stood watching, great
was our surprise and delight as we beheld painted upon it, not
the arc-en-ciel with which we are familiar, but a complete and
brilliant prismatic circle, apparently about thirty feet in diameter,
in the very centre of which we ourselves were depicted, the
image being somewhat enlarged but clearly defined ; as we
arranged the party in groups, or bowed to each other, every
form and movement was faithfully reproduced in the picture. It
was now about 8 o'clock, with the sun nearly in a line with us.
Our guide, who had made some hundreds of ascents, had never
witnessed such a sight before, H. J. Wetenhall

Fordfield, Cambridge

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN

Kepler's Nova, 1604. — We learn from Prof. Winnecke
that, in consequence of the remarks upon this star which
appeared in Nature, vol. xi. p. 249, he has lately
examined the neighbourhood, and, in addition to the star
of ii"i2th magnitude there mentioned — the position of
which for 185 5*0 he finds to be R.A. lyh. 22m. 4"6s.,
N.P.D. 111° 23'6'— he found one of 12th magnitude in
R.A. lyh. 2im. 49'3s., N.P.D. 111° 19-3'. This star agrees
almost precisely in place with the loth magnitude marked
upon No. 52 of Chacornac's charts, though not at present
of that brightness ; but we are able to state that in August
1871 and June 1872 nothing was visible in this position in
a telescope which would show stars to I3"i4 magnitude
in Winnecke's scale. It will be desirable to watch this
small star closely, as it is quite possible it might be
identical with Kepler's famous star, the observed place of
which is not so accurately known as in the case of the
similar object observed by Tycho Brahe in 1572. Prof.
Winnecke, however, suggests that, as the star marked by
Chacornac is just upon the margin of his map, where
some distortion exists, it might possibly be identical
with No. 16,872 of Oeltzen's Argelander, a star estimated
8*9 in the Bonn Zones ; still the place of the 12th magni-
tude agrees much more closely with that of Chacornac's
loth, read off from his chart as nearly as the circumstances
permit. It may be well to compare the fainter star found
by Prof. Winnecke, from time to time with the 11 •12th
close at hand, and easily identified if the instrument be
set for Argelander's star, which may be considered a bright
9th magnitude.

The Binary Star 4 Aquarii. — If good measures of
this star are practicable during the present season, an
idea of the form of the orbit may perhaps be obtained.
Dawes's series of epochs will be of material service in
this respect ; without them, doubt might have been occa-
sioned by the two discordant epochs of Madler, which
may have been owing to distorted images at low altitude.
The object is certainly one of considerable difficulty, and
really trustworthy measures are perhaps only to be ex-
pected from practised observers in command of instru-
ments of excellent definition. In Barclay's second cata-
logue it is described as just elongated in the direction
144°, with power 450 on the lo-inch refractor at Leyton,
at the epoch 186574; this angle shows direct progress,
ver}' much in accordance with Dawes's measures. Pos-
sibly the companion may now be found nearly due south
of the primary.

The Nebula. — Prof. Schonfeld has published in Part
II. of " Astronomische Beobachtungen zu Mannheim" —
Carlsruhe, 1875 — a continuation of the valuable series of
observations commenced by him in i860, for accurate
determination of the positions of a selected hst of nebulas.
In this second part we have the places of 336 of these
objects, obtained by direct reference to stars, which, as in
the case of those employed in fixing the positions of the
nebulae included in the first part (Mannheim, 1862), have
been meridionally determined at Bonn by the late Prof.
Argelander ; the mean places are found in Vol. vi. of the
Bonn Observations. Schonfeld's epoch is as before,
1 865-0, for which year the precessions are computed with
Bessel's constants, still preferred by many of the German
astronomers. The differences from Schultz's Preliminary
Catalogue are shown, and are generally small. As one
result of more recent observations, it is remarked by
Schonfeld that a sensible proper motion of the great
nebula in Andromedas, which appeared to be indicated
by a comparison of Flamsteed's observations with those
of D'Agelet and Lalande, is not confirmed.

Prof. Adams, in his last address as President of the
Royal Astronomical Society, remarks upon the great
value attaching to Schonfeld's micrometrical observations
of the nebulcc, of which we have here the continuation.

Encke's Comet. — Mr. J. Tebbutt of Windsor, New
South Wales, reports his discovery of a comet, which he
supposed to be Encke's, on the morning of May 7th, in
the constellation Cetus. It is, we believe, the second
occasion upon which this able amateur astronomer has
detected this comet, before the arrival of an ephemeris
from Europe, and no doubt in the present case his inde-
pendent discovery, which he communicated telegraphi-
cally to the Government astronomers at Sydney and
Melbourne, will lead to a number of observations for
position at the Australian observatories, which might have
been otherwise lost. The search for comets without the
aid of an ephemeris is hardly an occupation which can be
expected in a public observatory, where time is valuable
for routine work — hence an argument for the early and
general pubhcation of ephemendes — and an inducement
for some amateurs, especially in southern latitudes where
a great necessity for systematic sweeping of the sky in
search of comets appears still to exist, to so employ their
leisure time. One at least of the lost comets of short
period, is far more likely to be recovered in the southern
hemisphere, than in these latitudes.

The Argentine Observatory.— Dr. Gould has just
circulated in two small pamphlets, in English, the annual
Report for 1874 of proceedings at the Observatory of
Cordoba, and at the Meteorological Office, which has
also been organised by this distinguished astronomer.
With regard to astronomical work, the observations
for the " Uranometry" are completed, as already men-
tioned in this column. The charts will be thirteen in
number, including the whole of the southern heavens as
well as the first ten degrees north of the equator, and
about 8,500 stars will be represented upon them, of which
about nine-tenths have southern declination. A catalogue
will accompany the Atlas, as with the works of Arge-
lander, Heis, and Behrmann. The zone-work was in a
very forward state, 82,537 stars having been observed,
and with the exception of an insignificant number of
zones for which it might be necessary to wait till a later
period of the year. Dr. Gould expected to complete this
laborious undertaking by the end of last month. The
third of the principal sub-divisions of work at Cordoba,
the formation of what is called " the smaller Catalogue "
is also well advanced : the catalogue is intended to con-
sist of nearly 5,000 of the brighter stars of the southern
heavens, each one observed not less than four times ; in
the year 1874, 12,500 observations of 3,600 different stars
were made, the greater number during Dr. Gould's visit
to his native city, a sufficient proof that he has been

Ug. 12, 1875J

NATURE

293

zealously supported in the extensive plans of obsei-vation
arranged by him, by the other officers of the establish-
ment. The great comet of 1874 was followed with the
large refractor of the Argentine Observatory (which, Dr.
Gould informs us, is an ii-inch by Fitz, of New York)
until the i8th of October, the comet having been first
seen there, in the morning twilight on July 27 ; at the
last observation it was within about 12° of the South Pole.
[Our last remarks on this comet should have been headed
Comet, 1874(111,)].

THE LATE W. J. HENWOOD, F.R.S.

THIS distinguished mining geologist, who died at
Penzance last week, in his seventy-first year, was
originally a clerk in the employment of Messrs. Fox, of
Falmouth, to whose counsel he was considerably indebted
in his early scientific work. By very great industry and
careful observation he acquired an unsurpassed knowledge
of the mineral deposits of Cornwall and Devon, and after
fulfiUing a succession of important mining appointments,
he became Assay Master of tin to the Duchy of Cornwall.
This post being abolished, Mr. Henwood's great expe-
rience was utilised in -reporting upon and developing a
number of mining districts in South America, Canada.
&c. ; and after the cessation of his travels, he lived at
Penzance in comparative retirement. His great works
are the fifth and eighth volumes of the " Transactions of
the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall," devoted respec-
tively to the metalliferous deposits of Cornwall and Devon,
and to those of the foreign countries he had visited. But
his scientific writings, besides these, were very numerous ;
a list of them occupies seven columns in the " Bibliotheca
Cornubiensis."

As a scientific man Mr. Henwood was characterised by
indefatigable labour, great caution, love of accuracy, and
moderation of expression. In his publications he scarcely
ever mentions a fact of any kind which had not come
under his own experience, without giving the authority for
it. Thus many of his writings are marvels of copious
reference. He persisted in doing everything with this
extraordinary amount of labour and care up to the last,
notwithstanding that he suffered for many years from a
very painful heart-disease. His scientific work ceased
only with his death. So long as he could sustain even an
hour's intellectual effort during the day, that was devoted
to the arrangement of his stores of facts and observations.
I beheve that scarcely one of his cherished objects in this
respect remains unfulfilled.

Mr. Henwood's address to the Royal Institution of
Cornwall in 1871, extending, with references, to sixty-five
pages, affords ample evidence of the value of his observa-
tions and of his scientific ability. It includes the most
admirable and complete compendious account of the
mode of occurrence of metalliferous deposits in Cornwall
which has yet appeared, and is characterised by that
absence of theoretical assumption which specially marked
him as an observer. The orderly arrangement of accu-
rately-observed facts was his object ; theorising he had
little affection for ; suspended judgment on unproved
theories was his consistent attitude.

In personal character Mr. Henwood won the high
regard of all who knew him intimately. His acquaint-
ance with men and manners was so great and varied,
his memory so retentive, and his conversational style
so simple and lucid, that to talk with him was one
of the most delightful and instructive of intellectual
recreations. His estimate of his own labours and merits
was unaffectedly modest, althguah he would resist, if
possible, any unfair representation of his work.

In the spring of the npresent year the Murchison
Medal of the Geological Society was awarded to Mr.
Henwood. An extract from a letter written by him to a
friend on this subject may fitly close this notice : " Mr,

Evans's far too flattering estimate of my poor labours was
most kindly intended. Although the distinction cannot
but afford me pleasure, this is as nothing compared with
the kind, and even affectionate, congratulations of your-
self and my other friends. All these I carefully preserve,
as they will show what I have done far better (though in
an undeservedly favourable light) than the mere official
record." G. T. Bettany

THE INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS AND
EXHIBITION OF GEOGRAPHY

'T^HE Geographical Exhibition continues to have in-
^ creasing success, although the price of admission
has been raised, except for schools, for which the original
price, a penny a head, has been kept, and the galleries
are crowded with children under the guidance of their
teachers. It is said that all the soldiers of the garrison
of Paris will be marched through the galleries under
the guidance of their officers, when the Congress is
over. The Exhibition will be prolonged to the end of
the month.

Several improvements have been made in the English
section since our last notice. Examples of the several
maps published by the Ordnance Survey have been exhi-
bited from an inch to ten feet per mile. Although com-
pleted only at a late p>eriod, the exhibition of the Geological
Survey of Great Britain has been very successful ; an
immense number of maps have been exhibited, and arc
said to be the finest in the whole exhibition building. We
might refer to a number of other exhibits honourable to
Enghsh enterprise, but we must confess that Russia has
carried the day, not on account of her private enterprise,
but in consequence of the strenuous action of the Govern-
ment. It is very likely that St. Petersburg will be chosen
by common consent for the seat of the next geographical
exhibition.

M. Gloesener, member of the Royal Academy of
Sciences of Belgium, exhibits a chronograph available for
registering the flight of projectiles as well as for recording
astronomical observations for the determination of longi-
tude. The cylinder can be put into rotation at the rate of
four turns in a second or one turn in thirty seconds, accord-
ing to the order of phenomena. It requires only the
power of Daniell cells and ordinary magnet needles, with-
out any electrical spark. It is very cheap, compact, and
easy to set in operation.

The Ryssclberghe self-registering meteorograph has
been admitted, as we have already noticed, to supersede
any similar instrument in existence. Copper plates
engraved automatically can be used in printing, having
turned into relief by the processes already described.

M. Lynstrom, of the University of Helsingfors, has sent
to the Geographical Exhibition an interesting instrument
invented by him to demonstrate that auroroe are pro-
duced by electrical currents passing through the atmo-
sphere in the polar regions. The apparatus is put daily
into operation by M. Mohn, the director of the Meteoro-
logical service of Sweden, and it was constructed at the
expense of Mr. Oscar Dickson, the Gottenburg mer-
chant, who has fitted out the Swedish Polar Expedition
under Prof. Nordenskiold. Our illustration will give an
idea of the apparatus.

A is an electrical machine, the negative pole being
connected wtih a copper sphere and the positive with the
earth.

S s' are of ebonite as well as RR tiei, so that B is quite
isolated as the earth in the space. B is surrounded by the
atmosphere, a' n' a' a' a' a' are a series of Geissler tubes
with copper ends above and below. All the upper
ends are connected with a wire which goes to the earth,
consequently a current runs in the direction of the arrows
through the air, and the Geissler tubes become luminous
when the electrical machine is set into operation,

294

NATURE

\Atig. 12, 1875

These Geissler tubes represent the upper part of the
atmosphere which becomes luminous when the aurora
boreahs is observed in the northern hemisphere. The
phenomena produced by the Lynstrom apparatus are quite
consistent with the theory advocated by Swedish observers
that electrical currents emanating from the earth and
penetrating into the upper regions produce aurora; in
both hemispheres. The experiment differs from the

apparatus of M. De la Rive, who placed his current hi
vacuo, and did not show the property of ordinary atmo-
spheric air of allowing to pass unobserved at the pressure
of 760 mm. a stream of electricity which illuminates a
rarified atmosphere. The experiment is most attractive,
and hundreds of persons witness it every day.

The arpangements for the general daily meetings of the
Congress are very good. Every morning the seven sec-
tions meet at nine o'clock and discuss the subjects
placed on the ordre dii jour. At three o'clock all the
members meet in the Salle des Etats, under the presi-
dency of one or other of the presidents of the various
geographical societies of Europe. No discussion takes
place at these general meetings, but the presidents of
sections report on the discussions which have taken place
at the morning sitting. Consequently, all who attend the
evening meeting obtain a summary of the transactions
of the day. Visitors are admitted to the general meetings
only. Sometimes several sections meet together in the
morning to deliberate on subjects of common interest, and
general deliberations will be proposed at the end of the
session.

A subject v«ry much discussed has been the adoption
of a first meridian. Struve proposed Greenwich. One of
the most interesting questions has been on the substitu-
tion of the centesimal for the sexagesinvaf division of the
quadrant, or of the entire sphere. It was decided by
twenty-three to seven in favour of the centesimal division
of the quadrant, reserving the larger question of its exten-
sion to the entire sphere till the matter is brought before the
general meeting. The present system found no advocate.
M. Bousquet de la Grie's proposal for dividing the compass
into 360 points, to be reckoned from left to right, has also
been approved.

The question'of ascending currents in the atmosphere
has been seriously discussed, M. Faye maintaining that
only descending waterspouts have been observed. M.
Faye's theories, however, have found very little support.
The general opinion, as supported by Mohn and others,
being that no descending current can be observed with-
out an ascending one, so that there is a circular rotation
of the atmosphere in altitude, and the upper strata are in
constant communication with inferior strata of the atmo-
sphere.

A commission has been appointed on the question of a
great Transiberian railway. The Russian colonel Bog-
danovitch spoke in favour of a line by Ekaterineburg and
Tiumen, which has the advantage of putting Europe into
communication with the large rivers of Southern Siberia.
He said that the Russian government had decided upon
the construction of a section 1,000 miles long.

Lectures were delivered by MM. Gerard Rohlfs, Nach-
tigall, and Schweinfnrth, on the exploration of Central
Africa, and these intrepid explorers answered a number
of questions in reference to their travels.

On Sunday about 300 members, amongst them a num-
ber of ladies, visited Compiegne to see the museum of
Cambodian antiquities, collected by M. Delaporte, a
lieutenant in the French national service, and exhibited
in the ex-imperial palace inhabited by Napoleon III. M.
Delaporte pubhshed in 1873, atj Hachette's, a large work
in two folio volumes, with an immense number of
illustrations, and a graphic atlas in chromolithography.
The King of Cambodia, having been admitted to a
French protectorate, sent a number of antiquities to Com-
piegne, where M. Delaporte has organised the museum
which was visited on Sunday. M. Delaporte himself
was in attendance to explain the manner in which all
those astonishing relics of an unknown part had been
brought to light. These monuments have undergone a
systematic destruction, it is supposed, in the fifth cen-
tury B.C., and are mostly concealed in the centre of im-
mense forests which have grown since that time, and
situated in infested districts which are mostly inhabited by
tigers and poisonous snakes. It was M. Jules Simon
who had the honour to grant the mission vvhose results
have been so fruitful, and the zeal elicited by explorers
was so great that the credit of 10,000 francs granted was
almost sufficient to collect a quantity of stones which fill
the basement of the Palace.

Of the juries appointed by the Geographical Congress
five have given their awards, while the remaining two
have not yet come to any decision. Letters of distinc-
tion, the highest reward the Congress can bestow, have
been conferred upon England— namely, in Group i upon
the Topographical and Trigonometrical Office of India
and the Ordnance Survey Office of Southampton ; in
Group 2 upon the Hydrographic Office ; in Group 3 upon
the Meteorological Office, the office of Geological Survey
of Great Britain, and the Royal Geographical Society of
London ; in Group 4 upon the Palestine Exploration
Fund for maps and plans and photographic reliefs.
Letters of distinction have also been conferred in the United
States upon : Group 2 the Navy Department ; Group 3
the United States Signal Service, and upon Mr. William
Martin for a description of the island of Hawai. Nu-
merous first-class medals have, moreover, been conferred
upon EngUshmen and Americans.

THE MANATEE AT THE ZOOLOGICAL
GARDENS

OF those mammalian animals which, instead of making
their customary abode the land, reside in water
either fresh or salt, the Seals and Porpoises are best
known by sight to the public at large. These two just
named animals are representatives of two great zoological
groups, the Pinnipedia and the Cetacea, the relationships

Auo^. 12, 1875]

NA TURE

29

between which are not at all intimate ; in other words,
notwithstanding the similarity in their habits, they must
have been derived independently from different, probably
terrestrial, mammalian ancestors, which themselves were
not intimately related. The Pinnipedia include the Seals,
Sea-Lions, and Walruses, animals closely allied to the
Bears, Dogs, and Cats. The Cetacea include the Whales,
Dolphins, and Porpoises, which are so much modified
that their correct affinities are still matters of doubt.

There is, however, still another aquatic mammalian
group or order which at the present time includes among
its members only two well-marked forms or genera ; these
being the Dugong and the Manatee. The order is that
of the Sirenia, and its members differ in their organisa-
tion considerably from both the Seals and the Whales,
more nearly approaching the latter, and appearing to be
most nearly allied to the Ungulate Herbivora.

The Manatees — of which there are two well-defined
species, one found in and at the mouths of the rivers dis-
charging themselves on the eastern coast of intertropical
America, and the other on the opposite side of the At-
lantic Ocean, on the shores of Western and Southern
Africa — are large-sized somewhat seal-like herbivorous
animals, sometimes reaching 17 feet in length, differing
from the Seals and resembling the Whales in not having
any indications of hinder extremities, at the same time
that the caudal portion of the body is expanded into a
horizontally-flattened tail. In them the contour of the
face is peculiar, the whiskered snout being much flat-
tened, like a pointed cone with a considerable portion of
the end cut off transversely. The large nostrils are situ-
ated within a short distance of one another, at the upper
portion of the truncate edge ; they are closed by valves
during the time that the animal is submerged. The eyes
are peculiarly small and inconspicuous. The external
ears are wanting. The mouth is small, without front
teeth, and is placed low down, the gape being close
to the anterior end of the animal. The neck, from
its extreme shortness, can scarcely be said to exist as

such, n.i ^Xh^

Neglecting the tail, the body, which is very sparsely
covered with hair, has the shape of a much elongate barrel,
slightly flattened above and below. The skin is very like
that of the Hippopotamus. Far forward, just behind the
head, the two fore-limbs project laterally from below.
The elbow is conspicuous, though placed not far from the
side, ard the fore-arm together with the hand, form a flat
oval flapper devoid of any indications of fingers, except
that at the extreme edge rudimentary nails are developed.
These arms are used by the animal as claspers, which
can be flexed over the chest ; employed as locomotor
organs at the bottom of the water, or made to assist in
the prehension of food. In the female the mammae are
pectoral, and the consequent general configuration has
probably led to the fabulous descriptions of the existence
of " mermaids."

In shape the tail is unlike that of any other animal,
being spatulate. It most resembles that of the Beaver,
but is a direct continuation backwards of the body, and
is covered with an unmodified skin. As in the Whales
and Beavers, the vertebral column forms a bony axis of
support for the flattened muscular and fibrous expansion
covered with thick cuticle, which forms the propelling
mechanism.

The skeleton is of an extremely dense texture and very
massive ; the skull and ribs more resembling ivory than
bone. In the number of the vertebrae which form the
neck there is also a peculiarity, not shared even by its
ally, the Dugong. In all mammalia there are seven
cervical vertebrae, the same in the Giraffe as in the
Elephant, in the Kangaroo as in Man. In the Manatee
there are, however, only six, as in one other mammal only,
namely, Hoffmann's Sloth, The ribs, as well as being very
dense, are broader than is usually the case. As in the

Whales there are no bony traces of hind limbs, a rudi-
mentary pelvis being alone found.

As far as the soft parts are concerned, it may be men-
tioned that the apex of the heart is deeply cleft, more so
than in the Elephant and the Seals, This is the case also
in the Dugong, The arteries in many parts break up into
innumerable minute branches before they become distri-
buted, to form the so-called retia mirabilia. The lungs
run a considerable distance along the back of the animal,
nearly reaching the root of the tail, instead of being
entirely included in the thoracic region.

The half-grown female Manatee which has just reached
the Zoological Society's Gardens, is the first living speci-
men which has been seen in this country. It came from
the coast of Demerara, and was three weeks on the
journey, during which time it was in a big swinging tank
constructed to hold it. Two previous unsuccessful
attempts were made in 1866 to forward living specimens
to Regent's Park ; in one case the animal did not die till
within two days of its reaching Southampton, The
valuable memofr by Dr, Murie in the eighth volume of
the Society's Transactions was based on the dissection of
these two specimens, which were preserved immediately
they died in a condition fit for minute investigation.

The living animal appears to be in a good state of
health, its movements are much less active than those of
the Seals, and as food it takes vegetable marrow and
lettuce in preference to anything else.

A third member of the order Sirenia was the Rhyti/ia,
a toothless animal, sometimes reaching 24 feet in length,
discovered by Steller during Behring's expedition in 1741
on the shores of the island which bears his name. The
slaughter of these creatures for their flesh was so reck-
lessly conducted that they had all disappeared in 1789,
and have never been seen since. There are three skele-
tons of this extinct species {Rhytina sUlleri) in existence,
all in Russia,

THE WUHLER FESTIVAL

THE 31st of July was a festive day for Chemical
Germany, and for the numerous admirers of the
celebrated senior of German chemistry. Prof, Wohler of
Gottingen ; not only as the seventy-fifth anniversary of
his birth, but also as the supposed fiftieth anniversary of
his entering upon his professional duties. In 1825 Dr.
Wohler became teacher of chemistry to the Berlin
" Gewerbeschule ; " in 1831 he exchanged this position
for a similar one in Cassel, and from 1836 up to the
present day he has been forming generations of chemists
who flocked to Gottingen attracted by his fame. We
need not remind our readers of the numerous discoveries
of this great and genial man, of which the artificial for-
mation of urea, the production of aluminium, his researches
on cyanic and cyanuric acids, on boron and silicon, his
joint researches with Liebig on uric acid and benzoyl-
compounds, and many others, are known to all chemists,
and have opened new roads to science.

From eight o'clock in the morning until noon of
the] above-mentioned day, one deputation relieved an-
other to express their thanks and congratulations. The
Faculty of Science of Tubingen sent a diploma of
Doctor of Science, so that similar to the triple crown
of the Head of the Roman Church, three doctor's de-
grees, that of Medicine, of Philosophy, and of Science
are now worn by the Head of German Chemistry. The
German Chemical Society at Berlin was represented by
three members of iits council, two of this deputation
being pupils of Dr, Wohler, They presented an appro-
priate address in a handsome cover of malachite, an
allusion to the services rendered by the great chemist to
the allied science of mineralogy. In the evening many
of the undergraduates of the University (now eleven
hundred in number) expressed their admiration in the
time-honoured shape of a torch procession.

NATURE

\Aug. 12, 1875

The following day found Prof. Wdhler unbent by the
honorary burden of the 31st of July, and some privileged
friends and pupils had the pleasure of seeing him working
at the analysis of a new mineral with the same zeal he
would have shown fifty years ago. This formed the
most pleasant part of the Wohler Festival, being a
hopeful sign of the vigour and power left to this great
man. The readers of Nature (vol. xii. p. 179) were
able, only a few weeks ago, by the perusal of extracts from
charming recollections of Prof. Wohler's youth, to witness
a similar proof. In fact, his youth has accompanied him
into his old age, A. Oppenheim

THE GIGANTIC LAND TORTOISES OF THE

MASCARENE AND GALAPAGOS ISLANDS*

III.

I WILL now indicate the characteristics of the different
races which I have been able to recognise in the
materials to which I have had access.

It has been mentioned above that the principal mark
of distinction is in the form of the skull : some species
having a depressed skull with the surface flat above,
whilst in others it is much higher and convex above.
Hand-in-hand with this difference in the skull goes
another in the pelvis ; the flat-headed Tortoises having a
broad, horizontally dilated bridge between the obturator
foramina, whilst in the round-headed form the bridge is
vertically compressed. Such a distinction might have
been expected between the Galapagos Tortoises on the
one hand, and the Mascarene races on the other ; but
what justly excites our surprise is that the Galapagos
Tortoises and the extinct forms of the Mascarenes
belong to the same (the flat^headed) type and that, there-
fore, a much greater affinity exists between them, than
between the extinct and living races of the Mascarenes.

I.— Flat-headed Type
A. The Galapagos Tortoises may be recognised by the
invariable absence of a nuchal plate, by the convergence
of the posterior margins of the two gular plates which
never form a straight line, by the black colour of the
shell, by a large scute of the inner side of the elbow, by
the double alveolar ridge of their jaws. Among the
carapaces which I have examined I can distinguish five
forms ; of the first four severally two are more nearly
related to each other than to the other pair, the fifth
being intermediate between these two pairs. The degree
of distinctness and affinity which obtains in the carapaces
is expressed clearly and in exactly the same manner in
the skulls, as will be seen from the following character-
istics : —

1. In the first species {Testudo elephantopus of Harlan)
the shell is broad and depressed, with the upper anterior
profile sub-horizontal in the male, and with corrugated
but not deeply sculptured plates. Sternum truncated
behtnd. The snout is very short. Skull with an im-
mensely developed and raised occipital crest, with a
sharp outer pterygoid edge, and a deep recess in front of
the occipital condyle. The skeleton of a fully adult male
example and one of an immature female are in the Oxford
Museum and the collection of the Royal College of Sur-
geons. Young individuals are by no means scarce in
collections. Either this species or the next appears to
have inhabited James' Island.

2. Testudo nigrita has likewise a broad shell which,
however, is considerably higher than in the former
species ; the anterior profile in the male is declivous, and
the plates are deeply sculptured. Sternum with a tri-

* The substance of this article is contained in a paper read by the author
before the Royal Society in June, 1847, and will appear in the forthcoming
volume of the "Philosophical Transactions," and to which I must refer for
the scientific portion and other details. Some facts which have come to my
knowledge subs«qu«otly to the reading of this paper, are added. Continued
from p. 261.

angular excision behind. The snout is longer and the
occipital crest low ; but the ©uter pterygoid edge is
equally sharp, and the recess in front of the occipital
condyle equally deep as in T. elephantopus. The principal
specimens examined by myself of this species, are one 41
inches long, in the British Museum ; the type of the spe-
cies (described and named by Dumeril and Borbron) in
the collection of the Royal College of Surgeons ; and the
large skull in the British Museum, figured by Dr, Gray
under the name of Testudo planiceps.

3. Porter's account of the race inhabiting Charles
Island is sufficiently characteristic to enable us to recog-
nise it in an adult specimen, the shell of which is elongate,
compressed into the form of a Spanish saddle, and of a
dull colour without any polish. The sterum is truncated
behind. Skull with the outer pterygoid edge flattened,
with the tympanic cavity much produced backwards, and
without recess in front of the occipital condyle. The only
adult example wdich I have examined is 33 inches long,
and belongs to the Museum of Science and Arts, Edin-
burgh. It was lent to me by the Director, Mr. T. C.
Archer, who most kindly allowed the skull and limb-
bones to be extracted, which could be effected without the
least injury to the outward appearance of the specimen.
This species I have named Testudo epMppium.

4. The smallest of the Galapagos Tortoises is one for
which I have proposed the name Testudo microphyes, the
carapace of a fully adult male being only 22^ inches long.
We may presume that this specimen, for an examination
of which I am indebted to the Museum Committee of the
Royal Institution of Liverpool, is a representative of the
race from Hood's Island, Porter having expressly stated
that the tortoises of that island are small, and similar to
those of Charles Island, Indeed, the shell is elongate as
in T. ephippium, but the anterior profile is declivous.
The skull has the characteristics of a young skull of one
of its more gigantic congeners ; the outer pterygoid edge
is flat, and there is no recess in front of the occipital
condyle, as in the species from Charles Island,

5. In the last species {Testtcdo vLina) the skull is
depressed as in the first, with the upper exterior profile
sub-horizontal in the male, and with the lateral anterior
margins reverted so as to approach the peculiar shape of
T. ephippiuiii. The concentric sculpture of the plates is
distinct. Sternum of quite a peculiar shape, much con-
stricted and produced in front, and expanded and excised
behind. The skull is extremely similar to that of T.
ep)hippiu7n. Unfortunately nothing is known of the
history of the adult male example which formerly was in
the possession of Prof. Huxley and ceded by him to the
collection of the British Museum,

B, The Mauritian Tortoises. — It would be a matter
of considerable interest to ascertain whether the tor-
toises of Mauritius lacked the nuchal plate, like the
Galapagos races to which in other respects they are
so closely related. The only carapace which I have
seen is deprived of the epidermoid scutes, and, besides,
so much injured in the nuchal region that it is im-
possible to determine the absence or presence of a
nuchal plate. But the Mauritian tortoises were charac-
terised by a peculiarity hitherto unknown among recent
land tortoises, viz., by a treble serrated dental ridge along
the lower jaw.

The examination of a considerable number of bones,
part of which were obtained during the search for Dodo-
bones, and are now in the British Museum, whilst for
others from the district of Flacq I am indebted to M,
Bouton, has convinced me of a multiplicity of species in
this island. The majority of the bones were found near
Mahe'bourg, in a ravine of no great depth or steepness,
which apparently once conveyed to the sea the drainings
of a considerable extent of circumjacent land, but which
has been stopped to seaward most likely for ages by an
accumulation of land. The outlet from this ravine having

Au^. 12, 1875]

NATURE

297

been thus stopped, a bog was formed called " La Mare
aux Songes," with an alluvial deposit varying in depth
irom three to twelve feet. The tortoise bones occur at a
depth of three or four feet, imbedded in a black vegetable
mould ; lighter coloured specimens are from the vicinity
of the springs. (Zool. Trans., vi. p. 51). Among these
bones I have distinguished four species, the more im-
portant characteristics of which may be particularised as
follows : —

1. Testudo iriserrata. — Proximal half of the scapula
trihedral, with the anterior side convex ; acromium tri-
hedral, straight. Coracoid anchylosed to scapula at an
early stage of growth. Humerus moderately slender,
with the shaft flattened, and a deep hollow between the
head and tuberosities. Shaft of the ulna narrow, much
twisted. Ossa ilei short and broad ; transverse and
vertical diameters of pelvis subequal ; front part of pubic
bones abruptly bent downwards. Femur stout, with much
dilated condyles ; a deep and broad cavity between the
head and trochanters.

2. Testudo iiiepta. — Proximal half of the scapula tri-
hedral, with the anterior side concave ; acromium com-
pressed, with the end curved. Coracoid never anchylosed
to the scapula. Humerus moderately slender, with the
upper half of the shaft trihedral, and without hollow be-
hind the head. Shaft of the ulna broad, not much
twisted. Ossa ilei narrow and long ; vertical diameter of
pelvis much exceeding in length the horizontal ; front part
of pubic bones gently declivous. Femur stout, with much
dilated condyles, and with a deep and narrow cavity
between the head and trochanters.

3. Testudo leptocne)tns, sparsely represented, with a
scapulary similar to that of T. irises rata; ossa ilei of
moderate length and width, femur slender, with mode-
rately dilated condyles, and with a deep and broad cavity
between the head and trochanters.

4. Testudo bflutonii, known from scapulary and hume-
rus only. The former bone is strongly compressed ;
acromium with the end curved, Coracoid not anchy-
closed to scapula. Humerus very stout, with the shaft
trihedral in its whole length, and without hollow behind
the head.

C. The Rodriguez Tortoise.— The remains from Rod-
riguez which 1 'nave hitherto examined, and for which
I am indebted to M. Bouton and to the trustees of the
Glasgow Museum, consist of fragments of the cranium,
perfect cervical vertebrre, pelvis, and the larger leg-bones.
They indicate one of the best marked species of the
entire group, with a double alveolar ridge, and with the
neck and limbs of greater length and slenderness than in
any other species. The neural arch of the sixth nuchal
vertebra is perforated by a large ovate foramen on each
side close to the anterior apophyses. These perforations
were closed by membrane in the living animal, and evi-
dently caused by the pressure of the apophyses of the
preceding vertebra, the animals having had the habit of
bringing the neck in a vertical position, so that these two
vertebrai were standing nearly at a right angle. Some of
the bones are exceedingly large, larger than any of those
from the Mauritius, and must have belonged to mdi-
viduals of the size •f our large living male from Aldabra.
n._RouND-HEADED TYPE : T. itidica.

To this type belong all the specimens with a nuchal
plate which have been deposited in British collections
within the last forty years, or which elsewhere have been
described or figured ; and more especially the Tortoises
from Aldabra. "Whether all these specimens have come
from this small group is impossible to say, as we know
very little or nothing of their history. Although I have
succeeded in bringing together a considerable number of
specimens, from which it would appear that also in this
much smaller division several races could be distin-
guished, I think it best to defer, for the present, the
detailed publication of the results of my examination

which ere long may be supplemented or modified by im-
portant accessions.

In conclusion we may ask whether the facts which I have
endeavoured to place before the readers of Nature are
more readily explained with the aid of the doctrine of a
common or manifold origin of animal forms.

The naturalists who, with Darwin, maintain a common
origin for allied species, however distant in their habitats,
will account for the occurrence of the tortoises in the
Galapagos and Mascarenes in the same way as, for in-
stance, for the distribution of the Tapirs, viz., by the
hypothesis of changes of the surface of the globe. Taking
into consideration other parts of the Faunae, they would
have to assume, in this case, a former continuity of land
(probably varying in extent and interrupted at various
periods) between the Mascarenes and Africa, between
Africa and South America, and finally between South
America and the Galapagos. Indeed, the terrestrial and
freshwater fauna of Tropical America and Africa offer so
many points of intimate relationship, as to support very
strongly such a theory. The -Tortoises, then, would be
assumed to have been spread over the whole of this large
area, without being able to survive, long the arrival of
man or large carnivorous mammals. The former, espe-
cially before he had provided himself with missile
weapons, would have eagerly sought for them, as they
were the easiest of his captures yielding a most plentiful
supply of food ; consequently they were exterminated on
the continents, only some remnants being saved by having
retired into places which by submergence became sepa-
rated from the mainland before their enemies followed
them. With this hypothesis we would be obliged to con-
tend for this animal type an age extending over enormous
periods of time, of which the period required for the loss
of power of flight in the Dodo or Solitaire is but a
fraction.

To my mind the advocacy"of an independent origin of
the same animal type, however highly organised, in
different localities, seems equally justified. It has been
urged that closely similar structures of the animal
organism have been developed without genetic relation-
ship ; so, also, the same complex organic compound, as
sugar, is produced normally by the plant and abnormally
by the human organism. Without overstepping too far
the limits of probability, we may assume that some Land-
Tortoises were carried by stream and current from the
American Continent to the Galapagos, and that others
from Madagascar or Africa, found in a similar manner a
new home in the Mascarene Islands. These tortoises
may originally have differed from each other, like the
Testudo tabulaia, radiata, [sulcata of our days, possibly
not exceeding these species in size, but being placed under
the same external physical conditions evidently most
favourable for their further development, they assumed in
course of time the same gigantic proportions and other
peculiarities, the modifications in their structure which we
observe now being partly genetic, partly adaptive.

Thus this curious phenomenon in the geographical dis-
tribution of animals can be explained by either of those
two theories, and does not appear to me to strengthen the
position of one more than that of the other. The multi-
plicity of the races which I have pointed out above I need
not further discuss. As regards the Galapagos, this fact
is quite in accordance with what has been long recognised
in the distribution of the birds of the same archipelago,
and the co-existence of several races in Mauritius is per-
fectly analogous to the variety of species of Dinomis in
New Zealand. ALBERT GiJNTHER

NOTES
Prok. ScHch^FELD, of Mannheim, has been appointed suc-
cessor to the late Prof. Argelander as Director of the Obser-
vatory at Bonn, and will enter upon his duties on Sept. I. Dr.

29S

NATURE

[Aug. 12, 1875

Valentiner, chief of the German Astronomical Expedition to
Cheefoo, and first assistant at the Leiden Observatory, will
succeed Schonfeld at Mannheim.

The biennial general meeting of the essentially International
Astronomical Society will be held at Leiden from the 13th to
the 1 6th inst.

Tin Professorship of Natural History at the Newcastle Col-
lege of Physical Science, vacated by the removal of Dr. AUeyne
Nicholson to St. Andrews, has been filled by the appointment of
Mr, George S. Brady, of Sunderland. The chair has hitherto
been lield in conjunction with the Lectureship on Physiology in
the Durham University College of Medicine, in Newcastle, a
union which it has been found expedient to abolish. The appoint-
ment we now record will be regarded with satisfaction by every
one who is desirous of seeing the value of the labours of our
working naturalists duly recognised in the localities where they
have carried on their work.

The Natural History Society of Newcastle, one of the best in
the kingdom, appears to be going through a crisis. At a recent
meeting, several of the honorary curators sent in their resig-
nations, including names so well known as PI, B. Brady, G. S.
Brady, PI. B. Bowman, Lebour, and Freire-Marreco, together
with both the secretaries. We understand that an informal
meeting has been held by a number of those interested in the
systematic teaching of natural history, to take steps for obtaining
specimens to form an independent typical collection for the use
of the professors of the College in their lectures. This is as it
should be. Collecting for mere collecting's sake is no part of
science ; as an adjunct to systematic teaching it is invaluable.
A great centre like Newcastle should possess such a collection
formed for such a purpose ; and the effort is worthy of support
and assistance from all friends of science teaching.

At the distribution of prizes to the Taunton College School
by the High Sheriff of Somerset on July 29th, the headmaster,
Mr. Tuckwell, commented severely on the exclusion of science
from the competition of ttie Huish Scholarship, to which we
drew attention in these columns some weeks ago. The High
Sheriff said that he was one of the Trustees who had prepared
the scheme ; that, looking to the P'ounder's expressed desire to
forward the study of theology, they had wished so to shape the
examination as to carry out his views ; but that the Trustees
were not a bigoted body, nor unduly wedded to their first
opinion ; that Mr. Tuckwell's criticisms deserved attention ; and
that he promised on behalf of the Trustees to reconsider the
arrangements before another year. In thanking the High
Sheriff for the liberal tone in which he had met the questions
raised, Mr. Tuckwell protested against the belief that a divine
worthy of the name could be trained in the present day by any
system of education which should exclude a deep knowledge of
science.

M. MouCHKZ, the new member of the Academy of Sciences,
has just organised a Practical School of Astronomy at Mont-
souris. Refractors, equatorial as well as meridian, and hori-
zontal telescopes will be placed at the disposition of any com-
petent person wishing to be instructed in astronomy. An astro-
nomer from the National Observatory will instruct the pupils
without fee ; the Minister of Marine has ordered that two
marine officers should always be in attendance for^ this purpose.
The course of instruction will embrace celestial photography and
spectrum analysis. No qualification of nationality will be required
for admittance, only general competency.

M. WxjRTZ, Professor in the Faculty of Medicine of Paris,
has been appointed Professor in the Faculty of Sciences,
. The French Association for the Advancement of Science
commences its sittings at Nantes this day week.

M. Le Verrier has presented to the Prefect of the Seine a plan
for connecting, by means of a telegraphic network, all the public
clocks of Paris with the principal clock of the Observatory.

The British Medical Association brought its Edinburgh meet-
ing, which has been a very successful one, to a close last Friday.
Brighton has been selected as the place of meeting for next year,
with Sir J. Cordy Burrows as President-elect.

It turns out that in the recent attack on the Palestine Explor-
ing party, there were nine wounded, including Lieutenants
Conder and Kitchener. Measures have been taken to secure
the arrest and punishment of the assailants.

It appears from' a letter in Friday's Times that that most inter-
esting relic of antiquity, " Ctesar's Camp " at Wimbledon "is
being deliberately levelled to the ground, effaced and destroyed
by its owner, Mr. Drax, the member for Wareham." It is diffi-
cult to believe in an act of such deliberate vandalism. Mr. Drax
is stated to have asked such an exorbitant price for the land
that negotiations were rendered impossible ; had Sir John Lub-
bock's " Ancient Monuments Bill " been passed this session,
this evidently doomed and unreplaceable monument of antiquity
could easily have been saved, and the owner would h_ave received
a fair price for his land.

M. Wilfrid de Fonvielle made a successful night ascent
on August I, fgr the purpose of observing meteorites. From
10 P.M. to 4 A.M., forty-two meteorites were observed be-
tween Rheims and Fontainebleau. Some of these emanated
from Cassiopeia, others from Perseus, and as many as nine took
a vertical direction, descending from the part of the heavens
which was concealed] by the balloon. None of these were very
noteworthy, and it is probable that none would have been
observed at the surface of the earth. Eight persons were in
the car, and another trip was to be made last Sunday from
Paris.

The International Geographical Exhibition is not the only one
of the kind now open in Paris ; as our readers no doubt know
another, has been established by M. Nicolle at the Palais des
Champs Elysees for Fluviatile and Maritime Industries, and is
attracting an immense number of visitors. It \vill continue up
to the month of November, when another will be opened for
Electrical Industries. The English Section in the Fluviatile and
Maritime Exhibition is very successful. The Board of Trade
has sent specimens of the apparatus in use for salvage and for
warnings at British seaports ; the contributions by private indi-
viduals also give a fair idea of British Maritime Industries.

On Saturday last a deputation from the Royal Colonial
Institute waited upon Lord Carnarvon to urge upon Govern-
ment the propriety of establishing a Colonial Museum in London.
The Government, it seems, have been entertaining the idea of
establishing such an institution, and Lord Carnarvon spoke
hopefiilly of the possibility of accomijlishing the praisewortliy
object ; he thinks it would be well to place it contiguous to tlie
India Museum.

A correspondent of the Illustrated London A'ews of Aug. i,
writes, July 25, from Pen-y-Gardden, Denbighshire, describing
a shower of hay similar to that referred to in last week's Nature,
p. 279, as having occurred at Monkstown, It passed over the
town of Wrexham, five miles distant from Pen-y-Gardden, and
in a direction contrary to that cf the wind in the lower atmo-
sphere.

Mr. Magnusson, writing to yesterday's Times, reports the
continued outbreak of volcanic eruptions in various parts of Ice-
land, and makes an earnest appeal to the British public for help to
those, and they are many, who have been rendered quite desti-
tute—landless and homeless — by the calamity. No people ar§

Aug. 12, 1875]

NATURE

299

more deserving of help than the Icelanders, and moreover, they
have the claim upon us of close kindred.

We have received the "Fourth Report of the Meteorological,
Magnetic, and other Observatories of the Dominion of Canada
for 1874," pp. 316. The Report gives iuU details of the tri-
daily observations made at the various meteorological stations,
the monthly means and extremes, and, as regards temperature
and rainfall, a comparison of the results of 1874 with the
averages of previous years. The most important fact perhaps
noted in the Report is the gradual extension of the system over
British North America.

From a letter from the Canada correspondent of The Scots,
man, dated 23rd July, 1875, we learn that the summer in Canada
has been unusually cold. The nights have been quite chilly so
as to necessitate extra covering ; and during the whole summer
the temperature has only once reached 90° ; on the evening of
the 1 8th July it fell to 43°. Capt. Richardson, of the Nova
Scotian, which had just arrived, reports having passed a large
number of icebergs on the coast, and having sailed through
floating ice for twenty-four hours. Reports from the extreme
north state that the ice had given way to a greater extent than
for many years, in which case the Arctic Expedition will
probably reach a higher latitude before the summer closes than
was expected.

In the Bulletin Hcbdoinadaire of the Scientific Association of
France it is stated, after a careful review of the loss sustained by
the different districts, that the total loss caused by the late inun-
dations in the South of France exceeds the enormous sum of
eighty millions of francs, and that 550 persons perished.

The June number (just issued) of the Bulletin of the French
Geographical Society contains an interesting chart of the world,
by M. Malte-Brun, intended to exhibit at a glance the propor-
tion of the known and unknown regions. Countries known in
their details are wholly covered with red, and those of which we
have a good general knowledge, with red having a slight dash
of white. "White, with specks of red, indicates countries imper-
fectly known, while those entirely unknown are left in white.
Of course the various shades of red run into each other, but
countries unknown and imperfectly known considerably exceed
in extent the two other classes, so that there is little danger of
exploring and surveying parties wanting work for many years to
come. The greater part of Asia and America comes under the
two last categories, as also nearly the whole of Africa and
Australia ; indeed, notwithstanding all that has recently been
done in the way of geographical discovery, the white at least
balances the red in Malte-Brun's chart.

The same number of the Bulletin contains a valuable illus-
trated paper, by M. L. Chambeyron, giving some details con-
cerning the physical geography of New Caledonia.

The Geographical Magazine states that the committee of the
statistical section of the Russian Geographical Society appointed
to report on a proposition made by MM. Sobolyef and Jansson,
to publish a gazetteer of Central Asia, has reported favourably
on the subject. They recommend that particular attention be
paid to historical geography and ethnology, as statistical data are
subject to frequent alterations. The territory to be embraced by
the work is bounded on the north by the watersheds of the Ural
and Irtysh ; on the west coast by the Caspian ; on the south by
the Elburz, the Hindu Kush, and the Karakorum Range ; and
in the east by Mongolia. The authorities for every statement
made, are to be carefully referred to for future reference, and
great care is to be taken with respect to the spelling. A final
programme will be laid down by a joint committee of the three
sections of the Russian Geographical Society.

The New York Tribune of July 10 contains a [long article,
with many illustrations, on Prof. Hall's magnificent collection of
fossils, which, at a cost of $65,000 has been secured for the
American Museum of Natural History, at the Central Park,
New York.

The Watford Natural History Society has already taken an
established place in the first rank of our local societies and field-
clubs. It has not been many months in existence, but already
have we received the first number of its neatly printed Trans-
actions, containing the following papers: — "The Cretaceous
Rocks of England," by J. L. Lobley, F.G.S. ; "Notes on the
Flora of the Watford District," by Arthur Cottam ; and "Notes
on the proposed Re-issue of the Flora of Hertfordshire, with
Supplementary Remarks on the Botany of the Watford 'Dis-
trict," by R, A. Pryor, F.L.S,

In connection with the Sheffield Ladies Educational Associa-
tion, Mr. Barrington Ward, F.L.S., has recently conclude;! a
successful and well attended series of elementary lectures on
Botany. The results of the examinations on the lectures appear
to have been highly satisfactory, and to judge from the specimen
examination paper sent us, the questions were well calculated to
test the real knowledge of the students.

In Part I. No. i, for 1875, of the Journal of the Asiatic
Society of Bengal will be found a very valuable illustrated paper
by Major G. E. Fryer, " On the Khjeng People of the Sando-
way District, Arakan." Details are given of the habits of the
people, with a brief grammar a'nd copious vocabulary of their
language.

Mr. G. K. Gilbert's preliminary Geological Report con-
tained in Lieut. Wheeler's Report of the work done by his expe-
dition in 1872 in Nevada, Utah, and Arizona, gives a few
interesting data bearing on the former glaciation ol N. America.
About White's Peak, in the Schell Range, Nevada, are the
terminal moraines of five or six glaciers that descended to 8,000
feet altitude in lat. 39° 15'. At about the same altitude, and in
lat. 39°, are moraines and an alpine lake upon the flanks of
Wheeler's Peak, of the Snake Range, Nevada. Old Baldy Peak
(N. lat. 38° 18'), near Beaver, Utah, overlooks two terminal
moraines, one of which contains a lakelet at an altitude of about
9,000 feet. No traces were seen of a general glaciation, such as
the Northern States experienced and the cumulative negative
evidence is of such weight that Mr. Gilbert is of opinion that
the glaciers of the region*referred to were confined to the higher
mountain-ridges.

The same observer shows that the level of what is now Great
Salt Lake must at one time have been much higher and its area
much greater than it is at present. Former levels are marked
by a series of conspicuous shore-lines carried on the adjacent
mountain slopes to a height of more than 900 feet. When the
waters rose to the uppermost beach they must have covered an
area of about 18,000 square miles, eleven times that of the pre-
sent lake, and a trifle less than that of Lake Huron; the average
depth was 450 feet, and the volume of water nearly 400 times
greater than now. The lake was diversified by numerous rocky
islands and promontories, and its water was fresh. The flooding
of the Great Salt Lake valley, Mr. Gilbert believes, marked a
temporary climatal change, and was contemporary with the
general glaciation of the northern portion of N. America, and
with the formation of the numerous local glaciers of western
mountain systems ; he considers it a phenomenon of the Glacial
Epoch. While the general climatal change that caused or
accompanied that epoch (depression of temperature, carrying
with it decrease of evaporation, if not increase of precipitation)
may be adduced as the cause of the inundation of Utah, Mr.
Gilbert sees no reason to suppose that the relative humidities of

300

NA TURE

{Aug. 12, 1875

the various positions of i' ; N. American continent were greatly
changed ; and this co .sicleration will aid in accounting, he
thinks, for the curious fact that the ice in the eastern seaboard
stretched unbroken past the fortieth parallel, while under the
same latitude in the Cordilleras no glaciers formed below 9,000
feet.

The third part of the second series of the magnificent work o
Mr. William H. Edwards upon the Butterflies of North America
has been published by Messrs. Hurd and Houghton, of Cam-
bridge, Massachusetts, and embraces five plates, executed by
Miss Mary Peart. The plates represent species of Papilio,
Argynnis, Apahira, Chionobas, and Lyavrta ; all of them being
rare and, for the most part, unfigured species, and also many
but recently described.

We have received the Journal of the Anthropological Society
for April and July, containing in full the papers which have
appeared in abstract in our reports of the meetings of the Society.
Many of the papers are of great value, and the illustrations,
especially those of the Andamanese, are very interesting.

It is rumoured that, on the retirement of Sir Henry James
from the directorship of the Ordnance Survey, a post which he
has filled during a lengthened period with so much distinction,
he will be succeeded by Col. A. Ross Clarke. We congratulate
the Government on this selection, just at once to a most meri-
torious officer and to Science and the State. Col. Clarke's
eminence as a mathematician and a geodesist are too highly
appreciated wherever those sciences are cultivated, both at home
and abroad, to need any comment from us.

The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the
past week include a Manatee {Manatus americanus) from
Demerara, a Ground Hornbill {Bucorviis abyssini(us), a White-
thighed Colobus [Colobus bicolor) from West Africa, a Rose-
crested Cockatoo {Cacatua moluccensis) from Moluccas, de-
posited ; two Jaguars {Felis onfo) from America, a Squirrel
Monkey {Saimaris sciurea) from Brazil, purchased ; four Amherst
Pheasants ( Thaumalea amherstice), a Siamese Pheasant {Euplo.
camus prcclatus), and two Vinaceous Doves (Turtur vinauus)
bred in the Gardens.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER IN
THE LIQUID AND GASEOUS STATES*

'X'HE investigation to which this note refers has occupied me,
•^ with little intermission, since my former communication in
1869 to the Society, "On the Continuity of the Liquid and Gaseous
States of Matter." It was undertaken chiefly to ascertain the
modifications which the three great laws discovered respectively
by Boyle, Gay-Lussac, and Dalton undergo when matter in the
gaseous state is placed under physical conditions differing greatly
from any hitherto within the reach of observation. It embraces
a large number of experiments of precision, performed at
different temperatures and at pressures ranging from twelve to
nearly three hundred atmospheres. The apparatus employed is,
in all its essential parts, similar to that described in the paper
referred to ; and so perfectly did it act that the readings of the
cathetometer, at the highest pressures and temperatures em-
ployed, were made with the same ease and accuracy as if the
object of the experiment had been merely to determine the
tension of aqueous vapour in a barometer-tube. In using it the
chief improvement I have made is in the method of ascertaining
the original volumes of the gases before compression, which can
now be know with much less labour and greater accuracy than
by the method I formerly described. The lower ends of the
glass tubes containing the gases dip into small mercurial reservoirs
formed of thin glass tubes, which rest on ledges within the
apparatus. This arrangement has prevented many failures in
screwing up the apparatus, and has given more precision to the

* •' Preliminary Notice of further Researches on the Physical Properties
of Matter in the Liquid and Gaseous States under varied conditions of Pres-
sure and Temperature." Paper read before the Royal Society by Dr.
Andrews, F.R.S., Vice-President of Queen's CoUege, Belfast.

measurements. A great improvement has also been made in the
method of preparing the leather-washers used in the packing for
the fine screws, by means of which the pressure is obtained. It
consists in saturating the leather with grease by heating it in
vacuo under melted lard. In this way the air enclosed within
the pores of the leather is removed without the use of water,
and a packing is obtained so perfect that it appears, as far as my
experience goes, never to fail, provided it is used in a vessel
filled with water. It is remarkable, however, that the same
packing, when an apparatus specially constructed for the purpose
of forged iron was filled with mercury, always yielded, even at a
pressure of forty atmospheres, in the course of a few days.

It is with regret that I am still obliged to give the pressures in
atmospheres, as indicated by an air- or hydrogen manometer,
without attempting for the present to apply the corrections
required to reduce them to true pressures. The only satisfactory
method of obtaining these corrections would be to compare the
indications of the manometer with those of a column of mervcury
of the requisite length ; and this method, as is known, was em-
ployed by Arago and Dulong, and afterwards in his classical
researches by Regnault, for pressures reaching nearly to thirty
atmospheres. For this moderate pressure a column of mercury
about 23 metres, or 75 feet, in length had to be employed. For
pressures corresponding to 500 atmospheres, at which I have no '
difficulty in working with my apparatus, a mercurial column of
the enormous height of 380 metres, or 1,250 feet, would be
required. Although the mechanical difficulties in the construc-
tion of a long tube for this purpose are perhaps not insuperable,
it could only be mounted in front of some rare mountain escarp-
ment, where it would be practically impossible to conduct a long
series of delicate experiments. About three years ago I had the
honour of submitting to the Council of the Society a proposal
for constructing an apparatus which would have enabled any
pressure to be measured by the successive additions of the pres-
sure of a column of mercury of a fixed length ; and working
drawings of the apparatus were prepared by Mr. J. Cumine, whose
services I am glad to have again this opportunityof acknowledging.
An unexpected difficulty, however, arose in consequence of the
packing of the screws (as I have already stated) not holding
when the leather was in contact with mercury instead of water,
and the apparatus was not constructed. For two years the
problem appeared, if not theoretically, to be practically impos-
sible of solution ; but I am glad now to be able to announce to
the Society that another method, simpler in principle and free
from the objections to which I have referred, has lately suggested
itself to me, by means of which it will, I fully expect, be possible
to determine the rate of compressibility of hydrogen or other
gas by direct reference to the weight of a liquid column, or
rather of a number of liquid columns, up to pressures of 500 or
even 1,000 atmospheres. For the present it must be understood
that, in stating the following results, the pressures in atmospheres
are deduced from the apparent compressibility, in some cases of
air, in others of hydrogen gas, contained in capillary glass tubes.

In this notice I will only refer to the results of experiments
upon carbonic acid gas when alone or when mixed with nitrogen.
It is with carbonic acid, indeed, that I have hitherto chiefly
worked, as it is singularly well adapted for experiment ; and the
properties it exhibits will doubtless, in their main features, be
found to represent those of other gaseous bodies at corresponding
temperatures below and above their critical points.

Liquefaction of Carbonic Acid Gas. — The following results
have been obtained from a number of very careful experiments,
and give, it is believed, the pressures, as measured by an air-
manometer, at which carbonic acid liquefies for the temperatures
stated :—

Temperatures in Pressure in

Centigrade degrees. atmospheres. >:.:;a

o 35-04

5'45 40-44

"•45
16-92

22-22

25-39
2^-30

47-04

53-77
61-13
65-78
70-39

I have been gratified to find that the two results (for 13° "09
and 2i°-46) recorded in my former paper are in close agreement
with these later experiments. On the other hand, the pressures
I have found are lower than those given by Regnault as the
result of his elaborate investigation {Memoires de V Academie des
Sciences, vol. xxvi. p. 618). The method employed by that
distinguished physicist was not, however, fitted to giye accurately

Ang. 12, 1 875 J

NATURE

301

the pressures at which carbonic acid gts liquefies. It gave,
indeed, the pressures exercised by the liijuid when contained in
large quantity in a Thilorier's reservoir ; but these pressures are
always considerably in excess of the true pressures in conse-
quence of the unavoidable presence of a small quantity of com-
pressed air, although the greatest precautions may have been
taken in filling the apparatus. Even ^^^ part of air will exer-
cise a serious disturbing influence when the reservoir contains a
notable quantity of liquid.

Law of Boyle.— ThQ large deviations in the case of carbonic
acid at high pressures from this law appeared distinctly from
several of the results given in my former paper. I have now
finished a long series of experiments on its compressibility at the
respective temperatures of 6°7, 63°7, and 100° Centigrade. The
two latter temperatures were obtained by passing the vapours of
pyroxylic spirit (methyl alcohol) and of water into the rectan-
gular case with plate-glass sides, in which the tube containing the
carbonic acid" is placed. The temperature of the vapour of
the pyroxylic spirit was observed by an accurate thermometer,
whose indications were corrected for the unequal expansion
of the mercury ; while that of the vapour of water was
deduced from the pressure as given by the height of the
barometer and a water-gauge attached to the apparatus. At
the lower temperature (6'^ 7) the range of pressure which
could be applied was limited by the occurrence of liquefac-
tion ; but at the higher temperatures, which were considerably
above the critical point of carbonic acid, there was no limit of
this kind, and the pressures were carried as far as 223 atmo-
spheres. I have only given a few of the results ; but they will
be sufficient to show the general effects of the pressure. In the
following Tables p designates the pressure in atmospheres as
given by the air-manometer, /' the temperature of the carbonic
acid, » the ratio of the volume of the carbonic acid under one
atmosphere and at the temperature /* to its volume under the
pressure /' and at the same temperature, and 6 the volume to
which one volume of carbonic acid gas measured at 0° and 760
millimetres is reduced at the pressure/ and temperature f : —

Carbonic Acid at 6° 7.

13-22

20-I0
24-81

3 1 06
40-11

/•

at.
16-96

6-90
679
673
662

6-59

I
i4-3"6

I
23-01

I

25r-6o

I
39'57

58^40

Carbonic Acid at 63° -7.

f. *.

63-97

54-33 63-57

106-88 63-75

145*54 63-70

222*92 63-82

17-85

66-06
I

185-9

I

"32r3

I

at. o

i6-8o 100-38

53-81 100-33

105-69 100-37

145-44 99-46

223-57 99-44

446-9

Carbonic Acid at 100°.

I

17-33

I

60 -22

I

137-1
I

2r8-'9
I

380-9

007143
0-04456
0-03462
0-02589
001754

e.
006931
001871
0-00665
0-C0378
000277

9.
0-07914
002278
o-oiooi
0-00625
o 00359

These results fully confirm the conclusions which I formerly
deduced from the behaviour of carbonic acid at 48°, viz. that
while the curve representing its volume under different pressures
approximates more nearly to that of a perfect gas as the tempe-
rature is higher, the contraction is nevertheless greater than it
would be if the law of Boyle held good, at least for any tempe-
rature at which experiments have yet been made. From the
foregoing experiments it appears that at 63°-7 carbonic acid gas,
under a pressure of 223 atmospheres, is reduced to ^iy of its
volume under on« atmosphere, or to less than one half the
volume it ought to occupy if it were a perfect gas and contracted
in conformity with Boyle's law. Even at 100° the contraction
under the same pressure amounts to ,|x part of the whole.
From these observations we may infer by analogy that the
critical points of the greater number of the gases not hitherto
liquefied are probably far below the lowest temperatures hitherto
attained, and that they are not likely to be seen, either as liquids
or solids, till much lower temperatures even than those produced
by liquid nitrous oxide are reached.

(To be continued.)

NEIV METHOD OF OBTAINING ISOTHER-

MALS ON THE SOLAR DISC*
/^N June 5, 1875, I devised a method for obtaining the iso-
^^ thermals on the solar disc. As this process may create an
entirely new branch of solar physics, I deem it proper that I
should give a short account of it in order to establish my claim
as its discoverer.

In the American Journal, July 1872, I first showed how one
can, with great precision, trace the progress and determine the
boundary of a wave of conducted heat in crystals, by coating
sections of these bodies with Meusel's double iodide of copper
and mercury, and observing the blackening of the iodide where
the wave of conducted heat reaches 70° C. If we cause the
image of the sun to fall upon the smoked surface of thin paper,
while the other side of the paper is coated with a film of the
iodide, we may work on the solar disc as we formerly did on the
crystal sections.

The method of proceeding is as follows : beginning with an
aperture of object-glass which does not give sufficient heat in any
part of the solar image to blacken the iodide, I gradually in-
crease the aperture until I have obtained that area or blackened
iodide which is the smallest that can be produced with a well-
defined contour. This surface of blackened iodide I call the area
of blackened temperature. On exposing more aperture of object-
glass, the surface of blackened iodide extends and a new area is
formed bounded by a well-defined isothermal line. On again
increasing the aperture another increase of blackened surface is
produced with another isothermal contour ; and on continuing
this process I have obtained maps of the isothermals of the solar
image. By exposing tor about twenty minutes the surface of
iodide to the action of the heat inclosed in an isothermal, I have
obtained thermographs of the above areas ; which are sufficiently
permanent to allow one to trace accurately their isothermal con-
tours. There are other substances, however, which are more
suitable than the iodide for the production of permanent thermo-
graphs.

The contours of the successively blackened areas on the iodide
are isothermals, whose successive thermometric values are in-
versely as the successively increasing areas of aperture of object
glass which respectively produced them.

As far as the few observations have any weight, the following
appear to be the discoveries already made of this new method,
(i) There exists on the solar image an area of sensibly uniform
temperature and of maximum intensity. (2) This area of maxi-
mum temperature is of variable size. (3) This area of maximum
temperature has a motion on the solar image. (4) The area of
maximum temperature is surrounded by well-defined isothermals
marking successive gradations of temperature. (5) The general
motions of translation and of rotation of these isothermals appear
to follow the motions of the area of maximum temperature which
they inclose ; but both central area and isothermals have inde-
pendent motions of their own.

On projecting the enlarged image of a sun-spot on the
blackened surface and then bringing a hot-water box, coated
with lamp-black, near the other side of the paper, one may

• The discovery of a method of obtaining Thermographs of the Isothermal
Lines of the Solar Disc, by Alfred M. Mayer in Silliman's ^ w^r/Wj« Joitrtial
for July.

302

NATURE

\_Aug. 12, 1875

develop the image of the spot in red on a dark ground. A similar
method probably may serve to develop the athermic lines in the
ultra-red region of the solar and other spectra.

OUR BOTANICAL COLUMN

Ferula Alliacea.— The late Mr, D. Hanbury was a valu-
able and frequent contributor to the Kew Museums, and the
very last contribution made, or rather bequeathed by him, has a
scientific as well as a melancholy interest. The specimen in
question was a fine umbel, bearing ripe fruits of Ferula alliacea,
Eoiss. , the label to which we believe was written at his dictation
just before his death. - Seeds of this plant were also received at
Kew from him some time before the receipt of this specimen,
and these have germinated, and, though healthy, are as yet
naturally very small plants. In the " Pharmacographia " Mr,
Hanbury refers to this plant as exhaling a strong odour of Asa-
foetida, but says it is not known as the source of any commercial
product. In contradistinction of this, however, Mr, W, Dymock,
Professor of Materia Medica at Bombay, writing on the Asa-
foetidas of the Bombay market in a recent number of the
Pharmaceutical Journal, says that this plant produces one of the
distinct kinds known in the above drug market under the name
of " Abushaheree Hing," and is brought from the Persian Gulf
ports, principally from Abushaher and Bunder Abbas, and is
produced in Khorassan and Kirman, The specimens received
at Kew from Mr, Hanbury appear to have been first received by
himTirom the author of the paper in question, for he refers to
having sent such specimens ; therefore. If the specimens are
authentic, there is no reason to doubt the truth of the statement
made by Mr. Dymock, that the drug which appears in the
Bombay Customs Returns as Hing or Asafoetida, is produced by
this plant. It arrives in Bombay either in skins sewn up so as
to form a flat oblong package, or in wooden boxei. Its appear-
ance varies according to age, being soft, and about the thicknesj
of treacle when quite fresh, and of a dull olive brown colour and
a pure garlic odour. It becomes hard and translucent and of a
yellowish brown colour after being kept some time. Slices of
the root are found mixed with the resin in about equal propor-
tion. In i872-73Vas many as 3,367 cwt. of this drug were
imported into Bombay from the Persian Gulf. The information
given in the paper from which we have quoted the above parti-
culars seems to be of a trustworthy nature, and will prove a
valuable addition to what we already know of the Asafoetidas.

Diverse Effects of the same Temperature on the
SAME Species in Different Latitudes. — In the Comptes
Rendus des Seances [de V Acadhnie des Sciences, June 1875, Mr.
A. de Candolle gives the results of some experiments instituted
by himself last winter to determine the degree of influence of
heat on the vegetation of the same species under otherwise
diverse conditions. The sudden burst into life and the rapid
development of the vegetation of northern regions is proverbial ;
the advent of mild weather seems to bring at once into activity
the accumulated vital energies, and growth is exceedingly rapid.
In the south the same temperature would have far less visible
effect on the same species. De Candolle has attempted by
direct experiment to ascertain to what extent this influence is
exercised!. For this purpose he procured specimens of several
common deciduous trees from MontpcUier, and submitted them
to the same temperatiure as, and with, specimens of the same
species collected at Geneva, In the ordinary course of things
the same species came into leaf from three weeks to a month
earlier at Montpellier than at Geneva, but the specimens from
the south, by the side of the northern specimens, did not unfold
their leaves so early as the latter by about three weeks. The
White Poplar Hornbeam and Tulip Tree were the principal
trees employed. Catalpa, a very late leafing subject, exhibited
less diversity in this respect. This phenomenon is equally
striking in cereals and other cultivated plants. The learned
author attributes these differences in effect mainly to the fact that
vegetation, or external growth, neTer entirely ceases in the south,
whereas in the north there is a long period during which internal
changes and modifications of substances alone is carried on.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

The American yournal of Science and Art, July, — The origi-
nal articles are : — On the United States Weather Map, by E.
Loomis, which we have already noticed. — On a magnetic proof

plane, by H. A. Rowland. The apparatus required is a small
coil of wire \io\ inch in diameter and containing 10 to 50 and
a Thomson galvanometer. Having attached the small coil (or
magnetic proof plane, as Mr. Rowland calls it) to the galvano-
meter, it has to be laid on the required spot and then suddenly
pulled away and carried to a distance, and the momentary
deflection of the galvanometer will be proportional to that com-
ponent of the lines of force at that point which is perpendicular
to the plane of the coil. By a coil of this kind it is possible to
determine the intensity of the magnetic field at any point, and
thus be able to make a complete map of it. Illustrations of the
method are given. — On pseudomorphs of chlorite after Garnet
at the Spurr Mountain Iron Mine, Lake Superior, by Raphael
Pumpelly, with a coloured plate of a section magnified '^.—
A brief note on the application of the horizontal pendulum, by
Harcourt Amory. — Explosive properties of methyl nitrate, by
Carey Lea. This communication describes a new method and
the requisite apparatus for preparing it, so that danger is reduced
to a minimum. — On zonochlorite and chlorastroHte, by G. W.
Hawes.— On glycogen and glycocoil in the muscular tissue of
Pecten irradians. The glycogen has the formula of the sugars
of that of the starch group plus a molecule of water. The
amount of glycocoil occurring in the tissue is small. Analyses
are given. — On Dr. Koch and the Missouri mastodon, by Edmund
Andrews. The object of the article is to show that Dr. Koch's
testimony contributes nothing reliable on the question of the
occurrence of human remains in conjunction with the mastodon,
— On the rate of growth of corals, by Prof. Joseph Le Conte.
Examining a grove of madrepores he noticed that all the prongs
grew to the same level, which at the time were very near the
surface ; and that all of them were dead at the tips for about
three inches. The varying level of the ocean at the place is
known from the Coast Survey Report, and as it seems that
during the high water the madrepores grow up, the living
points of the madrepores grow up till the descending water-
level exposes and kills them down to a certain level; with
the rise of the mean level again new points start up-
wards. The annual growth, calculated from the known rise
and fall of water level, is from 3 J to 4 inches per annum.—
Results of dredging expeditions off the New England Coast in
1874, by A. E. Verrill. Lists of species are given. — Examina-
tion of gases from the meteorite of Feb. 12, 1875, by A. W,
Wright. — Discovery of two new asteroids, 144 and 145, by C. PI.
Peters, The diameter of 144 is as the loth, and 145 as ii"5. —
The discovery of a method of obtaining thermographs of the
isothermal lines of the solar disc, by Alfred M. INIayer, We
reprint the paper this week.

yahrbilcher fiir ivissenschaftliche Botanik. Herausgegeben
von Dr. N. Pringsheim. Band x. Heft, i, (Leipzig, 1875), —
In the first part of the tenth volume of Pringsheim's well-known
Jahrbiich we have three papers all of very considerable im-
portance. The first is a translation of Count Francesco Castra-
cane's paper on the Diatomacess of the Carboniferous period.
Ashes of coal from Liverpool yielded, on microscopic exami-
nation, several species"of Diatomaceae. The chief forms iden-
tified by Count Castracane all belong to fresh-water genera and
species, viz. : —

Fragilaria Harrisonii. Sm.

Epithemia gibba. Ehrbg.
. Sphenella glacialis, Kz.

Gomphonema capitatum, Ehrbg,

Nitzschia curvula, Kz.

Cymbella Scotica, Sm.
, Synedra vitrea, ICz.

Diatoma vulgare, Bory.
In addition to these there existed a Grammatophora, a small
Coscinodiscus, and probably an Amphipleura {danica ?). These
three marine forms were only observed on one occasion, and their
presence must have indicated some accidental inroad of sea-
water among the vegetation from which the piece of coal was
formed. All the fresh-water forms which occurred in the coal
are not to be distinguished from the living forms of the
same species, a fact of great interest and importance, as it indi-
cates the remarkable permanente of these forms in time ; and
it is probably an unique instance of the occurrence of species
which have remained unmodified through all the lapse of
ages which separates the present epoch from the coal period.
Count Castracane examined other varieties of coal besides that
obtained from near Liverpool, viz., coal from the mines at
St. Etienne, another from Newcastle, and a third specimen

Au^. 12, 1875]

NATURE

303

of the vScotcli "Cnnncl coal." In o\\ i\ic?,i fiesh-waier Ai&- \
toms were found to be more or less numerous. The i
thiee specimens yielded different species of Diatomaceje, but
no new forms were detected. The coal for examination was
finely pulverised, -Jlicn placed in a piece of combustion tubing 1
and heated to redness, a gentle stream of oxygen being passed j
over the substance. The temperature must not be raised too I
high, in order not to fuse the siliceous skeletons of the Diato-
maceie. The residue is to be treated with nitric acid and chlo-
rate of potash, and heated, then washed carefully with distilled
water, and mounted in the usual way. The examination of other
varieties of coal would no doubt yield results of the highest in-
terest and importance. — The second paper, " i^eitriige zur
Theorie der Pllanzenzelle," is by Dr. J. Tschistiakoff, and is
devoted to the development of the pollen of Epilobium augnsti-
foliuni. The chief point in the paper is the description of the
pro-nucleus, which" is also to be met with, according to Tschis-
tiakoff, in the spores of Cryptogams. In the mother-cells of
the pollen-grains the protoplasm becomes differentiated into
certain zones or regions, one called the pro-nucleus, which con-
tains the nucleolus. The pro-nucleus becomes more differen-
tiated during the growth of the cell, and may divide or disappear.
When new pro-nuclei are formed, one ultimately becomes deve-
loped into the true nucleus of the cell. The paper is illustrated
by five plates. — The last paper is upon the development of the
Prothallium . of the CyatheacLV, by Dr. Hermann liauke. The
species chiefly examined were : Cyathca nudullaris, Alsophila
aitstralis, and Hemitdia spcctabilis. The paper treats of — i.
The germination of the spore and the development of the Pro-
thallium ; 2. The development of the Antheridia ; 3. Develop-
ment of the Archegonia and Fertilisation ; 4. Male Prothallia and
proliferation of Prothallia ; and 5. Anomalies. The general
results of the paper show that in most points the development of
the ProthalUum of the Cyatheaca; agrees with that of the Poly-
podiacere. A special peculiarity is the occurrence of one rarely
of two, stalk-like cells to the Antheiidium. The subject is ex-
haustively treated, and it is illustrated by five plates.

Rekhert undDn Bois-ReymoniVs Archiv fiir Anatomie, Physi-
ologic, &c., 1875. No. I, May. — On the Pronation and Supi-
nation of the forearm, by Hermann Welcker, Plalle. The author
believes that the motions of pronation and supination should be
regarded not merely as movements of rotation, but also as hinge-
movements about an axis passing through the middle of the
head of the radius and the styloid process of the ulna. For the
term " extreme supination " he would bubstitute dorsal flexion of
the radius ; for " pronation," volar flexion of the radius. The
actions and positions of the muscles concerned are carefully ana-
lysed, and diagrams are given illustrating and supporting the
view taken. — Another paper by the same author discusses the
effect of the. ileo-tibial tract of the fascia lata. — In a paper on
the partial excitation of nerves, Hermann Munk gives a rciurne
of his previous, paptrs on the various effects produced on the
fibres of nerves according to their situation with respect to the
electrodes used, and attributes the contradictory results attained
by Rollett and Pour, who believe in a difference of functional
irritability in different nerve-fibres, to their having used induction-
currents, while he had used constant currents in his experiments.
— Dr. Donhoff points out that calves born early in the year have
a longer and thicker coat of hair than those born later in the
season ; and that this occurs indifferenlly whether the mother is
kept in the stall all the year round, or only passes the winter in the
stail. — Dr. Wenzel Gruber, of St. Petersburg, describes a case of
the occurrence of the lateral tuberosity of the fifth metatarsal bone
as a distinct epiphysis, and two cases of epiphyses on the
tubercle of the trapezium. — Dr. von Ihering, in a paper on the
temporal ridges of the human skull, supports Hyrtl's description
of two temporal ridges, of which one or other is usually better
developed. He comes to the conclusion that the upper ridge is
related to the temporal fascia, and the lower to the limit ot the
temporal muscle, and that the temporal ridges in man corre-
spond accurately with those of the anthropomorphic apes.
He figures skulls of a Paumotu Islander and of a Hungarian in
the Gottingen Museum, as instances of remarkably prominent tcm-
poralridges. — Dr.AlbertAdamkiewicz, of Konigsbcrg, contributes
a remarkable paper on the analogies to Dulong and Petit's Law
of Specific Atomic Heat in Animal Temperature. He conducted
an elaborate series of experiments to determine the influence of
the surrounding temperature and the size of the body on the
specific temperature of the animal, and to discover the physical
explanation of the;results attained by physiological experiments

on temperature. The paper extends over nearly seventy pages,
and It is impossible here to do more than indicate the subject of
inquiry.

No. 2, July. — This number, in addition to the conclusion of
the last-named paper, contains another by Dr. Adamkiewicz on
the conductivity of muscle for heat. The conclusion drawn
from experiment is that on a scale representing the conductivity
of copper as 1000, water as 1-4, and that of air as o'Of, the
conductivity of muscle is represented by o*6. — ^J. Stciner, of
Halle, gives the results of experiments with curare on fishes,
newts, molluscs, starfishes, holothurians, and mcdusce. He finds
that in fishes there is paralysis of the central organ of voluntary
motion, of the respiratory centre, and of motor nerves, and that
the times at which the effects appear are in the order named.
The period at Vifhich paralysis of motor nerves sets in, is much
later than in higher vertebrates. In the electrical rays the power
of the electrical nerves remains much longer than that of motor
nerves. In crabs the phenomena are similar to those in fishes,
but they appear still later. In molluscs, starfishes, and holo-
thurians, there is only a paralysis of the central organ of volun-
tary motion. Curare appears to have no effect on medusa;. —
Fanny Berlinerblau describes a case of direct transition from
arteries to veins in the human subject. — E. Tiegel gives an
account of the physiological effect of a capillary electrical cur-
rent.— Dr. W. Gruber has four papers — (l) on the occurrence of
a second zygomatic bone in man ; (2) on the piso-hamatus
muscle ; (3) on an anomalous extensor digitorum communis in
the hand, and a similar anomaly in the extensor digitoruni
longus in the foot; and (6) on the) flexor poUicis longus. — W.
Krause figures a human embryo at about the fourth week, with a
pear-shaped allantois. — E. Meyer gives an account of compara-
tive iavestigations in the mammalia on the cause of the pale or
red appearance of striated muscles, and concludes that the shade
of colour varies with the work done by them. — Prof. Aeby, of
Berne, has a paper on the sesamoid bones of the human hand.

The Geographical Magazine, August. — In connection with
Lieut. Cameron's explorations, Mr. C. R. Markham takes occa-
sion to give an interesting resume oi the history of the discovery of
the course of the Congo, and strongly advocates that relief should
be sent out to Cameron. — An interesting sketch follows of the
journey of Chekanovski and Miiller to the Siberian river Olena
(Olenek), in 1873-74 ; this is illustrated by a sketch-map,
— The number also contains a largo sketch-map of the
countries between Kashmir and Panjkirah, including Chilas,
Kandia, and other districts of Daidistan, compiled by Mr.
Ravenbtein from the most trustworthy recent sources. — " Sign-
po.sts on Ocean's Highway. — The Physical Education of Dust. —
Mountains," is the title ot an article by Mr. H. P. Malet.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
Vienna

Imperial Academy, of Sciences, April 1.— On cold mix-
tures, with special reference to those consisting of snow and
sulphuric acid, by Prof. Pfaundler. — On paltcogcological geo-
graphy, by Dr. A. Boue. — On the carboniferous lime fauna of
the Barents Isles (in the N.W. of Novaya Zemlya), by Dr. F.
Toula ; this interesting paper contains a list of no less than one
hundred different species found in that remote locality.

April 15. — The following papers were read : — On anomalous
dispersion, by Prof. E. Mach. — On a new direct proof for the
rotation of the earth, by F. v. Sedlmayer Seefeld. — On the
generating of nitrogen from the albuminoid matter undergoing
assimilation in the body, by Prof. J. Seegen and Dr. Nowak. —
On an apparatus for the determination of the mechanical equiva-
lent of heat, by H. J. Puluj.— On the orbit of Planet (III.) Ate,
by Director von Littrow and Dr. Holetschek.— On the varia-
bility of diurnal temperatures, by Dr. J. Hann. — On the function
of lime. with germ-plants of Phaseolus multijlorus, by Prof. J.
Boehm.— Several papers of minor interest.
Berlin

German Chemical Society, July 12. — A. W. Ilofmann io
the chair. — A. Borodin, in treating an am.-uine salt with nitrit«
of potassium, has obtained a nitrosoamarine. He concludes
amarine to be an imidobase.^ — A. Michaelis and F. Graeff have
discovered a new mode of formation of phosphenylic chloride, by
treating diphcnylmercury with terchloride of phosphorus :
PCI3 -)- Hg(C«H5)2 = PCI2CBH5 + HgClCgHj,.
J. V. Janowsky published irew analyses of the mineral Cronsted-

304

NATURE

\Aug. 12, 1875

C14H7

tite.— A. Kundt and E. "Warburg have investigated the specific
heat of the vapour of mercury. Their reason for doing so wras
the exception shown by most vapours with regard to the kinetic
molecular theory of Clausius. If c signifies the specific heat of a
gas of constant volume, and c' the specific heat of the same gaa

at constant pressure : then — according to that theory should be

= I "67, while most gases have been found to possess the co-
efficient = I "405. Mercury-vapour affords a particular interest,
because its molecule is monatomic compared with those diatomic
volumes of most other gases. It was found to coincide with the

law of Clausius — having been found 1 '67. — A. Schiiller and V.

Wartha described a new ice-calorimeter, a modification of
Bunsen's instrument which offers the facility of applying
ice which is not entirely pure. — F. Beilstein, as also A.
Claus, described derivations of dichlorobenzoic acid.— R.
Gnehm described derivatives of diphenyl-amine. —V. Meyer and
Lecco have treated iodide of tetramethyl-ammonium with
iodide of ethyl, and also iodide of tetracthylammonium with
iodide of methyl, without observing in either case an exchange of
ethyle against methyl. — W . Klobukowsky and E. Nolting have
made researches respecting the constitution of rufigallic acid,
which lead them to adopt the formula formerly described by M.
Jaffe. — Ph. Zoller and E. A. Crete have added some new
observations on xanthogenic salts as a remedy against Phylloxera.
Amylic xanthogenate appeal's to be as efficacious as the corre-
sponding ethylxanthogenate. Amylxanthogenate of potassium
can be prepared in Vienna at the price of 3/. a hundredweight.
— C. Liebermann has submitted emodine, the substance accom-
panying chrysophanic acid in the root of rhubarb, to new
researches. He considers it as methylpurpurine —
fCH3
(0H)3

By oxydation it yields anthrachinone-carbonic acid —

Ci.tH7(C02H)(OH)3(0,)".
Heated Iwith powdered zinc, emodine yields anthracene. — C.
Liebermann and E. Fischer have transformed purpurine into
amidoalizarine —

( OH ( NH,

C14H6 \ (OH), + NH3 = H3O + C14H6 ] (OH),

( O2 ( O2

This body, by the action of nitrous acid, gives an isomerid of
alizarine, viz., purpuroxanthine. — A. Pinner found chloracrylic
acid to be transformed by water into malonic acid. — H. Cabriel
has studied the body called ammelide by Cerhardt, and has
found the formula (C3N3)NH(OH)2 predicted by this chemist. —
P. Meyer has prepared a number of derivatives of glycocoll, con-
taining phenyl or tolyl and chlorine, obtained by the action of
aniline and toluidine on the chloride of chloracetic acid. He
likewise has studied the action of those bases on the ether of
chloracetic acid. — C. L. Jackson has found in the residues of
aniline obtained from a German manufactory a base homologous
with xenylamine, viz., CJ3H13N = CjaHjiNHg. The radical
being most likely, tolylphenyl.

Paris
Academy of Sciences, Aug. 2. — M. Frcmy in the chair. —
The following papers were read :— On the magnets formed of
compressed powders, by M. J. Jamin.— Memoir by M. N. Joly,
entitled : A gap in the teratological series filled up by the discovery
of the genus " Ileadelphia." — On neutral substrata, by M.
Weddell. This paper relates to another one read by M.
Contejean at the meeting of July 19, with reference to botanical
geography. — A critical examination of the basis upon which
the calculus generally used to estimate the stability of bridges
with metal supports and straight prismatical beams, is based;
with propositions for the adoption of a new basis, by M.
Lefort. — On the integration of an equation with partial differen-
tials of the second order, by M. N. Nicolaides.— On the recurrent
sensibility of the peripherical nerves of the hand, by M. A.
Richet. — Researches on the nodules of oligoclase in the lava of
the last eruption of Santorin, by M. F. Fouque. — On the method
of buying beetroot by the density of their juice, by M. Durin. —
On microzymata and their functions in the different ages of one
and the same being, by M. J. Bechamp. — A new process for
the determination of free oxygen in urine, by M. D. Freire. —

Observations by M. Blanchet, on the project of creating a sea in
the interior of Africa. — A memoir by M. P. Maille, on cyclones.
On the variations in the brilliancy of Jupiter's fourth satellite,
with deductions regarding its physical constitution and its
movement of rotation, by M. Flammarion. The author states
the following results of his observations : The IV. satellite of
Jupiter undergoes considerable variations in its brilliancy and
appears to us as a star between the 6th and the loth magnitudes.
As its phases as seen from the earth are hardly perceptible, we
conclude that its physical constitution is absolutely different from
that of the moon. There is a probability (but no certainty) in
favour of the hypothesis that it revolves like the moon, pre-
senting always the same face to the planet. In that case, its
brightest hemisphere would be that which it turns towards the
sun when on the superior ■western quarter of its orbit, and its
darkest hemisphere the one it turns towards the sun when it
stands in the lower eastern quarter of its course. This hypo-
thesis does not account for all the variations observed, and this
little world seems to undergo atmospherical revolutions which
cause its reflecting surface to vary at any point of its
orbit. It appears sometimes nebulous and dim. Its re-
flecting power is as a rule inferior to that of the three
other satellites of Jupiter. — On molecular combinations
by M. C. Friedel. — On the complete separation of arsenic from
animal matter and on its determination in the different tissues,
by M. Arm. Cautier. — On the determination of glucose in wine,
by M. A. Bechamp. — On the breaking off of the teats of guinea-
pigs, by M. de Sinety.

BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

British.— Proceedings of the Liverpool Naturalists' Field Club, 1874-75.
— The Celt, the Roman and the Saxon : Thos. Wright, F.S.A. 3rd edition,
revised (Triibner and Co ) — Proceedings of the Bristol Naturalists' Society,
N.S., Vol. i. Part 2— Jcnkinson's Practical Guide to Carlisle, Gilsland,
Roman Wall, &c. (Stanford) ; and smaller edition of above. —Rocket Floats
and Racket Rams : Chas. Meade Ramus (Stanford). — A Practical Treatise
on the Diseases of the Eye : Haynes Walton, F.R.C.S. (J. and A. Churchill).
— The Annual Address of the Victoria Institute : Rev. Robert Main (Hard-
wicke).— Our Summer Migrants : J. E. Halting, F.L.S., F.Z.S. (Bickers
and Son).

Foreign. — Schriften der Naturforschenden Gesclischaft in Dantzig.
3 Band, 3 Heft. — Notes sur des Empreintes d'Insectes Fossiles : A. P. de
Borre (Brussels, De Veuve Nys). — Sitzungsberichte der Gesellschaft der Wis-
senschaften in Prag. 1874,— Grundziige einer Theorie der Cubischen Involu
tionen : von Emil Weyr (Prag). — Zur Lehre der Parallel Projection und der
Flachen : von Prof. Dr. W. Matzka (Prag) — Shidiern im Gebiete des
Kohlengebirges von Bohmen : von Mdr. O. Teistmantel (Prag). — Das
Jeokline Krystallsystem : von J. Krejel. — Ueber die Chemische Konstitution
der ;Naturlichen chlor- und fluor-haltigen Silikate : von Dr. A. Safarik
(Prag). — Memoires de la Societe des Sciences de Liege. Second Series,
Vol. iv. (Brus.sels) — Die Periodischen Bewegungen der Blattorgane : von
Dr. W. Pfeffer (Leipzig, W. Engelman).

CONTENTS paok

The Science Commission Rei'ort on the Advancement of
Science 283

HINRICHS' "PrINCII'LES OF CHEMISTRY." By ' G. F. RODWELL,

F.C.S 288

The Zoology OF THE "Erebus" AND "Terror" 289

Our Book Shklf : —

Roper's ' ' Flora of Eastbourne " 290

Scientific Bibliography 290

Letters to the Editor:—

Properties of Selenium. — Richard J. Moss 291

Mr. Darwm and Prof Dana on the Influence of Volcanic Action in

preventing the growth of Corals. — Rev. S. J. Whitmee . . . 291

Mirage on bnovifdom. — H. J. Wetenhall 292

Our Astronomical Column :—

Kepler's Nova, 1604 293

The Binary Star 4 Aquarii 292

The Nebula; 292

Encke's Comet 292

The Argentine Observatory 292

The Late W. J. Henwood, F.R.S. Bv G. T. Bettany .... 293
The International Congress and Exhibition of Geogr-^phy

(With lU-ustratioti) 293

The Manatee at the Zoological Gardens 294

The Wohler Festival. By Dr. A. Oppenheim 295

The Gigantic Land Tortoises of the Mascarene and Gala-
pagos IsLAND.s, III, By Dr. Albert Gunther, F.R.S 296

Notes 297

Physical Properties of Matter in the Liquid and Gaseous

States. By Prof Andrews, F.R.S 300

New Method of obtaining Isothermals on the Solar Disc.

By Alfred M. Mayer 301

Our Botanical Column : —

Ferula AUiacea 30a

Diverse Effects of the same Temperature on the same Species in

Different Latitudes 302

Scientific Serials 302

Societies and Academies 303

Books and Pamphlets Received 304

NATURE

305

THURSDAY, AUGUST 19, 1875

THE SCIENCE COMMISSION REPORT ON
THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

IN our last issue we published the substance of the
Eighth and final Report of the Royal Commission
on Science, presided over by the Duke of Devonshire,
which includes the measures deemed by that body neces-
sary for the advancement of science in England.

We now propose to lay before our readers a summary
of the evidence on the above branch of the investigation
undertaken by the Commission. It must be borne in
mind that the evidence given on this topic fills a Blue
Book of more than 400 closely printed pages, and the
extracts from it with which the Commissioners fortify the
Report now under notice fill some forty pages. These
extractsj have been selected with obvious impartiality.
The further compression which it must undergo in order
to fit it for our columns must necessarily weaken the
force of the testimony borne by a cloud of able witnesses.
All we can hope to do, within our limits, is to give an
idea of some of the salient points established, and of the
general tendency of the whole.

Adhering to the subdivision, adopted by the Commis-
sion, under four principal heads, we proceed to

I. — The Scientific Work carried on by Departments of
the Government.
The following enumeration of State Scientific Institu-
tions now existing, together with that of the various
Departments responsible for them, is given on the autho-
rity of the Royal Commission : —

Topographical Survey [Treasury (Office of Works)].
Hydrographical Survey [Admiralty],
Geological Survey [Privy Council].
Astronomical Observations : —

Greenwich and the Cape of Good Hope [Admiralty].
Edinburgh [Treasury (Office of Works)].
Meteorological Observations : —
Greenwich [Admiralty].
Edinburgh [Treasury (Office of Works)].
The Meteorological Office.

[The Meteorological Office is not administered by
any Public Department, but is directed by a Com-
mittee, which, although appointed by the Royal
Society, is independent of that body.]
Botany. — Royal Gardens, Kew ; Botanic Garden, Edin-
burgh ; Botanic Gardens, Dublin [Treasury (Office
of Works)].
The Chemical Department of the War Office.
The Standards Department of the Board of Trade.
Analogous work is carried on in some of the colonies
and foreign possessions by departments of their respective
Governments.

In one case, that of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich,
the work is examined into and reported on to the Ad-
miralty by a Board of Visitors composed of men of
science.

This extraordinary list is substantially that with which
Col. Strange opened his evidence as the foundation on
which the present demands for reform must be based. It
establishes conclusively three most important points, (i)
That the State does, and therefore should, actively aid
scientific research. (2) That it does so partially, many
Vol. xii.— No. 303

essential branches being without aid. (3) That a divided
administration such as this list of six or seven depart-
ments concerned with science indicates, cannot possibly
secure harmony, systematic efficiency, or the extension
which, as knowledge and the wants of the nation advance,
may be requisite.

The Commissioners then add the following statement,
showing the annual charges borne by imperial funds, at
the present time, to defray the expenses of such of these
various investigations as appear separately in the Esti- "
mates for the year 1874-75 : —

Topographical Survey (excluding mili-
tary pay of men employed) ... ... ^132,000

Hydrographical Survey 121,055

Geological Survey 22,920

Astronomy 9)703

Meteorology 12,082

Botany, including the maintenance of
Botanical Gardens as places of

public recreation 21,470

Standards Department of the Board
of Trade 2,063

In addition to these recurring charges, sums arc voted
from time to time for various expeditions and for experi-
ments incidental, to , the services of the various depart-
ments, such as the investigations concerning the causes
and processes of disease carried on under the direction
of the Lords of the Privy Council, and the various experi-
mental researches carried on for the army and navy.

Even if no questions of completeness or extension were
raised, the fact of an expenditure, reaching probably about
half a million annually, without any pretence of a system
to regulate it, is one in itself deserving very serious con-
sideration.

As to the insufficiency of our present administrative
arrangements, we have valuable evidence from several
Government officials and gentlemen engaged in national
works.

Sir Henry Rawlinson, a member of the Indian Council,
states that in that Council they perpetually have refer-
ences before them which they are unable to deal with.
He adds :—

"... We have, for instance, Sir William Baker upon
the Council, and General Strachey and Colonel Strange,
both attached to the office ; yet, notwithstanding their
valuable aid, there are many subjects referred to us with
which we are quite incompetent to deal."

He then refers to the following subjects among others :
— The Manufacture of Iron and Steel in India ; the
Efflorescence of Soda on Irrigated Land ; the Fermenta-
tion of Beer, " which may involve a loss of 200,000/. or
300,000/. a year to the British Government ; " the ques-
tion of Drought arising from the Destruction of Forests ;
the Construction of Harbours and of other Hydraulic
Works ; the Founding of Brass Guns ; Tidal Observa-
tions ; the Publication of Works on the Flora and Fauna
of India ; Geological and Trigonometrical Surveys ; Sea
Dredging ; and Observatories.

He points out that many of these questions are prac-
tical and economical, but that still there is a scientific
element in almost all of them, and he adds ; —

" References on all these subjects are constantly coming
home, and we have no means of answering them in our
own body, while it is very unsatisfactory to be obliged to
• R

io6

NATURE

\Aug. 19, 1S75

send out for gratuitous information. We do sometimes,
it is true, apply to individuals and sometimes to societies,
but in very many cases, I am afraid, the questions are
shelved, because there is no competent and authoritative
body to refer to."

Capt. Douglas Galton, of the Office of Works and
Public Buildings, thinks that, as a rule —

"... Our statesmen do not appreciate properly the
value of scientific advice or scientific inquiry, and that
they are very much fonder of experiments made upon a
large scale with no defined system, than they are of expe-
riments which have been brought out as the result of a
carefully studied previous inquiiy. I think that an enor-
mous amount of money was wasted in the case of the
inquiry into armour plates, both for ships and forts. In
that case the Government appointed a partly scientific
committee, but it was mixed up with other persons who
were not scientific ; and instead of commencing a series
of experiments upon a small and clearly defined scale,
from which they could have drawn conclusions for making
their larger experiments, they began by firing at any
plates that were offered to them which had no relation
one to another, either in their relations to the guns or to
the form of backing, or in any other way, and conse-
quently it was difficult to draw useful calculations from
them."

Mr. Froude, who was a prominent member of the late
Committee on Naval Designs, and who is now devoting
his whole time without remuneration to the investigation
of the proper forms of ships of war, states that if, at an
earlier time, a laboratory had existed, and proper experi-
ments had been made, enormous sums would have been
saved which have been expended in the actual construc-
tion of ships, or, as he terms it, in " experiments on the
scale of twelve inches to a foot ;" and that definite results
would have been arrived at with less loss of time.

It will be seen from the evidence of General Strachey
that he also disapproves of the mode in which Government
is at present advised on questions of science, especially
on the ground of the absence of scientific training in the
political and official classes of this country.

Sir Wm. Thomson has given the following evidence : —

"... With a vast amount of mechanical work which
is necessarily undertaken by the Government, and which
is continually in hand, questions involving scientific diffi-
culties of a novel character frequently occur ; questions
requiring accurate knowledge of scientific truth hitherto
undeveloped are occurring every day. In both respects
the Government is at present insufficiently advised, and
the result is undoubtedly that mechanical works are some-
times not done as well as they might be done, that great
mistakes are sometimes made ; and again, a very serious
and perhaps even a more serious evil of the present sys-
tem, in which there is not sufficient scientific advice for
the Government, is the undertaking of works which
ought never to be undertaken."

" Are you able to point out any instances which you
have in your mind of mistakes which you think have
occurred from the want of good advice on the part of the
Government? — One great mistake undoubtedly was the
construction of the Captain, and I believe that a perma-
nent scientific council advising the Government would
have made it impossible to commit such a mistake. They
would, in the very beginning, have relieved the Govern-
ment from all that pressure of ignorant public opinion
which the Government could not possibly, in the present
state of things, withstand."

The present system of Special Committees is objected
to by Sir William Thomson, and by other competent
witnesses.

Sir William Thomson thinks " that a single body would
be better than a number of small committees for advising
the Government on the great variety of questions which
from time to time would be likely to arise."

Admiral Richards, late hydrographer of the Admi-
ralty, is of opinion that —

" The members of such committees must be selected
more or less to fulfil certain political conditions, and that,
as a rule, they would come new to the subject that they
were going to consider, and I do not believe that the
Commission which sat on the Naval Designs the other
day was a very successful one. I do not know that any
great advantages have arisen or are likely to arise
from it."

Mr, Froude, in reply to the remark, "You do not
consider committees of that kind to be a very satisfactory
way of proceeding?" thus states his objection to the pre-
sent system : —

" I do not think so, because they have to find out the
dream and the interpretation both, which is always a
difficulty. They have to feel their way to a lociis standi,
which would already be possessed by a Council habitu-
ally operating with reference to the subject."

Additional examples of these defects are given, not
only by these witnesses, but also by othei's, whom we
shall quote when dealing with the proposed remedies.

Evidence was taken by the Commission as to the
insufficiency of the present appliances for investigation.

The attention of the Commission was especially directed
to the want of laboratories for the use of the officials
charged with scientific investigations urgently required for
the economical management of the public departments.

Mr. Anderson, the superintendent of machinery at Wool-
wich, who has been responsible for the expenditure of
"very nearly 3,000,000/. of public money," points out that
there are no means at the disposal of State servants to
enable them to investigate questions on which large ex-
penditure depends. With special regard to his own
department he states : —

" There is a very great deal which I should like to see

taken in hand systematically There is much that

we are in the dark about ; we are groping in the dark in
almost everything at present."

" . . . . Although we know a very great deal with
regard to iron, cast, wrought, and in the condition of steel,
there is yet very much which we do not know, and I am
persuaded that if we could with certainty treat ordinary
cast iron in the way that we sometimes do, nearly by
chance, we would do away with three-fourths, or a very
large proportion of the wrought iron which is now used in
this country, and we should use cast iron."

He next refers to another question of great importance
to almost all the public departments : —

"... There is another very important subject
which I might mention to the Commission. Some twenty
years ago we were using ten or twelve pounds of coal per
horse-power per hour, and the majority of engines still
require six pounds, but by the improvements that have
taken place we are now down to two pounds. There is
a little engine at work now in the London district which
is working at i| pounds. There is a great gulf yet
between getting steam-engines that will work at i| pounds
per horse-power per hour, and the point where we are
now ; I mean getting that done practically : but I believe
that if the right man, or two men, were told off to
thoroughly investigate this subject, and not to stop work-
ing until they had brought it to a practical shape, we
could in ten years from this time get down to one pound

Aug. 19, 1875]

NA TURE

307

per horse-power per hour. I see that there are very
many leakages or loss in steani-engines in the very best
way that we make them at present. The knowledge that
was gained by Joule's experiments a few years ago seems
to me to have been of immense value. Those experi-
ments that he carried out for himself were the sort of
thing which I think the Government should have done
for the sake of the country. He did more to make engi-
neers thoroughly dissatisfied with their present knowledge
with regard to what they can do with steam than any-
thing which had been done before. I believe that what
Mr. Joule did will do more ior this country than even
what James Watt did. The part that James Watt took
was very great, and the world gives him full credit for it,
but the world is scarcely willing to give credit to Joule
for what he will do ; but he has made all engineers dis-
satisfied. They know that the best steam-engine is not
doing one-sixth of the work which it ought to do and can
do. That is a sad state of matters to be in when we
know that we are so far wrong, but yet no one will go to
the trouble of going to the end of the question so as to
improve the steam-engine as it might be done ; in fact,
it will cost a great deal of trouble and a great deal of
expense, I have no doubt."

With regard to the question whether it is " desirable
that the Government should establish any laboratories
for carrying on those investigations," he thus stated his
opinion ;—

" I should like to see a grand laboratory fitted with
everything that would go towards the investigation of
such matters, and at the same time a testing apparatus
for getting at the physical facts as well. To get up the
proper plant would be very expensive, but still I should
like the nation to have it, so that any public department
could go to this same laboratory and ask them for assist-
ance to investigate any doubtful point."

Mr. Anderson's evidence finds a parallel in that given
by Mr. E. J. Reed, M.P., late Chief Constructor of the
Navy. He says : —

" I think that there are many branches of science
remaining undeveloped at present, the development of
which would be of great advantage to the country. I
base that opinion partly upon the experience which I
acquired at the Admiralty, in which I continually found
that great and important questions were undeveloped for
the want of organisation and of the means of developing
them."

"... A second illustration which I should like to give
is this : the present condition of the marine steam-engine
and boiler is very unsatisfactory. It is unsatisfactory to
such an extent that I believe if the manufacture of iron
and steel were improved with reference to its use in the
construction of engines and boilers, and if improved
material were applied by improved methods, a saving of
one-half of the present weight would be attained ; and
when I siy one-half, I know that 1 am speaking greatly
within the limits which some persons who have thought very
much about this question would be prepared to express.
Of course, if that be so, if we are carrying about in our
mercantile and other steamships twice the weight which
is essential for the production of the power, that is so
much taken off either from the further power and speed
which might be obtained, or from the freightage and com-
mercial value of the vessel.

" I may mention that in the manufacture of shafts, for
instance, of the marine engine and of stern posts, and
other large forgings for ships, the method of production
is comparatively rude, and it very much needs develop-
ment. ... So much has the subject been neglected, that
at this moment I have the responsibility of seeing some
very large forgings indeed made for certain ships, and the
most effectual manner in which I can give effect to my

responsibility is that of selecting the very best working
smith that I can find, and putting him into the manufac-
tory where those things are being made, for him to do the
best that his experience enables him to do, in order to see
them properly constructed. I believe that if a regular
independent scientific investigation were applied to a
manufacture of that nature, enormous advantage would
at once result."

The Standards Department of the Board of Trade is
another department requiring advice in varied scientific
subjects. The Warden of the Standards (Mr. Chisholm)
states that there is no scientific authority to which he is
entitled to appeal.

Sir WiUiam Thomson, in reference to the subject of
standards, says :

" The conservancy of weights and measures is a subject
involving questions of the most extreme scientific nicety.
Faraday made statements showing how completely un-
known at present are the properties of matter upon which
we depend for a permanent standard of length. One of
the very first objects that should be undertaken in con-
nection with the conservancy of the standards of weight
and length is secular experiments, on the dimensions of
metals and solids of other classes under various condi-
tions of stress, temperature, and atmosphere. Those
would involve scientific experiments of an extremely diffi-
cult character, and also operations extending from year
to year. There ought to be just now a set of experi-
mental specimens of solids laid up which should be
examined every year, or every ten years, or every fifty
years, or every hundred years, the times when observa-
tions are to be made from age to age being regulated
by the experience of the previous observations. This
would not be a very difficult or expensive thing to insti-
tute in such a way as eventually to obtain good results,
but it would be an operation of a secular character, which
could only be carried out by the Government."

Dr. Frankland thus refers to the various requirements
of Government involving chemical investigations : —

"... The State requires many important investiga-
tions to be carried on. Such investigations are being
continually conducted in buildings often very ill-adapted
for the purpose, and which are fitted up for the purpose
at a great cost. The laboratory of the Rivers Commis-
sion, for instance, which we have occupied for four years,
was constructed in a house in Victoria Street ; a rent of
200/. a year is paid for it, and it is literally nothing more
than a moderate sized room,'and two smaller ones, very
ill-adapted for the purpose. Consequently, this labora-
tory is not so efficient as a building erected for the
express purpose of conducting such investigations would
be."

We pass now to
II. — The Assistance given by the State towards the
Promotion of Scientijic Research.

It may be convenient to consider the assistance given
by the State towards scientific research as being either
permanent or occasional.

Our museums of natural history are examples of the
first. These afford to the students of those branches of
science aid analogous to that afforded to students of
literature and art by our national libraries and galleries.

No similar facilities are provided for the student of the
physical sciences— such collections of instruments as
exist being wholly inadequate both as to character and
completeness. Moreover, as the Commissioners remark,
" a mere collection of instruments, however complete,
without working laboratories, is of little use to the student

;o8

NATURE

{Aug. 19, 1875

of the experimental sciences, and as there are no public
laboratories available for the researches of private investi-
gators, it may be said that in many branches of experi-
mental science the State affords no permanent material
aid to such investigators."

Assistance of a permanent description is also afforded
to learned societies, by providing them with apartments
free of rent, or with annual grants of money in lieu of such
accommodation : the sum of 500/. granted annually to the
Royal Geographical Society under certain conditions is
an instance of such a grant.

We may regard as a permanent aid to science the
grant of 1,000/, for researches carried on by private indi-
viduals, which is annually voted by Parliament, and ad-
ministered by a Committee of the Royal Society.

The first proposal for such a grant was contained in a
letter (dated October 24th, 1849) from Earl Russell then
(Lord John Russell) to the then President of the Royal
Society (the Earl of Rosse), and was to the following
effect :—

" As there are from time to time scientific discoveries
and researches which cost money and assistance the
students of science can often but ill afford, I am induced
to consult your lordship, as President of the Royal
Society, on the following suggestion : —

" I propose that at the close of the year the President
and Council should point out to the First Lord of the
Treasury a limited number of persons to whom the grant
of a reward, or of a sum to defray the cost of experiments,
might be of essential service. The whole sum which I
could recommend the Crown to grant in the present year
is 1,000/., nor can I be certain that my successor would
follow the same course ; but I should wish to learn
whether, in your lordship's opinion and that of your
colleagues, the cause of science would be promoted by
such grants."

Lord Rosse, in reply to the proposal made by Lord J.
Russell, expressed his personal opinion that the judicious
employment of grants in the way proposed " would very
materially promote the advancement of science ;" and of
the two alternatives, namely, expending the 1,000/. in
rewards, or appropriating it to the payment of the ex-
penses of experiments, he preferred the latter, indicating
his reasons as follows : —

" There are often details to be worked out before it is
possible to employ usefully newly discovered principles.
In many of the sciences reductions are required before
observations can be made use of. Both in science and
art, facts technically called constants are the materials of
discovery ; to determine them accurately is of great im-
portance. Now in all these cases, and in many others,
the work to be done is laborious and expensive, and as it
adds but little comparatively to the fame of tiie indivi-
dual, it especially requires encouragement."

With regard to this " Government grant " Sir Edward
Sabine in his evidence says :...*'! suppose that
the 1,000/. in one year was designed as an experiment to
try the matter in the first instance. I always understood
that Lord Russell contemplated that the sum would be
augmented if the plan were found to work well."

No change however has been made either in the
amount of the grant or in its mode of distribution since
its first establishment.

As examples of the second — occasional — kind of aid,
expeditions for special researches, outfits of ships, and
apparatus and grants of money for such researches, are

mentioned. Great as is the value of these contributions,
the Commissioners pointedly remark that " they do not
appear to be granted or refused on any sufficiently well-
defined principle."

The lesson, indeed, which crops up throughout the in-
valuable investigations of this Commission, is that there is
a total want of system in almost all that we do, as a
nation, towards advancing scientific research.
(Z'tf be continued.^

THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
The Encyclopadia Britannic a j a Dictionary of Arts,
Sciences^ and General Literature. Ninth Edition.
Vol. IL, Ana to Ath. (Edinburgh: Adam and
Charles Black, 1875.)

IN reviewing the first volume] of this new edition of the
" Encyclopaedia " (Nature, vol. xi. p. 343), we were
obliged, by want of space, to omit more than the
briefest possible remarks upon the general plan of the
work. The conspicuous and increasing success of the
work is apparently a sufficient answer to those who would
find fault with the form of arrangement peculiar to this
" EncyclopaDdia." Among the considerable number of
Cyclopcedias which have been produced in Great Britain
during the last hundred years, this one, almost alone, has
been reproduced in a number of successive editions,
growing in excellence and reputation, and many people
might take this fact to be a sufficient proof that it is well
designed to meet a^ general want. But this success must
surely be due in great degree to the eminence of the con-
tributors, to the skill of the editors, or to any circumstance
rather than the scheme of the work.

We have always been unable to comprehend the
exact raison d'etre of a cyclopaedia which is neither
strictly alphabetical nor strictly systematic. The " Bri-
tannica " may be compared to a soHd body of pudding
with plums in the form of excellent treatises disposed
here and there. Now we entirely fail to perceive any
convenience in this mode of construction. That it is
not very suitable for the purpose of simple reference
seems to be proved by the need of a full index to the
whole of the volumes. Nor, if a person wishes to use one
of the articles for careful continuous study in the manner
of a text-book, is it convenient to have it embedded in a
very heavy quarto volume, one of a large and costly series.
Many valuable and highly useful treatises are in fact
buried in this " Encyclopaedia," and are hardly available
for purposes of general reading. That this is so has
been confessed by the separate publication of some of the
principal treatises in former editions ; those, for instance,
by Sir John Herschel on " Physical Geography," and on
" Meteorology."

Cyclopaedias have varied in form from the purely
alphabetical ones, best represented j.now in " Chambers'
Cyclopaedia," which approximates to the character of a
dictionary, to " Lardner's Cyclopasdia," in which each
subject was treated in a distinct and handy volume.
Coleridge tried to combine the two principles in the
*' Encyclopaedia Metropolitana," in which all sciences and
branches of knowledge were to be expounded in a series
of elaborate treatises, arranged according to logical
method, while an alphabetical dictionary of reference

^^z.'-. 19, 1875J

NATURE

309

was added as a complement. The treatises contributed
to this work by Herschel, Airy, De Morgan, Peacock,
Whately, Senior, and others, are some of the most pro-
found works in English scientific literature, and maintain
their scientific value after the lapse of forty years or
more. It was the weight of these too- valuable treatises
which damned the commercial success of the whole
scheme.

The "Encyclopaedia Britannica " has effected a com-
promise between the systematic and alphabetic methods
in another way, altogether inferior in a logical point of
view, but far more successful as actually carried into
effect. In this volume we have forty-four important
articles, almost every one of which is written by a master
of the subject, if not in every case by its most eminent
representative. The longest of these except one is that
on Astronomy, by Mr. R. A. Proctor. It occupies eighty
quarto pages, in addition to four large plates of en-
gravings, and might be easily made to fill a good-sized
octavo volume of 400 or 500 pages. This article is on the
whole a satisfactory compendium of the science, but it is
matter of regret that Mr. Proctor cannot avoid exhibi-
tions of bad taste. He has no right to insinuate in the
second column of p. 786 that two of the joint authors of
an important scientific paper are the assistants of the one
first named. The accuracy of some of Mr. Proctor's
statements as to the history of recent discoveries in solar
astronomy would have to be seriously called in question
were it possible in an article of this kind to enter upon a
subject involving many details.

One of the most profound and at the same time
interesting articles is that of Dr. E. B. Tylor on Anthro-
pology, occupying about sixteen pages. As we should
expect from the principal founder of the new science, it
contains a luminous abstract of the evidence concerning
the antiquity, descent, and development of the human
race, mainly brought to notice since the last edition of
the " Encyclopaedia " was published. Taken in connec-
tion with Prof. Daniel Wilson's article on Prehistoric
Archaology, and Prof. St. George Mivart's elaborate
account of the Ape Family, filling twenty- one pages, we
have in this single volume of the work a full supply of
information relating to the origin and affinities of the
human species. It is curious to compare the views dis-
cussed in these articles with those propounded in earlier
editions of the " Encyclopaedia " under the title " Crea-
tion."

Probably the longest article in the volume is that, the
joint production of Prof. T. Hayter Lewis and Mr. G. V..
Street, upon Architecture, which, taken together with a
very useful glossary of architectural terms, extends over
ninety-four pages. If reprinted in a separate volume it
would form a convenient and much-needed text-book of
the science. As treated by Mr. Ferguson, the history of
architecture forms in fact one of the most instructive
branches of the new science of Sociology, and no subject
of study is better calculated to produce "^correct views of
the origin and development of civilisation. We are
unable to understand why the work of Mr. P'erguson is
referred to in the Bibhography of the subject (p. 457) only
under the head of Chinese Architecture.

It will be a matter of regret to many that Professor
Huxley's article on the Classification oj the Animal

Kingdom is restricted to six pages, but it is surprising
how many profound remarks he has managed to com-
press into this narrow compass. The article, however, is
only suited for the reading of experts. The article, again
on the word Aryan, by Prof. Max. Miiller, is another one
of which the brevity must be lamented, unless it be sup-
plemented by other articles on closely allied topics, to
which there is no reference.

In spite of the fulness and excellent quality of some of
the articles relating to physical or natural science, we
entertain some fear that the weakest side of the " Ency-
clopaedia" will lie in this direction. The method of
arrangement prevents us from speaking with confidence,
because it is impossible to say how far subjects which are
weakly treated or altogether omitted in their alphabetical
place, will be introduced into later systematic articles.
There are indications, however, that Prof. Spencer Baynes
is not as ably supported in chemical, mathematical, or
general physical subjects as he should be. The brief
account of Antimony, for instance, is a very perfunctory
production, and, if the other elements are to be treated in
like manner, we should prefer to find them omitted alto-
gether. If Mr. Baynes can spare barely more than one
column for an element of considerable importance, he
need not have told us that the paint said in the Holy
Scriptures to have been used by Jezebel was made of
stibnite containing antimony. Nor need a sentence have
been wasted in repeating a tradition to the effect that the
metal was called antimony because a preparation of it
proved fatal to monks (hence antimonachos), a tradition,
it is added, which will hardly bear investigation. If so,
why give the tradition when there is so much else of
importance omitted.

The article on Assaying, though not positively bad, is
not up to the proper mark, and is not sufficiently precise
to be of any technical value. The subject should either
have been omitted or more developed, and placed in the
hands of Mr. Chandler Roberts, the chemist and assayer
of the Royal Mint, who would have been in every way the
most fit writer to treat it.

We hope that the column given to A?ithracite is not a
specimen of the way in which so important a subject as
Coal is to be dismissed. Yet it contains no reference to
Coal, Fuel, or other articles on related topics. Moreover,
we are unable to comprehend why, if there is to be a
satisfactory systematic article on Coal, as surely there
must be, this brief separate account of anthracite should
be given. As the article remarks, " No sharply defined
line of demarcation can be drawn between anthracite and
the bituminous varieties of coal, as the one series merges
by imperceptible degrees into the other." If so, why
allow the mere name to give rise to a separate article,
when the alphabetic system is not observed in other
cases ?

Every now and then the mixture of systems gives rise
to a waste of space by useless repetitions. Thus, under
Asteroids, we find an article of seventeen lines, ending
with a reference to p. 806 in the article on Astronomy.
Turning to this page, we find a pretty full account of the
asteroids, filling four columns, and containing a complete
and useful table 01 the whole of the minor planets,
which were 143 in number when the table was drawn up,
although two or three new additions have since been

3IO

NATURE

[Aug. 19, 1875

made. It is obvious that a mere reference under

tlie name Asteroid would have been sufficient. The
editor avoids the introduction of the copious references
which are to be found in the " Penny Cyclopsedia," " Rees'
Cyclopaedia," and many other ones, but he does not do
this consistently and completely. In other cases subjects
of considerable importance are treated with the brevity
of a dictionary, and yet no references are added. Take,
for instance, the account of the word Anodyne given in
seven Hnes, and containing merely the meaning and ety-
mology of the name, and a list of six substances used a»
anodynes. There is no reference to anaesthetics or any
other article where the subject might be fully studied.

Perhaps the worst article allowed to stand in this
volume is that under the word Angle, which tells us in
twenty-seven lines, and by aid of a figure, what an angle
is, what a right angle is, hcfw the whole circumference is
divided into 360°, and so on, concluding by a reference to
geometry and trigonometry. Such a puerile description
of the word would not be tolerated in " Chambers' Infor-
mation for the People " or Cassell's Popular Educational
works. There is only a single sentence in this article
which could in all probability give new information to
any person likely to consult such a work as the " Ency-
clopasdia Britannica."

It is not our duty, of course, to form any judgment upon
the larger part of this volume, which treats of literary or
artistic subjects. The many articles treating of classical,
biographical, geographical, and other information are pro-
bably on the whole superior to the parts devoted to physical
and mathematical science. The scarcest and perhaps
the weakest articles altogether are those on mathematical
topics. There are, indeed, in this volume only two
articles of any length whidi can be called mathematical.
That on Annuities is a fair one, especially as supple-
mented by other articles to which reference is made.
That upon Arithmetic, however, is a very dry, perfunctory
production, chiefly consisting of a mere compendium of
the ordinary rules. We do not recognise the name of the
author by his initials, and the name is not made public
in the list of principal contributors. It is obvious that
the " Encyclopsedia Britannica " will not compare in the
mathematical •department with the " Penny " or the
" English " Cyclopaedias, which contain a splendid series
of articles by De Morgan of permanent interest and
value. While, therefore, we can entertain no doubt that,
taken as a whole, the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," as
now republishing, is excellently edited, we think that Prof.
Baynes is inclined to sacrifice in some degree the less
for the more popular branches of knowledge.

We are driven to this conclusion when we compare the
number and length of the articles given to the more
severe scientific subjects with those upon more popular
topics, such as Architecture and Archceology. The
treatise on ^rw7,^again, taken in connection with that
upon Arms and Armour, takes up a very large amount
of space. No doubt it is requisite that War, which occu-
pies unfortunately so large a part of the attention of
Europe at the present time, should be fairly noticed in an
" Encyclopsedia " intended for the use of all. It is a
matter of opinion and a question of degree and of propor-
tion in which it is hopeless for Prof. Baynes to please all
parties. But it; may be well to remind Prof. Baynes that

the more popular articles are those which will soon lose
their value. Such an article as that on Army rapidly
becomes antiquated by the progress of political and
social changes and of mechanical invention, whereas good
mathematical essays like those of De Morgan or Peacock
retain their value for hundreds of years. Almost the only
volume of " Lardner's Cyclopaedia " now sought after is
that by De Morgan on the Doctrine of Probabilities.

Although the " Encyclopaedia Britannica " seems a
very costly work to purchase, it must really be considered,
in proportion to its contents, very cheap. We find that
this second volume contains at least 1,100,000 words, in
addition to thirty large and expensive engraved plates.
Now, the same quantity of matter purchased in the form
of detached treatises would probably cost from two to
four times as much. It is true that when we select our
own library we generally purchase works which we intend
to read more or less completely, whereas the persons who
would read an encyclopaedia through would be truly
exceptional characters, though we have heard it reported
that such persons do exist. A cyclopaedia is published
on the principle which auctioneers seem to adopt in
selling books, of "mixing up what a purchaser does not
want with what he does want ; so that he has to buy all
the more. Those, however who do want a library selected
for them cannot do better than confide in the work of
Prof. Baynes and his predecessors.

OUR BOOK SHELF

Annual Record of Science and Industry for 1 874. Edited

by S. F. Baird. (New York : Harper and Brothers,

1875.)
The Year-book of Facts in Science and the Arts for 1874.
. Edited by C. W. Vincent, Assistant in the Library of

the Royal Institution of Great Britain. (London :

Ward, Lock, and Tyler, 1875.)

The American " Annual Record of Science," is a work
that each year grows in interest and value. It now con-
sists of two distinctive parts (i), an historical summary of
the progress of various branches of science and industry
during the past year ; and (2), classified groups of para*
graphs, giving a succinct report of noteworthy occur-
rences or special scientific investigations. At the end of
the volume is a catalogue of scientific books published
during the year, and also a capital index to the whole
work. The summary of progress has grown from sixteen
pages in 1871, when this Annual first appeared, to 200
pages in the present volume. Each department of science
is separately treated, and in the preparation of the dif-
ferent parts the editor has had the co-operation of nu-
merous eminent men of science. Evidently no pains
have been spared to make the Record as complete as
possible, and so far as we are competent to judge, it is as
accurate as it is comprehensive.

In his modest preface to the volume, the editor tells us
he has been urged by some to make the abstract of papers
more detailed ; we think, however, Mr. Baird has exer-
cised a wise discretion in his present arrangement, and at
the same time we are glad to learn that he intends pub-
lishing a series of annual reports on special branches of
science similar to what already exists, to some extent, in
Germany. In England we have nothing corresponding
either to the general record of science or to the special re-
ports, and the want of such works is increasingly felt. We
hope that before long some one of our leading publishers will
see their way to issuing a really good digest of the annual
progress of natural knowledge in all its various branches.

Aug. 19, 1875

NATURE

311

Why could not the record before us be published in
England as well as in America? This seems a very
feasible plan, and would doubtless add to the usefulness
of the work, inasmuch as English coUaborateurs might
be added.

Very different from the American annual is the English
year-book, yet it is, we believe, the only "year-book of
science " of which we can boast. Outside it resembles a
shilling railway novel ; inside it is a pleasant gossipping
account of odds and ends of science picked up at the
Royal Institution. An altogether disproportionate amount
of space is devoted to extracts from the papers and
addresses of Prof. Tyndall, and the woodcuts on the
title-page are taken from the same source. We are
glad, however, that the " Year-book of Facts " still
remains, notwithstanding the death of its former inde-
fatigable compiler. Mr. Vincent tells us he undertook at
short notice to continue the work of the late Mr. Timbs.
To compile a year-book under such circumstances can
be no light duty, and hence we must be lenient to
its shortcomings. So far as the book goes, Mr. Vincent
has done his work well, and gives a bill of fare that no
doubt will be relished by the dilettante scientific public.
But it should be clearly understood that the volume is
merely a scrap-book of popular science, and not in any
sense an annual register, such as we hope may soon be
issued.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[ The Editor does not hold himself resfonsille for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return,
or to correspond ivith the "writers of, rejected manuscripts.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications. "[

Systems of Consanguinity

In Sir John Lubbock's vindication of his original charge that
I seem to have two theories of the facts in my work on Consan-
guinity (Nature, vol. xii. p. 124), he fails to show that the
classificatory system was interpreted by me as "arbitrary, ani-
ficial, and intentional." This is one of ihe theories, and in fact
the principal one, which he ascribes to me, and which I repu-
diate. The other theory, that which I did advocate, is presented
both in his address before the Anthropological Institute and in
this vindication (stated partially and imperfectly), as something
that I "admit." " Mr. Morgan admits that systems of relation-
ship have undergone a gradual development, following that of
the social system." (Address, p. 4, Nature, vol. xii. p. 125.)

It would require too free a use of your columns to explain at
length how, by quotations severed from their connectionF, and
])y a use of their phraseology not in accordance with my design,
a defence of an unwarranted statement has been put together.

I beg leave to re-state the propositions in my work on Consan.
guinity, which contain the substance of the views I have advo-
cated, and to which I stand committed ; and to request those
who may be interested in the subject to read the last chapter in
the light of these statements.

In that chapter, entitled "General Results," the facts are dis-
cussed under seven propositions, in substance the following : —

Proposition I. That the systems of consanguinity given in the
tables may be resolved into two, which are radically distinct,
one of which is called descriptive and tlie other classificatory.
The first is that of the Aryan, Semitic and Uralian families, and
the second that of the Malayan, Turanian, and Ganowanian
families.

Proposition II. That these systems are to be ranked as
domestic institutions.

Proposition III. (in full). " Can the origin of the descriptive
system be accounted for and explained, from the nature of
descents and upon the principle of natural suggestion, on the
assumption of the antecedent existence of marriage between
single pairs?" (Con. p. 472.)

The affirmative of this proposition is maintained. "It is the
institution of marriage between single pairs which teaches the
descriptive system ; whilst this form of marriage has been taught
by nature through the slow growth of the experience of the ages."
(Con. p. 469.)

Propoiition IV. (in full). " Can the origin of the classificatory

system be accounted for and explained, from the nature of
descents, upon the assumption of the existence of a series of
customs and institutions antecedent to a state of marriage be-
tween single pairs, of which the Hawaiian custom is one?"
(lb. p. 474.)

The affirmative of this proposition is likewise maintained.
Under it the solution of the origin of the Malayan system is
given, and also of the Turanian, together with the customs and
institutions, fifteen in number, arranged in a sequence, which
stand connected with the birth and growth of these systems.
Assuming, for example, the intermarriage of brothers and sisters
in a group, every relationship in the Malayan system is found to
be that which would actually exist ; wherefore, the system itself
proves the antecedent existence of this form of marriage. The
same line of argument and of inference is then applied to the
Turanian system. In Propositions III. and IV. I speak of both
forms as natural in contradistinction to artificial, although they
are radically different. They are natural in the sense that they
are in accordance with descents as they actually existed when
each system respectively was formed. This is the main proposi-
tion in that chapter, occupying in its discussion nineteen of its
forty -three pages. It presents the theory of the author ; it is the
only place where the origin of the classificatory system is dis-
cussed.

Proposition V. This proposition maintains the unity of origin
of such tribes of the American aborigines as are found to possess
an identical system of consanguinity.

Proposition VI. (in full). " Where two or more families, con-
stituted independently on the basis of such a system of relation-
ship, are found in disconnected areas or upon different continents,
can their genealogical connection be legitimately inferred from
their joint possession of the same system ? " (lb. p. 498.)

Afier showing that the people of South India who speak the
Tamil, Telugu, and Canarese dialects have a system of consan-
guinity identical with that of the Seneca-Iroquois of New York,
in upwards of 200 relationships, the question is raised, " How
shall this identity be explained ? " It was my discussion of this
question that confounded my distinguished adversary, which he
misunderstood at first, and is not sure that he "quite compre-
hends even now." How his difficulty could have arisen I confess
puzzles me. Under Proposition III. the origin of the descriptive
system had been discussed, and under Proposition IV. that of
the classificatory ; but under this (VI. ) the question was whether
any evidence of the Asiatic origin of the Ganowanian family
could be found in this identity of systems. The four hypotheses
quoted by him (vol. xii. p. 124) are produced and discussed here.
" Spontaneous growth " was referred to and of course rejected as
an adequate explanation of this identity of systems.

Proposition VII. relates to inferences that may be drawn
from partial identity of systems.

These several propositions show very plainly, I submit, that
these systems are not explained in that volume as "arbitrary,
artificial, and intentional," and equally plainly that they aie
explained as growths or results of certain customs and institu-
tions.

Turning now to Sir John Lubbock's vindication, his first
principal quotation is taken from the discussion of my first pro-
position, where " natural and spontaneous " is used in opposition
to resulting growths from customs and institutions, the cause
being unknown in the first case, and known in the second. His
second quotation is from the discussion of my sixth proposition,
where " spontaneous growth" is used, and in the same sense.

The discussion of the mass of materials accumulated in that
volume was confined to forty-three out of five hundred and
eighty-three pages. It was a new subject, in which it was
necessary to invent, to some extent, a new terminology. I am
aware of its great defects, but I deny that two theories of the
facts are to be found therein, or that I have explained the classi-
ficatory system as "arbitrary, artificial, and intentional," which
is the point from which this discussion started.

Rochester, New York, July 20 Lewis H. Morgan

Weather on the Atlantic
I HAVE reluctantly come to the conclusion that attempts to
forecast the weather on the North Atlantic frequently result in
disappointment. A recent passage from New York to this
country has enabled me to gather some remarkable data on this
subject, so remarkable, indeed, that any one crossing for the first
time might reasonably question the action of the barometer. If
I had had only ore on board, I should certainly have doubted its

312

NA. rURE

{Aug. 19, 1875

accuracy, but having three, ihe rtadiugs of ihem cannot be ques-
tioned by the most sceptical.

We left Sandy Hook on the forenoon of April 10, with a light
north-west wind and pleasant weather. Temperature of the air
46, barometer 29-82. From that date to the i6th the ship
steamed 2,210 miles, and the mercury, with the exception of a
slight fluctuation which never exceeded ^f^ of an inch, fell
steadily until it reached 29-14 on the latter day. Throughout
this period the wind veered and backed between N.N. W. and
E.N. E., never exceeding in force a whole sail breeze, and fre-
quently light or calm for hours together. The sky was generally
overcast until the meridian of 32° W. was passed ; light rain
fell once, but no snow or sleet. Temperature of the air ranging
between 34° and 57°.

Until the .ship was to the eastward of Cape Race (passing 300
miles south of it), as no gale blew I expected a heavy fall of
snow ; but as it did not come, I assumed that the snow-covered
ice on the Grand Bank of Newfoundland caused this unusual
depression of the mercury. Great was my surprise, therefore,
to see it falling lower as the distance increased from the supposed
cause of the depression, while the wind gradually died away, the
clouds opened out and assumed softer forms, the horizon cleared,
and the long northerly swell subsided. The latter is always a
sign of fair weather on this troubled sea. If a storm be advan-
cing towards a ship, the swell usually comes before the wind, so
quickly is the motion of the water translated.

While on the subject of waves, I may state that I have been
investigating the cause of the greater height of the waves raised
by a north-west wind above those raised by a south wind. The
observations were made while crossing several offshoots of the
Gulf Stream, and I found that in every instance the sea was
smoother in the warm water than in the cold. If this view be
correct, then the waves in tropical seas should be inferior in
height to those of the temperate zone. The question is, Are
they so?

Snow has an extraordinary effect on the barometer, but its
action is most mysterious, as in this case the ship was several
hundred miles from any locality where snow could have fallen.

In March 1872 I witnessed a similar instance of great depres-
sion in the barometer, with no wind and a clear sky. On reach-
ing the land it was found to be covered with snow. In that
instance there was scarcely a cloud visible during the last 400
miles, and not a single flake fell on the ship. I believe the
remarks of an old seaman on the weather of the Atlantic are
very true, viz., "The longer one sails on it the less one knows
about it."

The presence of heavy field-ice in the month of April, so far
south as 4i°4o'N., only fifty miles north of the latitude of
Naples, has excited considerable astonishment amongst Atlantic
navigators, since many steamers were entangled in it as early as
the 24th of January.

The Admiralty Chart of 1873 indicates March as the first
month of its arrival, and further gives lat. 42° 13' N. as the
extreme southern limit of its existence, whereas it has already
been met with twenty-seven miles south of that parallel, forming
a dangerous barrier to ships on the great highway to America :
and the commanders of those vessels, relying implicitly on the
correctness of a survey which should be above suspicion, have
seriously injured their vessels, thereby jeopardising many lives
and valuable property in a locality where every feature of it
should be as well known as the waters of the Serpentine or
the Thames above bridge. It is, moreover, notorious that this
is not the only defect in the chart of 1873. The northern limit
of the Gulf Stream is laid down from 100 to 150 miles south of
its true position ; and the existence of another important current
(the Labrador), which plays no mean part in the economy of
the globe, is entirely ignored, although its line of demarcation
from the adjacent waters is as well defined as that of its great
neighbour.

It is stated by the old residents of Canada that such a severe
winter as this has not occurred in the Dominion for forty years.
During the months of January and February at Montreal the
wind only blew from the south for six hours. Not only was the
thermometer low, but the northerly gales were incessant, render-
ing outdoor exercise almost an impossibility. These storms
broke the ice of Newfoundland and Labrador from its moorings
before the summer sun could soften it, and hence the reason of
its floating down south. Being almost as hard as granite, and
with the sea water at 30°, it will not readily decompose.

The recent severe wmter must affect the fortunes of the polar
ejcpedition for good or for evil. Channels into which ice has

drifted will become inaccessible until late in the season, but, on
the other hand, the pack-ice will be less inconvenient from its
solidity and compactness. It is not probable that many large
bergs will reach the Atlantic this season.

Cdlic W. W. Kiddle, R.N.

The late W. J. Henwood, F.R.S.

Mr. G. T, Bettany is no doubt very nearly, if not quite,
correct in saying of Mr. Henwood (Nature, vol. xii. p. 293),
" I believe that scarcely one of his cherished objects in this
respect [the arrangement of his stores of facts and observations]
remains unfulfilled."

In a letter to me, dated July 31, 1875, Mr. Henwood re-
marked : " I believe all I have done since [I wrote you last] has
been to make some preliminary calculations regarding the correc-
tions for temperature of the results of my observations on mag-
netic intensity, made on the surface and near the bottom of
Dolcoath Mine in 1832. I think they hold out promise of some-
thing if I have only strength to put them in order." On the
fifth day after writing this* he died. M. Y.

Zoology of the "Erebus" and "Terror"
Palmani qui meruit ferat. Referring to the article on this
subject (Nature, vol. xii. p. 289), allow us, as the publishers
of the botanical portion, to say that the indefatigable labours of
Dr. Hooker, aided by the Government grant, resulted in six
vols. 4to. ; not two, as stated by the reviewer. This was pub-
lished in three divisions, viz. : i. Flora Antarctica, 2 vols. ; 2.
Flora Nov£e Zealandse, 2 vols. ; 3. Flora Tasmaniii;, 2 vols. ;
the whole comprising nearly 600 coloured plates.

L. Reeve and Co.
5, Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, Aug. 14

The Rocks at Ilfracombe

Could any of your readers state in your columns the nature
of a curious appearance in the rock near Ilfracombe (North
Devon), on the way to Coombe Martin, just where the road
begins to descend to the latter place ? Here on the right-hand
side the bank is considerably excavated, and through the scaly
and friable strata, whose cut surface is perpendicular to the road,
rock of a harder kind seems to have been pushed, presenting a
rounded surface, which gives the appearance of trees laid in the
bank and partly uncovered ; indeed, I first heard of them as
" petrified trees," and from the road they look very much like
the trunks of silver birches. Our Ilfracombe driver told me that
a great many people came to look at them, some saying they
were trees, others that they were not.

There are several of them, and various lengths are visible, from
about a yard to twenty feet, I should think.

William S. Tuke

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN
Binary Stars.— (i) 77 Cassiope^. — Dr. Duner, of the
Observatory of Lund, Sweden, has calculated elements of
this binary from measures 1782-1874 ; the orbit is as
follows : —

Peri-astron passage, I748"4i3

Angle between the lines of nodes and apsides 245° -91 1 ATpv-ijion
Node . . . . 50 '83 > ^f ,e^^
■r Inclination . . 68 -46 j °^ '^^o
Angle of excentricity (= sin-' ^) 38 •812
Mean annual motion . . . . -}- 2 •04112

Semi- axis major io"'68i

Period of revolution . . . 176*374 years.
The comparison with measures used by Dr. Duner in his
calculation shows very small residual errors, but the
elements here transferred from Leverrier's " Bulletin
International" of the 12th inst., though representing the
angles of Struve, Dawes, Jacobs, and Dembowski, with
small negative errors give the distances measured since
1827, very sensibly in defect of the observations. Thus
for Dembowski's measures we have —
1863-26 Error in position - o°'72 Error in distance — o"-69
1867-16 ,, ,, - o -71 ,, „ -o -63

1871-05 ,, ,, - o -18 ,, ,, -o -46

For a normal founded upon measures by Jacobs,
Dawes, and Dembowski, for 1854*20, the error in position

'ng, 19, 1875J

NATURE

313

is, - 2°*4, and in distance, - o""]\. The elements above are
perhaps affected by error of copy, but as they stand they
will admit of some improvement.

With Dr, Duner's semi-axis and period, and Mr. Otto
Struve's first approximation to the annual parallax, the
mass of this system would be upwards of ten times the
solar mass.

It will be remarked that the angles in the above orbit
arc expressed by Dr. Duner in decimals of degrees, and
we may take this opportunity of directing attention to a
very useful table of five-figure logarithms adapted to deci-
mals of the degree pubHshed at Berlin in 1872 by Dr. C.
Bremiker, which will be found available not only in
double-star computations, but very generally for five-
figure work. The figures closely resemble those in De
Morgan's well-known tables (which are now apparently
out of print), and consequently are exceedingly clear and
readable, and the price nominal (one shilling). Several
miscellaneous tables and various useful constants are
appended. The work will be sent over in paper cover,
and in binding this or any other set of tables for frequent
use, we would recommend the strong gilding of all the
edges as materially facilitating their working. When
shall we have a table oi four-figure logarithms to the
same extent as tables for five figures are usually printed ?
Such a work would be by no means without its value.

(2) y Leonis.— Dr. Doberck, of Col, Cooper's Obser-
vatory, Markree, has calculated elements for this star,
though the arc described is at present less than 30°,
under which condition orbits widely different may be
obtained. Peri-astron passage, i74i'ii ; period of revo-
lution, 402'6 years; node, 111° 50'; X, 194° 22'; y,
43° 49' ; excentricity, 07390 ; semi-axis major, 2"'oo.

There are several of the revolving double-stars of which
much better orbits than have yet been published might
now be found ; as, for instance, w Leonis and a Ophiuchi.
Of the fairly determined orbits, the shortest period
appears to be that of 42 Comae Beren — 25*5 years,
according to Mr. Otto Struve ; and the longest that of
Castor, 997 years, according to the very complete inves-
tigation of Herr Thiele.

The Minor Planets.— M. Leverrier, in his "Bulletin
International" of the 8th inst., announces the discovery of
No. 148 at Paris, by M. Prosper Henry, on the same
morning. The planet is of 107 mag., and was found a
little west of 70 Aquarii. — Circular No. 31 of the " Berliner
Jahrbuch" contains new elements of Lachesis (120) ; the
period of revolution at the next opposition in November
is 2,028 days. In No. 30 appeared new, though still
uncertain, elements of Austria (136) ; period 1,261 days.

The August Meteors.— The extensive systematic
plan of observation at the principal meteor epochs which
has been for some time organised by the Scientific Asso-
ciation of France, at the instance of M. Leverrier, has
again been attended with success, on the occasion of the
Perseid shower. At Rouen on August 9, between iih.
and I5h., 200 meteors were noted, of which 180 came
from the Perseus-radiant ; at Rochefort, on the same
night, 258 meteors were observed, nearly the whole con-
formable ; and on the nth, at the same place, 260, many
with the same radiant. — About August 5th, in the neigh-
bourhood of London, an unusual number of meteors,
more than one as bright as stars of the first magnitude,
diverged from Omicron in Andromeda.

Prof. Oppolzer's definitive elements of Comet 1862
(III.), with which the August meteor-stream is associated,
are here subjoined : —

rerihelion passage, 1862, August 22-91192 G.M.T.

Longitude of perihelion ... 344° 4j' 32" j m. Eq. 1862-0

Ascending node ...
Inclination to ecliptic

Eccentricity

Semi-axis major

Period of revolution

137 27 10
66 25 48,
0*9607588

24'53i42
121*502 years.

The point of nearest approach to the earth's orbit at
i the descending node is passed I9"357 days after peri-
j helion ; if in 1862 the comet had arrived af perihehon
I July 21-557, a little before noon on the loth of August, it
would have been distant from the earth less than twice
the distance of the moon. It might not be without inte-
rest to determine the effect of so close an approach to our
globe, upon the orbit of the comet ; but in such an
unusual computation it appears almost necessary that
earth and moon should be treated as distinct disturbing
agents ; perhaps the ordinary methods might apply, if the
intervals were taken sufficiently short and the elements
changed with sufficient frequency.

THE SEPARATION OF THE ARAL AND THE
CASPIAN

T N a note on the Hyrcanian Sea (vide Nature, vol. xii.,
•*• p. 51), it was stated that the waters of Aral, whose
surface is now about 159 feet above sea level, formerly over-
flowed at their S.W. corner, when the lake possessed a
depth of 50 feet more than at present. It is certain
that the spur of Ust Urt, which formed a waste weir at
the point in question, has been lowered by the action of
escaping water ; and the level at which the overflow took
place, in the first instance, was probably some few feet
higher than the figure of 209 which has been given. The
greatest height ever reached by the water contained in
the basin of Lake Aral may therefore be said with toler-
able accuracy to be about 220 feet above the sea.

On the N.W^., near the head of the Tchagan stream,
where Aral must have overflowed to flood the country
round the limits of Ust Urt, the barometrical height of a
point situated in latitude 47° 7' 27", and longitude (east
from Greenwich) 58° 17' 41", is 257 feet (<?). This height
approximates sufficiently to that which has been indicated
for the overflow at S.W., to suggest that future levelling
operations will find a point somewhere in this neighbour-
hood situated at less than 220 feet above the sea. There is,
in addition, in latitude 43° 1 5', a cleft in the eastern cliff of
Ust Urt, by which, and probably by other similar clefts
yet to be discovered, the waters of Lake Aral may have
overflowed to the west ; and in such a case they would,
as they travelled down to the lower level of the Caspian
Sea, have submerged many extensive, depressed tracts,
which occur on the surface of the intervening country.
The separation of the two seas, which has afforded
subject for much discussion, seems thus actually to have
been due to the cessation of the overflow of the basin
upon the higher level. Nor is, perhaps, that separation
so entirely complete as has generally been thought, for
Lake Aral could possibly be filled and made to overflow
again ; and under such restored conditions, the physical
aspects of the country lying between the two seas v/ould
very nearly resemble those which are possessed at the
present time by the country on the lower courses of the
Amu Darya, and are caused by the annual flooding from
that river. In such a drowned condition, the Aralo-
Caspian region was naturally included in the water-spread
of the Hyrcanian Sea by all the classical historians and
geographers who have described it ; and though, perhaps,
no possible overflow from Lake Aral could now exactly
reproduce the physical aspects of 2,000 years ago, such
difference as would be observable is susceptible of expla-
nation by considerations to be presently entered upon.

Since the accidental circumstance of more or less
water having existed in several depressions upon the surface
of the Aralo-Caspian region is the only known variation
which has attached to its physical aspects from the earliest
historical times, there is a strong presumption that no
phenomena of upheaval have occurred, and that over-

(d) These figures are taken from the Catalogue of Trigonometrical and
Astronomical points in the Russian Empire. Edited by the Director of the
Geodesical Department of the Military Topographical Staff.

3H

NATURE

\_Aug. 19, 1875

flow could still take place in a northerly direction also from
Lake Aral. Some sixteenth century maps show the river
Obi flowing out of the lake of Kitay, which is one of the
names of Aral ; and by such an overflow may be explained
that supposed irruption of Ocean into Asia which the
most ancient Greek and Latin authorities have recorded.
Nor would the demonstration of the possibility of this
overflow in any way affect the reputation either of Hero-
dotus or of Aristotle, who both maintained the isolation of
the Hyrcanian from the ocean ; for the overflow from Aral
might or might not have taken place during a series of
years, depending as it did upon the magnitudes of the
annual floods of the rivers which supplied it, at the epoch
when the winter broke up, on the highlands of Central
Asia.

It was estimated in the note on the Hyrcanian Sea that
when the Oxus discharged directly westwards, the water-
'spread of Lake Aral and the lands drowned by its over-
flow might have added about 70,000 square miles to the
nrea of 140,000 square miles, which is possessed by the
Caspian of to-day. If 30,000 square miles be added
1 csides, for the volume which Oxus, Ochus, and Arius
probably supplied, the total area of the Hyrcanian Sea
would liave been about 250,000 square miles, which would
have formed a waterspread almost reaching up to the

ridge which divides the Caspian from the Black Sea, i.e.
the level of the largest possible Hyrcanian Sea may have
been 89 feet above mean sea-level, in the lowest of the
two basins which formed it. The observations of Pallas
have, however, placed beyond doubt that the ancient
limits of the Caspian were situated at a much higher level
than this ; and since these limits, which are delineated in
a map illustrating his works, did not owe their existence
to the overflow from Aral, in conjunction with the volumes
of water delivered by the rivers of the Caspian basin,
they must have been formed by water flowing out of the
Euxine basin. And this latter could not consequently
have had at such a time a communication with the
Mediterranean Sea.

We know that at the present day a very much larger
volume than is required to compensate its surface evapo-
tion is contributed by the various rivers supplying the
Black Sea, and passes thence through the Bosphorus into
the Sea of Marmora. Before this escape existeo-, the level
of the Euxine would have been higher, and the surplus
waters would have overflowed to the east by the channel
of the Manytsch into the basin of the Caspian, whose
level would, in turn, have been raised. The united water-
spread of the two basins would have continued to rise,
until the surface evaporation equalled the supply of water

Gi'eat Ft'eshmiter MerlUerrtijtetin.B. C. I:,

MEAN S£A IFVFL% JSua^.ne. .

il

CaxpianiSTl'.

H\V.

it received ; or until it found an escape into a lower level,
and this latter circumstance was the one which almost
certainly occurred, and in a northern direction.

The part of the ancient shore of the Caspian, which
Pallas has delineated, and which is situated at a point
called Cholon Komyr, in latitude 45"" 30' 25", and longitude
(east from Greenwich) 44° 51' 34", has a height of 221 feet
above the sea {b). In other words, the great inland sea of
fresh water, which extended from the western shores of
the Black Sea to the eastern shore of Lake Aral, had its
surface precisely on the level at which, it has been stated,
there is a strong presumption that Lake Aral could over-
flow to the north and form a junction with the Frozen
Ocean by the drainage lines of the Tobol and of the Obi.
Under all the circumstances it is scarcely hazardous to
say that this presumption becomes all but a certainty ;
and that the height of the low ridge, which divides the
drainage on the north of Lake Aral, will eventually be
found to be 220 feet or less, at its lowest point, above
sea-level.

The actual original separation of the Aral and the
Caspian may thus be referred to the rupture of the Bos-
phorus, and to that consequent rush of waters from the
Euxine into the Mediterranean, which is known as the
Deluge of Deucalion. The immediate result of this cata-
clysm would have been a fall in the level of the Caspian
from 220 to 89 feet above the sea ; and though actually
isolated from Lake Aral, it would have appeared connected
will it by marshes, alimented by the overflow of the latter

(/') See note {n).

basin. Though the Caspian level still continued to fall,
from surface evaporation, the aqueous character of the
intervening bed of the drained-oif waters would thus have
been preserved for a long time, and such a condition
will explain the probable difference in physical aspect
which would distinguish the long since desiccated Aralo-
Caspian region if it were subjected once more to an
overflow of Lake Aral. The cessation of this overflow
would have, in the first instance, hastened the drying up
of the higher levels of the intervening country, and accen-
tuated to the Orientals upon the shores of the higher sea
that isolation of the two basins which the Europeans
upon those of the lower were not, and in fact could not
be, acquainted with until very long afterwards.

Herbert Wood

G UN- CO TTON WA TER-S HELLS

TN the published accounts of Field Artillery Experi-
*- ments which are just now being carried on at Oke-
hampton, in Devonshire, considerable prominence has
been given to the formidable nature of the so-called water
shells,with which practice has been carried on against rows
of targets, in the form of " dummy " soldiers, representing
columns of infantry, shrapnel shells and common shells,
filled with gunpowder, having been fired in comparisoii
with them.

The term wafer-shell denoits not a shell of special form
or construction, but simply a new system of bursting

Aug. 19, 1875]

NATURE

3^5

shells of ordinary construction, elaborated by Prof. Abel
nearly three years ago, by which the breaking up of cast
iron shells into a large number of fragments and their
dispersion with considerable violence is accomplished by
filling the shell with water instead of with an explosive
agent.

In a memoir communicated by Mr, Abel to the Royal
Society in 1873,* it was pointed out that detonation was
transmitted from a mass of dry compressed gun-cotton
to distinct masses of the material saturated with water
and separated from each other and from the detonat-
ing (or " initiative ") charge by small spaces filled with
water, the whole being enclosed in a case of stout
wrought iron ; and Mr. Abel stated that the sudden-
ness and completeness with which detonation was trans-
mitted through small water-spaces had suggested to him
the possibility of applying water as a vehicle for the
breaking up of cast iron shells into numerous and com-
paratively uniform fragments, through the agency of force
suddenly developed in the perfectly closed shell, com-
pletely filled with water, by the detonation of a small
quantity of gun-cotton or other similarly violent explosive
substance, immersed in the water, Mr. Abel considered
that if such a result were obtained, a shell or hollow pro-
jectile of the most simple construction could be made
readily to fulfil the functions of the comparatively com-
plicated shrapnel and segment shells which have been
specially designed to furnish a large number of dangerous
missiles when burst during their flight.

A few experiments with ordinary cast iron shells,
spherical and cylindro - conoidal, afforded conclusive
demonstration of the power possessed by water, in virtue
of its slight compressibility, to bring to bear uniformly in
all directions upon the walls of the shell, the force deve-
loped by an explosion which is made to occur suddenly
in the completely confined water-space, and showed,
moreover, that the disruptive effect was proportionate
not merely to the amount of explosive agent used,
but also to the suddenness of the concussion imparted
to the completely confined water by the explosion. In
illustration of the disruptive effect of water, the fol-
lowing results may be quoted from a number given by
Mr. Abel in his memoir. A i6-pounder (cylindro-co-
noidal) shell, filled with 16 ounces of gunpowder, was
broken by the explosion of this charge into 29 frag-
ments. The detonation of a quarter of an ounce of gun-
cotton confined in a shell of precisely the same construc-
tion and weight, the chamber being filled up with water
and tightly closed, burst the shell into 121 fragments,
which were violently dispersed. A corresponding charge
of gun-cotton, confined in a third similar shell, the
chamber being filled with air, did not burst the shell when
detonated ; the resulting gases found vent through a minute
perforation in the plug or screw-stopper of the shell. One
ounce of gun-cotton confined in a similar shell, filled up
with water, broke it up into 300 fragments, but in addition
there were 2 lb. i oz, of the shell almost pulverised by
the force of the explosion brought to bear upon the metal
through the agency of the confined water.

The manner in which Mr. Abel has applied this system
of bursting shells is very simple. The fuse which is used in
field-artillery service for bursting shrapnel-shells or the
common shell (when the latter is filled with gunpowder and
used as amine or an [incendiary projectile), has fitted to
it a small metal cylinder closed at one end, into which is
tightly packed from a quarter to one-half ounce of dry
comp«ssed gun-cotton. The open end of the cylinder is
closed with a screw plug containing a small chamber
filled with fulminate of mercury, the upper side of which
is in close contact with the fuse when the cylinder has
been attached to the latter. To employ common shells
as water-shells it is now only necessary to fill them com-

' Contributions to the History of Explosive Agents, Second Memoir, by
F. A. Abel, F.R.S.— Phil. Trans. 1874, p. 373.

pletely with water, and then to insert and screw down
firmly the fuse with its little detonating cylinder attached,
when the detonating charge is fired by the action of the
fuse, the shell is instantaneously burst into a large num-
ber of fragments by the concussion transmitted by the
water,

Mr. Abel's prediction that this plan of bursting shells
would be found most effective, is amply borne out by the
magnificent practice made by the field-guns at Oke-
hampton. Of the two batteries of Royal Artillery which
have carried on the experiments during the past week,
one has done more mischief with the " water-shells " than
with the delicately constructed shrapnel, with the nature
of which the gunners are intimately acquainted ; while
with the other battery of heavier field-guns the practice
made was but little inferior. A little better acquaintance
on the part of artillerymen with the new system of using
shells will, it is anticipated, still further increase the
deadly effect of these terrible weapons. Moreover, the
water-shell has hitherto only been used in conjunction
with a percussion fuse, while it is with the time-fuse that
the shrapnel-shell is found the most effective. With the
percussion-fuse the two shells are about on an equality,
while the water-shell has the advantage of greater sim-
plicity.

NOTES FROM THE ''CHALLENGER''

THE following extracts from a letter dated Yeddo,
June 9, 1875, addressed to me by Prof. Wyville
Thomson, will, I think, interest the readers of Nature : —

" In a note lately published in the proceedings of the
Royal Society on the nature of our soundings in the
Southern Sea, I stated that up to that time we had never
seen any trace of the pseudopodia of Globigerina. I
have now to tell a different tale, for we have seen them
very many times, and their condition and the entire
appearance and behaviour of the sarcode are, in a high
degree, characteristic and peculiar. When the living
Globigerina is examined under very favourable circum-
stances ; that is to say, when it can at once be transferred
from the tow-net and placed under a tolerably high
power in fresh, still sea-water, the sarcodic contents of
the chambers may be seen to exude gradually through
the pores of the shell and spread out until they form a
gelatinous fringe or border round the shell, filling up the
spaces among the roots of the spines and rising up a
little way along their length. This external coating of
sarcode is rendered very visible by the oil-globules, which
are oval and of considerable size, and filled with intensely
coloured secondary globules ; they are drawn along by
the sarcode, and may be observed, with a little care, fol-
lowing its spreading or contracting movements. At the
same time, an infinitely delicate sheath of sarcode con-
taining minute transparent granules, but no oil-globules,
rises on each of the spines to its extremity, and may be
seen creeping up one side and down the other of the
spine, with the peculiar flowing movement with which we
are so familiar in the pseudopodia of Gromia, and of
the Radiolarians. If the cell in which the Globigerina is
floating receive a sudden shock, or if a drop of some irri-
tating liquid be added to the water, the whole mass of
protoplasm retreats into the shell with great rapidity,
drawing the oil-globules along with it, and the outline of
the surface of the shell and of the hair-like spines is left
as sharp as before the exodus of the sarcode. We are
getting sketches carefully prepared of the details of this
process, and either Mr. Murray or I will shortly describe
it more in full. , . .

" Our soundings in the Atlantic certainly gave us the
impression that the siliceous bodies, including the spicules
of Sponges, the spicules and tests of Radiolarians, and the
Pustules of Diatoms which occur in appreciable propor-
tions in Globigerina ooze diminish in number, and that

3t6

NATURE

\Aug. 19, 1875

the more delicate of them dreappear, in the transition from
the calcareous ooze to the ' red clay ; ' and it is only by
this light of later observations that we are now aware that
this is by no means necessarily the case. On the 23rd of
March, 1875, in the Pacific, in lat. 11° 24' N., long.
143° 16' E., between the Carolines and the Ladrones, we
sounded in 4,574 fathoms. The bottom was what might
naturally have been marked on the chart ' red clay ; ' it
was a fine deposit, reddish brown in colour, and it con-
tained scarcely a trace of lime. It was different, how-
ever, from the ordinary ' red clay,' — more gritty — and the
lower part of the contents of the sounding tube seemed to
have been compacted into a somewhat coherent cake, as
if already a stage towards hardening into stone. When
placed under the microscope, it was found to contain so
large a proportion ofthetestsof Radiolarians, that Murray
proposes for it the name * Radiolarian ooze.' This obser-
vation led to the reconsideration of the deposits from the
deepest soundings, and Murray thinks that he has every
reason to believe (and in this I entirely agree with him)
that, shortly after the 'red clay' has assumed its most
characteristic form, by the removal of the calcareous
matter of the shells of the Foraminifera, at a depth of say
3,000 fathoms, the deposit begins gradually to alter again
by the increasing proportion of the tests of Radiolarians,
until, at such extreme depths as that of the sounding of
the 23rd of March, it has once more assumed the cha-
racter of an almost purely organic formation, the shells
of which it is mainly composed being however in this
case siliceous, while in the former they were calcareous.
The * Radiolarian ooze,' although consisting chiefly of the
tests of Radiolarians, contains, even in its present condi-
tion, a very considerable proportion of red clay. I
beheve that the explanation of this change, which was
suggested by Murray, and was indeed almost a necessary
sequence to his investigations, is the true one. We have
every reason to believe, from a series of observations, as
yet very incomplete, which have been made with the tow-
net at different depths, that Radiolarians exist at all
depths in the water of the ocean, while Foraminifera are
confined to a comparatively superficial belt. At the sur-
face and a little below it, the tow-net yields certain
species ; when sunk to greater depths, additional species
are constantly found, and, in the deposits at the bottom,
new forms occur, which are met with neither at the sur-
face nor at intermediate depths. It would seem also that
the species increase in number, and that the individuals
are of larger size as the depth becomes greater ; but many
more observations are required before this can be stated
with certainty. Now, if the belt of Foraminifera which,
by their decomposition, according to our view, yield the
' red clay,' be restricted and constant in thickness, and
if the Radiolaria live from the surface to the bottom, it is
clear that, if the depth be enormously increased, tbe accu-
mulation of the Radiolarian tests must gain upon that of
the ' red clay,' and finally swamp and mask it,"

Prof. Wyville Thomson further informs me that the
best efforts of the Challenger's staff have failed to dis-
cover Dathybius in a fresh state, and that it is seriously
suspected that the thing to which I gave that name is
little more than sulphate of lime, precipitated in a floccu-
lent state from the sea-water by the strong alcohol in
which the specimens of the deep-sea soundings which I
examined were preserved.

"The strange thing is, that this inorganic precipitated
is scarcely to be distinguished from precipitated albumen,
and it resembles, perhaps even more closely, the proli-
gerous pellicle on the surface of a putrescent infusion
(except in the absence of all moving particles), colouring
irregularly but very fully with carmine, running into
patches with defined edges, and in every way comporting
itself like an organic thing."

Prof. Thomson speaks very guardedly, and does not
consider the fate of Bathybius to be as yet absolutely de-

cided. But since I am mainly responsible for the mistake,
if it be one, of introducing this singular substance into the
list of Hving things, I think I shall err on the right side in
attaching even greater weight than he does to the view
which he suggests. T. H. Huxley

THE INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS AND
EXHIBITION OF' GEOGRAPHY

AT the distribution of prizes the Ordnance Survey
obtained a letter of distinction, although it was not
an exhibitor. It is the only instance in which such an
honour was awarded. M, Quatrefages, in the name of
the governing body of the society, awarded two excep-
tional prizes, one to MM. Payer and Weyprecht for the
discovery of Francis-Joseph Land, and the other to M.
Delaporte for the foundation of the Cambodian Museum
at Compiegne. Admiral la Ronci6re, Je Nourry closed
the meeting by a very impressive address reviewing the
characteristics of the Congress.

The success of the Exhibition is so great that it will be
kept open up to the 19th of September. The number of
visitors is greater than ever now that the Congress is
over, and many fresh attractions have been added to
several sections. M. Buys Ballot, the director of the
Utrecht Meteorological Institution, has sent a board used
by him for better indicating the direction of winds and
distribution of pressure. Small holes are perforated in a
map at the places occupied by the several stations. In
these holes are placed small needles whose height indi-
cates the barometrical height, and whose head is an arrow
showing the actual direction of the wind.

In the French annexe has been exhibited a drawing of
a machine for manufacturing relief maps out of a block
of plaster. The knife is movable by a kind of pantograph,
and can be conducted alongside the several lines of level
(lignes de niveau) of a map which is seen by reflection in
a plate of glass placed in a suitable position.

Peter the Great having been appointed a member of
the Academy of Paris in 1717, ordered a map of the Cas-
pian Sea to be drawn, which he sent to his fellow-members
of the Academy as a proof of his zeal for the progress of
science, and to justify the honour which had been con-
ferred upon him. This map was lodged in the archives
of the Academy, engraved and published in the volume
of 1 72 1, with a report written by Dellile the astronomer.
It happens that the same map is exhibited at the Russian
annexe, and the circumstances connected with it having
become generally known, it has given rise to the report
that the Grand Duke Constantine will be elected a mem-
ber of the Academy, like his ancestor and the Emperor
of Brazil. It is something more than an idle rumour.

A banquet was given by the Section of Commercial
Geography, and some resolutions were adopted l7iter
poculas. The most notable is in reference to the estab-
lishment of a/w^i/rt in the centre of the Sahara for the
use of all civiHsed nations. But although adopted unani-
mously, the motion is not likely to be carried into execu-
tion very speedily.

SCIENCE IN GERMANY
{From Germafi Correspondents.)
T T was the phenomenon of the motion of glaciers which
•^ caused most of the scientific men, that studied its
details, to make experiments on the behaviour of snow
and ice under pressure. The brothers Von Schlagintweit
and Prof. Tyndall were the first who made such expe-
riments with regard to glacial phenomena. Later on
Helmholtz described a series of investigations', which
proved amongst other things that snow is changed into
ice by high pressure, that ice broken into little pieces can
again be pressed into a homogeneous ice cylinder, that

.l7l^. 19, 1875J

NATURE

317

such a cylinder can be pressed through openings of
smaller diameter, &c. It was thus shown that under a
strong pressure ice can be formed into any desired
shape, that it behaves plastically even on a small scale,
in the same way as the gigantic ice-rivers of glaciers do
on a large one, adapting themselves to the narrower or
wider parts of the valleys through which they flow. The
phenomenon discovered by Faraday in the year 1850,
which was afterwards widely discussed, and which was
called regelation, formed the key for the explanation of
this behaviour. Not one, however, of the men of science
mentioned has tried to determine the exact pressure
under which ice changes its form ; all of them have
worked with very high pressure, which in fact is neces-
sary to obtain results that are visible in a short time.
Only Moscley has made several series of experiments,
to ascertain at what pressure or draught ice tears, is
crushed, or when its plasticity becomes perceptible, i.e. at
what pressure a dislocation of the ice-particles takes
place. He found, that to tear an ice-cylinder apart,
for each square inch of its base a weight of from 70 to
116 lbs. was necessary according to the higher or lower
temperature (representing a pressure of 5^ to 9 atmo-
spheres). To break an ice cylinder by pressure, ioi*8 lbs.
were necessary for each square inch ; and to cause a dis-
location of the ice-particles, from 97*89 lbs. to 118 lbs.
were required [y^ to 9 atmospheres).

Herr Pfaff, of Erlangen, has lately made a series of
experiments in order to obtain some more exact nume-
rical values for the degrees of pressure which change
the form of ice to any apparent extent ; it is particularly
interesting to know with reference to the glacier motion,
what is the minhmun of pressure at which ice still
remains plastic, i.e. yields to pressure. It was found
that even the smallest pressure was sufficient to dis-
locate ice-particles tf it acted continuously, and if the
temperature of the ice and its surroundings was near
the melting-point. At a pressure of two atmospheres ice
showed itself so yielding, that for instance a hollow iron
cylinder of irs mm. diameter and 17 mm. thickness of
side entered 3 mm. deep into the ice within two hours,
and at a temperature of between - 1° and +o"5°. The
following will show the influence of temperature. The
same iron cylinder under the same pressure entered
I '25 mm. deep into the ice in twelve hours at a tempera-
ture of between - 1° and - 4° ; while at a temperature
varying between - 6° and - 12° it only entered i mm.
deep in five days, at a pressure of five atmospheres, or
only o"i mm, in twelve hours. If the temperature of the
surroundings rises beyond the melting-point the ice be-
comes so soft that in one hour the same iron cylinder
under the same low pressure entered 3 cm. deep into the
ice, although it was completely surrounded by snow in
order to prevent the temperature of the cylinder itself
rising beyond 0°. In all these experiments a one-armed
lever was used to regulate the pressure ; it consisted of a
steel rod of 86 cm. length, which had a boring at its
end and was fastened to a steel plug round which it
could easily be turned. By this simple contrivance any
desired pressure could be maintained for any length of
time. These and other experiments (which were made with
a pressure of only I atmosphere) show that the plasticity
of ice at a temperature near its melting-point is very
great even at the lowest degrees of pressure. Herr Pfaff
is of opinion that at this temperature the plasticity of
the ice only becomes nil when the pressure itself is nil,
but that it decreases very quickly as the temperature gets
lower.

The opinion is still widely spread, based upon some
experiments of Tyndall, that ice is not in the least
flexible or ductile, although lately several observations
have been made which force us to ascribe some flexibility
to that substance. Kane observed, for instance, that a
large slab of ice resting with its edges on two other

blocks, bent itself under its own weight after a lapse of
several months. Herr Pfaff experimented with a paralklo-
piped of ice of 52 cm. length, 2*5 cm. breadth, and 1*3 cm.
thickness. It was placed with its two ends on wooden
supports, so that on each side 5 mm. were resting on
wood. From Feb. 8th to Feb. 15th, when the tempera-
ture remained between — 12° and — 3*5°, the middle
sunk very little, on the average 2 or 3 mm. in twenty-four
hours, so that on Feb. 15th the total bend amounted to
11-5 mm. Then the temperature rose but still remained
under 0° ; yet this rise caused a great increase in the
bending, as it reached the value of 9 mm. in twenty-four
hours (therefore 20*5 in all). Nowhere could any crack
or tear in the ice be seen ; the lower surface was examined
with particular care, and did not show the trace of a
crack !

Herr Pfaff has also succeeded in proving the expansion
of ice by draught. It appears therefore that near its
melting-point ice, like other bodies, yields to pressure and
to draught, and must be looked upon, particularly with
reference to the former, as an eminently plastic substance.
This behaviour of ice towards pressure at different tem-
peratures throws a new light upon the fact that the Telo-
city in the motion of glaciers increases with temperature.
As the glacier ice and the air over it possess a tempera-
ture, in the summer months at least, which lies very near
the freezing point, it is evident that a very small pressure
suffices to cause the glaciers to move. S. W.

At present a question is being discussed by morpho-
logists, which seriously affects in more than one direc-
tion some traditional maxims of experience which were
apparently confirmed long ago. It treats of the way and
means by which cells, the foundation-stones as it were of
the animal organism, are formed during the first process
of the development of the ovum, viz., during its continu-
ally progressing division. The views of Remak, KoUiker,
and others were generally adopted and often repeated
until lately, namely, that the ripe and fertilised ovum,
when it lost its former nucleus, the "germ bubble," received
a new one, and that the division of this new nucleus caused
that of the ovum itself ; the further divisions were repre-
sented by the simple idea of a division of cells. Although
Goette already, in the year 1870 (" Centralblatt fur die
medicinischen Wissenschaften," No. 38), and later,
Biitschli (" Beitriige zur Kenntniss der freilebenden Nema-
toden," in " Nova acta der Leop. Carol. Deutschen Aka-
demie der Naturforscher," 1873), and Fol ("Die erste
Entwickelung des Geryonidencies ; Jenaische Zeitschrift
fiir Medicin und Naturwissenschaft," 1873) had opposed
these views on the basis of new observations, yet general
attention was only obtained by Auerbach in his work,
" Organologische Studien " (1874), as the question at stake
was treated in a more detailed manner. Auerbach ex-
amined the same animals which Biitschli had observed,
viz., that order of Entozoa known as Nematoidea ; he
found that in their fertilised ovum, after the germ bubble
has disappeared, two new nuclei are formed at two oppo-
site poles of the ovum, which then approach each other
towards the middle of the ovum and unite into one; this,
however, soon disappears again, and a less sharply de-
fined clear substance takes its place ; this then extends
longitudinally and takes a star-shaped form at each end,
so that the two stars are connected by a thin stem. Now
the division of the ovum begins to take place through the
middle of that stem, while in each half of the same, by
the confluence of little bubbles, a nucleus forms, which
initiates the same phenomena for the further divisions
as those which precede and accompany the first one.
The result, therefore, would be as follows : — i. In the
division of the ova of Nematoidta the nuclei disappear
before each stage of the division, and form anew after
each stage. 2. This formation takes place through the
confluence of two or more bJbble-shaped or nucleus-like

3iB

NATURE

Aug. 19, 1875

new forms. 3. The disappearance of the nuclei is accom-
panied by a pecuhar star-shaped formation, which Auer-
bach deduces from the flowing apart of the nucleus
matter. Biitschli has lately published new observations
on the same subject (" Siebold's und KolUker's Zeitschrift
fiir wissenschaftliche Zoologie," 1875), from which it must
be specially pointed out that even the first nucleus of the
fertilished ovum of some Nematoidea, and of the fresh-
water mollusc, Limnaaus, results from the confluence of
several little bubbles. Flemming has found Auerbach's
observations confirmed with the fresh-water shell, Ano-
donta (" Archiv fiir mikroskopische Anatomie," band x.,
and " Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften
zu Wien III. Abtheilung," 1875"); he only differs so
far from Auerbach in the interpretation of what he saw,
that he does not deduce the " carpolytical figures " of the
latter from the nucleus matter which radiates from the
centre of the nucleus, but from a peculiar structure in the
surrounding yolk-protoplasm, which he considers to be in
connection with each division of the yolk and the new
formation of the nuclei. But he does not interpret the
process of this new formation. Flemming, in his second
paper, describes the observations on a radiated arrange-
ment of the yolk, which had previously been made occa-
sionally with several other animals, without the ob-
servers being able to explain these phenomena or trying
to investigate them further. We must, however, remark
here that Goette, in the work we mentioned in our
last report, has not only completely described the
intei'ior process of the division of the ovum of Rep-
tilia, but has also attempted a uniform explanation of
the same. According to his experience no nuclei at
all are formed for some time in the division parts of
the yolk, but only nuclei-shaped interior transformation
products of the yolk, which are only apparently separated
from their surroundings, but are in reality in continuous
connection with them. These interior formations origi-
nate as collecting points of a radiated and universal proto-
plasm current in the yolk, which in turn results from the
reciprocal action of the ovum and the surrounding medium.
The difference in the currents is said to cause (in a
manner described in detail) the division of these in-
terior formations, and, as a consequence, the division of
the surrounding yolk material. The radiated arrange-
ment of the latter round the brighter centres is only
imperfectly visible in Batracfna ; but Goette has ob-
served it in the ova of Ascidia, and interpreted it in the
way just described. The definite nuclei of embryo cells,
which result immediately from the division of the yolk,
Goette supposes to be formed within those centres from a
number of grains, which are at first greatly augmented, and
then finally unite completely. But these origins of the
nuclei do not disappear during the divisions of the yolk.
If now we compare all the observations mentioned, we
first of all find them all agreeing that the divisio7i 0/ the
yolk is no simple cell division, such as is elsewhere found in
the tissues of developed organisms ; for the remainder,
the observations do not agree. While Goette supposes a
gradual and continual progress of the formation of cells
beginning from the first division, the other observers in-
cline to the belief that at each division an interruption
and a consequent re-beginning of the formation of cells
takes place, as the once formed nuclei are said to disappear
continually and new ones are said to form.

NOTES
The U.S. Government have just shown in a handsome manner
their appreciation of the services rendered by Dr. Henry Draper
in connection with the U.S. observation of the recent Transit of
Venus, by presenting him with a gold medal made at the U.S.
Mint at Philadelphia. On the obverse is the motto, from Virgil,
"Famam extendere factis hoc virtutis opus est," and in the

centre a figure of the heliostat which was jused by Dr. Draper in
training the photographers. On the reverse is the inscription,
" Veneris in sole spectandae curatores, R. P. F. S. Henrico
Draper, M.D., Dec. viii. MDCCCLXXlv." The phrase around
the edge of the reverse, "Decori decus addit avito," conveys a
tribute of praise to the literary and scientific attainments of Dr.
Draper, sen. The Transit Commission have also sent Dr.
Draper a handsomely bound set of resolutions illuminated in
medieval style, with a telescope, camera, &c. We are sure all
scientific men v.'ill join in congratulating Dr. Draper on his
well-deserved honour, and at the same time the U.S. Govern-
ment on their, 'enlightenment in thus acknowledging the glory
which the triumphs of pure science have shed upon a nation ;
they have set a striking example to our own and other European
Governments.

The fifth session of the French Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, as we intimated in our last number, will be
opened to-day at Nantes. The principal attraction will be the
excursions ; one of them will last for more than three days, a
war-steamer having been placed at the service of the Associa-
tion by the Minister of Marine. The excursionists will visit
Vannes and its prehistorical museums, the megalithic monuments
of Locmariaques, the celebrated remains at Carnac, the sland of
Belle-ile, and Lorient. No doubt there will be a great rush
for the excursion. The list of papers to be read is a very
long one. In the Mathematical Section a large number of the
papers are on engineering subjects, and in the Natural Science
Section a large proportion are on medical subjects, besides a good
many on prehistoric archaeology. Among the latter class are the
following :— Dr. Broca, On the anthropology of Brittany ;
The Dolmens of the Lozere, by Dr. Prunieres ; On the funeral
rites of prehistoric times in Scandinavia, by M. Waldemar-
Schmidt. Other papers in this section are : On a new ele-
mentary theory of botany, by Dr. Ecorchard ; On the meaning
which it is proper to attach to the word "Mollusc" as a
taxonomic term, and On the organisation of Rhizomes, by
Dr. Gulland ; On the Fauna of the Lake of Tiberias, by
Dr. Lortet ; On the pressure and rate of the blood in the
arteries, by M. Marey. In the Section of Physical and Chemical
Sciences we note the following : — On Microzymes in their relation
to fermentation and physiology, On two new principles of wine,
and On the origin of Bacteria, by Prof. Bechamp ; Experiments
on the rate of light between the Paris Observatory and Mont-
Ihery, by M. A. Cornu ; On the use of the spectroscope in the
manufacture of Bessemer steel, by M. V. Deshayes ; The meteor-
ology and physics of the Polar Regions, by the Abbe Durand j
On molecular combinations, by M. C. Friedel ; On the limits of
permanent snow and ice on the surface of the globe. On a
magneto-dynamic galvanoscope, and On the chemical constitution
of albuminoid matters, by M. P. Schiitzenberger ; On a polymer
of the oxide of ethylene, and on the dissociation of the salts ot
aniline, by M. A. Wurtz. There will be two public lectures —
one by Prof. Bureau, of the Paris Museum, On the Natural
Sciences at Nantes, and the other. On Acoustics — the timbre of
sounds, by Dr. Gavarret.

The above Association is not the only French institution which
was created after the model of the British Association. M. de
Caumont, who died four years ago, instituted another annual
sciendfic congress, which will hold its forty-first session at
Perigueux, in the department of Dordogne. Every year this
association meets in a provincial town during summer, and at
Paris during the recess of Easter. The members are mostly
Legitimists and Roman Catholics.

The forty-eighth meeting of the German Sciendfic and
Medical Association will commence this year on the 17th
of September at Graz (Austria). The two branches will be

9. i875]

NA TURE

319

presided over by Drs. Rollet and von Tebal of that Uni-
versity, who have issued the following programme: Sept. 17,
8 P. M.— Preliminary Meetinjr. Sept. 1 8, 10 A. M.— First General
Meeting; 1 p.m.— Sectional Meetings; 8 p.m.— Reunion ;
Sept. 19.— Exxursionto the Castle, Sectional Meetings, Evening
Concert at the Theatre, Sept. 20.— Sectional Meetings and
Excursions. Sept. 21.— Second General Meeting, Sectional
Meetings, Festive Performance in two Theatres. Sept. 22.—
Excursions. Sept. 23.— Sectional Meetings, Banquet. Sept.
24.— Third and Concluding General Meeting, Ball. The
Sections will be divided as follows : (i) Mathematics and Astro-
nomy. (2) Natural Philosophy and Meteorology. (3) Che-
mistry. (4) Mineralogy, Geology, and Paleontology. (5)
Botany. (6) Zoology. (7) Anatomy and Physiology. (8)
;Medicine. (9) Surgery. (10) Ophthalmology and Otiatry.
(II) Midwifer)'. (12) Psychiatry. (13) Public Health. (14)
Military Surgery. (15) General Pathology. (16) The Teaching
of Science. (17) Agriculture.

A CONGRESS has been held at Nancy on the history, archreology,
and languages of the American continent. The city was illumi-
nated, and a banquet was given by the municipality to the foreign
members of the Congress. A most interesting exhibition took
place, principally of American stone implements, Peruvian
mummies, Columbian idols, and skulls of a number of the
aborigines. The Congress discussed the questions relating to
the discovery of America before Columbus, by Norwegians,
Phoenicians, and Buddhists, and did not appear inclined to be-
lieve in the reality of any of the traditions. There were also dis-
cussed at some length the relations of Esquimaux tribes with
those of Northern Asia, traditions as to white men, the monu-
ments of the Mississippi Valley, and the rock inscriptions, with-
out coming to any definite conclusions.

The observation of meteors has been organised in France
by the Association Scientifique under M. Leverrier ; this
organisation numbers more than 6,000 members, but has no
annual meeting. About forty stations keep watch on critical
nights. The results of the observations during the time of
the August shower have been unusually good. At Rochefort
and Rouen alone more than 160 tracks were mapped during the
nights of the 9th and loth of August, mostly connected with
the Perseus radiant.

The preparations for the Scientific and Agricultural Congress
at Palermo on the 29th inst. are proceeding with unabated
activity. Many savanls, particularly from Germany, have inti-
mated their intention to assist at the proceedings. Father Secchi
will preside in the department of Astronomy.

From observations made upon the Manatee living in the
Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park, the Society's Prosector has
had the opportunity of presenting a paper to be read during the
next session of the Scientific Committee of the Society, on the
peculiar prehensile power of the upper lip of that animal, by
which it seizes its food between the two lateral bristle-covered
pads with which that organ is provided, and which it can move
laterally.

The Journal of Analemy and Physiology, which till now has
done much service to biologists under the able editorship of
Prof. Humphry, of Cambridge, and Prof. Turner, of Edin-
burgh, is to be further strengthened in the Physiological Section
by the extra editorial assistance of Dr. Michael P^oster, of Cam-
bridge, and Prof. Rutherford, of Edinburgh. The journal is
also to appear quarterly, not half-yearly, as heretofore.

The Transactions of the Zoological Society, vol. ix. Part iv.,
just issued, comprises a memoir, by Mr. Sclater, F.R.S., "On
the Curassows now or lately living in the Society's Gardens."
It is illustrated with thirteen coloured quarto plates from the

pencil of Mr. Smit, and forms a complete monograph of all the
known species of true curassows.

M. E. MuLSANT, Conservator of the Library of the City of
Lyons, is on a visit to this country for the purpose of examining
Messrs. Salvin and Godman's, as well 'as other collections of
birds, in order to render more complete his "Histoire Naturelle
des Oiseaux-Mouches," now in course of publication.

Capt. Burton and party have just returned from Iceland.
The immediate object of the visit was to examine the extensive
sulphur mines which were worked in the north-eastern part of
the island about the beginning 'of the present century, and for
the reopening of which a company has recently been formed.
The result of the visit seems in this respect to have been satis-
factory. Mr. W. L. Watts met Capt. Burton's party, just after
he had performed the remarkable feat of crossing the Vatna
Jokul, an immense snowy table-land in the S.E. comer of the
island. Mr. Watts has been the first to accomplish this feat.

In the note concerning a shower of hay in Denbighshire in
last week's Nature, p. 298, we omitted to say that the year in
which the occurrence took place was 1857.

This year's meeting of the British Archaeological Association
was opened at Evesham on Monday by the President, the
Marquis of Hertford, who reviewed the several points of interest
which the Association intended to visit in Warwickshire and
Worcestershire.

The most important paper in the July number of the Bulletin
of the French Geographical Society is on the geography of the
Athabasca-Mackenzie region, by the Abbe E. Petitot, who has
spent twelve years as a missionary in that inhospitable portion of
North America, making many journeys to all parts of the district
indicated, lying between the Coppermine River and the Rocky
Mountains, and the Great Slave Lake and the Arctic Ocean.
The Abbe gives a brief rSsumf of discovery in this region, and a
short sketch of the various journeys he himself made, to be fol-
lowed by further details. An excellent map accompanies the
narrative, and although the explorer's instruments were rather
scanty, it is evident that he has added largely to our knowledge
of the geography of the district of country referred to.

Another interesting paper in the same number is on the
Lyssous off Lin-tze-Kiang, by another missionary, the Abb(i
Dubemard. It is notable how large a number of French ex-
plorers have been missionaries.

A RETURN has been presented to Parliament giving a state-
ment of all the weather telegrams issued by the Meteorological
Office, and also of all the storms experienced on the coasts of
the British Islands during 1874, from which it appears that of
the warnings issued, 78*2 per cent, were justified by subsequent
gales or strong winds, and that i6"4 per cent, were not justified
by the subsequent weather. This percentage of success in the
warnings issued, which is slightly in excess of the last two years'
of Fitzroy's management, considerably in excess of 1870 and
1871, and about equal to the results for 1872 and 1873, is per-
haps as good as may reasonably be expcc^ied until the system bp
further extended and developed.

We have received a circular~calling attention to the success
attending the working of Dr. Herman Sprengel's improvement
in the manufacture of sulphuric acid. The process was
patented in 1873, and consists in injecting water in the form of
spray into the chambers instead of steam. To effect this a jet of
steam escapes from a platinum nozzle at a pressure of about two
pounds, and blows through the centre of a flowing jet of water
by means of an apparatus similar in principle to Herap^th's
blow-pipe. These jet^ are let into the side of the c}i4mber at
distances of 40 feet. The advantages gained are economy of

320

NATURE

\Aug. 19, 1875

fuel, nitric acid, and pyrites. The method has been in use at the
works of the "Lawei Clumical Manure Company" at Barking,
and the returns show that a saving of coal to the amount of | of
the quantity formerly burned has been effected— the total saving
in steam, nitric acid, and labour during three months, amounting
to five shillings per ton of acid of sp. gr. i-6 made from pyrites.
The patentee just points out that a saving of even one shilling
per ton means in this country an annual gain of 50,000/,

The Rev. N. M. Ferrers, of Cambridge, author of "A
Treatise on Trilinear Co-ordinates," is preparing for the press a
work on Spherical Harmonics. The plan adopted in this work
will be first to discuss thoroughly the properties of the Zonal
Harmonic, for which various expressions will be given, and
general formulae investigated, by which any rational integral
function of one independent variable may be expressed in a series
of Zonal Harmonics. The properties of Tesseral and Sectorial
Harmonics will then be deduced from these. The expression of a
discontinuous function by means of Spherical Harmonics will be
discussed ; and various examples will be given of the use of
Spherical Harmonics in their applications to the theories of
attraction, and of electricity and magnetism. The book will be
published by Messrs. Macmillan and Co.

"Pythagorean Triangles " is the title of a paper which was
read by W. Allen Whitworth, M.A., before the Literary and
Philosophical Society of Liverpool in February of the present
year. A Pythagorean triangle is a right-angled triangle having
all its sides commensurable. The most familiar instance is that
triangle whose sides are in the ratio of the numbers 3, 4, 5.
The author shows that one of the sides must be even (a multiple
of 4), one a multiple of 3, and that either a side or the hypo-
tenuse must be divisible by 5. Making use of a discovery of
Fermat's, he further shows that every prime number of the
form if N -^ I is the hypotenuse of such a triangle. The most
general results obtained are " the product of n prime hypo-
tenuses, all different, will be itself the hypotenuse of 2 "-1
Pythagorean triangles ; " this result is modified if m only
are different, to 2"*-^ Pythagorean triangles. With the
aid of these results he presents, in a tabulated form, 395 such
triangles, with hypotenuses less than 2,500. We may
mention that in Tebay's Mensuration a table of some 200 of
these triangles is given, but with no indication as to how they
are obtained. A great deal of information on the subject of
these triangles is given in vol. xx. of "Mathematics from the
Educational limes" at pp. 20, 54, 75, 76, 87, 97-100, to which
we refer such of our readers as may be interested in the matter.

The West Riding Consolidated Naturalists' Society have pub-
lished the first number of a new monthly journal, the Naturalist.
A journal with a similar title was published in the same district
during the years 1865-6-7 ; we hope the present one will have a
much longer life. Its principal object is to afford a means of
communication among all Natural History Societies, either with-
in or outside the county of York.

From the fourth Annual Report of the Chester Society of
Natural Science, we are glad to see that the Society is prosperous
and in good working order. The members now number 541,
and during the past year several excursions have been made,
several general meetings held for lectures, and the regular work
of the sections carried on. Altogether this Society seems in a
hopeful condition. The same Report contains a brief report of
the Wrexham Society of Natural Science, which seems to some
extent to be under the fostering care of its more prosperous
Chester sister. It seems to be, on the whole, doing well.

Major Wood has sent us a reprint of two papers, with a
map, on the Aralo-Caspian region ; they originally appeared in
the Globe, the journal of the Geographical Society of Geneva.
Ramboz and Schuchardt, of Geneva, are the publishers.

The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the
past week include a Red Deer {Cervus elaphus), European, pre-
sented by Mr. ; Samuel Carter; a Malabar Squirrel [Sciurus
maximus) from S. India, presented by the Chevalier Blondin ;
two Purple Cow Birds {Molothrus purpurats) from Peru, pre-
sented by Prof W. Nation ; a Yellow-fronted Amazon {Chry-
sotis ochrocephala) from ^Guiana, presented by Mrs. Bolton ; a
Crested Peacock Pheasant {Folyplectron chinquis) from Malacca,
purchased ; three Hoffmann's Sloths [Cholopus hoff'manni) from
Panama ; three Spotted Cavies {Ccelogenys paca), a Coypu
{Myopotamus coypus) from S. America, an Argus Pheasant
{Argus giganteus) from Malacca, deposited.

ON THE ACTION OF URARI ON THE
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

CINCE the introduction of urari twenty years back it has
^ become more and more employed as an anaesthetic for phy-
siological experiments. Its effects on the peripheral portions of
the nervous system have been carefully studied, and are most
distinct and peculiar, so much so that they seem to have diverted
attention from its action on the central organs. Its effect, briefly,
when injected subcutaneously, is to produce a paralysis of the
motor nerves by attacking their ultimate branches. Dr. Foster,
at whose suggestion these experiments were undertaken, and to
whom I am indebted for much assistance, in the " Handbook
for the Physiological Laboratory " establishes the following pro-
positions : — I. "The effect of urari is to destroy or suspend the
irritability of nerves, but not of muscles." 2. " With moderate
doses of urari the small branches appear to be poisoned and to
have lost their irritability, while the trunks are still intact." He
also points out that " in order to bring these results out well, the
dose of poison must not be more than sufficient to poison the
motor nerves. Subsequent or stronger action of the poison
affects the central nervous system as well." Now it is perfectly
clear that the poison produces no appreciable effect on the sen-
sory nerves, and in consequence rash conclusions have been
drawn that it also has no effect on the sensorium, and is, in fact,
not an anaesthetic at all.

The method of investigation employed was to take two frogs,
as nearly as possible alike in size and vigour, and to pass a liga-
ture round the whole abdomen (on Bernard's plan), taking care
to exclude from the ligature the sciatic plexus and to include the
blood-vessels. To one of the frogs a dose of urari was then
administered, and the two placed under similar conditions and
watched. The ligature in the poisoned frog of course prevented
the urari from gaining access to the hinder limbs, while it could
act fully on the nerve centres ; and the behaviour of this frog
could be compared with one which had merely undergone the
operation, and was clearly possessed of consciousness and voli-
tion. We will call the two frogs A and B, B being the one
which has the dose of urari. Now as soon as the poison took
effect, movements of respiration of course ceased, and the frog
lost control over its fore-limbs. On placing them side by side in
an unconstrained position, A constantly moved, executing large
and small movements with precision ; its actions seemed in no way
different from those of an uninjured frog. During this time the
frog B never moved, and although quite capable of using its
hind limbs, never did so ; at rare intervals (perhaps half an hour),
however, a movement was executed, but ot a very distinct kind,
a mere kick, such as a frog gives after the removal of its brain,
in virtue of pure reflex action ; now the innervation of the hind
limbs was quite intact ; the animal, if possessed of any wish to
move them, was quite able to do so, so far as its structural
arrangements were concerned. Indeed, the frog bore a striking
resemblance to one which had had its brain removed ; it behaved
in almost every respect in the same manner.

If the two frogs be now laid on their face, a most convincing
experiment can now be tried. If the leg of A be forcibly ex-
tended and let go, it is drawn up ; it it be extended and held for
a short time, it is again drawn up. Now if the leg of B be ex-
tended and at once released, it is also drawn up ; but if it be held
for a second against the efforts of the animal to withdraw it,
these efforts cease and the limb retains its position for an almost
indefinite period. Now there can be only one explanation of the
behaviour of the frog B, namely, that the urari destroys con-
sciousness and volition at an early period ; that on extending

Au^. 19. 1875

NATURE

321

the hind limb the mere act of extension is sufficient stimulus to call
forth a definite amount of response which takes the form of a
simple contraction, but that if the limb be held until this reflex
act has passed off there is no consciousness on the part of the
brain that the limb is in an unusual position, and consequently
no volition is exerted to remove it.

It cannot be objected to this experiment that the stoppage of
the circulation in the hind limbs has diminished their irritability
because the frog A has perfect control over his ; and, moreover,
the vigour with which the reflex acts are executed in B precludes
this idea. Again, it might be said that the stoppage of the re-
spiration by the urari, and consequent supply of ill-aerated blood
to the brain has injured the volition of the animal ; to meet this,
two counter experiments have been tried : in one a frog was
gagged so as to keep its mouth open for some hours, and in
the other a frog was kept under well-aerated water for two
hours (a period equal to the duration of the chief experiment),
and in neither case did the frogs seem to suffer any inconve-
nience whatever, least of all did they lose their volition.

In order to investigate the action of urari on the spinal cord,
two similar frogs were taken as before ; but previously to being
ligatured they were pithed and had their brains destroyed ; they
were then suspended, and the state of the cord, as manifested by
reflex action, tested ; dilute sulphuric acid was used as stimulus ;
the numbers represent quarter seconds.

h. m. A* B

f

3 30

9

8

« < 3 35

7

6

I 3 40

8

6

A* Lost blood

r 3 40

Urari

was given

lolB.

4 15

8

5

'^ ) 4 25

8

7

8

6

4 30

8

8

I 4 35

9

9

f 4 35

A second dose to.B.

4 40

7

14

4 45

8

26

4 50

9

22

4 55

7

27 Not strong.

5 0

9

60 Weak.

5 5

8

No action after 220.

i 5 10

From this it would appear that the first effect of urari is to
make the action of the cord uncertain, then to delay the reflex
action, and finally to destroy it entirely. The table has been
divided into three parts, o, |8, and 7, which seem to represent in
a tolerably typical manner the three stages into which the phe-
nomena are always divisible ; sometimes the animal recovered
after the stage 7.

This short account of the above experiments is intended as a
preliminary notice. I am continuing investigations on mammals,
and puipose hereafter to publish a more complete account of my
results. " C. Yule

Physiological Laboratory, Cambridge

P. S.— Since writing the above my attention has been called to
a paper by Dr. J. Steiner, in Keicharfsund Du Bois-Kaymond''s
Archiv for July. He iftvestigates the action of urari on Inverte-
brates and tishes, and finds that among the latter its effect is to
destroy volition before the peripheral motor fibres are attacked.

WEATHER AND EPIDEMICS OF SCARLET
FEVER IN LONDON DURING THE PAST
THIRTY-FIVE YEARS*

n^HIS paper gives the results of an investigation, the purpose
-'■ of which was to determine whether the seasonal influence
of weather on deaths from scarlet fever, as shown by the curve
constructed from the figures of thirty years, would present itself
if the period were broken up and curves constructed for the
several smaller periods embraced in the long one. In other
words, the object was to determine whether, in the case of a
disease which is strongly epidemic, the obedience to seasonal

* Abstract of a paper read by Dr. Arthur Mitchell at the general meeting
of the Scottish Meteorological Society, July 13.

influences, would exhibit a steadiness and uniformity of cha-
racter, such as is presented in the case of pulmonary diseases.
In London there have been six epidemics of scarlet fever during
the last thirty-five years, reaching their maxima in 1844, 1848,
1854, 1859, 1863, and 1870. Curves were constructed repre-
senting the average weekly deaths from scarlet fever for each of
the six periods embracing these epidemics. These curves were
then compared with the curve for the thirty years, 1845-74, the
leading features of which are that it is above the average from
the beginning of September to the end of the year, and below
the average during the rest of the year ; and that the period of
highest death-rate is from the beginning of October to the end of
November, when it rises to about 60 per cent, above the average,
and the period of lowest death-rate in March, April, and May,
when it is about 33 per cent, below the average.

On comparing the curves for the six short portions of the
thirty-five years, each dealing only with four, five, or six years,
with the general curve for the long period of thirty years, a re-
markable similarity is found to occur. They are all substantially
the same curve. The description of the general curve given
above applies almost literally to every one of the six curves for
short periods, and indeed so close is the correspondence that
they all cross their mean almost in the same week of the year.
In every case the maximum occurs in October and November, and
the only point of difference among them is that while the general
curve rises at the maximum period to 60 per cent, above the
average, during the first epidemic it rose only to 40 per cent ,
and in one or two of the others it rose to 80 per cent, above the
average. The steady obedience to climatic influences in the
fatality from a disease so decidedly epidemic as scarlet fever is
very remarkable, and the more so inasmuch as no other disease,
with the single exception of typhoid fever, attains to its maximum
fatality in London under the conditions of weather peculiar to
October and November.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER IN
THE LIQUID AND GASEOUS STATES*
IL
Law of Gay-Lussac.—ThtLt the law of Gay-Lussac in the case
of the so-called permanent gases, or in general terms of gases
greatly above their critical points, holds good at least at ordinary
pressures, within the limits of experimental error, is highly pro-
bable from the experiments of Regnault ; but the results I have
obtained with carbonic acid will show that this law, hke that of
Boyle, is true only in certain limiting conditions of gaseous mat-
ter, and that it wholly fails in others. It will be shown that not
only does the coefficient of expansion change rapidly with the
pressure, but that, the pressure or volume remaining constant, the
coefficient changes with the temperature. The latter result was
first obtained from a set of preliminary experiments, in which the
expansion of carbonic acid under a pressure of seventeen atmo-
spheres was observed at 4°, 20", and 54° ; and it has since been
fully confirmed by a large number of experiments made at dif-
ferent pressures and well-defined temperatures. These experi-
ments were conducted by the two methods commonly known as
the method of constant pressure and the method of constant
volume. The two methods, except in the limiting conditions,
do not give the same values for the coefficient of expansion ; but
they agree in this respect, that at high pressures the value of that
coefficient changes with the temperature. While I have con-
fined this statement to the actual results of experiment, I have
no doubt that future observations will discover, in the case, at
least, of such gases as carbonic acid, a similar but smaller change
in the value of the co-efficient for heat at low pressures. The
numerous experiments I have made on this subject will shortly
be communicated in detail to the Society ; and for the present I
will only give the following results : —

Expansion of Heat of Carbonic Acid Gas tuider high pressures.

P-sure. ^^-Sui^-r^ L°i^:^aa'i.t°^ temperature.:
at.

22*26 0*03934 i-oooo 6-051

22-26 0-05183 i"3i75 63-79 [ ...(A)

22-26 . ... 0-05909 1-5020 loo-io)

* " Prehminary Notice of further Researches on the Physic.1l Properties
of Matter in the Liquid and Ciseous States under vatied conditions ol Pres-
sure and Temperature." Paper read before the Royal Society by Dr.
Andrews, F.R.S., Vice-President of Queen's College, Belfast. Continued
(rem p. 301.

f

322

NATURE

[_Aug\ 19, 187-

p,-,. „ „ Vol. CO, at 0° & Vol. CO2 at 6" 62
Pressure, ^^o millims. = i. and 31-06 at. = i
at.

31-06 0-02589 i-oooo

31-06 0-03600 1*3905

31-06

and Vol. C0„ at. 6'
I. and 40 "06 at. =

Temperature.

,-62,
63-83

p„„,„. Vol. CO^at
Pressure, yg^ „iilims

0-02589
0-03600
0-04160 i-6o68 100-64)

Temperature.

(B)

6 01
63-64
100 60

(C)

40-06 0-01744 i-oooo

40-06 002697 1*5464

40-06 003161 I -8123

Taking as unit I vol. of carbonic acid at 6°-o5 and 22-26
atmospheres, we obtain from series A the following values for
the coefficient of heat for different ranges of temperature : —
a = 0-005499 from 6°' 05 to 63°- 79
a = 0-005081 from 63°-79 to I0D°-I
From series B, with the corresponding unit volume at 6°- 6a
and 31°- 06 atmospheres, we find : —

a =- 0-006826 from 6°-62 to 63°- 83
a = 0-005876 from 630-83 to ioo°-64
And in like manner from series C with the unit volume at
6°-oi and 40- 06 atmospheres : —

a = 0-009481 from 6°-oi to 63^-64
o = 0-007194 from 63°-64 to ioo°-6o

The co-efficient of carbonic acid under one atmosphere referred
to a unit volume at 6° is

a = 0-003629

From these experiments it appears that the co-efficient of ex-
pansion increases rapidly with the pressure. Between the tem-
peratures of 6° and 64° it is once and a half as great under 22
atmospheres, and more than two and a half times as great under
40 atmospheres, as at the pressure of i atmosphere. Still more
important is the change in the value of the co-efficient at different
parts of the thermometric scale, the pressure remaining the same.
An inspection of the figures will also show that this change of
value at different temperatures increases with the pressure.

Another interesting question, and one of great importance in
reference to the laws of molecular action, is the relation between
the elastic forces of a gas at different temperatures while the
volume remains constant. The experiments which I have made
in this part of the inquiry are only preliminary, and were per-
formed not with pure carbonic acid, but with a mixture of about
II volumes of carbonic acid and i volume of air. It will be
convenient, for the sake of comparison, to calculate, as is usually
done, the values of a from these experiments ; but it must be
remembered that o here represents no longer a coefficient of
volume, but a coefficient of elastic force.

Elastic force of a mixture of ii vol. COg and i vol. air heated
under a constant volume to different temperatures.
Vol. CO4. Temperature. Elastic Force.

(A)

366-1

1370

22 -go

366-2

40-63

25-74

366-2

9973 -

31-65

256-8

1370

. 3I-I8

256-8

40-66

35-44

256-8

9975

44-29

(B)

From series A we deduce for a unit at 13° -70 and 22° -90
atmospheres : —

a = 0-004604 from 13° -70 to 40* -63
a = 0-004367 from 40° -63 to 99° "73
And from series B : —

a = o 005067 from 13° 70 to 40° -66
a = 0-004804 from 40° -66 to 99° -75
The coefficient at 13° -70 and i atmosphere is
a = 0-003513

It is clear that the changes in the values of ^, calculated from
the elastic forces under a constant volume, are in the same direc-
tion as those already deduced from the expansion of the gas
under a constant pressure. The value of a increases with the
pressure, and it is greater at lower than at higher temperatures.
But a remarkable relation exists between the coefficients in the
present case which does not exist between the coefficients ob-
tained from the expansion of the gas. The values of a, deduced
for the same range of temperature from the elastic forces at

different pressures, are directly proportional to one another. \ ,
have, in short—

?:2?4367^ 0-9485, ?:^°4^ 0-9481.

0.004604 0-05067

How far this relation will be found to exist under other condi-
tions of temperature and pressure will appear when experiments
now in progress are brought to a coticlusion.

Laxv of Dalton. — This law, as originally enunciated by its
author, is, that the particles of one gas possess no repulsive or
attractive power with regard to the particles of another. " Oxy-
gen gas," he states, "azotic gas, hydrogenous gas, carbonic acid
gas, aqueous vapour, and probably several other elastic fluids
may exist in company under any pressure and at any temperature
without any regard to their specific gravities, and v/ithout any
pressure upon one another." The experiments which I have
made on mixtures of carbonic acid and nitrogen have occupied a
larger portion of time than all I have yet referred to. They
have been carried to the great pressure of 283 -9 atmospheres, as
measured in glass tubes by a hydrogen manometer, at which
pressure a mixture of three volumes carbonic acid and four
volumes nitrogen was reduced at 7° -6 to ^fs of its volume with-
out liquefaction of the carbonic acid. As this note has already
extended to an unusual length, I will not now attempt to give
an analysis of these experiments, but shall briefly state their
general results. The most important of these resiilts is the lower-
ing of the critical point by admixture with a non-condeitsable gas.
Thus in the mixture mentioned above of carbonic acid and
nitrogen, no liquid was formed at any pressure till the tempera-
ture was reduced below — 20° C. Even the addition of only ^^
of its volume of air or nitrogen to carbonic acid gas will lower
the critical point several degrees. Finally, these experiments
leave no doubt that the law of Dalton entirely fails under high
pressures, where one of the gases is at a temperature not greatly
above its critical point. The anomalies observed in the tension
of the vapour of water, when alone and when mixed with air,
find their real explanation in the fact that the law of Dalton is
only approximately true in the case of mixtures of air and
aqueous vapour at the ordinary pressure and temperature of the
atmosphere, and do not depend, as has been alleged, on any dis-
turbing influence produced by a hygroscopic action of the sides
of the containing vessel. The law of Dalton, in short, like the
laws of Boyle and Gay-Lussac, only holds good in the case of
gaseous bodies which are at feeble pressures and at temperatures
greatly above their critical points. Under other conditions
these laws are interfered with ; and in certain conditions (such
as some of those described in this note) the interfering causes
become so powerful as practically to efface them.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Foggendorff'' s Annalen der Fhysik U7td Chetnie, Nos. 5 and 6.
— These parts contain the following papers : — No. 5 : On the
variations in the phases of light when reflected from glass, by
P. Glan ; account of experiments made in the physical labora-
tory of Berlin University, under the direction of Prof. Ilelmholtz.
— On some remarkable growths of quartz crystals on calcareous
spar from Schneeberg in Saxony, by Aug. Frenzel of Freiberg,
and G. vom Rath of Bonn. — Mineralogical researches, by G.
vom Rath. This paper treats of pseudomorphous monticellite
from Pesmeda, on the Monzoni Mountain in Tyrol, of rhombic
sulphur, of calcareous spar from Ahren (Tyrol), and of a peculiar
specimen of quartz from Japan. — On a method to determine
extra currents electroscopically, by Dr. F. Fuchs. — On the
electric conduction resistance of air, by A. Oberbeck. — On the
absorption and refraction of light in metallic opaque bodies, by
W. Werniche. — On the changes which take place in temperature
at the passage of an electric current from one metal to another,
by Dr. Heinr. Buff, — On the isodynamical planes round a ver-
tical magnetic rod, and their application in an investigation of
iron ore deposits, based upon magnetic measurements, by Rob.
Thalen. — A paper on the same subject, by Th. Dang. Both
these papers are from the Kongl. Vetenskaps Forhandlingar. —
Spectroscopic Notes, by J, Norman Lockyer : On the evidence
of variation in molecular structure, and On the molecular struc-
ture of vapours in connection with their densities. These Notes
are translated from the Proceedings of the Royal Society,
June II, 1874. — On the distribution of heat in the normal spec-
trum, by G. Lundquist. — On the time of attraction and repulsion
of electro-magnets, by Dr. Schneebeli.— On the mathematical

Alio: 19, 1875]

NATURE

323

delcrminaiion of the places of deviation in telegraph lines, by
Fr. Schaak.- — Experiments on the plasticity of ice, by Prof. F.
Pfaff. These experiments have been minutely described under
our heading " Science in Germany." — On the behaviour of
certain fluorescent bodies towards oleum ricini, by Ch. Horner. —
On a new source of magnetism, by Donate Tommasi. — No. 6 :
On the temporary course of the polarisation current, by Prof. J.
Bernstein. — On the objections raised against Weber's law by
Tait, Thomson, and Ilelmholtz, by C. Neumann.— Researches
in spectrum analysis, by R. Bunsen. This paper will also
appear in detailed extract under our heading "Science in Ger-
many."—On the evidence of alternation of electricity by means
of flames, by F. Fuchs.— On the \ariations in the phases of
light when reflected from glass, by P. Glan (second paper).— On
the theory of laying and examining submarine telegraph lines,
by W. Siemens.— Researches on the magnetism of steel rods,
by C. Fromme. — On the permanently magnetic mornents of
magnetic rods and Hacker's formula : T = p 1^ Q x ^'Z, by L.
Kiilp. — On the influence of the texture of iron on its magnetism,
by the same. — On the passage of gases through thin layers of
liquids, by F. Exner.

The Naturforscher, June. — From this pait we note the fol-
lowing papers : — On some phenomena of interference in circular
nets, by M. Soret. — On the simultaneous formation of two micro-
scopic minerals, by H. Fischer. — On the distortion of the images
reflected from the surface of water, with reference to some pheno-
mena observed on Lake Leman, by Ch. Dufour. — On the power
of diflusion in the soil of fields, by M. Grandeau.— On the tenor
of carbonic acid in the soil-gases of Klausenburg, by J. von
Fodor. — On the formation of the "terra rossa" from the shells
of Globigerina, by M. Neumayr. — On a strange dimorphism
among walnut trees {luglans regia), by F. Delpino. — On the
exhalation of carbonic acid by different animals, by Rud._ Pott.
— On a new source of magnetism, by Donato Tommasi. — On
some physical properties of collodion films, by E. Gripon.—
On the influence of oxygen upon life ; experiments made with
frogs which were placed in an atmosphere of nitrogen for some
time, by E. Pfliiger.- -On the action of coloured light upon the
assimilation of the mineral matter in plants, by Rud. Weber. —
On the principle of the dispersion of energy, by A. Fick.—
Light and electro-magnetism, by Ludw. Boltzmann. — On the
nitro compounds of the fatty series, by Victor Meyer (a long
paper taken from Liebig's Annalen der C/temie). — On hearing
with two ears, by F. P. le Roux. — On the adaption-power of
fresh-water molluscs breathing by lungs, by Th. von Siebold.

Journal of the Franklin Institute, June. — The following are
the principal original articles in this number : — "The Centennial
Exhibition," with three plates. — " Account of some Experiments
made for the purpose of comparing the indication of Cassella's
Air Metres," by C. B. Richards, M.E. ; these experiments were
adverse to the trustworthiness of the metres. — " Sympathetic
Vibration," by H. A. Rowland, C.E. — "A new Veriical-Lan-
tern Galvanometer," by Prof. G. F. Barker.— "The rapid Corro-
sion of Iron in Railway Bridges," by W. Kent.—" Molecular
Changes in Metals," by Prof. R. H. Thurston.

Froceedings oj the Bristol Naturalists' Society. New edition,
vol. i. Part 2. — The first thing that strikes one on opening this
part of the Bristol Society's Froceedings is the number of errata,
there being a list of about eighty mistakes which have been
allowed to slip into this and the previous number ; this is very
bad. The following are the titles of the papers contained in this
part :— " On Fish Remains in the Bristol Old Red Sandstone,"
by S. Martyn, M.D. ; "On Ceratodus Forsten," hy \V . W.
Stoddart, F.G.S. ; "On the Physical Theory of Under-currents
and of Oceanic Circulation," by W. Lant Carpenter, B.A.,
B.Sc. ; "Bristol Rotifers: their Haunts and Habits," by C.
Hudson, LL.D. ; " Notes on Tiias Dykes," by E. B. Tawney,
F.G.S. ; "Notes on the Radstock Lias," by E. B. Tawney,
F.G. S. ; "On the Geological Distribution of some of the Bristol
Mosies," by W. W. Stoddait, F.G.S.; "A Contribution to
the Theory of the Microscope and of Microscopic Vision. After
Dr. E. Abbe, Professor in Jena," by II. E. Fripp, M.D. ;
"The Geology of the Bristol Coal-field (Part II.)," by W. W.
Stoddart, F.G.S. ; " The Land and Fresh-water Mollusca of
the Bristol District," by A, Leipner ; " Notes on Bristol Fungi,"
by C. E. Broome, F.L.S. ; "The Rainfall in Bristol during
J874," by G. F. Burder, M.D.

Th» number* of the Nuovo Giornale Botanico Ilaliano for
January— July 1875 give evidence of the impulse given to the

study of lichens by the recent theory as to their compound and
parasitic nature. We have in these numbers two elaborate
papers on this subject, based on careful elaborate research, and
both well illustrated, but coming to opposite contusions. A.
Borzi adopts the theory of Schwendener and Sachs that the
gonidia of lichens have no genetic afiinity with the hyphre, but
that the latter are of the nature of ascomycetous fungi parasitic
on the former. G. Arcangeli, on the other hand, inclines to the
views of Nylander and Tulasne that many algae belonging to the
families Protococcacea;, Nostocacea?, and Rivulariea;, are nothing
but special foniis of the gonidia of lichens ; but that the go-
nidia are true lichen-organs. Prof. Caruel has a short note
on the so-called viviparous leaves of Begonia, in which he shows
that the adventitious buds are in reality metamorphosed hairs.
Prof. Beccari has some remarks on the Rafiiesiacea;, supple-
mentary to Dr. Hooker's monograph of the order in De Can-
dolle's " Prodromus." He makes five species of Rafflesia — R.
Arnoldii, R. Titan, R. Fatma, R. Rochussenii, and R. Cumin'
gii, besides a doubtful one, R. Horsfieldti ; four of Jlydnora,
viz., H. africana, //. ahysinica, II. bogociensis, H. triceps; and
one Frosofanche — F. Bunneisterii {Ilydnora- americana). These
three numbers contain, in addition, many other oscful and im-
portant papers,

Zeitschrift der Oisterreichischen Gesellschaft fiir Meleorologie,
July 15. — This number contains an article on the calculation of
the arithmetical mean of constant quantities, by Herr Wilczek,
and another on the ventilation of the St. Gothard Tunnel.

Bulletin of the Essex Institute, 1874 (Salem, U.S.)— A notable
incident in the history of this excellent American Society during
1874, was a visit from the late Rev. C. Kingsley, who delivered
a lecture on Westminster Abbey, and in whose honour a recep-
tion was afterwards held. The following are the principal scien-
tific papers in the Bulletin : — Mr. F. W. Putnam, one of the
most active members of the Society, contributes the following :—
" Rare Fishes taken in Salem, Beverly, and Marblehead Har-
bours ; " On Black Fish taken in'Salem Harbour ; " " Notice of
a Skull from shell-bed, in Rock Island ;" " On Teeth of a large
Shark, probably Carcharis {Prionodon) lamia;" "On the
Shell-heaps at Eagle Hill;" "Notice of some important Dis-
coveries of the Hayden Exploring Expedition ;" " Remarks on
a Collection of living specimens of Fishes and Cray pikes
from Mammoth Cave." Other papers are: — "Notes on the
Mammals of portions of Kansas, Colorado, Wyoming, and
Utah," by J. A. Allen; "On the Fertilisation of Flowers,"
by E. S. Morse; "Notes on examination of four species of
Chitons," by W. H. Dall ; " On the Change of Colour in
Leaves in Autumn," by E. C. Bollcs ; "On the Theory of
Evolution," by E. S. Morse ;' " Lists of Birds observed from
Sacramento to Salt Lake City," by R. Ridgway.

The Gazzetta Chimica Italiana, fasc. v., contains the follow-
ing papers : — On the oxidation of sulphur, by E. PoUacci. The
author describes some interesting experiments he made with
flowers of sulphur which he oxidised into sulphuric acid in a
number of different ways. —Researches on the products of the
action of urea upon asparagine and on aspartic acid, by J.
Guareschi. — Preliminary note upon parabanic and oxaluric acids,
by the same. — On the vegetation of Oxalis acetosella, Runiex
acetosa, and acetosella in a soil which contains no potash, by M.
Mercadante. — Account of experiments made with artificial soils
and of the anomalies observed in the plants obtained.— On t.ome
properties of ferric orthophosphate, by F. Sestini. — Extract of
some memoirs read at the Academy of Sciences at Bolojna on
researches on the poisonous alkaloids, by F. Selmi. These
were on some new distinguishing properties and some newly dis-
covered reactions. — There is the usual number of extracts from
other journals.

Kongl. Vetenskaps Akademient Fordhandlingar (Stockholm),
Feb. 10. — This part containi the following papers : — On the
introduction of elliptic functions into astronomical problems, by
II. Gylden. — Hepaticat; Pyranaicae circa Luchon crescentes, by
J. E. Zctterstedt.- Researches on the chemical composition of
magnetic iron ore, by G. Lindstrom. — On the Oniscoidtae of
North America, by A. Stuxberg.— On some new Lithiobioe of
the same country, by the same.— On a Lithobius borcalis
Meinert, found in Sweden, by the same. — Researches on the
Syrphus butterfly in its three states of development, by F. Try-
bom (with plate). — On the Arachnidae of Gotland and Oland, by
G. F. Neuman.— On old ore deposits and their present usei, by
O, GumaeUus.

324

NA TURE

\Aug. 19, 1 8

/D

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

Vienna

Imperial Academy of Sciences, April 22. — Researches
0(1 the epitheliiim of the stomach, by W. Kiedermann. — On the
formation of meteorites, by G. Tschermak. — On some measure-
ments of temperature made in the first half of April in the
Gmunden and Atter lakes, by Prof. Simony.

April 29. — On the zoological results of the Austro-Hungarian
Polar Expedition, by Prof. C. Heller. — Ichthyological researches,
by Prof. F. Steindachncr.— On the orbit of Planet (138) Tolosa,
by Director von Littrow and Dr. L. Gruber* — On the fermenta-
tion gases from marsh and water plants, by Prof. J. Boehm.

May 13. — On the genetic classification of the flora of the
Cape, by Dr. von Ettiiigshausen. — On the lichens of Spitzbergen
and Novaja Semlja, by Dr. von Hochstetter. — On the orbit of
Planet (118) Peitho, by Dr. J. Holetschek. — On the galvanic
dilatation ol metallic wires, by Prof. Exner. — On the respiration
of water plants, and on a fermentation which includes an absorp-
tion of hydrogen, by I^rof, J. L'oehm. — On chalk ammonites, by
Dr. Neumayer.

Berlin

German Chemical Society, July 26, — P. Behrend described
a method for preparing chloride of sulphuryl by heating William-
son's oxychloride SOgOH CI in sealed tubes to 180°. — V. Meyer
gave an account of an apparatus for delerminiiig the solubilities
of salts at IOO°.- — J. Beckmann, by treating bcnzophenone Cjg
Hi(,0 with sulphuric acid, produced a neutral body C-jaligSOj,
while sodic benzophenondisulphatc, treated with PCI5, yielded
two chlorides, CigHtjOjS.jCla and Cj.jIIf,05S2Cl4. — F. Tiemann
and Haarmann published a method for determining the quantity
of vanilline in vanilla, by precipitating its solution in ether with
bisulphite of soda. Mexican vanilla gave i'6, best Bourbon
vanilla 2 -3, Tavavanilla 2 '6 p. c. of vanilline. Tavavanilla is less
esteemed, on account of other ingredients which affect its fragrance.

OH
— F. Tiemann has transformed vanilline, C^PIg OCH3 into the cor-

COII
responding acid and alcohol, the latter by the action of hydrogen,
produced by solium- amalgam. This reagent yields also a body

(OH V

CgHj OCH3 I , hydrovanilloin. He has likewise intro-
CH.OH/o
duced ethyl and methyl into the group OH. — C. Raab has
treated cuminic aldeh)dewitli hydrocyanic acid and hydrochloric
acid, obtaining the corresponding amygdalic acid. By the action
of hydrogen he obtained a higher hydrobenzoin. — C. Jackson
has obtained tribromonitrobenzol and tribromodmitrobenzol. —
The same chemist refuted a pretended reaction of acetani-
lide. This body does not yield a nitrile and water when
heated, as published by Mr. Brackebusch.-.-A. Steiner has
found that NH3 dissolves fulminate of silver below 40° without
alteration. He has also studied the action of sulphocyanide of
ammonium on fulminates. — A. W. Hofniann has transformed
methyl-xylidine by means of heat into a number of highly
carbonated ammonias, chiefly into Cg(CH3)5NH2. — A, Oppen-
heim and L. Jackson described two new derivatives of mer-
captan, viz. C2H5SHgBr, a white amorphous powder and a
combination of iodoform with two molecules of mercuric mercap-
tide, crystallising in yellow needles. No tribasic thioformate
of ethyl could be| produced from these compounds.- — The fol-
lowing communications were sent by T. Wislicenus : — Under his
guidance allyl-aceto-acetic ether has been transformed by F.
Zeidler into allylacetic acid and allyl-acetone. L. Ehrlich pro-
duced dibenzil-afcetic ether and benzyl-oxybutyric ether. H.
Rohrbeck, by treating methylacetoacetic ether with hydrogen,
produced methyloxybutyric acid, which, when heated, yields
methyl-crotonic acid. E. Waldschmidt has obtained the cor-
responding ethyl-compounds. M. Conrad, by treating aceto-
acetic ether with chlorine, obtained substitution compounds and
dichloracetone. F. Hermann has studied the action of sodium of
succinic ether. The next meeting will take place on the nth of
October.

Paris
Academy of Sciences, Aug. 9. — M. Fremy in the chair. —
The following papers were read : — Application of the method of
correspondence to questions of the magnitude of segments on
tangents of curves, by M. Chasles. — Remarks on the note of M.
Nicolaides read at the last meeting, by M, O. Bonnet. — A note

by M. Thenard, on some blue substance found iu clay. — Three
reports by M. Janssen concerning the expedition sent to Japan
to observe the transit of Venus across the sun's disc. — Calori-
metric researches on the siliciurets of iron and manganese, by
MM. Troost and T. Hautefeuille.— Researches on niobates and
tantalates, by M. A. Joly. — Facts relating to the investigation
of polyatomic alcohols, and their application to a new method
for obtaining crystallised formic acid, byM. Lorin. — MM. G.
Baker, Decoster de Wilder, Garcia de los Rios, Imbert, and
Bordet then made some communications regarding Phylloxera. —
M. Reech then presented a new edition oJ his memoir oa sur-
faces which can be superposed on themselves, each in all its
parts. — The Minister of Public Instruction sent the translation
of an article, published by the Ministerial journal of Copenhagen,
and treating of the volcanic phenomena which in the course of
last winter have occurred in Iceland.— Discovery of Planet (148),
made at Paris Observatory, by M. Prosper Henry, on the night
of Aug. 7 last— Observations of Pknet (148) at the equatorial,
by M. M. Henry. — Ephemerides of Planet (103), Hera, for the
opposition of 1876, by M. Lereau. — Experiments with gas under
high pressure, by M. Andrews. — On a property of an electrified
surface of water, by M. G. Lippmann. — A note on sulphocar-
bonates, by M. A. Gelis. — On the preparation of crystallised
monobromide of camphor, by M. Clin. — On some points in the
physiological and therapeutic action of monobromide of camphor,
by M. Bourneville. — On Marsh's apparatus and on its applica-
tion for the determination of arsenic contained in organic matter,
by M. Arm. Gautier. — On the larva forms of Bryozoa, by M.
Barrois. — Observations by M. C. Dareste, on a recent com-
munication of M. Joly. — On the temperature of the Mediter-
ranean Sea along the coasts of Algeria, by MM. Ch. Grad and
P. Hagenmiiller. — On a waterspout observed at Morges on
Aug. 4 last, by M. A. Foret. — On the identity in the mode of
formation of the earth and the sun, by M. Gazan.

BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

American.— Report upon the Reconnaissance of (he North-Western
Wyoming and Yellowstone National Park : Wm. A. Jones (Washington).—
The Geological Story briefly told : James D. Dana, LL.D. (Triibner and
Co.) — Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, N.S.
Vol. ii -Third Report of the Zoological Society of Philadelphia. — Chrono-
logical Observations on Introduced Animals and Plants : Chas. Pickering,
M.D. (Boston ; Little, Brown and Co.)— Report of the U.S. Geological
Survey of the Territories. Vol. vi. : F. V. Hayden (Washington). — How to
use the Microscope: John Phin (Industrial Publishing Company, N.Y.) —
Proceedings cf the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Part I.

Colonial. — Report of Neilgherry Loranthageous Parasitical Plants de-
structive to Exotic Forest and Fruit Trees : George Bidie, M.B. (Govern-
ment Press, Madras).

Foreign.— Bulletin de 1' Academic Imperiale des Sciences de St. Peters-
bourg. Tome xix. Feuilles 22-37, Tome xx. Feuilles 1-21. — Der Ursprung
der VVirbelthiere und das Princip des Functionswechsels : von Anton Dohrn
(Leipzig, Engelmann).— Die Geologie und Ihre Anwendung auf die Kennt-
niss der Bodenbeschaffenheit der Oesterr.-Ungar. Monarchic : von Franz
Ritter von Hauer (Wein. A. Holder).

CONTENTS Pags

The Science Commission Report on the Advancement of

Science 305

The Encvclop-bdia Britannica 30S

Our Book Shklf : —

" Annual Record of Science " 310

" Year-book of Science " 310

Letters to the Editor : —

Systems of Consanguinity. — Lewis H. Morgan 311

Weather on the Atlantic— Capt. W. W. Kiddle, R.N 312

The Late W. J. Kenwood, F R.S.—M. Y 312

Zoology of the " Erebus " and " Terror." — L. Reeve and Co. . . 312

The Rocks at Ilfracombe. — William S. Tuke 312

Our Astronomical Column : —

Binary Stars. — (i)J>i Cassiopeae 312

(2) >■ Leonis 313

The Minor Planets 313

The August Meteors 313

The Separation of the Aral and the Caspian. By Major

Herbert Wood, R.E. (IViiA I llustratiotC) 313

Gun-Cotton Water Shells 314

Notes from the "Challenger." By Prof. T. H. Huxley,

F.R.S 315

The International Congress and Exhibition of Geography . 316

Science in Germany 316

Notes 318

On the Action of Urari on the Central Nervous System. By

C. Yule 320

Weather and Epidemics of Scarlet Fever in London during

the Past Thirty-five Years. By Dr. Arthur Mitchell . . 321
Phv.sical Propertifs of Matter in the Liquid and Gaseous

States, II. By Prof Andrews, F.R.S 321

Scientific Serials 322

Societies and Academies 324

Books and Pamphlets Received 324

NATURE

325

THURSDAY, AUGUST 26, 1875

SCIENTIFIC

WORTHIES
1797

VI.— Sir Charles Lyell, born Nov. 14,
Feb. 22, 1875.

SINCE its last meeting the British Association has
lost one of its oldest members and most illustrious
presidents. There are some men the story of whose
mental development and progress in scientific research
may be taken as almost embracing the history, during
their lives, of the science to which they devoted them-
selves. Of such men we have not many brighter examples
than that of Sir Charles Lyell. For somewhere about
half a centui-y he continued in the van of English geolo-
gists, and so identified himself with them and their pur-
suits as to be justly taken as the leader of geological
speculation in this country. The time has probably not
yet come when his true position in the roll of scientific
worthies can be definitely fixed The revolutions of
thought which have taken place within the last fifteen
years, and in which, let it never be forgotten, Lyell him-
self bore a conspicuous and indeed heroic part, have so
shaken old beliefs which once seemed securely based on
the most cautious induction from "well-ascertained facts,
that even they who have most closely watched the march
of events will probably shrink most from the attempt to
estimate the full and true value of the work of his long
and honoured life. It is not, then, with any aim at such
an estimate, but rather to recall some of the leading cha-
racters of his work, that this brief in meinoriam is now
written.

Perhaps the best idea of the solid services rendered by
Lyell to Geology is obtained by looking back at the con-
dition of the science when he first began to study it, and
by contrasting that state with the same subject as treated
by him in the early editions of his " Principles." To men
who had been compelled to gain their general view of
geology from such works as Daubuisson's " Traits," the
appearance of Lyell's volumes must have been of the
nature of a new revelation. From vague statements
about early convulsions and a former higher intensity of
all terrestrial cnergy,''they were led back with rare sagacity
and eloquence to the living, moving world around them,
and taught to find there in actual progress now the
analogues of all that they could discover to have been
effected in the geological past. The key-note which Lyell
struck at the very outset and which sounded through all
the work of his career was, that in geology we must
explain the past by the present ; — that the forces now in
operation arc quite powerful enough to produce changes
as stupendous as any which have taken place in former
times, provided only that they get time enough for their
task.

These views were not promulgated for the first time by
the author of the " Principles of Geology." In cruder form
they had been earnestly urged by Hutton, and eloquently
illustrated and extended by Playfair. But after much
turmoil and conflict of opinion, they had very generally
been allowed to sink out of sight. On the Continent, indeed,
they had never excited much attention, and were for the
Vol. XII.— No. 304

most part ignored as mere vague speculation. Even in
this country they had only been partially adopted even
by those who professed to belong to the Huttonian
school. So that it was in one sense as a new doctrine
that they were taken up by Lyell and enforced with a
wealth of illustration and cogency of argument which
rapidly gained acceptance for them in Britain, and even-
tually led to their development in' every country where
the science is cultivated.

In one important respect/ however,' the doctrines taught
by Sir Charles Lyell differed from those of his prede-
cessors. Hutton and Playfair knew almost nothing of fossil
organic remains. They were necessarily ignorant of the
light which these can cast upon the past history of the
globe. They had but a dim perception of the long and
varied succession of the stratified formations embraced
by their own terms Primary and Secondary. After
their days, however, the labours of William Smith
among the Secondary rocks of England showed that
the strata of the earth's crust could be identified and
classified in their order of age by means of the fossil
animal remains contained in them. Then came the
brilliant discoveries of Cuvier in the Tertiary basin of
Paris and the rise of the science of Palaeontology. It
was now seen that the discussion of theoretical questions
in cosmogony and the collection and description of
minerals and rocks did not comprise by any means the
whole of geology. Year by year it became more evident
that, besides all its records of physical revolutions, the
crust of the earth contained materials for a history of
organic nature from early geological times down to the
present day. In this transition state of the science there
was manifestly needed some leisured thinker who could
devote a calm judgment and a facile pen to the task of
codifying the scattered observations which had accumu-
lated to so vast an extent, and of evolving from them the
general principles which they seemed to establish, and
which, when clearly announced, could not fail greatly to
assist and stimulate the future progress of geology. Such
was the task which Lyell set before himself, somewhere
about half a century ago, and in fulfilment of which his
" Principles " appeared.

In that great work the twofold aspect of geology — its
inorganic or physical side and its organic or biological
side — was recognised and admirably illustrated. It was
in the treatment of the first of these that the earlier
editions of the " Principles " stood specially distinguished
from previous writings. The leading idea of their author
was, as already remarked, not original on his part. Be-
sides the writings of Hutton, Playfair, and their followers,
the appeal to history and to everyday experience as to the
true nature and results of the present working of the
various terrestrial agents had already been made in con-
siderable detail by Von Hoff in Germany. Nevertheless,
until the advent of Lyell's work the views he adopted had
got no real hold of men's minds. It was his enforce-
ment of them which secured for them first a careful exami-
nation, and ultimately a very general acceptance. In
explaining former revolutions of the globe, geologists
had usually proceeded on the tacit assumption that no
serious argument was required to prove these revolutions
to have been far more violent in their progress and stu-
pendous in their results than could possibly have been

326

NATURE

{Aug. 26, 1875

achieved by any such energy as is still left upon the
earth. Accordingly, on the whole they were disposed to
neglect the consideration of proofs of modern changes on
the earth's surface, looking upon these as mere faded
relics of the power with which geological changes were
formerly effected. It is impossible to exaggerate the
service which Lyell did to the cause of truth by boldly
striking at the very root of this fundamental postulate
of his contemporaries, and showing, by a wide induc-
tion of facts from all parts of the world, how really potent
were the present apparently quiet and ineffective pro-
cesses of change. With most uncompromising logic he
drove it home to the hearts and consciences even of
sturdy convulsionists, that they had all along been reason-
ing in a circle, and that the evidence on which they so
confidently relied demanded and could receive another
and very different interpretation.

It was a great matter to shake the old convulsionist
faith and bring men back to the study of the actual opera-
tions of nature at the present time. Greatly more diffi-
cult, however, was the task to build up another creed and
gain adherents to it. Yet this was accompUshed by Lyell
with an abundant measure of success. He came to be
recognised as the great reformer in geology, the high
priest of the Uniformitarian school, the leader under
whom in this country the younger men eagerly ranged
themselves. Through the influence of his writings a fresh
and healthy spirit of scrutiny and observation spread
through the study of geology. And as edition after edition
of his work appeared, each more richly laden than its
predecessors with stores of facts gathered from all
branches of science in illustration of his subject, men were
led to realise how narrow had been the old conception
which limited the scope of geology merely to the study of
minerals and rocks and the elaboration of cosmological
theories. Every department of nature which could throw-
light upon the terrestrial changes now in progress and
thereby elucidate the history of those which had taken
place in former times was made to yield its quota of
evidence. Hence it came about that the study of geology
received in Britain a breadth of treatment which had
never before been given to it either in this or any other
country. The main share in this reform must be assigned
to the genius and perseverance of Lyell.

But in science as in politics no reform can provide for
all the requirements of the future. In proportion to the
zeal with which the new creed is adopted and proclaimed,
there may be and often is an inabihty to recognise such
measure of truth as may have underlain the older faiths,
as well as to realise the weak points in that which is set
up in their place. The essential doctrine of the Unifor-
mitarian School was in reality based on an assumption
not less than those of the older dogmas. It was an
assumption indeed which did not rest on mere crude
speculation, but on a wide range of observation and in-
duction, and it claimed to be borne out by all that was
known regarding the present economy of nature. It
professed to be in accordance with the logical method
of reasoning from the known to the unknown. Never-
theless, in the course of years the Uniformitarians
gradually lost sight of the fact that the present order
of nature on which they asserted that their system
rested could not, without a manifest and perhaps in

the end an unwarrantable assumption, be taken as
the standard whereby the order of nature in all past
geological time was to be gauged. The information
gained by human observation during the few centuries in
which man had taken intelligent interest in the world
around him was valuable as a basis for hypothesis, but
only for hypothesis which should be cast aside so soon as
the requirements of a wider knowledge might demand.
The Uniformitarians, however, gradually slid into the
belief that though perchance they had not absolutely
proved terrestrial energy never to have been more powerful
than at present, yet they had shown that the supposed
proofs of former greater intensity were illusory, and hence
that their own doctrines should be accepted as by far the
most reasonable, and indeed as the only safe guide in the
interpretation of the past history of the earth. Most
admirable has been the work done by the Uniformitarians,
and deep are the obligations under which Geology must
ever lie to them. But in the onward march of mental
progress it is now their turn to have their confident belief
called in question. Another School is rising among them,
accepting from them by far the larger part of their
doctrines, but in their own spirit of bold inquiry and with
their own zeal in the cause of truth, seeking to enlarge the
basis on which our ideas of the full sweep of nature's
operations are to rest.

The other, or biological side of geological science,
owes much of its development to the skill with which it
was handled in the successive editions of the " Principles."
Though not himself in the strict sense either a zoologist
or botanist, Sir Charles Lyell throughout his life kept
himself abreast of the progress of the biological sciences
and on terms of intimate relationship with those by
whom that progress was sustained in this country and
abroad. He was in the true meaning of the word a natu-
ralist. He had in his day few equals in the grasp which
he could take of natural history subjects in their geo-
logical aspects. The geographical distribution of plants
and animals was one of those subjects which received
more and more ample treatment from him as he advanced
in years. The succession of living forms in time was
another theme which gave him full scope for accurate
and eloquent description. In fact, the breadth of his
conception of what geology ought to be was not less con-
spicuously marked in this than in the physical department
of the science. He enlisted in his service every branch
of biological inquiry which could elucidate the former
history of the earth and its inhabitants. And not merely
the published information on these questions, but many
of the floating ideas of discoverers found exposition and
illustration in his pages.

One of the biological subjects to which he devoted
much time and thought was one which in recent years
has received renewed attention and provoked increased
discussion — the origin of the successive species of
plants and animals which have appeared upon the
earth. During the greater part of his career Sir
Charles Lyell distinguished himself as one of the most
uncompromising opponents of development theories such
as those of Lamarck and the author of the " Vestiges of
Creation." Such views ran counter to his uniformitarian
faith, and he brought against them a large armoury of
geological weapons. The non-appearance of higher

Aitg: 26, 1875J

NATURE

327

types of Jife among the older formations he contended
to be no evidence in favour of development. It was
simply negative evidence, and could at any moment be
destroyed by the discovery of one positive fact in the
shape of a bone, tooth, or other fragment. No one could
make better use than he of such fortunate finds as that of
Dr. Dawson among the ancient carboniferous forests of
Nova Scotia, when from the heart of a fossil tree quite a
little museum of land-snails and lizard-like forms was
obtained ; or those which revealed such remarkable assem-
blages of little marsupial and other mammalian forms
from thin and local deposits like the Stonesfield slate
and Purbeck beds. But negative evidence, when multi-
plied enormously by observers all over the world without
any important contradiction, becomes too overwhelming
to be explained away. Though convinced of the un.
tenableness of the views of development which he
opposed, Sir Charles may have had his misgivings at
times that the yearly increasing and enormous body of
negative evidence in favour of the non-existence of higher
types of life in the earlier geological periods could not be
due to the mere accident of non-preservation or non-
discovery. At all events, when Mr. Darwin's views as to
the origin of species were made known. Sir Charles,
recognising in them the same basis of wide observation
and the same methods of logical analysis for which he
had himself all along contended in geology, at once
and zealously accepted them — a bold and candid act,
seeing that it involved the surrender of opinions which
he had been defending all his life. In no respect
did he show his remarkable receptive power and the
freshness with which he had preserved his faculty of
seeing the geological bearings of new truths more con-
spicuously than in the courage and skill with which he
espoused Mr. Darwin's hypothesis and proceeded at once
to link it with the general philosophy of geology.

Of his work among the Tertiary formations, with the
nomenclature by which, through that work, they are now
universally known, his observations on the rise of land
in Sweden, his researches into the structure of vol-
canic cones, and other original contributions, over and
above the solid additions to science supplied by the
numerous editions of his popular works, it is not needful to
make mention here. Enough is gained if at this time these
few lines recall some of the services to which Sir Charles
Lyell devoted a long, honourable, and illustrious life,
which have graven his name in large letters on the front
of the temple of science, and in memory of which that
name will long be remembered with gratitude and enthu-
siasm as a watchword among the students of geology.
Archibald Geikie

WATTS' DICTIONARY OF CHEMISTRY

A Dictionary of Chemistry and the Allied Branches of
other Sciences. By Henry Watts, B.A., F.R.S., &c.
Second Supplement. (Longmans, Green, and Co.,
1875.)

'H'^HE appearance of the second supplement to Watts'
J- " Dictionary ^of Chemistry " is an event in the

history of chemical literature which will certainly be

ekomed by all English chemists. Although it may be

said with truth that no great generalisations have been
made of late years in chemistry, the science is neverthe-
less advancing with gigantic strides so far as the accumu-
lation of facts is concerned. Perhaps no science possesses
such an extensive journalistic literature as Chemistry ;
month after month the journals of the Chemical
Societies of London and Berlin, the Gazzetta Chimica
Italiana, the Annalender Chetnie, Poggendorff's Amialen,
the Annales de Chemie, the proceedings and transactions
of the various learned Societies, as well as numerous
smaller chemical publications, all contribute to the vast
store of facts already recorded. It is not to be wondered,
then, that during the nine years which Mr. Watts devoted
to the compilation of his dictionary, the science should
have continued its growth at such a pace that the
author found it necessary to promise on the completion
of the work (Preface to Vol. V., 1869) a supplementary
volume bringing the record of discovery down to the
existing state of knowledge. The first supplement ac-
cordingly appeared in 1872, bringing the history of the
science down to the end of 1869. The volume now before
us carries the record of discovery down to the end of
1872, and includes some of the more important discoveries
made in 1873 and 1874.

From the contents of the present supplement we cannot
select more than a few of the longer articles for notice
here.

Turning first to the article on benzene, one cannot fail
to be struck with the rapid growth of our knowledge of
this body and its derivatives within the last few years.
The list of haloid, nitro-haloid, &c., derivatives has been
considerably increased since the publication of the last
supplement by the discovery of new isomeric modifi-
cations of these bodies — modifications the discovery of
which cannot but be regarded as signal triumphs to
chemical theory when we call to mind the fact that the
impetus given to the study of benzene, the fundamental
hydrocarbon of the aromatic series, arose from the theo-
retical speculations of Kekuld and his school.

The subject of capillarity is treated of with consider-
able detail in an article some nine pages in length. The
development of this subject is due to the researches of
Quincke, Karmarsch, Buliginsky, Valson, and others.
The article on chemical action contributes much of im-
portance to the subject : we may particularly mention
Mill's researches on the co-efficient of chemical activity,
the numerous researches by Berthelot, in conjunction
with Jungfleisch on the division of a body between two
solvents, and with St. Martin on the state of salts in
solution ; likewise Favre and Valson's experiments on
crystalline dissociation. Passing on to the cinchona
alkaloids, we find that three new substances— quinamine,
paricine, and paycine — have been added to the list by
Hesse. The " constitution " of these cinchona alkaloids
is among the problems still awaiting solution at the hands
of chemists — may it not be hoped that the synthesis of
quinine will one day — as that of alizarine — be a chemical
possibility? In electricity, the chief additions to our
knowledge are Becquerel's experiments on electro- capillary
action, Quincke's theory of electrolysis, and Guthrie's
experiments on the relationship between heat and electri-
city. The mechanical theory of gases has developed into
a separate article of considerable importance in our eyes.

328

NA TURE

[Aug. 26, 1875

Avogadro's law^ — the safest foundation on which to build
modern chemistry — is directly deducible from the funda-
mental equation of Clausius : —

p^'

■hv

so that not only does our modern system of chemistry
rest on a thermodynamical basis, but the future of
chemical generalisation — ^judging from the tendency of
recent research — lies in this direction also. The subject
of heat has received great additions ; the laborious deter-
minations of the specific heats of solutions by Thomsen
furnish material for three pages. The " heat of chemical
action " has developed enormously through the labours of
Thomsen, Hautefeuille, Ditte, and Marignac. Berthelot
has also contributed largely to the subject by his thermo-
chemical researches. In industrial chemistry we find
much valuable matter added to the metallurgy of iron,
the article bringing us down to the invention of Siemens'
rotative furnace for obtaining malleable iron and steel
directly from the ore. In light, perhaps the most sub-
stantial additions to science are to be found in Glad-
stone's calculations of refraction equivalents, Chris-
tiansen, Kundt, Soret, and Sellmeier's researches on
anomalous dispersion, and Rammelsberg's researches on
the relations between circular polarisation and crystalline
form. The articles on the chemical action of light and
spectral analysis, contributed by Prof. Roscoe, are ex-
cellent resuims of the present state of knowledge in
these branches of chemical physics. In the latter subject
great progress has been made through the labours of
Lockyer (discovery of long and short lines in metallic
spectra), Roscoe and Schuster (new absorption spectra
of potassium and sodium), and Lockyer and Roberts (new
absorption spectra of various metals— suggestions for a
possible quantitative spectrum analysis).

Prof. G. C. Foster contributes the article on magne-
tism, and Prof. Armstrong that <on the phenols. Most of
the articles on physiological chemistry are from the pen
of Dr. H. Newell Martin ; and Mr. R. Warington fur-
nishes some valuable articles on subjects relating ^to
agricultural chemistry.

The second supplement exhibits all the care and pains-
taking conscientiousness of the former volumes, and will be
found of invaluable service both to teachers and workers.
The names of Mr. Watts and his coadjutors sufficiently
guarantee the reliability of the work; the " Dictionary"
has in fact justly taken its rank as one of the standard
works of reference in this country.

Seeing that the results of chemical research are flowing
into the scientific world in a continuous and ever in-
creasing polyglot stream, both professors and students of
the science are indebted to Mr. Watts for the laborious
task which he has accomplished for their benefit

For our own part we look with eager interest upon the
continuous encroachment of physics upon chemistry, and
venture to hope that the time may not be far distant when
generalisation may lead to natural classifications, causing
the handbooks and dictionaries of the future to be for the
same quantity of information somewhat less bulky in
volume.

R. Meldola

HIS ON MORPHOLOGICAL CAUSATION

Uiisere Kdrperform und das physiolooische Problem Hirer
Enstehung. Briefe an einen befreundeten Naturfor-
scher, vonWilhelmHis. (Leipzig : Vogel, 1875. Lou-
don : Williams and Norgate.)
''T^HIS is not, as might perhaps (from its title and from
J- a hasty glance at its contents) be imagined, s popular
exposition of the main facts of Embryology as ordinarily
understood. Prof. His has been led by his researches to
adopt peculiar views concerning the causation of animal
forms. These he has explained at some considerable
length in his great work on the " Development of the
Chick," and elsewhere, but they have not met with very
general acceptance ; and the little work we are noticing
has for its object a popular and somewhat fuller explana-
tion of these views, and a defence of them against various
critics. Among these critics the most conspicuous is
Haeckel, whose, to say the least, severe remarks on the
author have occasioned a very spirited retaliation. In
fact the work, small as it is and popular as it is intended
to be, is very largely controversial ; and it has always
appeared to us a sign of weakness when a scientific com-
batant brings his quarrel before a general public.

Without going at all fully into the views of our author,
we may say that he strives to explain many of the facts
of animal morphology by the agency of mechanical causes
acting directly on the growing germ or embryo. Thus,
for him the large eyes of the young chick are the direct
cause, by compression, of the sharp beak of the bird ; and
more generally the unequal tensions produced by unequal
growth in the initial flat blastoderm determine, through
the agency of certain folds, the form of the animal which
springs from it.

As might be expected, many] pages of the book are
devoted to an attempt at reconciling these views with a
modified theory of descent. Speaking broadly, the views
of the author may be said to differ from those generally
entertained, chiefly on the question whether it is the horse
which pulls the cart or the cart the horse, or perhaps
rather on the point which is the cart and which the horse.
We very much fear that Prof. His's horse is really the
cart. M. F.

OUR BOOK SHELF

Bristol and its Environs, Historical and Descriptive.
Pubhshed under the sanction of the Local Executive
Committee of the British Association. (London :
Houlston and Sons. Bristol : Wright and Co., 1875.)

It was some time ago announced that a Guide to Bristol
was being prepared for visitors to the British Association
Meeting. This is now published, and appears as an Bvo
volume of 475 pages bound in cloth. In many respects
the local committee have made great exertions to make
the visit in every way a pleasant one, and this has been
pretty well known, but so voluminous a guide as this is
certainly a surprise. It is well got up, and is illustrated
both with views of the buildings in the town and with
diagrams illustrative of the geology of the district. Many
pens have been employed in its preparation. '• The con-
tributions," the Introduction states, " are honorarj — the
several authors have written with pure love of their sub-
ject, and for the sake of doing homage to the occasion
that has called forth the volume."

Aug. 26, 1875]

NATURE

329

The first two sections, both of them on Ancient |
Bristol, are by Mr. J. Taylor, of the Bristol Library.
Section 3, on Modern Bristol, is by Mr. J. F. Nicholls, of
the City Library. The fourth section, on Local Govern-
ment and Taxation, is by Mr. H. Naish : and then follows
a section on Educational Organisations, to which there are
several contributors. Mr. D. Davies, the medical officer
of health, has supplied the section on Sanitary Condi-
tion and Arrangements, after which comes Section 7, on
Physical Geography and Geology. This occupies sixty-
four pages, and would perhaps have been of more prac-
tical use if printed as a separate pamphlet that could be
conveniently carried in the pocket. Mr. Tawney has
written the Introduction ; the Silurian, the Carboniferous,
and Millstone Grit is by Mr. Stoddart ; the part on the
Coal Measures and " New Red Period " is written by Mr.
Tawney ; that on the Rhgetic and Liassic by Mr. Ralph
Tate, and the concluding part on the Inferior Oolite is
again by Mr. Tawney.

Bristol is better off for geological maps than any other i
part of the country, for not only are there the sheets of
the Geological Survey, but there is Mr. Sanders' splendid
map of six inches to the mile, which includes the whole
of the Bristol coal-field.

It is a pity there was not a sketch map introduced in the
guide, with just the names given of the places referred to
and an indication of the spots where the sections are
taken from. As it is, strangers to the district will expe-
rience some difficulty in following the text, as many of
the names are not on the published maps. With regard
to the sections, too, there is no indication of the direction
in which they are taken, nor of the scale to which they
are drawn. One of the most useful features of the geolo-
gical portion is that which gives the localities where the
sections of the strata can be seen ; and, as the district
within a short distance contains from the Silurian up to
the Oolites, omitting the Permian, is of interest. There
are many references to the more important papers that
have been printed, and in cases of difference of opinion the
writer has added his own views. The much vexed ques-
tion of the age of the " dolomitic," " triassic," " magne-
sian," or " reptilian " conglomerate, is duly referred to.

The notes on anthropology have reference to the tumuli
and chambered barrows, and to the present condition of
Bristolians. " A certain amount of physical degeneration
has taken place among the native Bristolians, as among
the natives of other British cities ; 300 of them yielded
to me an average stature and weight of 5 feet 5-8 inches
and 132I lbs., after deductions made for shoes and cloth-
ing. The average height of men in the surrounding
counties may fairly be put at half an inch more."

The book has one serious defect, for which the compiler
and not the authors are responsible ; there is no index.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[ The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return,
or to correspond with the v/riters of, rejected manuscripts.
No ttotice is taken of anonymous communications,'^
"Climate and Time"

The review of "Climate and Time" in Nature, vol. xii.
p. 121, contains some remarks in reference to my tables of the
eccentricity of the earth's orbit, to which, in justice to myself, I
I must refer, the more so as they relate to points which compara-
1 lively few of your readers have it within their power to deter-
mine whether or not the reviewer was justified in making the
rema rks in question.

" We have repeated," says the reviewer, " the calculations for

two of the most remarkable dates, viz., 850,000 and 900,000

years ago respectively, and find that at the former date the

eccentricity was '0697 instead of '0747, and at the latter date

L was "0278 instead oi '0102 as expressed in the table."

What proof does the reviewer give that his results are correc
and mine incorrect ? The following is the reason he assigns : —
"To satisfy ourselves," he says, "that the mistakes are Mr.
CroU's and not ours, we have recalculated also one of Mr.
Stone's and one of M. Leverrier's, and in both instances have
exactly verified them." This can hardly be accepted as sufficient
evidence, for I had myself recalculated one of Mr. Stone's and
no fewer than five of M. Leverrier's, " and exactly verified
them."

I suspect that the reviewer has made his calculations somevi'hat
too hastily ; for if he will go over them a little more carefully,
he will, I have no doubt, find that after all my results are per-
fectly correct, excepting only a trifling typographical error, to
which I shall presently refer.

The value for 900,000 years ago ought to be '0109 instead of
•0102, as stated in the table. This mistake arose out of the
curious circumstance of a small speck of ink having been
dropped on the tail of the 9, which led to its having been substi-
tuted for a 2, ten years ago when the tables were first published — a
fact of which I was not aware till a week or two ago, when looking
over the manuscripts of my original calculations, all of which I
have preserved. Since my calculations were called in question
by your reviewer, I have had them examined by three expe-
rienced mathematicians, and the conclusion at which each of
them has arrived is that they are perfectly correct.

The reviewer continues : — "The fact that the eccentricity was
large when he represents it so, and small when he makes it
small, seems to indicate that some approximating progress [pro-
cess ?] has been followed, and that possibly his diagram may
give a rough idea of the changes of eccentricity for past time."

I can assure the reviewer that nothing could be further from
the truth than this assumption. I have computed the eccen-
tricity and longitude of the perihelion for no fewer than 129
separate periods, and in every case Leverrier's formulae have
been rigidly followed, and I have every reason to believe that
the diagram gives not a rough but an accurate idea of the changes
of eccentricity. The values given in the tables will, I trust, be
found to be perfectly accurate up to at least the fourth place of
decimals, which is as far as these fonnulae can be relied upon to
yield correct results.

The following are the results which, considering the trouble
that has been given to their verification, I think will stand the
most severe scrutiny : —

Period 850,000 years ago. Period 900,000 years ago.

h^= -00413927 h^— -000059858

/*= 00144124 /**= -000059812

h* + /»= -00558^51 h'* + P =-000119670

J h'^ + l^ — -0747 = Eccentricity | sjh"^ + /* = -010939 = Eccentricity

Edinburgh, August 10 James Croll

A Lunar Rainbow, or an Intra-lunar convergence of
Streams of slightly illuminated Cosmic Dust?

About 8.30 p.m. yesterday a large zone of the sky, from the
horizon at W.N.W. to the horizon at E. by S., was illuminated
in a very remarkable manner, and this illumination lasted about
three-quarters of an hour, when it gradually died out.

During all this time the sky was very clear and cloudless,
thereby forming a dark back-ground, on which the phenomenon,
whether lunar rainbow, or many rainbows, or intra-lunar con-
verging streams of cosmic matter, was splendidly projected.

This exhibition consisted of one grand central feather springing
out of the horizon at W. N. W. and crossing this meridian at about
20° north ot the zeniih. The width of this stream, with little
variation throughout its length, was 7° or 8°. Its light was that
of a vtry bright white cloud, its edges most beautifully defined ;
its iorm that of a very elouf^ated feather, but without any shaft.
On either side of this main feather was a system of seven or eight
minor and fainter streams, threads, or beams of fight, all more
or less extending from the western to the eastern horizon, SBb-
tending a chord common to themselves and to the main stream
of light, and converging towards the axis of the central stream so
as apparently to intersect it at a point about 30° or 40" below the
western horizon, at which the whole system subtended an azimuth
of about 20°; and near the zeniih, where its iraiisverse section
was a maximum, that section subtended an angle of about 40*.
At this time the moon was about 15° east of the meridian, and
her declination about 9° S. IJoth systems ol the minor streams
of light on the sides of the m.iin stream appeared to haT« a. slight

330

NA TURE

\Aug. 26, 1875

libratory motion, or to slew upwards towards the main stream,
and therefore perpendicularly to their length.

Nothing could suggest to the mind more strongly the idea of
converging streams of infinitely minute particles of matter passing
through space at a distance from the earth less than that of the
moon, and at which the earth's aerial envelope may still have a
density sufficient, by its resistance, to give to cosmic dust passing
through it with planetary velocity that slight illumination which
it possessed.

The rapid development of the luminosity of these streams on
this occasion is evidenced by the fact that they were observed at the
time of leaving church, namely, 8 r.M. to 8.20 p.m., by none of
the several congregations of this town and Perth, but were ob-
served by many persons from a quarter to half an hour after that
time, so far as I have yet been able to ascertain by a rather
extensive inquiry. On coming out of church I myself certainly
looked round the whole visible horizon and the higher portion of
the heavens, and I made to a companion some observations on
the clearness of the stars and dark blue colour of the sky ; but
about twenty minutes after my exit from church these streams of
light had attained their maximum of illumination.

Their apparent figure was that of a nearly circular (slightly
flattened) arc of an amplitude of 15° or 20°, as viewed from the
middle point of its chord. Both the brightness and the conver-
gence of the streams towards the western horizon were more
marked than those towards the eastern horizon.

Fremantle, West Australia, May 17 J. W. N. Lefroy

PS. — Since writing the above, in the Supplement of the South
Australian Register of Thursday, May 20, I have found the fol-
lowing paragraph : —

" A beautiful lunar rainbow was visible in the western heavens
on the evening of Sunday, the i6th inst., a few minutes after
8 o'clock. For a short time the arch was nearly perfect, but for
upwards of fifteen minutes the limbs were very bright. The
southern Pmb also appeared visible for some time after the
upper portion of the arch had faded away."

Now, allowing for the difference of local time batween Fre-
mantle and Adelaide, I think it fairly assumable that this para-
graph must refer to the same phenomenon which I have attempted
to describe as above ; and, if so, it clearly shows that it was not
a lunar rainbow. I can find no allusion to it in any Melbourne
paper yet received here, and which reach to the 19th inst.
There the sky may that evening have been cloudy, and thus
have rendered it invisible. All intelligent persons here who
observed it, and with whom I have had opportunity of conversing
since the i6th inst. to this day, concur in my impression that
minor lateral streams or feathers of light on the north side of the
main stream intervened between the earth and the moon, and
one or more of them in its slow librations swept the surface of the
moon and sensibly obscured its light. — ^J. W. N. L.

May 31

" Instinct " and "Reason"

A FEW facts came under my observation during the spring of
this year that strikingly illustrate this subject. A pair of black-
birds built a nest on the top of my garden wall, which is thickly
covered with ivy and within three yards of the drawing-room
window. When the young birds were about three parts fledged
one of them by some mishap left the nest and fell into the flower
garden. My cat (seven years old, and which has killed scores of
small birds) immediately found it, and at the same time a kitten
(about three months old, but not belonging to the cat) began to
pay rather rude attentions to the young blackbird, and would
have used it as kittens are wont, but the old cat would not suffer
her to touch it. The cause of this was the old cock blackbird,
being aware of the peril of its young, made a great noise and kept
flying here and there around the scene of action, crying and
scolding with might and main. It then became evident to me
that the cat had two or three objects in view, and a purpose to
gain. Firstly, not to allow the kitten to touch, or kill, or make
off with the young bird. Secondly, to use the young bird as a
decoy to entrap the old one. Thirdly, to make the young bird
cry sufficiently from fear or pain to induce the parent's affection
to overcome its discretion.

During the manojuvres old Tom repeatedly made unsuc-
cessful springs to catch the cock-bird, alternately running to
give the kitten a lesson of patience, or self-denial, or impose a
fear of punishment. The young bird repeatedly hopped out of
sight amongst the flower* and stinted its cries ; then anon the

cat touched it again and made it flutter about and cry again,
which from time to time brought the old bird down with cries of
terror, or wrath, or a blending of both emotions, and almost into
the very mouth of the cat. Two or three times I thought old
Tom was successful, but no, he missed his object most surpris-
ingly. It became evident to me that the cat was using the young
bird as a decoy to catch the old one. After I had watched some
ten or fifteen minutes, it became too painful for me to witness,
so I caught the young bird and put it again into its nest, which
was about ten feet from the ground.

In less than an hour the young bird was again on the ground,
the cat, kitten, and parent bird performing the same drama, with
this difference in the acting : the cat lay down, rolled about, or
sat at a convenient distance from the young bird, yet with eyes
alert, though half shut, and otherwise giving an assurance that
he did not intend to make another bound without succeeding to
catch his prey. He was, however, disappointed, and made four
without achieving his purpose. At this juncture the mother-
bird came on the stage with cries of distress, but kept aloof on
the branches of a tall cherry-tree that rises above the wall ; and
if her boldness were less than the cock-birds's, her discretion was
greater, for she kept far aloft. Once it seemed to me that the
cock-bird actually struck the back or head of the cat with his
wing and mandible. This scene continued about seven or ten
minutes, when I again caught the young bird and threw it over
the wall, and the exhibition of animal thought, emotion, and
passion ceased.

Here were manifested phenomena of a more remarkable kind
than those seen in the cases cited by the Duke of Argyll in the Con-
temporary Review iox July, in an article to illustrate "Animal
Instinct in relation to the Mind of Man," for the cat showed an
amount of reasoning which he probably never before exercised,
because never before placed in the same circumstances. That
he had used young sparrows, of which he must have caught
scores, as decoys to catch the old ones is possible, but I am per-
fectly sure that no kitten ever was in the garden during his reign
as " monarch of all he surveyed " in the shape of birds. Hence
his authority over the kitten, which was full of life and eagerness
to appropriate the young bird, the killing of which would have
defeated the purpose of the cat in using the young bird as a decoy
to catch the old one, was indeed remarkable, and disclosed a
combination of mental forces of self-conscious reason of no
trifling order, and, as it appears to me, conclusive that the differ-
ence— and only difference — between instinct and reason is one of
degtee. James Hutchings

Banbury, Aug. 16

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN
Double Stars. — Dr. Doberck, of Markree Observa-
tory, has published a first approximation to the elements of
( Aquarii, on measures between 1781 and 1870, in which
long interval, however, the angle of position has only
changed 45"— a case where very great latitude must be
allowed to any orbit that may be deduced. Dr. Doberck
fixes the peri-astron passage to I924"i5, and assigns a
period of revolution of upwards of 1,500 years. The latest
measures we have met with are those of Nobile, taken at
the Observatory of Naples, in November 1873, giving the
angle 335°'5, or 3°*4 greater than that calculated. — There
appears now a probability that the smaller component of
44 Bootis has passed its greatest apparent distance from
the primary several years since : if good measures of dis-
tance have been made this year, they ought to be sufficient
to enable us to pronounce definitely upon this point. That
this star forms a true binary there can be no doubt, though
it is Sir W. Herschel's measures in 1781 and 1802 alone,
that afford conclusive evidence of the physical connection
of the components. Thus we might represent the mea-
sures between Struve's earliest in iSigand the present
time by the formulas

A a = - 3"-4233 - [8-8968] (t - 1830-88)
A 5 = - 1 -6979 - [8-3115] (t - 1830-88)

But if we calculate from the same formulae for Sir W.

Herschel's epochs we find,

1781-62 Position 1 56° "I Distance o" -75
1802-25 „ 214 -8 |„ I -35

Au^. 26, 1875]

NA TURE

^l

These are greatly at variance with the positions ob-
served, which show that the companion was then in the
following semi-circle, arcl by the estimates of distance had
approached the primary bttween 178 land 1802. Barclay's
epoch i87r4 assigns a distance less by o"35 than was
observed at Leyton in 1866, which is confirmed by Dem-
bowski's measures about the same time. There is in the
case ofihis star a very unusual discordance bttAcen the dis-
tances of Struve and Dawes, which attains a maximum,
o"*45, about 1836-5 ; in deducing the above formuire
Stiuvc's measures were employed. The rate of increase
in the distance has been diminishing, until by Dem-
bows.ki's measures, 1863-68, it was less than o"oi
annually ; the orbit is evidently inclined only a few
degrees to the line of sight, s^o that the companion made
a very close approach between 1802 and 1819. — If the
anf^les of position, in thef case of 2 1819 between 1828 and
1870 are projected, it will appear that the velocity has
been diminishing from about 2'''i in 1840, to ©'^■85 at the
end of the period, which with the accompanying mcrease
of distance confirms Struve's judgment as to orbital
motion ; there is already a diminution of angle of nearly
70*^ since the first Dorpat measures. — It n,ay be hoped
that 2 2107 has not been forgotten this year.

M. Leverrier's Theory and Tables of Saturn. —
We learn that M. Leverrier has completed his long-
continued and exhaustive investigations on the motion of
Saturn, and tbat his theory is nductd into tables, which
will of course speedily take the place of those of Bouvanl,
or of provisional tables which have been used m the pre-
paration of one or two of our ephemeridei:, pending the
publication of others founded upon a more complete
theory and discussion of the observations from ihe tmie
of Bradley. As in all Leverrier's previous researches of a
similar nature, he has made use of the rich store of
observations accumulated at the Royal Observatory,
Greenwich during upwards of 120 years, and also of the
long series which has been formed at ihe Observatory of
Palis. The mathematical astronomer will await the pub-
lication of M. Leverrier's researches in detail with extreme
interest. The Tables of Saturn are understood to be
necessarily of considerable extent, with the view to their
convenient application.

The Great Comet of 1819.— The parabolic orbits so
far coinputed for this comet, which was observed from the
beginning of July to the middle of October, do not repre-
sent the observations with sufficient precision, and it is
probable that no parabola will be found to do so. The
following may, perhaps, be closer than any yet pub-
lished : —

Perihelion passage 1819, June 27.71547, Greenwich M. T.

Longitude of perihelion ... 287° 8' 11" ) Mean equinox
Ascending node 273 41 57 \ July o
Indinaiion ... 80 44 38

Log. perihelion distance ... 9 '533233

Ileliocentiic niolion direct.

But this orbit exhibits differences from the observations
of a kind that should probably be attributed to deviation
from parabolic motion, and as we are in possession of
many of the original observations, it would be desirable
to discuss them with the view of determining the true
character of the orbit in which the comet was moving.
Its transit over the sun's disc, a nearly central transit,
early on the morning of June 26, and the suspicion that
it was actually observed upon the disc by Pastorff at
Buchholz, or, as is even more probable, by Stark at Augs-
burg, give it a peculiar interest. The diagram of the
comet's path across the sun, which appears in the
"Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbucb," is erroneous; it
would pass in greater longitude than that of the sun's
centre, as indicated by the above elements, which in this
respect are confirmed by the orbits of Nicolai, Dirksen,
and Cacciatore. For the centre of the earth the ingress
took place June 25 at i6h. 52m'9 mean time at Green-

wich, 172*^ from the sun's north point towards the east
(direct image), and the egress at 2oh. 29m-9, about 9"
irom the same point to the east. For the time of transit
the elements, no doubt, assign the comet's position within
15" or 20", The larger differences from observation are
in August.

SCIENCE IN GERMANY
{From a German Correspottdnit.)
T N continuation of the previously reported investigations
-»■ of the formation of cells in the ovum, we may mention
some observations of Kupfifer, which relate to a hitherto
rather unknown yet doubtless very widely spread structure
of the animal cell. (' On the differentiation of protoplasm
in the cells of animal tissues," from " Schriften des natur-
wissenschafi lichen Vereins fiir Schleswig Holstein," Hefr.
iii. ; and " The salivary glands of Pcriplatieia orientalis
and its nervous system," from " Britrage zur Anatomic
und Physiologie, als Festgabe Carl Ludwig zum 15 Oct.
1874, gewidmet von seinen Schiilern.") Kupffer first dis-
covered that the body of the cells from the liver of a fro?,
which coat the b liary vessels, consists oi tvvo substances
which chemically and physically are widely different,
while hitherto it had been considered homogeneous
throughout and had been calld protoplasm. A h>alino
ground substance (Paraplasm) gives to the body of tiie
cell its relatively firm exterior shape, while in its interior
a moveable, grained protoplasm is found in varviii,'^
arrangement. It appears as a central mass roiind
the nucleus, from which ramified or reticular thread,
radiate to ihe exterior side of the liver-cell:^ which is turned
towards the blood-vessels, or to that which borders the
biliary vessels. From this arrangement of the proto-
plasm, which slowly flows in the well-known manner,
Kupffer surmised that these were the ways in whicli
certain matters were conveyed from the blood into the
biliary vessels ; and he found his opinion confirmed
when he introduced soluble colouring matter into the
blood of the living animals. As the colour entered
through the liver-cells into the biliary vessels, it indicated
its course through the cells in most cases in exactly the
same way in which formerly the protoplasm proper had
been found arranged. Similar facts weie found in respect
to the liver and kidneys of other Vcrtebrata, in the young
back-teeth of calves, in certain glands of insects (Mal-
pighian bodies). In the salivary glands of the well-
kiiOArn " black beetle " {Pcrtp/ane^a), Kupffer not only
found a very soft net of protoplasm-threads inside the
ground-substance of the cells, but he also proved their
connection with nerve ends. This likewise supports the
view that the substance of the animal cell is differen-
tiated in a manner similar to that of the vegetable cell,
viz., that it consists of an active material which remains
moveable and fulfils the special physiological functions
of the single cell (protoplasm), and of a more passive
material which forms a sort of protecting receptacle, as
it were, for the tender protoplasm (Kupffer's paraplasm).

The "Archiv fiir mikroskopische Anatomic," edited by La
Valette St. George and Waldeyer, has produced the follow-
ing papers in its eleventh volume, up to this date :— Part I.
On Radiolaria and fresh-water Radiolaria-Rhizopoda, by
Greeff. — On bone growth, by Strelzow. — Researches on
the physiology of the kidney?, by Wittich. — Studies on
Rhizopoda, by F. E. Schulze. — Researches on the gan-
glion globules of the spinal ganglia, by Arndt. — On
Heitzmann's hjematoblasts, by Neumann. — On tissue
cells by Waldeyer. Part II, The Ventriculus terminalis
of the spinal marrow, by Krause. — Remarks on the
nerves of dura mater, by Alexander.— Studies on the
development of bones and of bone-tissue, by Stieda. — On
the peripherical part of vertebra?, by Ehrlich. — The peri-
vascular lymph-spaces in the central nervous system, and
in the retina, by Riedel.— On cement layers in the tissues

33:

NATURE

{_Atig. 26, 1875

of vessels, by Adam-Kiewicz.^-Hyalonema Siebold, Gray,
by Kiistermann. — Researches on the development of
spermatozoa, by Neumann. — On amceboid motions of
the little nucleus-body, by Eimer. Part III. Studies on
Rhizopoda, by F. E. Schulze. — The relation of ciliated
epithelium of the abdominal cavity to the epithelium of
the ovary, by Neumann. — Researches on the first signs of
the eye-lens, by Mihalkowics. — Vertebral side and cerebral
appendage, by the same, — Researches on the develop-
ment of cross-striped muscles and nerves of Reptilia and
Amphibia, by Calberla.— On the reproduction of ArccUa
vulgaris, by Butschli. — Researches on the epithelium of
the nose, by Brunn. — On the nerves of the gullet, by
Goniaew. — Researches on the anatomy of the human
throat, by Disse. — On the structure of the Najadeuxieme,
by Posner. — Supplement : On the dental system of
Reptilia, and its significance with regard to the genesis of
the skeleton of the oral cavity, by O. Hertwig. — The
above-mentioned researches of Grecff and Schulze, which
are in close relation with those made in England by Archer
and Carter, treat of a class of the lower animals which
only lately has attracted great attention ; we therefore
can hardly be astonished that in such treatises, descrip-
tions and determinations of the different forms are in the
majority, and that the particular course of life of single
species remains at present still wrapped in considerable
darkness. These neat little organisms consist of a
very simple substance, which supports their existence
(sarcode) and of a siliceous skeleton, which in some
instances radiates outwardly in all directions, while in
others it appears as a bag- or bottle-shaped shell, and is
often adorned with relief-work well worthy of admiration.
As indications seem to become more and more nume-
rous that not only within the range of one species, bat
even in the development of one and the same individual
animal, different forms occur, it is evident that the propa-
gation and development of these organisms must remain
difficult to understand, so long as these relative connec-
tions are not investigated. But thus much is already
known, that even in the most distant localities the same
forms may occur, and that the marine Radiolaria and
Rhizopoda have near relations, or even identical forms, in
fresh water. Besides division, the following phenomena
seem to be connected with propagation : the phenomenon
of conjugation (temporary union of two animals), of
" encystifaction " (enclosing by a shell of the animal
which is contracted into the shape of a ball), and of the
formation of spores (production of interior germs, accord-
ing to Biitschli).

ZOOLOGICAL STATIONS ABROAD
'"rHE following letters from Dr. Mikluho-Maclay to Dr.
■*- Anton Dohrn, Director of the Zoological Station at
Naples, have been forwarded to us for publication by Prof.
Huxley. The first relates to a zoological station which
Dr. Maclay has established in the IMalay Archipelago,
and the second to the general subject of zoological sta-
tions abroad.

'• Dear Dohrn, — You are well aware that I share your
views as to the great value of zoological stations to
science, and ycu will not doubt that the account of the
txcellent results of the great establishment founded by
you at Naples, which reached me by accident at Ternate
in 1873 on my return from my first expedition to New
Guinea, gave me great pleasure.

" It is now my turn to surprise you with the news of the
establishment of a third (?) ^ zoological station at the

^ I have not heard whether the statiou which you and I began at Messina
in 1867-68 arrived at any high degree of development, or whether it shrank
into a mere rudiment. My nomad life has prevented news of any other
than yours at Naples from reaching me ; for example, I do not know whether
he station on the Black Sea, which 1 advocated at the meeting of Russian
naturalists at Moscow in 1 168, ever came into existence.

southernmost point of Asia, on * Selat-Tebrau,' the strait
which divides the island of Singapore from the Malay
Peninsula.

" This new ' station ' cannot, it is true, be so called in
the same sense as yours at Naples. I have taken my own
requirements and customary mode of life as the standard,
and have arranged the building and its fittings in accord-
ance with it.

" It will serve in the first place as a station and Tamfidf
Seiiang (or place of rest) for myself; in my absence, and
after my death, I wish to place it at the disposal of any
student of nature who feels himself suited for my mode
of life.

" My ' Tampat Scnang ' has the following advantages
to offer : —

"A house consisting of two fairly large rooms, eacli
provided with two verandahs (besides the necessary
offices), surrounded on three sides by the waters of the
straits, and on the fourth by the prime\al forest.

"The house will be simply furnished, and will contain
a small library, together with the most necessary articles
for housekeeping.

'■ It possesses, moreover, two advantages which I con-
sider to be of no small importance, namely, the command
of a fine view, and very complete isolation.

" The use of this ' Tampat Senang ' is open to any
student of nature, without the slightest regard to nation-
ality, provided only he be of the male sex (for I conft;ss
to a decided repugnance to all stages of development and
differentiation of the genus * blue stocking.') The presence
of a woman as visitor, or as supplement of the one student
of nature for whom the place affords room — for in this
case a wife must be so regarded — is not forbidden ; but
since * Tampat Senang' must remain true to its name and
to my idea, no children can possibly be allowed there.

" 1 have purchased the piece of land on which the house
is to stand, from H.H. the Maharajah of Johore. It is a
small hill which forms a cape projecting into the Sclat
Tebrau. In my will I have made such provisions that my
family, into whose hands it will pass, will be precluded
from ever selling it, or allowing it to be used for any other
purpose than as a station for scientific research ; or from
cutting down, or even thinning the primeval woods standing
upon it ; the utmost that will be allowed is the clearance
of one or two footpaths through the wood, which is always
to remain as a specimen of the untouched primeval forest.
And although ' Tampat Senang' may be hereafter rebuilt
in stone, and made more elegant or convenient, it is never
to be enlarged, lest it should lose its character of an iso-
lated abode for one student of nature.

" I lose no time in writing to you, although the ground
is only just putxhased and the house is not yet built, be-
cause I think the plan of establishing such outposts for
students of nature in these parts of the world (the East
Indian Archipelago, Australia, the islands in the Pacific
Ocean, Japan, &c., &c.) likely to be veiy useful, and also
because, on account of my prt^sent ailment (an injured
foot), 1 have more leisure than usual.

" Hotels can never afford suitable places of study on
account of the noise and confusion inseparable from
them ; nor can the hospitality of friends, however kindly
it may be offered, supply all that the student of nature
needs. Such unpretending stations as my future ' Tampat
Senang,' where he can work in absolute quiet, neithtr
disturbing others, nor suffering interruptions, without the
need of asking favours or incurring obligations, will 1
think commend themselves to many persons interested
in the advancement of science.

'■ A principal reason for my choice of Johore is the
neighbourhood of Singapore, from which place 'Tampat
Senang' can be reached in three or four hours. The
advantages of this position are that all products of Euro-
pean industry can be easily procured ; that by means of
the frequent mails communication can be maintained with

Auj^. 26, 1875]

NA TURE

333

all parts of the world ; that very fair libraries are acces-
sible at Singapore and Batavia ; and that, at the latter
place, scientific papers can be published in French, Ger-
man, or Dutch, in the NaUiurkundi^^ Tijdschrift, while

^ the Joiirtial 0/ Eastern Asia, of Singapore, publishes

' similar works in English.

" In the hope that you may be one of those who will
make use of my ' Tampat Senang,' I remain, with all
respect and friendship, " N. N. Mikluho-Maclay

" 28th April, 1875, Istana Johore,
"Residence of H.H. the Maharajah of Johore."

" In life, as in ever\'thing else, it is important to distin-
guish main points fiom secondary matter, and to act
accordingly. Main points always remain main points,
however important secondary objects may sometimes be.
On account of this evidently coirecc view, 1 continue
my journey into the interior of the Maliyian peninsula,
as my health is improving ; to-morrow I shall go to
Pahang, and for the moment I give up building the
' Tampat Senang.' It is possible that I must try and
find some other locality than Johore for this, because
the Maharajah of Johore, after nearly two months'
talking, in which time I had made out ail the plans
and had completely gone tlirough all the details of the
proposed building, has at last declared to me that he
only could let me have that tract of land which 1 had
chosen for the ' Tampat Senang' for a ctrtain number
of years, and that he must retain certain lights on the
same. As all this does not agree with my plans, and as
the locality is not of decisive impottance, I shall, in case
the Maharajah does not decide differently, construct my
' Tampat Senang ' somewhere else.

" I consider the foundation of Zoological Stations in the
tropics (however simply and poojly they may be fitted
out, if they are otherwise quiet and comfortable places
for work) as of the greatest importance for zoology and
botany, since museum collections and preparations in
spirits cannot afford sufficient material for mvestigation
either with regard to quantity or quality.

" I have sent a proposal to the Society of Naturalists at
Batavid, to found a 'Tampat Senang" for naturalists
in the Moluccas (at Amboina or at Ttrnate), and I mtend
to send similar proposals to scientific societies at Cal-
cutta, and m Australia, and to some friends in Chile. If
Russian Societies of Naturalists assist me I intend
eventually to found a Zoological Station at the Sea of
Ochotsk, or on the Pacific Ocean, myself.

" Zoological Stations in the Moluccas, in the Himalayan
Mountains, in Tasmania, in the Fiji Islands, in Magel-
lan's Straits, in Kamischaika, &c., will yield not a few
important results for all natural sciences. These
stations will be particularly important for those natura-
lists who travel not only as tourists or as trade travellers
of science, as it were, but who are engaged on some
special work which requires large and fiesh materials.
Upon my return (which, however, is very uncertain at
present) I will communicate to you my plans on the
'Tampat Senang' (the name seems to me to be quite
appropriate) in detail. As it seems to me, they must be
somewhat ditilerent from such Zoological Stations as your
own at Naples, or we shall have to wait too long for their
foundation. On my part 1 shall do all in my power for
the carrying out of this idea, which nevertheless roust
remain a secondary (although important) object for
myself.

•' The day before yesterday I read in Nature of May 6
of the official inauguration of your station at Naples, with
much pleasure, and amongst the names I found those of
several friends and acquaintances ; so that I am led to
hope that the scientific world will be interested in the
* Tampat Senang' in other parts of the globe.

J. It is a matter of course that what I expect from my future "Tampat
Senang" cannot apply to others. Only mine shall remain true toils name,
whether built at Johore, or at the Maclay coast in New Guinea.

" My kindest regards to yourself and all workers at the
Zoological Station of Naples.

" N. N. Mikluho-Maclay
" Istana, Johore, 9th May (June ?) 187? "

THE VATNA JOKULL, ICELAND
'yHE following letter from Mr. W. J.. Watts in
reference to his journey across the Vatna Jokull
has been forwarded to us by Mr. Logan Lobley, As we
noted last week, this is the first time the Vatna Jokull has
been crossed. The letter is dated " Grierestadir, by Jokull
sa a fjollum (Iceland), July 12, 1875."

" I am happy to say I have crossed the Vatna Jokull.
It occupied between fifteen and sixteen days in bad
weather. Eurifla is by no means the highest mountain
in Iceland ; my aneroids registered 1,250 feet above
Euriffa's height, subject to their correction upon my
return to England.

'• I feel certain that the Jokulls of Iceland are advancing
at a considerable speed. The part cf the Vatua Jokull,
in the south of Iceland, called Breiihamerker Jokull, has
advanced about one mile and a half since the loth of
May last, and threatens to cut off all communication
in that direction along the shore. I think, however, its
rapid advance is not, as the natives believe, owing to
volcanic heat in the Vatna Jokull, but that it is caused
simply by the vast increase of frozen material upon its
cloud and storm-wrapped heights. This accumulation
above the height of 5,000 feet goes on both in summer
and winter, and below for another thousand feet the waste
during the summer months by no means equals the accu-
mulation during the rest of the year. The glacier at
the north point, at which descended, by Kistufell has
advanced about twelve mites since the making of Olsen's
map of 1844, diverting the course of the Jokull sd d
fjollum and causing it to rise about twelve miles from
where it appears to do upon the map, i.e. about eleven
miles N.E. of Kistufell and twelve NN.W. of Kverker
Jokull, instead of at the base of Kistufell. The grand
old wattr-course it has vacated Ibims an excellent road
for several miles. I feel sure Iceland must slowly but
surely in course of time succumb to the same fate as
befell the Greenland colonies.

"I am no«v about to proceed to the active volcanoes
upon the north of Vatna Jokull. They are situated in the
part of the Odalters-brauu called Dyngurfjdllum, and as
1 expect in the Kverker Jokull. I shall have no time to
hunt for any more this year, but if time will allow I shall
visit the source of the great lava stream of Skaptar
Jokull, a mountain I saw from the Vatna Jokull, situated
in its S.W. limb, which I think may repay inspection ; and
the lignite in the N.W. of Iceland.

"The destruction wrought by the eruptions of last
winter is considerable. Several farms have been ruined by
pumice and ash. Poor, dirty, interesting Iceland ! both
fire and water, the latter in all its forms, appear to con-
spire against ic."

ON AN IMPROVED OPTICAL ARRANGE^
ME NT l-OR AZIMUIHAL CONDENSING
APPARATUS EOR LIGh J HOUSES

r^RDINARY optical apparatus adapted for a lighthouse which
^^ has to illuminate the whole horizon, as at rock or insular
stations, is unsuitable for stations situate on the coast line, or in
narrow sounds, where the light has in some azimuths to be seen
at great distances, in others at smaller, and where towards the
land no light is wanted at all. The problem in such cases is to
allocate the rays in the different azimuths in proportion to the
distances and breadths of sea in which the light requires to be
seen in those directions by the sailor. Before 1855 no attempt

334

NATURE

\Aug. 26, 187

was made to deal with this - question, excepting the simple
expedient of placing a spherical mirror on the landward side,
where no light was wanted, and thus the rays intercepted by the
mirror were reflected back again through the flame, so as to be
ultimately aced on by the apparatus at the seaward side. But
this device did not in any way fulfil the condition of allocating
the rays proportionally to the varying distances at which the
light had to be seen in the different azimuths, nor to the ampli-
tude of the arcs. What was required wrs a system by which the
■whole light from the lamp should be spread horizontally and 7t'ith
strict equality over any ^iven arc in azimuth ; and at a light of
umqual range, which must be sen at dij^erent distances in dtj^cr-
ent az'muths, the rays should he allocatid to each of such arcs in
the compound ratio of the number tf Jegrees and the distances
from which the I'^ht has to be seen in such arcs.

It is unnecessary to give a description of the vnrious methods
of solving this problem for fixed and revolving lights, which I
have elsewhere published under the name of " Azimuthal Con-
densing Lights."^ All that is here required is to indicate gene-
rally the mode of dealirg with fixed condensing lights, which
was first employed for .some narrow navigable channels on the
west coast of Scotland in 1857, and which is now adopted in
many different countries.

We shall take a case of the simplest kind in order to illustrate
the principle : —

Let a lamp be surrounded b) the'fixed light apparatus of Fresnel,

which allows the rays to pass through it unaltered in direction
in azimuth, so as thus to show a light of equal intensity all round
the horizon, but which operates on the rays in altitude by bend-
ing upwards, to the horizontal, those rays which would fall on
the lightroom floor and be lost, and also by bending downwards
to the horizontal those rays which would naturally pnss up to the ,
clouds. This instrument then strengthens the light passing to
the sailor's eye, by bending upwards and downwards those rays
which would otherwise be entirely lost. Suppose, however, that
the light docs not require to be seen at all in an arc in the
direction of the land, and that there are two other sectors in azi-
muth in which the light has to be seen at greater distances than
any others. If we place outside of Fresnel's apparatus In the
azimuths towards the land (which may therefore be made dark)
straiglit prisms which have each the property of spreading the
light that falls on them over the sectors that require most
strength, and if we proportion the number of these stta'ght
prismi to the required distances and to thp number of degrees
which have to be illuminaterl, we shall then fulfil this simplest case
of the problem, viz., the due strengthening of the light in tlie
directions of the longest ranges, and its uniform distribution in
azimuth over those sectors.

The diagram represents in horizontal middle section the design
for a new light which is about to be erected and which requires to
illuminate different arcs with light of different intensity. A is the
lamp encircled in front by B, which represents part of Fresnel's

'/'-'

'>f

1^ / . Bar ^ ^ ' K*' * J , r * A/ y^ft ■/ ^'^ ^'^

vwwWW

fixed light apparatus, outside of which are shown straight vertical
piisms numbered I to 14 for condensing the rays over the arcs in
azimuth that have to be s'rengthei.ed, and which arcs have cor-
responding numbers I to 14. The novelty in this arrangement
is the mode adopted for reducing the space which would other-
wise be occupied by the condensing prisms but for which there
is no room in a lantern of ordinary size.

My friend Piof. Swan, of St. Andiews, among other ingenious
devices in a paper read to the Royal Scottish Society of Arts, pro-
posed, in order to reduce the space occupied by the apparatus, to
place prisms behind others and to project the rays from the prisms
behind, forwards through spaces left between the prisms in fiont.
In the piescnt design I have availed myself of this pioposal.
The prisms 10 to 14 throw their light between the pritms 3 to 8.
Owing, however, to the natural divergence due to the size of the
flame, much useful light would be lost by impinging agaibst the
edges of the outer prisms unless those prisms were separated
farther from each other in order to afford wider spaces for the
conts of light to pass through. But this again would in ci ease
the space occupied by the apparatus. The difhculiy may be
overcome by cutting out the apex of the outer prisms as shown
in piisms 4 to 9. This would, as in Buffon's annular lens, also
maieiially reduce the absorption of the light which passes
through them. For facility of construction, however, instead of
one prism cut in this manner, two small separate prisms arranged

^ Edin. New Phil. Journal, 1855, p. 273. " Lighthouse Illumination," Edin-
burgh, 1871 ; second edition, p. 79.

symmetrieally with the la:ger one have Lecn subbti.uted.^ Dy
means of these groups of i7o/«/rw»w the apparatus is xeduced
within prac ieable dimensions, while the quantity of glass em-
ployed in the apparatus is materially lessened, and the loss from
absorption is reduced by about one-tenth.

It is only necessary to add that while the cost of the first appa-
ratus of the kind will be increased by the greater nuu ber of
moulds required for casting the prisms, it will on the other hand
be reduced by the smaller quantity of glass required. The
amount of glass surface which has to be grour.d and polished is
ol course the same for each pair of twin prisms as for one sinj;le
large prism.

The new apparatus will, in addition to what has been de-
scribed, require at the back of the flame the Dioptric spherical
mirror whieh I pn posed in 1849^ with the improvements sujj-
gested by Mr. J. T. Chance in ib62, atjd above the flarm,
prisiiiS of the new forms suggested by Mr. Brebner and m>SLl ,
and also independently by Prof Swan, and which were first iniro-
duced at Loehindaal in Argyllshire, in 1869.^ The apparatus
will therefore embrace in all six different optical agent.s, and will
compress into one sector of 82° light wliieh would liaturally
diverge uselessly over 278'. This condensing apparatus is, how-
ever, uot nearly so powenul as others now in use. In the two

' If ihe .'piibrn be of large size, more than two prisms may of course 1,?
substituted,
* Trans. Roy. Scott. Soc. of Arts, 1850.
3 "Lighthouse Illumination," p. 75-

Aug. 26, 1875]

NATURE

335

wliich I designed for Buddonness-on-the-Tay, one of which was
exhibited r.t'the Paris International Exhibition, the whole sphere
of light was con-ipressed into ore sector of 45°, and in another
design !atcly made for the Colonies the light is condensed into
30'. Thomas Stevenson

THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION

Bristol, Tuesday Evening

BRISTOL bids fair fully to accomplish its intention of
giving the Association one of the best recep'ions
it has ever received. When the visitor has laboured
through the inconveniences of the railway station, and
got fairly at home in this region of hills and vallejs, and
cliffs and quays, and churches and chimney stacks, he
will find himself as happily situated as anyone but a
confirmed grumbler could wish.

The local committee have evidently spared no expense
to increase the comfort of visitors. The engagement of
the entire Victoria Rooms for reception rooms has given
ample space for almost every requirement. The great
hall itself contains many of the necessary offices, including
those for the local officials, sale of tickets of all kinds,
distribution of printed circulars, and a telegraph and post-
office ; in addition, Messrs. Bin:^ham's book-stall supplies
all kinds of journals and scientific publications. A first-
rate refreshment room occupies one of the smaller halls,
and a reasonable tariff of prices is published. Almost
every want seems to have been anticipated, and the
honorary local secretaries, Messrs. W. Lant Carpenter
and J. F. Clarke, with many other zealous workers, have
been labouring untiringly to have everything in order. So
successful were ti.ey, that the reception rooms were
opened exactly at the moment previously announced —
one o'clock on Monday ; and the first rush to secure
tickets was most satisfactorily worked off. It will be
surprising if the amount expended do not exceed
the local subscription of 2,400/. At any rate, so far as
experience goes at present, that full success is likely to be
realised which is worth very much more than can be
measured by money. The Mayor (Mr. Thomas) to-day
took up his residence at the Mansion House, where he
■«ill receive the President-elect, Lady Hawkshaw, and
other distinguished visitors. Most of the notable visitors
conie as invited guests.

The columns ot Nature would certainly fail me if I
attempted to enumerate the objects of interest here which
are thrown open freely to members of the Association.
Churches, old buildirgs of all k ndi^, libraries, ships,
quays, warehouses, parks, and mansions are alike at the
disposal of the vititois.

Notable amongst hospitalities will be the banquet of the
Merchant Venturers' Society, at which about a hundred
of ihe lead.ng members of the Association will be enter-
tained on Tuesday evening next. The hall of the
Merchant Venturers has lately been decorated with a
magnificence worthy of their distinguished history. The
sovfcieigns who granted them thaiters, the Bristol
worthies, Edward Colston, Alderman Whitson, Sebastian
Cabot, William Canyrge, and Thomas Daniel are all
commeuiorated by portraits or arms ; while the staircase
and vestibule bear significant emblems of seafaring life.
Saturday nt xt is the jubilee of the Bath Royal Literary
and Scientific Institution. This will Le celebrated by a
public meetirg and banquet, presided over by the Earl
of Cork, iord-lieuienant of the county. Sir John Hawk-
shaw and many other distirguished guests are expected.

As a matter of course nearly all the eminent British
men of science are expected to be present, and many of
them have already arrived. Among foreign visitors who
have arrived or are expected, there are Prof. Paul Gervais,
of Paris ; Chevalier Negti, President of the Geographical
Society of Turin ; Chevalier Bergeron, C.E., Paris ; Prof.

Geinitz, Dresden ; Prof. Hubert, Paris ; Dr. Leitner ; Prof.
Youman-:, United States ; Mr. H. A. Rowland, Balti-
more ; Prof, Janssen, Paris ;' M. L^on Vanderkinden,
Brussels University ; Dr. A. Oppenheim, Berhn ; Colonel
Carrington, Wababh College, U.S.

Of course the general meetings, inaugural address, lec-
tures, and soirdes will be given in the Colston's Hall, which
can seat 3,000 persons. 1 he sections are accommodated in
a number of buildings extending along one line of tho-
roughfare, from the Wesleyan schoolroom in Victoria
Place to the Royal Hotel at College Green. Sections A
and G sit in the Fine Arts Academy ; B in the Lecture
Theatre, Freemasons' Hall ; C in the New Museum
Lecture Room ; D in three departments at Hamilton's
Rooms, Park Street, the Grammar Schou', and the Royal
Hotel ; E in the Blind Asylum Music Room ; F in the
schoolroom of Victoria Chapel. On the back of every
Association Ticket a plain map of about cne square
mile of Clifton is printed, showing in red colours all the
buildings used for meetings. This is a most valuable
help for visitors.

A first-rate loan museum is exhibited in the new portion
of the Museum buildings, and is well worthy of attention.
Among the most interesting things to be seen are speci-
mens from many local collieries of every vein of coal they
work, local building-stones and clays ; and capital illus-
trations of local zoology and botany. The Museum proper
isnoticcable for its splendid collection of Triassic reptiles,
Lab> rinthodonts, and Pala,ozoic fishes, especially Theco-
dontosaurus and Cetalodus., A splendid skeleton o{ Ich-
thyosaurus platyodon\\3iS]\xsi'beG.nmo\xn\.\^6.. It was de-
tected by Mr. Tawney on the beach near Lyme Regis, close
to low-water mark. It was brought up in large fragments
of over a hundred-weight, in all over a ton, and developed
under Mr. Tawney's supeiintender.ce. The skeleton is
swung instead of being supported from beneath, according
to an idea of Dr. H. Fripp, and it can be examined very
closely, and on both sides, being placed on a stand of the
ordinary height of table cases. It was an enormous indi-
vidual. The present remains, although lacking the snout
and much of the tail, extend to a length of about twenty-
five feet.

The excursions for Thursday week are numerous and
calculated to please all tastes; they are to (i) Bath, (2)
Bowood and Avebury, (3) Cheddar, (4) Chepstow and
Tintern, (5) Porlishead, Cadbury Camp, and Clevedon,
(6) Salisbury and Stonehenge, (7) Sources of Bristol
Waterworks Supply, (8) Tort»vorih and Damcry Bridge.
(9) Wells and Cheddar, (10) Weston-super-Mare.

The arrangemenis for transit and entertainment are
most complete. The soirdes give promise ef great
success. The first is to be unoer the auspices of the
Bristol and Baih Natural History Societies, and many
specimens of living microscopic animals will Le ex-
hibited. At the second, the post office officials intend
to make a very elaborate display of teU graphic ii.siiu-
ments and processes.

It is worthy of remaik that it was at the meeting of the
Association at Bristol in 1836 that Section G (Mecliaaical)
Was instituted ; and at that meeting Dr. Lardner ex-
pressed his opinion that the proposed scheme of crossii.g
the AJantic by steam was an impossibility. From
Bristol, however, the first steam-ship traversed the
Atlantic to Ne>v Yoik.

It was in the Bristol district that macadamised roads
were first introduced ; some of the earliest docks (»8o>)
were made there under tne direction of Mr. W. Jessop ;
and on the Somersetshire Canal was tried Mr. Weldon's
extraordinary h>diostalic lock.

To geologists there is the interesting fact that within
twelve miles on the Somersetshire Coal Canal, the
" father of English geology " made his discovery of the
sequence of strata ; and geographers vyill recollect that
Sebaitian Cabot sailed from Bristol,

336

NATURE

\Ang. 26, 1875

Inaugural Address of Sir John Hawkshaw, F.R.S.,
President.

To those on whom the British Association confers the
honour of presiding over its meetings, the choice of a subject
presents some difficulty.

The Presidents of Sections, at each annual meeting, give an
account of what is new in iheir respective departments ; and
essays on science in general, though desirable and interesting in
the earlier years of the Association, would be less appropriate
to-day.

Past Presidents have already discoursed on many subjects, on
things organic and inorganic, on the mind and on things perhaps
beyond the reach of mind, and I have arrived at the conclusion
that humbler themes will not be out of place on this occasion.

I propose in this Address to say something of a profession to
which my lifetime has been devoted — a theme which cannot
perhaps be expected to stand as high in your estimation as in
my own, and I may have same difficulty in making it interesting;
but I have chosen it because it is a subject I ought to under-
stand better than any other. I propose to say something on its
origin, its work, and kindred topics.

Rapid as has been the growth of knowledge and skill as
applied to the art of the engineer during the last century, we
must, if we would trace its oriijin, seek far back among the
earliest evidences of civilisation.

In early times, when settk d communities were few and isolated,
the opportunities for the interchange of knowledge were scanty
or wanting altogether. Oiten ihe slowly accumulated results of
the experience of the wisest heads and the most skiliul hands of
a community were lost on its downfall. Inventions of one period
were lost and found again. Many a patient investigator has
puzzled his brain in trying to solve a problem which had yielded
to a more fortunate labourer in the same field some centuries
before.

The ancient Egyptians had a knowledge of Metallurgy, much
of which was lost during the years of decline which followed the
golden age of their civilisation. The art of casting bronze over
iron was known to the Assyrians, though it has only lately been
introduced into modern metallurgy ; and patents were granted
in 1609 for processes connected with the manufacture of glass,
which had been practised centuries before.' An inventor in the
reign of Tiberius deviled a method of producing flexible glass,
but the manufactory of the artist was totally de.-troyed, we are
told, in order to prevent the manufactuie of copper, silver, and
gold from becoming depreciated. *

Again and again engineers as well as others have made mis-
takes Irom not knowing what those fiad done who have gone
before them, and have had the same difficulties to contend with.
In the long discussion which took place as to the practicability of
making the Suez Canal, an early objection was brought against
it that there was a difference of 32, ieet between the level of the
Red Sea and that of the Mediterranean, Laplace at once
declared that such could not be the case, for the mean level of
the sea was the same on all parts of the globe. Centuries
before the time of Laplace the same objection had been raised
against a project for joining the waters of these two seas. Accord-
ing to the old Greek and Roman historians, it was a fear of flood-
ing Lgypt with the waters of the Red Sea that made Darius,
and in later times again Ptolemy, hesitate to open the canal
between Suez and the Niie.^ Yet this canal was made, and was
in use some centuries before the time oi Darius.

Strabo* tells us that the same objection, that the adj ->ining
seas were of different levels, was made by his engineers to Deme-'
trius,^ who wished to cut a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth
some two thousand years ago. But Strabo * dismisses at once
this idea of a difference of level, agreeing with Archimedes ttiat
the force of gravity spreads the sea equally over the earth.

When knowledge in its higher branches was confined to a few,
those who possessed it were often called upon to perform many
and various services for the communities to which they belonged ;
and we find mathematicians and astronomers, painters and sculp-
tors, and priests called upon to perform the duties which now
pertain to the profession of the architect and the engineer. And
as soon as civilisation had advanced so far as to admit of theaccu.

' Layard's " Nineveh and Babylon," p. 191 ; Beckman's " HLstory of In-
ventions," vol. ii. p. 85.

^ Pliny, Nat. Hist., bk. xxxvi. c. 66.
3 Ibid., bk. vi. c. 33.
■* Sirabo, c. iii J 11.

5 Demetrius J., King of Macedonia, died 283 b.c.

6 Strabo, c. iii. § 12.

mulation of wealth and power, then kings and rulers sought to add
to their glory while living by the erection of mag.iificent dwelling-
places, and to provide for their aggrandizement alter death by the
construction of costly tombs and temples. Accordingly we soon
find men of ability and learning devodng a great part of their
time to building and architecture, and the post of architect be-
came one of honour and profit. In one of the most ancient
quarries of Fgypt a royal high architect of the dynasty of the
Psammetici has left his pedigree sculptured on the rock, extend-
ing back for twenty-three generations, all of whom held the
same post in succession in connection with considerable sacerdotal
offices. ^

As there were in these remote times ofTficers whose duty it was
to design and construct, so al.so tl^ere were those whose duty it
was to maintain and repair the royal polaces and temples. In
Assyria, 700 years before our era, as we know from a tablet
found in the palace of Sennacherib by Mr. Smith, there was an
officer whose title was the Master of Works. The tablet I allude
to is inscribed with a petition to the king from an officer in
charge of a palace, requesting that the master of works may be
sent to attend to some jepairs which were much needed at the
time. *

Under the Roman Empire there was almost as great a division
of labour in connection with building and design as now exists.
The great works of that period were executed and maintained
by an army of officers and workmen, who had special duties
assigned to each of them.

Passing by those early attempts at design and construction
which supplied the mere wants of the individual and the house-
hold, it is to the East that we must turn it we would find the
earliest works which display a knowledge of engineering.
Whether the knowledge of engineering, if we may so call it,
possessed by the people of Chaldsea and Babylonia was of native
growth or was borrowed from Egypt is, perhaps, a question
which cannot yet be answered. Both people were agricultural,
dwelling on fertile plains, intersected by great rivers, with a soil
requiring water only to enable it to bring forth inexhaustible
crops. Similar circumstances would create similar wants, and
stimulate to action similar faculties to satisfy them. Apart from
the question of priority ol knowledge, we know that at a very
early period, some four or five thousand years ago at least, there
were men in Mesopotamia and Egypt who possessed consider-
able mechanical knowledge, and no little skill in hydraulic

engineering.

Of the men themselves we know little

happily, works often remain when the names of those who con-
ceived and executed them have long been forgotten.

It has been said that architecture had its origin not only in
nature, but in religion ; and if we regard the earliest works which
required mechanical knowledge and skill, the same may be said
of engineering. The largest stones were chosen for sacred
buildii.gs, that they might be more enduring as well as more im-
posing, thereby calling lor improvement and invention of mechan-
ical contrivances, to assist in transporting and elevating them to
the position they were to occupy ; for the same reason the hardest
and most costly materials were chosen, calling for further im-
provement in the metal forming the tools required to work them.
The woiking of metals was luither perfected in making images
of the gods, and in adorning with the more precious and orna-
mental sorts the interior and even external parts cf their shrines.

The earliest buildings ol stone to which we can assign a date
with any approach to accuracy, are the pyramids of Gizeh. To
their builders they were sacred buildings, even more sacred than
their temples or temple palaces. They were built to preserve
the royal remains, until, after a lapse of 3,000 years, which we
have jeason to believe was the period assigned, the spirit which
hid once animated the body should re-enter it.^ Although built
5,000 years ago, the masonry of the Pyramids could not be sur-
passed in these days ;all those who have seen and examined them,
as I myself have done, agree in this ; moreover, the design Is
perfect fur the purpose for which they were intended, above all
LO endure. The building of pyramids in Egypt continued for
some ten centuries, and from 60 to 70 still remain, but none are
so admirably constructed as those of Gizeh. Still, many con-
tain enormous blocks of granite from 30 to 40 feet long, weigh-
ing more than 300 tons, and display the greatest ingenuity in
the way in which the sepulchral chambers are constructed and
concealed.*

I "Discoveries in Egypt, Ethiopa, &c.," by Dr. Lepsius.'and edit. p. 318

' Smith's (G.) " Assyrian Discuveries," 2nd edit. p. 414.

3 Fergusson's " History of Architecture," vol. i. p. 83 ; Wilkinson
"Ancient Egyptians," 2nd series, vol. ii. p. 444.

* Vyse's "Pyramid's of Gizeh," vol. iii. pp. 16, 41, 45, 57-

Aji^-. 26, 1875J

NATURE

337

The genius for dealing with large masses in building did not
pass away with the pyramid builders in Egypt, but their descen-
dants continued to gain in mechanical knowledge, judging from
the enormous blocks which they liandled with precision. When
the command of human labour was unlimited, the mere trans-
port of such blocks as the statue of Rameses the Great, for
mstance, which weighed over 800 tons, need not so greatly ex-
cite our wonder ; and we know how such blocks were moved
from place to place, for it is shown on the wall paintings of
tombs of the period which still remain.

But as the weight of the mass to be moved is increased, it
becomes no longer a question of only providing force in the shape
of human bone and muscle. In moving in the last century the
block which now fonns the base for the statue of Peter the Great,
at St. Petersburg, and which weighs 1,200 tons, force could be
applied as much as was wanted, but great difficulty was experienced
in supporting it, and the iron balls on which it was proposed to
roll the block along were crushed, and a harder metal had to be
substituted. > To facilitate the transport of material, the Egyp-
tians made solid causeways of granite from the Nile to the
Pyramids ; and in the opinion of Herodotus, who saw them,
the causeways were more wonderful works than the Pyramids
themselves."

The Egyptians have left no record of how they accomplished
a far more difficult operation than the mere transport of weight —
that is, how they erected obelisks weighing more than 400 tons.
Some of these obelisks must have been lifted vertically to place
them in position, as they were by Fontana m Rome in later
times, when the knowledge of mechanics, we know, was far
advanced.*

The practice of using large blocks of stone either as monoliths
or as forming parts of structures has existed from the earliest times
in all parts of the world.

The Peruvians used blocks weighing from 15 to 20 tons, and
fitted them with the greatest nicety in their cleverly designed
fortifications.*

In India large blocks were used in bridges when the repug-
nance of Indian bujlders to the use of the arch rendered them
necessary, or in temp>les, where, as in the Temple of the Sun at
Orissa, stones weighing from 20 to 30 tons form part of the
pyramidal roof at a height of from 70 to 80 feet from the ground.'
Even as late as the last century, Indians, without the aid of
machinerj', were using blocks of granite above 40 feet long for
the doorposts of the gateway of Seringham, and roofing blocks
of the same stone for a span of 21 feet.*

At Persepolis, in the striking remains of the palaces of Xerxes
and Darius, more than one traveller has noted the great size of
the stones, some of which are stated to be 55 feet long and 6 to
10 feet broad.

So in the Greek temples vi Sicily, many of the blocks in the
upper parts of the temples an? from 10 to 20 tons weight.

The Romans, though they did not commonly use such large
stones in their own constructioi.<3, carried off the largest obelisks
from Egypt and erected them .it Rome, where more are now
to be found than remain in Egypt. In the temples of Baalbek,
erected under Roman rule, perhaps the largest stones are to be
found which have been used for liuilding since the time of the
Pharaohs. The terrace wall of on ? of the temples is composed
of three courses of stones, none of which are less than 30 feet
long ; and one stone still lies in th«^ quarry squared and ready
for transjiort, which is 70 feet lonjj and 14 feet square, and
weighs upwards of 1,135 'o"s, or ne.irly as much as one of the
tubes of the Britannia Bridge.

I have not meniiontd dolmens and menhirs, rude unhewn
stones often weighing from 30 or 40 to«s, which are found from
Ireland 10 India, and from Scandinavia to the At'a^, in Africa.
To transpoit and erect such rude masseb required httle mecha-
nical knowledge or skill, and the opeMtion has excited more
wonder than it de?crves. Moreover, Fergusson has gone far to
show that the date assigned to many of tliem hitherto has been
lar too remote ; mos.t, and possibly all, of those in northern and
western Europe having been erected since t.\ie time of the Roman

' Kondelet's "Traite de I'Art de BSlir," voL i. p. 73.

^ Herodotus, bk. ii. c. 124.

3 For obelisk erected at Aries, 1676, see RonH.olet's " L'Art de Batir,"
vol. 1. p. 48. Its weight was nearly 200 tons, and it was suspended vertically
by light ships' roasts

* Fergujson's " History of Architecture," voL ii. p. 779 ; Squier, " Peru,"
p. 24.

5 The Temple of the Sun was built i337-x28a A. D.— Hunter's " Orissa,"
vol. i pp. 288, 297.

6 Ferguison's " Kude Stone Moutunents," p. 96.

occupation. And to this day the same author shows that men-
hirs, single stones often weighing over 20 tons, are erected by hill
tribes of India in close proximity to stone buildings of elaborate
de.«ign and finished execution, erected by another race of men. ^

For whatever purpose these vast stones were selected — whether
to enhance the value or to prolong the endurance of the build-
ings of which they formed a part — the tax on the ingenuity of
those who moved and placed them must have tended to advance
the knowledge of mechanical appliances.

The ancient Assyrians and Egyptians had possibly more know-
ledge of mechanical appliances than they are generally credited
with. In the wall paintings and sculptures which show their
mode of transporting large blocks of stone, the lever is the
only mechanical power represented, and which they appear to
have used in such operations ; nor ought we to expect to find
any other used, for, where the supply of human labour was un-
limited, the most expeditious mode of dragging a heavy weight
along would be by human power ; to have applied pulleys and
capstans, such as would now be employed in similar undertak-
ings, would have been mere waste of time. In some countries,
even now, where manual labour is more plentiful than mecha-
nical appliances, large numbers of men are employed to trans-
port heavy weights, and do the woik in less time than it could
be done with all our modern mechanical appliances. In other
operations, such as raising obelisks, or the large stones used in
their temple palaces, where human labour could not be applied
to such advantage, it is quite possible that the Egyptians used
mechanical aids. On one of the carved slabs which formed part
of the wall panelling of the palace of Sardanapalus, which was
built about 930 years before our era, a single pulley is clearly
shown, by which a man is in the act of raising a bucket — pro-
bably drawing water from a well.*

It has sometimes been questioned whether the Egyptians had
a knowledge of steel. It seems unreasonable to deny them this
knowledge. Iron was known at the earliest times of which we
have any record. It is often mentioned in the Bible, and in
Homer ; it is shown in the early paintings on the walls of the
tombs at Thebes, where butchers are represented as sharpening
their knives on pieces of metal coloured blue, which were most pro-
bably pieces of steel. -^ Iron has been found in quantity in the ruined
palaces of Assyria ; and in the inscriptions of that country fetters
are spoken of as having been made of iron, which is also so
mentioned in connection with other metals as to lead to the sup-
position that it was regarded as a base and common metal.
Moreover, in the Great Pyramid a piece of iron was found in a
place where it must have lain for 5,000 years. * The tendency of
iron to oxidize must render its preservation for any long period
rare and exceptional. The quality of iron which is now made
by the native races of Africa and India is that which is known as
wrought iron ; in ancient times. Dr. Percy says the iron which
was made was always wrought iron. It is very nearly pure iron,
and a very small adaition of carbon would convert it into steel.
Dr. Percy says the extraction of good malleable iron directly
from the ore "requires a degree of skill very far inferior to that
which is implied in the manufacture of bronze."' And there is
no great secret in making steel ; the natives of India now make
excellent steel in the most primitive way, which they have
practised from time immemorial. When steel is to be made, the
proportion of charcoal used with a given quantity of ore is some-
what larger, and the blast is applied more slowly than when
wrought iron is the metal required. ^ Thus, a vigorous native
working the bellows of skin would make wrought iron where a
lazy one would have made steel. The only apparatus required
for the manufacture of the finest steel from iron ore is some clay
for making a small furnace four feet high, and from one to two
broad, some charcoal for fuel, and a skin with a bamboo tuyere
for creating the blast.

The supply of iron in India as early as the fourth and fifth
centuries seems to have been unlimited. The iron pillar of Dellii
is a remarkable work for such an early period. It is a single
piece of wrought iron 50 feet in length, and it weighs not less
than 17 tons.'^ How the Indians forged this large mass of iron
and other heavy pieces which their distrust of the arch led them
to u.se in the construction of roofs, we do not know. In the

' Fergu.sson's " Kude Stone Monuments," pp 461-465.
^ Layard's " Nineveh and its Remains;," vol. ii. p. 31.

3 Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians*," vol. iii. p. 347.

* Vyse's " Pyramids of Gi^eh," vol.i. p. 275.

5 Percy's " Iron and Steel," p. 873. 6 Ibid. p. 259.

^ Fergusson's " Hi.story of Architecture," vol. ii. p. 460; and " Rude
Stone Monuments," " "

India,' vol. i. p. 169.

1-3. Cunningham's " ArcheoTogicad Survey of

338

NATURE

[Aug. 26, 1875

temples of Orissa iron was used in large masses as beams or
girders in roof- work in the thirteenth century.^

The influence of the discovery of iron on the progress of art
and science cannot be over-estimated. India well repaid any
advantage which she may have derived from the early civilised
communities of the West if she were the first to supply them
with iron and steel.

An interesting social problem is afforded by a comparis-^n of
the relative conditions of India and this country at the present
t'me. Indi.-i, from thirty to forty centuries ago, was skilled in
the manufacture of iron and cotton goods, which minufactures,
in less than a century, have done s > much for this country. It
is true that in India coal is not so abundant o' so univer- ally
distributed as in this country. Yet, if we look s*ill further
to the East, China hid probibly knowledge of the use of
metals as soon as India, and moreover had a boundless store
of iron and coal. Baron Richthofen, who has visited and
described some of the coal-fields of China, believes that one
province alone, that of Southern Shanshi, could supply the world
at its present rate of consumption for several thousand years.
The coal is near the surface, and iron abounds with it. Ma^co
Polo tells us that conl was universally used a- fuel in the parts
of China which he visited towards the end of the fourteenth
centur)', and from other sources we have reison to believe it was
used there as fuel 2,cx)0 years ago. But what progress has
China made in the last ten centuries? A great future is un-
doubtedly in store for that country ; but can the race who now
dwell there develop its resources, or must they await the aid of
an Aryan race ? Or is anything more necessary than a change
of institutions, which might come unexpectedly, as in Japan ?

The art of extracting metals from the ore was practised at a very
early date in this country. The existence long ago of tin mines in
Cornwall, which are so often spoken of by classical writers, is
well known to all. That iron was also extracted from the ore
by the ancient Biitons is most probable, as it was largely used
for many purposes by them bef re the Roman conqu st. The
Romans worked iron expensively in the Weald of Kent, as we
assume from the large h'^aps of slag containing Roman coins
which still remain there. The Romans always availed themselves
of the mineral wealth of the countries which they conquered,
and their mining operations were often cirried out on the
largest scale, as in Spain, for instance, where a? many as forty
thou'^and miners were regularly emploj'ed in the mines at New
Carthage. «

Coal, which was used for ordinary purposes in England as
early as the ninth century, does not appear to have been largely
used for iron smelting until the eighteenth century, though a
patent was granted for smelting iron with coal in the year
161 1.' The use of charcoal for that purpose was not given up
in'il the beginning of this century, since which pe iod an
enormous increase in the mining and metallurgical indu tries has
tnk' n place ; the quantity of coal raised in the United Kingdom
in 1873 having amounted to 127 million tons, and the quantity
of pig iron to upwards of 6| million tons.

The early building energy of the world was chiefly spent on
the erection of tomb-, temples, and palaces.

While, in Egypt, as we have seen, the art of building in stone
1 ad 5,000 years ago reache 1 the greatest perfection, so in Meso-
potamia the art of building with brick, the only available material
in that country, was in an equally advanced state some ten
centuries later. That buildings of such a material have lasted to
this day shows how well the work was done ; their ruinous con-
dition even now is owing to their having served as quarries for
the last three or four thou;>and years, so that Xh^ name of
Nebuchadnezzar, apparently one of the greatest builders of
ancient times, is as common on the bricks of many modern
towns in Persia as it was in old times in Babylon. Ihe labour
required to construct the brick temples and palaces of Chaldsea
a:i.l Assyria must have been enormous. The mound of Koyunjik
alone contained 14I million tons, and represents the labour of
10,000 men for twelve years. The palace of Sennacheiib,
which stood on this mounU, was probabiy the largest ever built
by any one m, march, containing as it d.d more than two miles of
walls, panelled with scul^'turcd alabaster slabs, and twenty-
sc\en portals, formed by colossal bulls and sphinxes.'*

I'he pyramidal temples of Chaldsea aie not less remarkable

I Hunter's " Orissa," vol. i. p. 298.
^ Strabo, bk. iii. c. li, § 10.

3 Percy's " Iron and Steel," p. 88z.

4 Layard's " Nineveh and Babylon," p. 589.

for the labour bestowed on them, and far stirpass tbe buildings of
Assyria in the excellence of their brickwork.

The practice of building great pyramidal temples seems to
have passed eastwards to India and Bu-mah, where it apoears in
buildings of a later date, in Buddhist topes and pagodxs ; mar-
vels of skill in masonry, and far surpassing the old brick mounds
of Chaldrea in richness of design and in workmanship. Even
so late as this century a king of Burmah began to build a brick
temple of the old type, the largest building, accoriing to Eer-
gusson, which has been attempted since the Pyramids.^

The mere magnitude of many of the-e works is not so wonder-
ful when we take into account the abundance of labour which
those rulers could command. Countries were depopulated, and
their inhabitants carried oflf and made to labour for the con-
querors. The inscription"? of Assyria describe minutely the spoils
of war and the number of captives ; and in Egypt we have fre-
quent mention made of works being execu'ed by the labour o*"
captive peoples. Herodotus tells us that as many as 360,000
men were employed in building one palace for Sennacherib.*
At the same time it m\ist not be for::otten that the very character
of the multitude would demind from some one the skill and
brain to organise and direct, to design aid plan the work.

It would be surprising if men who were capable of undertak-
ing and successfully completing unproductive wor'fs of such mag-
nitude did not als-) employ their povers on works of a more
useful class. Tia':es s'ill remain of s'tch works; enough to
show, when compared with the scanty records of the times whxh
have come down to us, fiat the prosperity of s'lc*^! countries as
Egyp*^^ and Mesopotamia was not wholly dependen.t on war and
conquest, but that the reve-se was more likely the case, and that
the natural capabilities of tho-e countries w;re g/eatly enlarged
by the construction of useful wo-ks of such magnitude as to
equal, if not in some cases surpass, those of mod.era times.

Egypt was probably far better irrigated in the days of the
Pharaohs than it is now. To those unacquain red with the difii-
culties which must be met with and overcome "tiefore a successful
system of irrigation cin be carried out, even ia countries in which
the physical condition? are favourable, it may appear that nothing
more is required than an adequate supply of unskilled labour..
Far more than this was require 1 : the Egyptians had some know
ledge of surveying, for Eustathius says they recorded their
marches on maps ; '^ but such knowledge was probably in those
days very limited, and it required no or /inary grasp of mind to
see the utility of such extensive works a-; were cirried out in
Egypt and Mesopotamia, and, having S'j-n the utility, to success-
fully design and execute them. To late one in Egypt — Take
Mopiis, of which the remains have beeji explored by M. Linant,
w^as a reservoir made by one of th:^ Pi araohs, and supplied by the
flood waters of the Nile, Ic was 150, square miles in extent, and
was retained by a bank or dam f/o yards wide anl 10 high,
which can be traced for a distance f jf thirteen miles. Tiiis reser-
voir was capable of irrigating I, too square miles of country.*
No work of this class has been undertaken on so vast a scale
since, even in these days of grea £ works.

I'he prosperity of Egypt was in sj great a measure dependent
on its great river, tha'. we sh n jld expect that the Egyptian;, a
people so advanced in art and science, would at an eirly period
have made themselves acqur. jnted wi'.h its r^^itne. We knoy
that they c .refuUy registered the height of thj annual rise of its
waters ; such regist-.ri still r t nain inscribed on the rocks on the
banks of the Nile, with th,e name of the king in whose rei^n
they were imade.^ . The p topic of Mesopotamia were equally
observant of the re^hiie of ilieir great rivers, and took advantage
in designing their canals o f the diff'erent periods in the rising of
the waters of the Tigris fmd Euphrates. A special officer was
appointed in Babylon, w hose duty it was to measure the rise of
the river ; and he is m Mentioned in an inscription found in the
ruins of that city, as re tording the height of the water in the
temple of Bel.^ The Assyrians, who had a far more difficult
country to deal with. Owing to iti rocky and uneven surface,
sliowed even greater sjiill than the Babylonians iu forming their
canals, tunnellmg thrc mgh rock, aad building dams of masonry
across the Euphrates. WhiL the greater number of these canals
iu Egypt and Mesopotamia were made for the purpose of irriga-
tion, others seem to have been made to serve at the same time

* Fergusson's "^History of Architecture," vol. ii. r, 523.
^ Rawlinson's " Herodotus," vol. i. p. 3^9, 2iid edit.

3 Ibid. vol. ii p, 278, 2ad edit.

* M. Liuant's '" M6moire sur ie lac Moeris." j

5 Lepsius' " Discoveries in Egypt, &c.," p. 268.

6 Smith's " Assyrii0.n Di^overies," pp 395-7, 2iid edit.

At{^. 26, 1 8 75 J

NATURE

339

for navigation. Such was the canal which effected a junction
between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, which was a re-
markable work, hiving regard to the requiremenfs of the age in
which it was made. Its length was about eighty miles ; its
width admitted of two triremes passing one another.' At least
one of the navigable canals of Babylonia, attributed to Nebuchad-
nezzar, can compare in ex'ent with any work of later times. I
believe Sir H. Rawlinson has traced the canal to which I allude
throughout the greater part of its course, fro-n Hit on the
Euphrates to the Persian Gulf, a distance of between four and
five hundred miles. ^ It is a proof of the estimation in which
such works were held in Babylonia and Assyria, that, among
the titles of the god Vul were those of " Lord of Canals," and
"The Establisher of Irrigation W.irks."^

The springs of knowledge which had flowed so long in Baby-
lonia and Assyria were dried up at an early period. With the
fall of Babylon and destruction of Nineveh the settle \ popula-
tion of the fertile plains around them disappeared, and that
which was desert before man led the waters over it becams
desert again, affording a wide field for, and on? well worthy of,
the labours of engineers to come.

Such was not the case with Egypt. Long after the period of its
greatest prosperity was reached, it remained the fou-itain head
from whence knowledge flowed to Greece and Rome. The
philosophers of Greece and those who, like Archimedes, wre
possessed of the best mechanical knowledge of the time, re-
paired to Egypt to study and obtain the foundation of their
knowledge from thence.

Much as Greece and Rome were indebted to Egypt, it will
probably be found, as the inscribed tablets met with in the
mounds of Assyria and Chaldoea are deciphered, that the later
civilisations owe, if not more, at least as much, to those countries
as to Egypt. This is the opinion of Mr. Smith, wh<i, in his work
describing his recent interesting discoveries in the East, says that
the classical nations " bor -owed f r more from the valley of the
Euphrates than that of the Nile." ^

In the science of astronomy, which in these days is making
such marvellous discoveries, Chaldrea was undoubtedly pre-
eminent. Among the miny relics of these ancient peoples
which Mr. Smith has recently brought to this country is a
portion of a metal astrolabe from the palace of Sennacherib, and
a tablet on which is recorded the division of the heavens accord-
ing to the four seasons, and the rule for regulating the inter-
calary month of the year. Not only did the Chaldieans map
out the heavens and arrange the sta^s, but they traced the m itism
of the planets, and observed the appearance of comets ; they
fixed the signs of the zodiac, and they studied the sun and moon
and the periods of eclipse=.'

But to return to that branch of knowledge to which I wish
more particularly to draw your attention, as it grew and spread
fiom ea't to west, from Asia over Europe. Of all nations of
Europe the Greeks were most intimately connected with the
civilisation of the East. A maritime people by the nature of the
land they lived in, colonisation followed as a matter of course on
the tracks of their trading vessels ; and thus, more than any
other people, they helped to spread Eastern knowledge along
the shores of the Mediterranean, and throughout the sou;h of
Europe.

The early constructive works of Greece, till about the seventh
century B.C., form a strong con'rast to those of its more pros-
perous days. Common'y called Pclasgian, they are mote remark-
able as engineering works than admirable as those which fol-
lowed them were for architectural beauty. Walls of huge
unshapely stones — admirably fitted tt)gether, however — tunnels,
and brid;^es, characterise this period. In Greece, during the
few and glorious centuries which followed, the one aim in all
construction was to please the eye, to gratify the sense of beauty ;
and in no a^e was tlia.t aim more tlioroughly and satisfactorily
attained.

In these days, when sanitary questions attract each year more
attention, we may call to mind that twenty-three centuries ago
the c'ty of Agrigentum possessed a system of sewers, which, on
account of their large size, were thought worthy of mention by
Diodorus,*" Tiiis is not, however, the first record of towns
being drained ; the well-known Cloaca Maxima, which farmed
part of the drainage syst' m ot Rome, was built some two centu-

» Herodotus, bk ii. c. clviii.

'^ Rawlinson's " Herodotus," vol. i. p. 420, and edit.
3 Ibid. p. 498.

*• SmUh's (G ) "Assyrian Discoveries," p. 451, and edit. 5 Ibid.

6 Agrigentum was a celebrated Greek city, founded B.C. 582, population
200,000 (DioJorus, 406 B.C.), drained by Phoeax, who lived B.C. 480.

ries earlier, and great, vaulted drains passed beneath the palace
mounds of unburnt brick at Nimroud and Babylon ; and pos-
sibly we owe the preservation of many of the interesting remains
f )und in the brick mounds of Chaldoea to the very elaborate
system of pipe drainage discovered in them, and described by
Loftus,'

Whilst Telasgian art was being superseded in Greece, the city
of Rome was f junded in the eighth century before our era ; and
Etruscan art in I'aly, Ike the Pelasgian art in Greece, was
slowly merged in that of an Ary-in race. The Etniscans, like
the Pelas'^ians and the old E yptians, wer» Turanians, and
remarkable for their purely constructive or engineering works.
Their c'ty walls far surpass those of any other anci'^nt race, and
their drainage works and tunnels are most remirkabL".

The only age which can compnr-^ with the present one in the
rapid extension of utilitarian works over the face of the civilised
world, is that during which the Romans, an Arym race, as we
are, were in power. As Fergusson has said, the missi'm of the
Aryan races appears to be to pervade the world with useful and
industrial arts. That thv Romans adorned their bridge", their
aqueducts, and their roads ; thnt with a sound knowledge of
construction they frequently made if subs'>rvi.':nt to decoration,
was partly owing to the mixture of E:ras'^^n or Tura^i'an blood
in their veins, and partly to their great wealth, which made them
disregard cost in their construction, and to their love of display.
It would be impossible for me to do ju tice to even a small
pa'-t of the engineering works which have survived fourteen
centuries of s'rife, and remain to this day as monunnents of the
skill, the energy, and ability of the great Roman people. For-
tunately, their works are mo-e accessible than those of which I
have spoken hitherto, and many of you are probably already
familiar with them.

Conquerors of the greater part of the civili-ed world, the ad-
mirable organisation of the Romans enabled them to make good
use of the unbounded resources which were a* their disposal. Yet,
while the capital was enriched, the development of the resources
of the most; distant provinces of the empire was never neglected.
War, with all its attendant evils, has o*^ten indirectly benefited
mankind. In the long sieges which took place during the old
wars of Greece and Rome, the inventive power of man was
taxed to the utmost to provide machines for attack and defence.
The ablest mathematicians and philosophers were pressed into
the service, and helpei to turn the scale in favour of their em-
ployers. The world has to regret the loss of more than one,
who, hke Archimedes, fell slain by the soldiery while applying
the best scientific knowledge of the day to devising means of
defence during th^ s'e^e.^ In these day>, t lO, science owes
much to the labours of engineers an I able men, whose time is
spent in making an I impro/ing gun", the materials composing
them, and armour plates to resist them, or in studying the
motion of ships of war in a seaway.

The necessuy for roads and bridges for military purposes has
led to their being made where the necessary stimulus from other
causes was wanting ; and so means o"" communication, and the
interchange of commodities, so essential to the prosperity of any
community, have thus been provided. Such was the case under
the R )man Empire. So, too, in later tines the ambition of
Napoleon covered France and the countries suliject to her with
an admirable syste.ri of military road:. At the same time, we
must do Napoleon the justice of saying that his genius and fore-
sight gave a great impetus to the construction of all work ; favour-
able to commercial pr igress. So, again, in this country it was
the rebellion of 1745, and the want felt of roads for military
purposes, which first led to the construe. ion of a system of roads
in it unequalled since the time of the Roman occupation. And
lastly, in India, in Germany, au 1 in Russia, more than one
example coul 1 be pointed out where industry will benefit by
railways which have originated in military precautions rather
than in commercial requirements.

But to return to Rome. Roads followed the tracks of her
hgions into the most distant provinces of the empire. Three
hundred and seventy-two greai roads are enumerated, together
more than 48,000 miles ui lenglli, according to the uiuerary of
Antoninus.

The wa'er supply of Rome during the first century of our era
would suffijc for a population of seve 1 millions, supplied at the
rate at which the present population of London is supplied.
This water was conveyed to Rome by nine aj^ueluctj; and in

' Rawlinson's " Five Ancient Monarchies," vol. x. pp 89, 90, and edit.
^ Archimed* , B c. 287-212 ; killed at tlic siege of Syracuse by the Roman
oldiers. § . - .

340

NATURE

[Aug, 26, 1875

later years the supply was increased by the construction of five
more aqueducts. Three of the old aqueducts have sufficed to
supply the wants of the city in modern times. These aqueducts
of Rome are to be numbered among her grandest engineering
works. ^ Time will not admit ot my saying anything about her
harbour works and b'idges, her basilicas and baths, and nume-
rous other works in Europe, in Asia, and in Africa. Not only
were these works executed in a substantial and perfect manner,
but they were maintained by an efficient staff of men divided
into bodies, each having their special duties to perform. The
highest officers of state superintended the construction of works,
were proud to have their names associated with them, and con-
structed extensive works at their own expense.

Progress in Europe stopped with the fall of the Roman
Empire. In the fourth and succeeding centuries the barbarian
hordes of Western Asia, people who felt no want of roads and
bridge"!, swept over Europe to plunder and destroy.

With th'i seventh century began the rise of the Mohammedan
power, and a partial return to conditions apparently more favour-
able to the progress of industrial art, when widespread lands
were again united under the sway of powerful rulers.* Science
owes much to Arab scholars, who kept and handed on to us the
knowledge acquired so slowly in ancient times, and much of
which would have been lost but for them. Still, few useful
works remain to mark the supremacy of the Mohammedan
power at all comparable to those of the age which preceded its
rise.

A great building age h^gvn ia Europe in the tenth century,
and lasted through the thirteenth. It v/as during this period that
these great ecclesiastical buildings were erected, which are not
more remarkable for artistic excellence than for boldness in
design.

While the building of cathedrals progressed on all sides in
Europe, works of a utilitarian character, which concern the
engineer, did not receive such encouragement, excepting perhaps
in Italy.

From the twelfth to the thirteenth centuries, with the revival
of the arts and sciences in the Italian republics, many im-
portant works were undertaken for the improvement of thi;
rivers and harbours of Italy. In 148 1 canal locks were first used ;
and some of the earliest of which we have record were erected
by Leonardo da Vinci, who would be remembered as a skilful
engineer had he not left other greater and more attractive works
to claim the homage of posterity.

The great use that has since been made of this simple means
of transferring floating vessels from one water level to another,
in connection not only with inland navigation, but in all the
great ports and harbours of the world, renders it all themore
deservmg of remark.

In India, under the Moguls, irrigation works, for which they
had a natural aptitude, were carried on during these centuries
with vigour, and more than one emperor is noted for the nume-
rous great works of this nature which he carried out. If the native
records can be trusted, the number of hydraulic works undertaken
by some rulers is surprising. Tradition relates that one king
who reigned in Orissa in the twelfth century made one million
tanks or reservoirs, besides building sixty temples, and erecting
numerous other works. ^ ^

In India, the frequent overflow of the great rivers, and the
periodical droughts, which rendered irrigation necessary, led to
extensive protective works being undertaten at an early period ;
but as these works have been maintained by successive rulers,
Mogul and Mohammedan, until recent times, and have not been
left for our inspection, deserted and useless for 3,000 years or
more, as is often the case in Egvpt and Mesopotamia, there is
more difficulty in ascertaining the date of such works in India.

Works of irrigation were among the earliest attempts at
engineering undertaken by the least civilised inhabitants in all
pans of the world. Even in Australia, where savages are found
as low as any in the scale of civilisation, traces of irrigation
works have been found ; these works, however, must be taken
to show that the natives were once somewhat more civilised than
we now find them. In Feejee, our new possession, the natives
occasionally irrigate their land,* and have executed a work of a

I Total length 250 miles ; 50 on arches, 200 underground.

^ '' Under the last of the house of Ommiyah (750 a.d.) one coaunand was
obeyed almost along the whole diameter of the known world, from the banks
of the Sihon to the utmost promontory of Portugal." — Hallam's " Middle
Ages," vol. ii. p. 120, 2nd edit

^ K.ing Bhim Deo. a.d. 1174, 60 temples, 10 bridges, 40 wells stone cased,
152 landing stairs, and 1,000,000 tanks. — Hunter's " Orissa," vol. i. p. 100.

* Erskine's "Western Pacific," p. 171.

higher class, a canal some two miles long and sixty feet wide, to
shorten the distance passed over by their canoes.' The natives
of New Caledonia irrigate their fields with great skill.'^ In Peru,
the Incas excelled in irrigation as in other great and useful
works, and constructed most admirable underground conduits of
masonry for the purpose of increasing the fertility of the land.'

It is frequently easier to lead water where it is wanted than to
check its irruption into places where its presence is an evil, often
a disaster. For centuries the existence of a large part of
Holland has been dependent on the skill of man. How soon he
began in that country to contest with the sea the possession of
the land we do not know, but early in the twelfth century dykes
were constructed to keep back the ocean. As the prosperity of
the country increased with the great extension of its commerce,
and land became more valuable and necessary for an increasing
population, very extensive works were undertaken. Land was
reclaimed from the sea, canals were cut, and machines were
designed for lifting water. To the practical knowledge acquired
by the Dutch, whose method of carrying out hydraulic works is
original and of native growth, much of the knowledge of the
present day in embanking, and draining, and canal making is
due. The North Holland Canal * was the largest navigable
canal in existence until the Suez Canal was completed ; and the
Dutch have just now nearly finished making a sea canal from
Amsterdam to the North Sea, which, though not equal to the
Suez Canal in length, will be as great in width and depth, and
involves perhaps larger and more important works of art. This
country was for many years beholden to the Dutch for help in
carrying out hydraulic works. In the seventeenth century much
fen land in the eastern counties was drained by Dutch labour,
directed by Dutch engineers, among whom Sir Cornelius
Vermuyden, an old campaigner of the Thirty Years' War, and a
colonel of horse under Cromwell, is the most noted.

While the Dutch were acquiring practical knowledge in dealing
with water, and we in Britain among others were benefiting by
their experience, the disastrous results which ensued from the
inundations caused by the Italian rivers of the Alps gave a new
importance to the science of hydraulics. Some of the greatest
philosophers of the seventeenth century — among them Torricelli,
a pupil of Galileo,^ — were called upon to advise and to super-
intend engineering works ; nor did they confine themselves to
the construction of preventive works, but thoroughly investigated
the condition pertaining to fluids at rest or in motion, and gave
to the world a valuable series of works on hydraulics and
hydraulic engineering, which form the basis of our knowledge of
these subjects at the present day.

Some of the bes-t scientific works (prior to the nineteenth
century) on engineering subjects we owe to Italian and French
wrifer.s. The writings of Belidor, an officer of artillery in France
in the seventeenth century, who did not, however, confine him-
self to military subjects, drew attention to engineering questions.
Not long after their appearance, the Fonts et Chausees® were
established, which has maintained ever since a body of able men
specially educated for, and devoted to, the prosecution of indus
trial works.

The impulse given to road-making in the early part of the
last century soon extended to canals and means fcr facilitating
locomotion and transport generally. Tramways were used in
connection with mines at least as early as the middle of the
seventeenth century, but the rails were, in those days, of wood.
The first iron rails are said to have been laid in this country as
early as 1738 ; after which time their use was gradually extended,
until It became "general in mining districts.

By the beginning of this century the great ports of England
were connected by a system of canals ; and new harbour works
became necessary, and were provided to accommodate the
increase of commerce and trade, which improved means of
internal transport had rendered possible. It was in the con-
struction of these works that our own Brindley and Smeaton,
Telford and Rennie, and other engineers of their time, did so
much.

But it was not until the steam-engine, improved and almost
created by the illustrious Watt, became such a potent instru-
ment, that engineering works to the extent they have since been
carried out became possible or necessary. It gave mankind no

r Seeman, p. 82.

^ Er.-kine'» " Western Pacific," p. 355.

3 Markham's "Cieza" (note), p, 236.

4 North Holland Canal, finished in 1825.

5 Galileo, b. 1564 ; Torricelli, b. 160 i.

6 Ponts et Chaussees, established 1720.

Au^. 26, 1875

NATURE

341

new faculty, but it at cnce set his other faculties on an eminence,
from which the extent of his future operations became almost
unlimited.

Water-mills, wind-mills, and horse-machines were in most
cases superseded. Deep mines, before only accessible by adits
and water levels, could at once be reached with ease and eco-
nomy. Lakes and fens which, but for the steam-engine, would
have been left untouched, were drained and cultivated.

The slow and laborious toil of hands and fingers, bone and
sinew, was turned to other employments, where, aided by in-
genious mechanical contrivances, the produce of one pair of
hands was multiplied a thousand-fold, and their cunning ex-
tended until results marvellous, if you consider them, were
attained. Since the time of Watt the steam-engine has exerted
a power, made conquests, and increased and multiplied the
material interests of this globe to an extent which it is
scarcely possible to realise.

But while Watt has gained a world-wide, well-earned fame,
the names of those men who have provided the machines to
utilise the energies of the steam-engine are too often forgotten.
Of their inventions the majority of mankind know little. They
worked silently at home, in the mill, or in the factory, observed
by few. Indeed, in most cases these silent workers had no
wish to expose their work to public gaze. Were it not so, the
factory and the mill are not places where people go to take the
air. How long in the silent night the inventors of these machines
sat and pondered ; how often they had to cast aside some long-
sought mechanical movement and seek another and a better
arrangement of parts, none but themselves could ever know.
They were unseen workers, who succeeded by rare genius, long
patience, and indomitable perseverance.

More ingenuity and creative mechanical genius is perhaps dis-
played in machines used for the manufacture of textile fabrics
than by those used in any other industry. It was not until late
in historical times that the manufacture of such fabrics became
established on a large scale in Europe. Although in China man
was clothed in silk long ago, and although Confucius, in a work
written 2,300 years ago, orders with the greatest minuteness
the niles to be observed in the production and manufacture of
silk, yet it was worth nearly its weight in gold in Europe in the
time of Aurelian, whose empress had to forego the luxury of a
silk gown on account of its cost ? ^ Through Constantinople and
Italy the manufacture passed slowly westwards, and was not
established in France until the sixteenth century, and arrived at
a still later period in this country. It is related that James V.
had to borrow a pair of silk hose from the Earl of Mar, in order
that he might not, as he expressed it, appear as a scrub before
strangers.

So cotton, of which the manufacture in India dates from be-
fore historical times, had scarcely by the Christian era reached
Persia and Egypt. Spain in the tenth and Italy in the four-
teenth century manufactured it, but Manchester, which is now
the great metropolis of the trade, not until the latter half of the
seventeenth century.

Linen was worn by the old Egyptians, and some of their linen
mummy cloths surpass in fineness any linen fabrics made in later
days.* The Babylonians wore linen also and wool, and obtained
a widespread fame for skill in workmanship and beauty in
design.

In this country wool once formed the staple for clothing. Silk
was the first rival, but its costliness placed it beyond the reach
of the many. To introduce a new material or improved machine
into this or other countries a century or more ago was no light
undertaking. Inventors, and would-be benefactors alike, ran
the risk of loss of life. Loud was the outcry made in the early
part of the eighteenth century against the introduction of Indian
cottons and Dutch calicoes.

Until 1738, in which year the improvements in spinning
machinery were begun, each thread of worsted or cotton wool
had been spun between the fingers in this and all other countries.
Wyatt, in 1 738, invented spinning by rollers instead of fingers,
and his invention was further improved by Arkwright. In 1770
Hargreaves patented the spinning jenny, and Crompton the mule
in 177s, a machine which combined the advantages of the frames
of both Hargreaves and Ark^vright. In less than a century after
the first invention by Wyatt, double mules were working in Man-
chester with over 2,000 spindles. Improvements in machines for
weaving were begun at an earlier date. In 1579 a ribbon loom
is said to have been inyented at Dantzic, by which from four to

' Manufacture of silk brought from China to Constantinople A.D, 522,
Wilkinsoa's " Ancient Egyptians ; "^Pliny, bk, xix, c. if.

six pieces could be woven at one time, but the machine was
destroyed and the inventor lost his life.^ In 1800 Jacquard's
most ingenious invention was brought into use, which, by a
simple mechanical operation, determines the movements of
the threads which form the pattern in weaving. But the
greatest discovery in the ait of weaving was wrought by
Cartwright's discovery of the power loom, which led eventually
to the substitution cf steam for manual labour, and enabled a
boy whh a steam loom to do fifteen times the work of a man with
a hand loom.

For complex ingenuity few machines will compare with those
used in the manufacture of lace and bobbin net. Hammond, in
1768, attempted to adapt the stocking frame to this manufacture,
which had hitherto been conducted by hand. It remained for
fohn Heathcoat to complete the adaptation in 1809, and to revo-
lutionise this branch of industry, reducing the cost of its pro-
duce to one-fortieth of what the cost had been before Heatbcoat's
improvements were effected.

Most of these ingenious machines were in use before Watt's
genius gave the world a new motive power in the steam-engine ;
and, had the steam-engine never been perfected, they would still
have enormously increased the productive power of mankind.
Water power was applied to many of them ; in the first silk-
thread mill erected at Derby in 1738, 318 million yards of silk
thread were spun daily with one water-wheel.

These are happier times for inventors : keen competition
among manufacturers does not let a good invention lie idle now.
That which was rejected by old machines as waste is now worked
up into useful fabrics by new ones. From all paits of the world
new products come — jute from India, flax from New Zealand,
and many others which demand new adaptations of old machines
or new and untried mechanical arrangements to utilise them.
Time would fail me if I were to attempt to enumerate one tithe
of these rare combinations of mechanical skill ; and, indeed, no
one will ever appreciate the labour and supreme mental efTovt
required for their construction who has not himself seen them
and their wondrous achievements.

Steamboats, the electric telegraph, and railways, are more
within the cognisance of the world at large, and the progress
that has been made in them in little more than one generation is
better known and appreciated.

It is not more than forty years since one of our scientific men,
and an able one too, declared at a meeting of this Association
that no steamboat would ever cross the Atlantic ; founding his
statement on the impracticability, in his view, of a steamboat
carrying sufhcient coal, profitably, I presume, for the voyage.
Yet, soon after this statement was made, the Sirius steamed from
Bristol to New York in seventeen days, '^ and was soon followed
by the Great I'Veslern, which made the homeward pasage in
thirteen-and-a-half days ; and with these voyages the era of
steamboats began. Like most important inventions, that of the
steamboat was a long time in assuming a form capable of being
profitably utilised ; and even when it had assumed such a form,
the objections of commercial and scientific men had still to be
overcome.

Among the many names connected with the early progress in
the construction of steamboats, perhaps none is more worthy of
remembrance than that of Patrick Miller, who, with the assist-
ance of Symington, an engineer, and Taylor, who, was his
children's tutor, constructed a small steamboat. Shortly after-
wards Lord Dundas, who saw the value of the application of
steam for the propulsion of boats, had the first really practical
steamboat constructed with a view to using it on the Forth and
Clyde Canal. The proprietors, however, objected, and the boat
lay idle. Again another attempt to make practical use of thi
steamboat failed through the death of the Duke of Bridge water,
who, with his characteristic foresight, had seen the value of
steam as a motive power for boats, and had determined to intro-
duce steamboats on the canal which bears his name.

The increase in the number of steamboats since the time when
the Sirius first crossed the Atlantic has been very great.
W^hereas in 1814 the United Kingdom only possessed two steam
vessels, of together 456 tons burden, in 1872 there were on the
register of the United Kingdom 3,662 steam vessels, of which
the registered tonnage amounted to over a million and a half of
tons,' or to nearly half the whole steam tonnage of the world,
which did not at that time greatly exceed three million tons.

As the number of steamboats has largely increased, so also

' Beckman's " History of Inventions," vol. ii. p. 528.

" First steamer crossed tfie Atlantic by steam alone in 1838.

3 Board of Trade Return, 15th of July, 1874, Table 8.

342

NA TURE

\Aug. 26, 1875

gradually has their size increased'until it culminated in the hands
of Brunei in the Great Eastern.

A triumph of engineering skill in ship-building, the Great
Eastern has not been commercially so successful. In this, as
in many other engineering problems, the question is not how
large a thing can be made, but how large, having regard to
other circumstances, it is proper at. the time to make it.

If, as regards the dimensions of steamboats, we have at pre-
sent somewhat overstepped the limits in the Great Eastern,
much still remains to be done in perfecting the form of vessels,
whether propelled by steam or drivt^n by the force of the wind.
A distinguished member of this Association, Mr. Froude, has
now for some years devoted himself to investigations carried on
with a view to ascertain the form of ves«el which will offer the
least resistance to the water through which it must pass. So
many of us in these days are called upon to make journeys by
sea as well as by land, that we can well appreciate the value of
Mr. Fronde's labours, so far as they tend to curtail the time
which we must spend on our ocean journeys ; and we should fdl
feel grateful to him if from another branch of his investigations,
which relates to the rolling ol ships, it should result that the
movement in passenger vessels could be reduced. A gallant
attempt in this direction has lately been made by Mr. Bessemer ;
whether a successful one yet remains to be proved. In any event,
he and those who have acted with him deserve our praise for an
experiment which must add to our knowledge.

It is a question of vital importance to the steamboat that the
consumption of fuel should be reduced to the smallest possible
amount, inasmuch as each ton of fuel excludes a ton of cargo.

As improvements in the form of the hull are effected, less
power — that is, less fuel— will be required to propel the vessel
through the water for a given distance. Great as have been the
improvements effected in mnrine engines to this end, much still
remains to be done. Wolf's compound engine, so lorg over-
looked, is, with some improvements, being at last applied.
Whereas the consumption of fuel in such vessels as the Himalaya
useo lobe from 5 to 6:bs. of fuel per effective horse- power, it has
been reduced, by working steam more expansively in vessels of a
later date, to 2 ibs. Yet, comparing this with the total amount
of energy of 2 lbs. of coal, it will be found that not a tenth part
of the power is obtained which that amount of coal would theo-
retically call into action. ^

We live in an age when great discoveries are made, and when
ihey are speedily taken advantage of if they are likely to be of
service to mankind.

In former times man's inventions were frequently in advance
of the age, and they were laid sside to await a happier era.
There were in those earlier days too few persons who cared to,
or who could, avail themselves of the proffered boon, and there
was no sufficient accumulation of wealth to justify its being
appropriated to schemes which are always in their early stage
more or less speculative.

There is no more remarkable instance of the rapid utilisation
of what was in the first instance regarded by most men as a
mere scientific idea, than the adoption and extension of the
electric telegraph.

Thofe who read Odter's leter written in 1773, in which he
m.ade known his idea of a telegraph which would enable the
inhabitants of Europe to converse with the Emperor of Mogul,
little thought that in less than a century a conversation between
l)cisons at points fo far distant would be possible. Still less did
those who saw in the following year messages sent from one room

' Theoretical Energy of 1 lb of Coal : —
The proportions of heat expended in generating saturated steam at

212° Fahr., and at 14 7 lbs. presture per square inch, from water at
212° are ;—

Units Mechanical

of equivalent

heat. in foot lbs.

I. In the formation of Jteam 892"8 689,242

II. In resisting the incumbent pressure

of i4'7 lbs. per square inch ... 72'3 55)8i5

965.1 745,057

One pound of Welsh coal will theoretically evaporate 15 lbs. of water at
212° to steam at 212°. Therefore, the full theoretical value of the
combustion of 2 lbs. of Welsh coal is —
2 X 15 X 745,057 foot pounds,
or>

i3 Zi5>£i7 horse-power, if consumed in i hour.

60 X 33.OCO

= II 2 horse-power.
As the consumption of coal per effective hor.se-power in a marine
iiig.ne is 2 lbs., the power obtained is to the whole theoretical power
as 1 is to II.

to another by Lesage in the presence of Friedrich of Prussia,
realise that they had before them the germ of one of the most
extraordinary inventions among the many that will render this
century famous.

I should weary you were I to follow the slow steps by which
the electric telegraph of to-day was I rought to its present state
of efficiency. In the present century few years have passed
without new workers appearing in the field ; some whose object
was to utilise the new-found power for the benefit of mankmd,
ethers — and their work was not the least important in the end —
whose object was to investigate magnetism and electrical pheno-
mena as presenting scientific problems still unsolved. Galvani,
Volta, Oersted, Arago, Sturgeon, and Faraday, by their labour.s,
helped to make known the elements which rendered it possible
to construct the electric telegraph. With the battery, the electric
coil, and the electro-magnet, the elements were complete, and it
only remained for Sir Charles Wheatstone and others to com-
bine them in a useful and practically valuable form. The inven-
tions of Alexander, Steinheil, and tho.se of similar nature to that
of Sir Charles Wheatstone, were made known at a later date in
the same year, which will ever be memorable in the annals of
telegraphy.^

The first useful telegraph was constructed upon the Blackwall
Railway in 1838, Messrs. Wheatstone's and Cooke's instruments
being employed. From that time to this the progress of the
electric telegraph has been so rapid, that at the present time,
including land lines and submarine cables, there are in use in
different parts of the world not less than 400,000 miles of
telegraph.

Among the numerous inventions of late years, the automatic
telegraph of Mr. Alexander Bain, of Dr. Werner Siemens, and
of Sir Charles Wheatstone, are especially worthy of notice,
Mr. Ikin's machine is chif fly u.sed in the United States, that of
Dr. Werner Siemens in Germany. In this country the machine
invented by Sir Charles Vvheat^tone, to whom telegraphy owes
so much, is chiefly employed. By his machine, after the message
has been punched out in a paper ribb(m by one machine on a
system analogous to the dot and dash of Morse, the sequence of
the currents requisite to transmit the message along the wire is
automatically determined in a second machine by this perforated
ribbon. This second operation is analogous to that by which in
jacquard's loom the motions of the threads requisite to produce
the pattern is determintd by perforated cards. By Vv'heatstone's
mactiine errors inseparable from manual labour are avoided ; and
what is of even more importance in a commercial point of view,
the time during which the wire is occupied in the transmission
of a message is considerably diminished.

By the application of these automatic systems to telegraphy,
the speed of transmission has been wonderfidly accelerated, being
equal to 200 words a minute, that is, faster than a shorthand
writer can transcribe ; and, in fact, words can now be passed
along the wires of land lines with a velocity greater than can be
dealt with by the human agency at either end.

Owing partly to the retarding effects of induction and other
causes, the speed of transmission by long submarine cables is
much smaller. With the cable of 1858 only 24 words per
minute were got through. The average with the Atlantic cable.
Dr. C. W. Siemens informs me, is now seventeen words, but
twenty-four words per minute can be read.

One of the most striking phenomena in telegraphy is that
known as the duplex system, which enables messages to be sent
from each end of the same wire at the same time. This simul-
taneous transmission from both ends of a wire was proposed in
the early days of telegraphy, but, owing to imperfect insulation,
was not then found to be practicable ; but since then telegraphic
wires have been better insulated, and the system is now becoming
of great utility, as it nearly doubles the capacity for work of
every wire.

And yet within how short a period of time has all the wonder-
ful progress in telegraphy been achieved ! How incredulous the
world a few years ago would have been if then told of the mar-
vels which in so short a space of time were to be accomplished
by its agency !

It is not long ago— 1823— that Mr. (now Sir Francis) Ronald,
or-e of the early pioneers in this field of science, published a
description of an electric telegraph. He communicated his
views to Lord Melville, and that nobleman was obhging enough
to reply that the subject should be inquired into ; but before the
r.ature of Sir Francis Ronald's suggestions could be known,

I rates of patents: Wheatstone, March i, 1837; Alexander, AprJ 22,
1837 ; .Steinheil, July i, 1S37 : Morse, October 1837.

Auii^. 26, 1875]

NA TURE

343

except to a few, that fjentleman received a reply from Mr. Barrow,
" that telejjraphs of any kind were then wholly unnecessary, and
that no other than the one then in use would be adopted ; " the
one then in use being the old semaphore, which, crowning the
tops of hills between London and Portsmouth, seemed per-
fection to the Admiralty of that day.

I am acquainted with some who, when the first Transatlantic
cable was proposed, contributed towards that undertaking with
the consciousness that it was only an experiment, and that sub-
scribing to it was much the same thing as throwing their money
into the sea. Much of this cable was lost in the first attempt to
lay it ; but its promoters, nothing daunted, made 900 miles more
cable, and finally laid it successfully in the following year, 1858.

The telegraphic system of the world comprises almost a com-
j)lete girdle round the earih ; and it is v>robable that the missing
link will be supplied by a cable between San Francisco in Cali-
lornia and Yokohama in Japan.

How resolute and courageous those who engaged in subma-
rine telegraphy have been will appear from the fact thaf, though
we have now 5o,cxx) miles of cable in use, to get at this result
nearly 70,000 miles were constructed and laid. This large per-
centage of failure, in the opinion of Ur. C. W. Siemens (to whom
I am much indebted for information on this subject), was partly
due to the late introduction of testing a cable under water before
it is laid, and to the use of too light iron sheathing.

Of immense importance in connection with tke subsequent
extension of submarine cables have been the discoveries of Ohm
and Sir William Thomson, and the knowledge obtained that the
resistance in wire of homogeneous metal is directly proportional
to the length, so that the place of a fault in a cable of many
thousand miles in length can be ascertained with so much pie-
cision as to enable you to go at once to repair it, although the
damaged cable may lie in some thousands of fathoms of water.

Of lailways the progress has been enormous, but I do not know
that in a scier.tific point of view a railway is so marvellous in its
character as the electric telegraph. The results, however, of the
construction and use of railways are more extensive and wide-
spread, and their utility and convenience brought home to a
larger portion of mankind. It has come to pass, therefore, that
the name of Gecrge Stephenson has bten placed second only
to that of James Watt ; and as men are and will be estimated by
the advantages which Iheir labours confer on mankind, he wdl
remain in that niche, unless indeed some greater luminary should
arise to outshine him. The merit of George Stephenson con-
sisted, among other things, in this, that he saw more clearly than
any other engineer of his time the sort of thing that the world
wanted, and that he persevered in despite of learned objectors
with the firm conviction that he was right and they were wrong,
and that there was within himself the power to demonstrate the
ascuracy of his convictions.

Railways are a subject on which I may (I hope without tiring
you) speak somewhat more at length. The British Association
is peripatetic, and without railways its meetiirgs, if held at all,
would, I fear, be greatly reduced in numbers. Moreover, you
have all an interest in them : you all demand to be carried safely,
and you insist on being carried fast. Besides, everybody under-
stands, or thinks he understands, a railway, and therefore! shall
be speaking on a subject common to all of us, and shall possibly
only put before you ideas which others as well as ^myielf have
alieady entertained.

We who live in these days of roads and railways, and can
move with a fair degree of comfort, speed, and safety, almost
where we will, can scarcely realise the state of England two
centuries ago, when the years of opposition which preceded the
era of coaches began ; when, as in 1662, there were but six stages
in all England, and John Crossdell, of the Charterhouse, thought
there were six too many ; when Sir Henry Herbert, a member
of the House of Commons, could say, *' If a man were to pro-
pose to carry us regularly to Edinburgh in coaches in seven days,
and bring us back in seven more, should we not vote him to
Bedlam ? "

In spite of short-sighted opposition, coaches made their way ;
but it was not till a century later, in 1784 — and then I believe it
was in this city of Bristol — that coaches were first established
for the conveyance of mails. Those here who have experienced,
as I have, what the discomforts were of long journeys inside the
old coaches, will agree with me that they were very great ; and
. I believe, if returns could be obtained of the accidents which
happened to coaches, it would be found that many more people
were injured and killed in proportion to the number that tra-
velled by that mode than by the railways of to-day.

No sooner had our ancestors settled down with what comfort
was possible in their coaches, well satisfied that twelve miles an
hour was the maximum speed to be obtained or that was desir-
able, than they were told that steam conveyance on iron railways
would supersede iheir "present pitiful" methods of conveyance.
Such was the opinion of Thomas Gray, the first promoter of
railways, who published his work on a general iron railway in
1819. Gray was looked on as little better than a madman.

"When Gray first proposed 1 is great scheme to the public,"
said Chevalier Wilson, in a letter to Sir Robert Peel in 1845,
" people were disposed to treat it as an effusion of insanity." I
shall not enter on a history of the struggles which preceded the
opening of the first railway. They were brought to a successful
issue by the determination of a few able and far-seeing men.
The names of Thomas Gray and Joseph Sandar.«, of William
James and Edward Pease, should always be remembered in con-
nection with the early history of railways, for it was they who
first made the nation familiar with the idea. There is no fear
that the name of Stephenson will be forgotten, whose practical
genius made the realisation of the idea possible.

The Stockton and Darlington Railway was opened in 1825,
the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1830, and in the short
time which has since elapsed, railways have been extended to
every quarter of the globe. No nation possessing wealth and
population can afford to be without them ; and though at present
in different countries there is in the aggregate about 160,000 miles
of railway, it is certain that in the course of a very lew years
this quantity, large as it is, will be very greatly exceeded.

Railways add enormously to the national wealth. More than
twenty-five years ago it was proved to the satisfaction of a com-
mittee of the House of Commons, from facts and figures which
I then adduced, that the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railv/ay, of
which I was the engineer, and which then formed the principal
railway connection between ihe populot^s towns of Lancashire
and Yorkshire, effected a saving to the public using the railway
of more than the whole amount of the dividend which was
received by the proprietors. These calculations were based solely
on the amount of traffic carried by the railway, and on the
difference between the 1 ail way rate of charge and the charges by
the modes of conveyance anterior to railways. No credit what-
ever was taken for the saving of time, though in England pre-
eminently time is money.

Considering that railway charges on many items have been
considerably reduced since that day, it may be safely assumed
that the railways in the British Islands now produce, or rather
save to the nation, a much larger sum annually than the gross
amount of all the dividends payable to the proprietors, without
at all taking into account the benefit arising from the saving in
time. The benefits under that head defy calculation, and cannot
wiih any accuracy be put into money ; but it would not be at all
over-estimating this question to say that in time and money the
nation gains at least what is equivalent to 10 ptr cent, on all the
cipital expended on railways. I do not urge this on the part of
railway proprietors, for they did not embark in these undertak-
ings with a view to the national gain, but for the expected piofit
to themselves. Yet it is as well it should be noted, for railway
proprietors appear sometimia by some people to be regaided in
the light of public enemies.

It follows from these facts that whenever a railway can be
made at a cost to yield the ordinary interest of money, it is in
the national interest that it should be made. Further, that
though its cost might be such as to leave a smaller dividend than
that to its proprietors, the loss of wealth to so small a section of
the community will be more than supplemented by the national
gain, and therefore there may be cases where a Government may
wisely contribute in some form to undertakings which, without
such aid, would fail to obtain the necessary support.

And so some countries, Russia for instance, to which impioved
means of transport are of vital imporunce, have wisely, in my
opinion, caused lines to be made which, having regard to their
own expenditure and receipts, would be unprofitable works, but
in a national point of view are or speedily will be highly advan.
tageous.

The Empire of Brazil, which I have lately visited, is arriving
at the conclusion, which I think not an unwise one, that the
State can afford, and will be benefited in the end, by guaranteeing
7 per cent, upon any railway that can of itself be shown to pro-
duce a net income of 4 per cent., on the assumption that the
nation will be benefited at least to the extent of the difference.

A question more important probably in the eyes of many —
safety of railway travelling— may not be inappropriate. At all

344

NATURE

\Aug. 26, 1875

events, it is well that the elements on which it depends should
be clearly understood . It will be thought that longer experi-
ence in the management of railways should go to ensure greater
safety, but there are other elements of the question which go to
counteract this in some degree.

The safety of railway travelling depends on the perfection of
the machine in all its parts, including the whole railway, with its
movable ]:)lant, in that term ; it depends also on the nature and
quantity of traffic, and lastly, on human care and attention.

With regard to what is human, it may be said that so many
of these accidents as arise from the fallibility of men will never
be eliminated until the race be improved.

The liability to accident will also increase with the speed, and
might be reduced by slackening that speed. It increases with the
extent and variety of the traffic on the same line. The public, I
fear, will rather run the risk than consent to be carried at a
slower rate. The increase in extent and variety of traffic is not
likely to receive any diminution ; on the contrary, it is certain to
augment.

I should be sorry to say that human care may not do some-
thing, and I am not among those who object to appeals through
the press, and otherwise, to railway companies, though some-
times perhaps they may appear in an unreasonable form. I see
no harm in men being urged in every way to do their utmost in
a matter so vital to many.

A question may arise whether, if the railways were .in the
hards of the Government, they could not be worked with greater
safety. Government would not pay their officers better, or per-
haps so well, as the companies do, and it is doubtful whether
they would succeed in attracting to the service abler men. They
might do the work with a smaller number of chief officers, for
much of the time of the companies' managers is occupied in
internecine disputes. They might handle the traffic more
despotically, diminishing the number of trains, or the accommo-
dation afforded by them, or in other ways, to ensure more safety ;
but would the public bear any curtailment of convenience ?

One thing they could, and perhaps would do. In cases where
the traffic is varied, and could more safely be conducted with the
aid of relief lines, which hold out no sufficient inducement to the
companies to make, the Government, being content with a lower
rate of interest, might undertake to make them, though then
comes the question whether, when the whole of this vast machine
came to depend for supplies on annual votes of Parliament,
money would be forthcoming in greater abundance than it is
under the present system.

]]ut the consideration of this subject involves other and more
difficult questions.

Where are thejlabours of Government to 'stop ? The cares of
State which cannot be avoided are already heavy and will grow
heavier every year. Dockyard establishments are trifling to what
the railway establishments, which already employ 250,000 men,
would be. The assumption of all the railways would bring
Government into conflict with every passenger, every trader, and
every manufacturer. With the railway companies there would
be no difficulty ; they would sell their undertakings to anyont,
provided the price was ample.

Looking at the vast growth of railway traffic, one measiire
occurs to me as^ conducive to the safetj of railway passengers,
and likely to be dtmanded some day ; it is to construct between
important places railways which should carry passengers only or
coals only, or be set apart for some special separation of traffic ;
though there will be some difficulty in accomplishing this.
Landowners, through whose properties such lines would pass,
wculd probably wish to use such lines for general purposes.
Nevertheless, it may have to be tried some day.

It would be instructive, were it practicable, to compare the
relative proportion of accidents by railway and by the old stage-
coaches, but no records that I am aware of exist of the latter that
would enable such a comparison to be made. It is practicable
to make some sort of comparison between the accidents in the
earlier day of our own railways and the accidents occurring at a
ater date

The Board of Trade have unlortunately abandoned the custom,
which they adopted from 1852 to 1859, of returning the passenger
mileage, which is given in the German returns, and is the proper
basis upon which to found the pioportion of accidents, and not
on the number of passengers ^without any regard to distance
travelled, which has altered very much, the average journey per
passenger being nearly half in 1873 what it was in 1846.

It Would be erroneous to compare the proportions of accidents

to passengers carried in various year?, even if the correct number
of passengers travelling were given. But a figure is always
omitted from the Board of Trade return, which makes the pro-
portion of accidents to passengers appear larger than it is ; this
is the number of journeys performed by season-ticket holders?.
Some estimate could be made of the journeys of season-ticket
holders by dividing the receipts by an estimated average fare, or
the companies could make an approximate estimate, and the
passenger mileage could be readily obtained by the railway
companies from the tickets. These additions would greatly add
to the value of the railway returns as statistical documents, and
render the deductions made from them correct.

Though it has been a work of labour, I have endeavoured to
supply these deficiencies, and I believe the results arrived at may
be taken as fairly accurate.'

From the figures so arrived at, it appears the passenger
mileage has doubled between 1861 and 1873 ; and at the rate of
increase between 1870 and 1873 it would become double what it
was in 1873 in twelve years from that time, namely in 1885.

The number of passengers has doubled between 1864 and
1873, and at the rate of increase between 1870 and 1873 it would
become double what it was in 1873 in eleven-and-a-half years, or
in 1885.

It must, however, be remembered that the rate of increase
since 1870, though very regular for 1871, 1872, and 1873, is
greater than in previous years, being probably due to the rise of
wages and the great development ot third-class traffic, and it
would not be safe to assume this rate of increase will continue.

Supposing no improvement had been effected in the working
of railway traffic, by the interlocking of points, the block
system, &c., the increase of accidents should have borne some
proportion to the passenger mileage, multiplied by the propor-
tion between the train mileage and the length of line open, as
the number of trains passing over the same line of rails would
tend to multiply accidents in an increasing proportion, especially
where the trains run at different speeds.

The number of accidents varies considerably from year to
year, but taking two averages of ten years each, it appears that
the proportion of deaths of passengers from causes beyond their
control to passenger miles travelled in the ten years ending
December 31, 1873, was only two-thirds of the same proportion
in the ten years ending December 31, 1861 ; the proportion of
all accidents to passengers from causts beyond their own control
was one-ninth more in the last ten years than in the earlier,
whereas the frequency of trains had increased on the average
one-fourth.

The limit, however, of considerable improvements in sig-
nalling, increased brake power, &c., will probably be reached
before long, and the increase of accidents will depend on the
increase of traffic, together with the increased frequiency of
trains.

The large growth of railway traffic, which we 'may assume
will double in twenty years, will evidently greatly tax thfc
resources of the railway companies ; and unless the present
companies increase the number of the linfes of way, as some have
commenced to do, or new railways are made, the system of
expeditious and safe railway travelling Will be imperilled. Up
to the present time, however, the improvements in regulating the
traffic appear to have kept pace with the increase of traffic and
of speed, as the slight increase in the proportion of railway acci-
dents to passenger miles is probably chiefly due to a larger
number of trifling bruises being reported now than formerly.

I believe it Was a former President of the Board of Trade who
said to an alarmed deputation, who waited upon him on the sub-
ject of railway travelling, that he thought he was safer in a rail-
way carriage than anywhere else.

If he gave any such opinion he was not fat vvrong, as is suffi-
ciently evident when it can be said that there is only one pasSeiiger
injured in every four million miles travelled, or that, on an
average, a person may travel 100,000 miles each year for forty
years, and the chances be slightly in his favour of his not
receiving the slightest injury.

A pressing subject of the present time is the economy of fticl.
Members of the British Associatioh have not neglected this
momentous question.

At the meeting held at Kew-cSstlcori-Tyne in 1863, Sir
William Armstrong sounded an alarm as to the proximirte
exhaustion of our coal-fields.

Table Oil opposite page

Aug. 26, 1875]

NATURE

345

Mr. Bramwell, when presiding over the Mechanical Section at
Brighton, drew attention to the waste of fuel.

Dr. Siemens, in an able lecture he delivered by request of the
Association to the operative classes at the meeting at Bradford,
pointed out the waste of fuel in special branches of the iron trade,
to which he has devoted so much attention.

He showed on that occasion that, in the ordinary re-heating
furnace, the coal consumed did not produce the twentieth part
of its theoretical effect, and in melting steel in pots in the
ordinary way not more than one-seventieth part ; in melting one
ton of steel in pots about 2| tons of coke being consumed. Dr.
Siemens further stated that, in his regenerative gas furnace, one
ton of steel was melted with 12 cwt. of small coal.

Mr. Lowthian Bell, who combines chemical knowledge with
the practical experience of an ironmaster, in his Presidential
address to the members of the Iron and Steel Institute in 1873,
stated that, with the perfect mode of withdrawing and uiilising
the gases and the improvement in the furnaces adopted in the
Cleveland district, the present make of pig-iron in Cleveland is
produced with 34 million tons of coal les? than would have been
needed fifteen years ago ; this being equivalent to a saving of 45
per cent, of the quantity formerly used. He shows by tigures,
with which he has favoured me, ihat the calorific power of the
waste gases from the furnaces is sufficient for raising all^ the
steam and heating all the air the furnaces require.

It has already been stated that by working steam more expan-
sively, either in double or single engines, the consumption of
fuel m improved modern engines compared with the older forms
may be reduced to one-third.

All these reductions still fall far short of the theoretical effect
of fuel which may be never reached. Mr. Ivowthian Bell's
figures go to show that in the interior of the blast furnace, as
improved in Cleveland, there is not much more to be done in
reducing the consumption of fuel ; but much has already been
done, and could the reductions now attamable, and all the infor-
mation already acquired be universally applied, the saving in
fuel would be enormous.

How many open blast furnaces still belch forth flame and gas
and smoke as uselessly, and with nearly as much mischief to the
surrounding neighbourhood, as the fires of Etna or Vesuvius ?
How many of the older and more extravagant forms of steam-
engine still exist?

What is to be done with the intractable householder, with the
domestic hearth, where, without going 10 Oerman stoves, but by
using Galton's grates and other improvements, everything neces-

sary both for comfort and convenience could be as well attained
with a much smaller consumption of coal ?

If I have pointed out that we do not avail ourselves of more
than a fractional part of the useful effects of fuel, it is not that I
expect we shall all at once mend our ways in this respect.
Many cases of waste arise from the existence of old and obso-
lete machines, of bad forms of furnaces, of wasteful grates, exist-
ing in most dwelling-houses ; and these are not to be remedied
at once, for not everyone can afford, however desirable it might
be, to cast away the old and adopt the new.

In looking uneasily to the future supply and cost of fuel, it is,
however, something 10 know what may be done even with the
application of our present knowledge ; and could we apply it
universally to-day, all that is necessary for trade and comfort
could probably be as well provided for by one-half the present
consumption of fuel ; and it behoves those who are beginning to
build new mills, new furnaces, new steamboats, or nevv houses,
to act as though the price of coal which obtained two years ago
had been the normal and not the abnormal price.

There was in early years a battle of the gauge«, and there is
now a contest about guns ; but your lime will not permit me to
say much on their manufacture.

Here again the progress made in a few years has been enor-
mous ; and in contributing to it, two men. Sir Wm. Armstrong
and Sir Joseph Whitworth, both civil engineers, in this country
at all events, deservedly stand foremost. The iron coil construc-
tion of Sir William Armstrong has already produced rcnarkable
and satisfactory results ; in discussing further possible improve-
ments, the question is embarrassed by attempting to draw sharp
lines between what is called steel and iron.

There is nothing that I can see to limit the size of guns, except
the tenacity and endurance of the metal, whatever we may choose
to call it, of which they are to be made.

Sir Joseph Whitworth, who has already done more than any
other man in his department to secure good workmanship, and
whose ideal of perfection is ever expanding, has long been seek-
ing, and not with-^ut success, by enormous compression, to in-
crease those qualities in what he calls homogeneou<; metal.
Make the metal good enough, and call it iion if you will, and
the .size of a gun may be anything : the mere cons- ruction and
handling of a gun of 100 tons, or of far g'eater weight, with,
suitable mechanical appliances, presents no ditfif-ulty.

Relying on the qualities of his compressed metal. Sir Joseph
is now seekmg by a singular experiment to limit the travf 1 o* the
recoil, as far as pracUcable, to the elasticity of the metal. By

RAILWAY ACCIDENTS.— <;r^a/ Briiain and Ireland.

Proportion

mileage for

year to

total

length of

single line
ot way,

excluding
sidings.

Average

Number of

Proportion of
passengers in-
jured or killed
from causes
beyond their
control to pis-
senger miles
uavelled.

Year.

Number of

accidents to

passenger

trains.

journey of

^""otafl'"
classes, ex-
clusive of
periodical

passengers from causes
beyond their control.

miles tra-
velled by
passengers
of all classes,
including
periodical

Proportion of
passengers killed
from causes
beyond their
concrol to pas-
senger miles

Proportion of
passengers killeo
trom causes
beyond their
control to pas-

Proportion of

pas>eiigrrs i.i-

jiir-dor kill.d .

from causes

bey. nd tb.-ir
control 10 pts-
seiiger journeys.

ticket-
holders.

Killed.

Injured.

Total.

•^ticket-
holders.

uavelled.

I.

II.

III.

IV.

V.

VI.

VII.

VIII.

IX.

X.

XI.

X.I.

(«)

No.

miles.

No.

No.

No.

(3) miles.

ic) mles.

id) miles.

(e) No.

(/) No.

.846

51

i8-8o

s

146

'5'

894,571,000

J in 178,915,000

I m 5,924,000

I in 9.5'4.ooo

I in 3i5.rro

.849

^

18 21

5

84

89

1,162,806,000

t in 2^2,561,000

1 in n.065,000

I in 12,768000

I .11 7I7..-CO

.85a

1619

10

372

382

1.473.255.000

1 in i47,3»6,ooo

1 m 3857,000

I in 8,910000

I in n\,0€0

.85s

5,134

75

1534

10

3"

32t

1,864,175,000

I in 186,4.8,000

I in 5 807,000

I in 12,316000

1 in 3J<4.<-oo

.858

S.418

48

1454

25

419

444

2.084,353.000

I in 83.374,000

I ia 4,694,000

1 in 5,809000

I in 31-7,0 yj

1 861

5.921

55

14-21

46

780

826

2.547,653.000

I in 55.384,000

1 in 3.084,000

I in 3.947.000

I >n 220,0 <t

'fr*

6.395

75

1247

14

^

"1

2,966,592,000

I in 4,172000

1 'n 17,141,000

I in j3> coo

.867

6724

9»

11-56

J9

708

3,478,262,000

I in 183,066,000

I in 4,913,000

1 m 15 947-000

1 in 4 8,0.-0

1870

7.253

"3

1074

65

1084

.149

3,801,734 CXX)

I in 58,488.000

1 in 3,309,000

1 1.1 5.465.'^oo

1 in 31 9.. 00

.87 »

7.S94

1053

38

1504

1542

5 060,329 000

I in 133,167,000

I in i;,2S2,ooo

I in i2,f.«3,coo

I ins 3.roo

Average

1852-61

(inclusive)
(inclusive)

20

425

445

2,018 485 000

I n 100,924 coo

1 m 4 53'. 000

I in 6 Sso.f 00

1 in 308. oo>

Average

1864-73

a6

920

946

3,826.729,000

I in ,47,. 82.000

I in 4,045000

1 in 13,165,000

I in 362,000

(a) The figures in this column are obtained by dividing the total train mileage by the aggregate length of single hne of way. excluding sidiugs, ai.d not
by the actual length of the railway.

(h) The passenger mileage has been calculated, as it is not given in the Board of Trade returns, except partially between 1852 and 1859 (inclusive), and
feince 1859 no return under ihis head has been made.

(c) 'I'he fij;ufes i'l column No. IX. are obtained by dividing those in column VIII. by those in column V.

(1/) The figures in column X. are i.b-ained by dividing those in co'umn VIII. by those in column VII.

(£■) The figures in co:umn XI. are obtained by dividing the total number of passengers carried in each jear (including a calculated number of journeys
made by season t cket hulder.>) by ihe figures in column V.

{/) The figures in col'jnm XII. arc obtained by dividing the total number of passengers carried in each year by the figures in column VII.

N B. — The pass nger mileage includes the m-les estimaterl to have been travelled by season ticket holders. 'I his estimate was obtained by calculating
an average fate per mile for each class of p^senger, and dividing the rcceipu from the season ticket holders by the average fare.

346

NATURE

{Ang: 26, 1875

attaching the muzzle of the gun to an outer casing, through which
the force of the recoil is carried back to the trunnions, he pro-
poses to avail himself of this elasticity to the extent of one-and-
a-half times the length of the gun ; whether its elasticity alone
in so short a space will suffice without aid is, perhap'', doubtful ;
but other aid may be applied, and the experiment, whether suc-
cessful or not, will be interesting.

Docks and harbours I have no time to mention, for it is time
this long and, I fear, tedious address, should close.

" Whence and whither," is an aphorism which leads us away
from present and plainer objects to those which are more distant
and obscure ; whether we look backwards or forwards, our vision
is speedily arrested by an impenetrable veil.

On the subjects I have chosen you will probably think I have
travelled backwards far enough. I have dealt to some extent
with the present.

The retrospect, however, may be useful to show what great
works were done in former ages.

Some things have been better done than in those earlier times,
but not all.

In what we choose to call the ideal we do not surpass the
ancients. Poets and painters and sculptors were as great in
former times as now ; so, probably, were the mathematicians.

In what depends on the accumulation of experience, we ought
to excel our forerunners. Engineering depends largely on expe-
rience ; nevertheless, in future times, whenever difficulties shall
arise or works have to be accomplished for which there is no
precedent, he who has to perform the duty may step iorth from
any of the walks of life, as engineers have not unfrequently
hitherto done.

The marvellous progress of the last two generations should
make everyone cautious of predicting the future. Of engineering
works, however, it may b^ said that their practicability or im-
practicability is often determined by other elements than the
inherent difficulty in the works themselves. Greater works than
any yet achieved remain to be accomplished — not perhaps yet
awhile. Society may not yet require them ; the world could not
at present afford to pay for them.

The progress of engineering works, if we consider it, and the
expenditure upon them, has already in our time been prodigious.
One hundred and sixty thousand miles of railway alone, put into
figures at 20,000/. a mile, amounts to 3,200 million pounds
sterling ; add 400,000 miles of telegraph at 100/. a mile, and
100 millions more for sea canals, docks, harbours, water and
sanitary works constructed in the same period, and we get the
enormous sum of 3,340 millions sterling expended in one gene-
ration and a half on what may undoubtedly be called useful
works.

The wealth of nations may be impaired by expenditure on
luxuries and war ; it cannot be diminished by expenditure on
works like these.

As to the future, we know we cannot create a force ; we can,
and no doubt shall, greatly improve the application of those
with which we are acquainted. What are called inventions can
do no more than this, yet how much every day is being done by
new machines and instruments.

The telescope extended our vision to distant worlds. The
spectroscope has far outstripped that instrument, by extending
our powers of analysis to regions as remote.

Postal deliveries were and are great and able organisations,
but what are they to the telegraph ?

Need we try to extend our vision into futurity farther ? Our
present knowledge, compared to what is unknown even in
phyiics, is infinitesimal. We may never discover a new force —
yet, who can tell ?

SECTION A.

Mathematical and Physical.

Opening Adbress by the President, Prof. Balfour

Stewart.

Since the last meeting of the British Association, science has

had to mourn the loss of one of its pioneers, in the dcTth of the

veteran astronomer, Schwabe, of Dessau, at a good old age, not

before he had faithlully and horourably finished his work. In

truth this work was of such a nature that the worker could

not be expected long to survive its completion.

It is now nearly fifty years since he fint began to produce
daily sketches of the spots that appeared upon the sun's sur''ace.
Everyday on which the sun was visible (and such days are more

frequent in Germany than in this country), with hardly any inter-
mission for forty years, this laborious and venerable observer
made his sketch of the solar di?c. At length this unexampled
perseverance met with its reward in the discovery of the perio-
dicity of sun-spots, a phenomenon which very speedily attracted
the attention of the scientific world.

It is not easy to over-rate the importance of the step gained
when a periodicity was found to rule th^se solar outbreaks. A
priori we should not have expected such a phenomenon. If the
old astronomers were perplexed by the discovery of sun-spots,
their successors must have been equally perplexed when they
ascertained their periodicity. For while all are reaty to acknow-
ledge periodicity as one of the natural conditions of terrestrial
phenomena, yet everyone is inclined to ask what there can be to
cause it in the behaviour of the sun himself. Manifesily it can
only have two possible causes. It must either be the outcome
of some strangely hidden periodical cause residing in the sun
hiinself, or must be produced by external bodies, such as planets,
acting somehow in their varied positions on the atmosphere of
the sun. But whether the cause be an internal or external one —
in either case we are completely ignorant of its nature.

We can easily enough imagine a cause operating from the
sun himself and his relations with a surrounding medium to pro-
duce great disturbances on his surface, but we cannot easily
imagine why disturbances so caused should have a periodicity.
On the other hand we can easily enough attach periodicity to
any efTect caused by the planets, but we cannot well see why
bodies comparatively so insignificant shouM contribute to such
very violent outbreaks as we now know sun-spots to be.

If we look within we are at a loss to account for the periodicity
of solar disturbances, and if we look without we are equally at a
loss to account for their magnitude. Bat since that within the
sun is hidden from our view, it cinnot surely be considered
blameworthy if astronomers have directed their attention to thit
without and have endeavoured to connect the behaviour of sun-
spots with the positions of the various planets. Stimulated no
doubt by the success which had attended the labours o' Schwabe,
an English astronomer was the next to enter the field of solar
research.

The aim of Mr. Carrington was, however, rather to obtain
very accurnte records of the positions, the sizes, and the shapes
of the various sun-spots than to make a very extensive and long-
continued series of observations. He was aware that a series
at once ver}' accurate and very extended is beyond the power of
a private individual, and can only be undertaken by an estab-
lished institution. Nevertheless, each sun-spot that made its
appearance during the seven years extending from the beginning
of 1854 to the end of i860 was sketched by Mr. Carrington with
the greatest possible accuracy, and had also its heliographic
position, that is to say its solar latitude and longitude, accurately
determined.

One of the most prominent results of Mr. Carrington's labiurs
was the discovery of the fact that sun-spots appear to have a
proper motion of their own — those nearer the solar equaor
moving faster than those more remote. Another was the dis-
covery of changes apparently periodical affecting tl e disposition
of spots in solar latitude. It was already known that sun-spots
confined themselves to the sun's equatorial regions, but Mr.
Carrington showed that the region affected was lia'^-le to perio-
dical elongations and contractions, although his observations
were not 'sufficiently extended to determine the exact length of
this period.

Before Mr. Carrington had completed his seven' years labours,
celestial photognphy had been introduced by Mr. Warren De
la Rue, Commencing with his private observatory, he next
persuaded the Kew Committee of the British Association to
allow the systematic photography of the sun to be carried on at
their observatory under his superintendence, and in the year 1862
the first of a ten years' series of solar photographs was begun.
Before this date however Mr. De la Rue had ascertained, by
means of his phot^oheliograph, on the occasion of the total
eclipse of i860, that the red prominences surroun/iing the
eclipsed sun, belong, without doubt, to our luminary himself.

The Kew observations are not yet finally reduced, but already
several important conclusions have been obtained from them by
Mr. De la Rue and the other Kew observers. In the first
place the Kew photographs confirm the theory of Wilson that
sun-spots are phenomena, the dark portions of which exist at a
level considerably beneath the general surface of the sun ; in other
words, they are hollows, or pits, the interior of which is of course
filled up with the solar atmosphere. The Kew observers were

A?i^: 26, 1875]

NATURE

347

likewise led to'associate the low ^temperature of the bottom of
sun-spots with the downward carriage of colder matter from the
atmosphere of the sun, while/the upward rush of heated matter
was suppj^ei to account f )r the facula; or bright patches which
almost invariably accompany spots. In the next place the Kew
observers, miking use not only of the Kew series but of those of
Schwal)e and Carrington, which were generously placed at their
disposal, have discovered trices of the influence of the nearer
plan-ts upon the behaviour of sun-spot'. This influence appears
1 1 be of such a nature that spo's attain their maximum size when
carried by rotation into positions as far as poss'ble remote from
the intliencing planet — that is to say into positions where the
body of the sun is between them and the planet. There is also
evidence of an excess of solar action when two influential planets
come near together, liut although considerable light has thus
b»en thrown on the periodicity of sun-s lof, it ought to be borne
in mind that the cius» of the remarkable period of eleven years
and a quarter, originally discovered by Schwabe, has not yet been
properly explained. The Kew observers have likewi'ie dis-
covered trices of a peculiar osdllation of spots between the two
hemis oheres of the sun, and finally their researches will p'ace at
the command of the observers the da^a fo' ascertaining whether
cenTis of g-eater and lesser solar activity are connected with
cer'ain heliocentric positions.

Wtiile the sun's surface was thus being examined both tele-
scopically and photographically, the spectro'icope cime to be
empl )yed as an instmment of research. It had already been
surmised by Prof Stokes, that the vapour of sodium at a com-
paratively low temperature forms one of the constituents of the
sohr atmosphere, inasmuch as the dirk line D in the spectrum
of the sun coinci fes in positioi with the bright line given out by
incandescent sodium vapour.

Tnis method of research wa^ greatly eictended by KirchhofT,
■who soon found that many of the dark lines in the solar spec-
trum were coincident with the bright lines of sundry incandescent
metillic vapours, and a good beginning was thus made towards
ascertaining the chemical constitution of the sun.

The new method soon brought forth further fruit when applied
in th^ hands of lluggins. Miller, Secchi, and others, to the more
di tant heavenly bodies. It was speedily found that the fixed
star, had constitutions very sitnilar to that of the sun. But a
pe.'uliar and unexpected success was attained when some of the
nebulae were examined spectrojcopically. Today it seems (so
rapidly has knowledge progress;;d) very much like recalling an old
s ipe stition to remind you that untd the advent of the s^pectro-
Fcope the irresolvable nibulrc were considered to be gigmtic and
rem Jte clusters of stars, the individual members of which were
too distant to b^ sepira'ed from each other even with a telescope
like that of Lord Rosse. But Mr. lluggins, by mean; of the
spectroscope, soon found that this was not the case, and that
most of the nebuUv which had defied the telescope gave indica-
tions of incandescent hydrogen gas. It was also fjuiid by this
observer that the proper motions of some of the fixed s'.ars in a
direction to of from the earth mi^ht be detected by means of the
displa:ement o' their spectral lines, a method of research which
was first eaunciated by Fizeau. Hitherto in such ajiplicaions
of the spectroscope, the body to be txainincd was viewed as a
whole. It had not )et been a'.tempitd lodocalise the use of this
instrument so as to examine paiticular districts of the tun, as for
iiistince a sun-spot, or the red flames already proved by De la
Kue to belong to our luminary. This application was first made
by Mr. Lockyer, who in the year 1865 examined a sun-spot
spectroscopically and remarked the greater thickness of the lines
in the s^'ectrum of the darker portion of the spot.

Dr. Frankland had previously found that thick spectral lines
correspond tj great pressure, and hence thi inference from the
}.rjater thickness of lints in the umbra of a spot is that this
umbra or dark poriiou is subject to a greater pressure ; tiial is to
s .y, it exijti beloA' a greater depth of the solar atmosphere than
tie general surface of the sun. Thus the results derived from
the Kew photoheliOjjraph and those derived from the spectroscope
Were found to confir.n each other. Mr. Lockyer next caused a
J oAtriul instrument to be constructed for the purpose of viewing
s-i)tclroscoi)icaily the red flames round the sun's border, in the
lijpe that if they consisted of ignited gas the spectroscope would
disperse, and thus dilu.e and destroy the glare which prevents
them from being seen oa ordinary occasion.^.

^ Before this instrument was quite ready tl ^se flames had been
ahaljsed spectroscopically by Capt. IIers,Iitl, M. Janssen, and
others, on the occasion of a total eclipse occurring in India, and
they were found to consist of incandr ^qvX gas, most probably

hydrogen. But the latter of these observers (M. Janssen) made
the important observation that the bright lines in the spectrum
of these flames remained visible even after the sun had reap-
peared, from which he argued that a solar eclipse is not neces-
sary for the examination of this region.

Before information of the discovery made by Janssen had
reached this country, the instrument of Mr. Lockyer had been
completed, and he also found that by its means he was able to
analyse at leisure the composition of the red flames without the
necessity of a total eclipse. An atmosphere of incandescent
hydrogen was found to surround our luminary into which, during
the greater solar storms, sundry metallic vapours were injected,
sodium, magnesium, and iron forming the three that most fre-
quently made their appearance.

Here we come to an interesting chemical question.
It had been remarked by Maxwell and by Pierce as the result
of the molecular theory of gases that the final distribution of
any number of kinds of gas in a vertical direction under gravity
is such that the density of each gas at a given height is the same
as if all the other gases had been removed, leaving it alone.
In our own atmosphere the continual disturbances prevent this
arrangement from taking place, but in the sun's enormously
extended atmosphere (if indeed our luminary be not nearly all
gaseous) it appears to hold, inasmuch as the upper portion of
this atmosphere, dealing with known elements, apparently con-
sists entirely of hydrogen. A^arious other vapours are, how-
ever, as we have seen, injected fr<im below the photosphere into
the solar atmosphere on the occasion of great oisturbances, and
Mr. Lockyer has a^ked the question, whether we have not here
a true indication of the relative densities of these various vapours
derived from the islative heights to which they are injected on
such occasions.

This qu°stion has been asked, but it has not yet received a
definite solution, for chemists tell us that the vapour densities of
some of the gases injected into the sun's atmosphere on the
occasion of disturbances are, as far as they know from terrestrial
observations, different from those which would be indicated by
taking the relative heights attained in the atmosphere of the sun.
Mr. Lockyer Kas attempted to bring this question a step nearer
to its solution by showing that the vapours at the temperatures
at which their vapour densities have been experimentally deter-
mined are not of similar molecular constitution, whereas in the
sun we get an indication, from the fact that all the elements give
us line spectra, that they are in similar molecular states.

Without, however, attempting to settle this question, I may
remark that we have here an interesting example of how two
branches of science — physics and chemistry— meet together in
solar research.

It had already been observed by Kirchhoff that sometimes one
or more of the spectral lines of an elementary vapour appeared
to be reversed in the solar spectrum, while the other lines did
not experience reversal. Mr. Lockyer succeeded in obtaining
an explanation of this phenomenon. This explanation was found
by means of the method of localisation already mentioned.

Hitherto, when taking the spectrum of the electric spark be-
tween the two metallic poles of a coil, the arrangements were
such as to give an average spectrum of the metal of these poles ;
but it was found that when the method of localisation was
employed, different portions of the spark gave a different number
of lines, the regions near the terminals being rich in lines, while
the midway regions give comparatively few.

If we imagine that in the midway regions the metallic vapour
given off by the spark is in e. larer slate than that near the poles,
we are thus led to regard the short lines which cling to the poles
as those which require a greater density or nearness of the vapour
])articles before they make their appearance ; while on the other
hand, those which extend all the way between the two poles
come to be regarded as those which will continue to make their
appearance in vapour of great tenuity.

Now it was remarked that these long lines were thtvery lines
which were reversed in the atmosphere of the sun. Hence when
we observe a single coincidence between a dark solar line and
the baght line ofany metal, we arc further led to inquire whether
tliis bright line is one of the long lines which will continue to
exist all the way between two terminals of that metal when the
spark passes.

If this Le the case, then we may argue with much probability
that the metal in question really occurs in the solar atmosphere ;
but if, on the other hand, the coincidence is merely between a
solar dark line and a short bright one, then we are led to imagine
that it is not a true coincidence, but something which will

348

NATURE

\Aug. 26, 1875

probably disappear on further examination. This method has
already afforded us a means of determining the relative amount
of the various metallic vapours in the sun's atmosphere. Thus,
in some instances all lines are reversed, whereas in others the
reversal extends only to a few of the longer lines.

Several new metals have thus been added to the list of those
previously detected in the solar atmosphere, and it is now certain
that the vapours of hydrogen, potassium, sodium, rubidium,
barium, strontium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, iron, man-
ganese, chromium, cobalt, nickel, titani>jm, lead, copper, cad-
mium, zinc, uranium, cerium, vanadium, and palladium occur in
our luminary.

I have spoken hitherto only of telescopic spectroscopy ; but
photography has been found capable of performing the same
good service towards the compound instrument consisting of the
telescope and its attached spectroscope, which it had previously
been known to perform towards the telescope alone. It is of no
less importance to secure a permanent record of spectral pecu-
liarities than it is to secure a permanent record of telescopic
appearances. This application of photography to spectrum
observations was first commenced on a sufficient scale by Mr.
Rutherford, of New York, and already promises to be one of
I he most valuable aids in solar inquiry.

In connection with the spectroscope I ought here to mention
the names of Respighi, and Secchi, who have done much in the
examination of the solar surface from day to day. It is of great
importance to the advancement of our knowledge, that two such
competent observers are stationed in a country where the climate
is so favourable to continued observation.

The examination of the sun's surface by the spectroscope sug-
gests many interesting questions connected with other branches
of science. One of these has already been alluded to. I may
mention two others put by Mr. Lockyer, premising, however,
ihat at present we are hardly in a position to reply to them.
It has been asked whether the very high temperatures of the
sun and of some of the stars may not be sufficient to produce the
disassociation of those molecular structures which cannot be
disassociated by any terrestrial means ; in other words, the ques-
ti m has been raised, whether our so-called elements are really
elementary bodies.

A third question is of geological interest. It has been asked
whether a study of the solar atmosphere may not .throw some
light upon the peculiar constitution of the upper strata of the
earth's surface, which are known to be of less density than the
average interior of our planet.

If we have learned to be independent of total eclipses as far
as the lower portions of the solar atmosphere are concerned, it
must be confessed that as yet the upper portions — the outworks
of the !-un — can only be successfully approached on these rare
and precious occasions. Thanks to the various Government
expeditions despatched by Great Britain, by the United States,
and by several Continental nations— thanks, also, to the exer-
tions of Lord Lindsay and other astronomers — we are in the
possession of definite mformation regarding the solar corona.

In the first place, we are now absolutely certain that a large
part of this appendage unmistakably belongs to our luminary,
and in the next place, we know that it consists, in part at least,
of an ignited gas giving a peculiar spectrum, which we have not
3 et been able to identify with that of any known element.
'1 he temptation is great to associate this spectrum with the
j>iesence of something lighter than hydrogen, of the nature of
which we are yet totally ignorant.

A peculiar physical structure of the corona has likewise been
suspected. On the whole, we may say that this is the least
known, while it is perhaps the most interesting, region of solar
research ; most assuredly it is well worthy of further investiga-
tion.

If we now turn our attention to matters nearer home, we find
that there is a difficulty in grasping the facts of terrestrial
meteorology no less formidable than that which assails us when
we investigate solar outbreaks. The latter perplex us because
the sun is so far away and because also his conditions are so
riilTereiit from those with which we are here familiar j while on
the other hand, the former perplex us because we are so inii-
niately mixed up with them in our daily lives and actions;
because, in fact, the scale is so large and we are so near. The
result has been that until quite recently our meteorological
operations have been conducted by a band of isolated volunteers
individually capable and skilful, but from their very isolation
incapable of combining together with advantage to prosecute a
scientific campaign. Of late, however, we have begun to per-

ceive that if we are to make any advance in this very interesting
and practical subject, a different method must be pursued, and
we have already reaped the first fruits of a more enlightened
policy ; already we have gained some knowledge of the constitu-
tion and habits of our atmosphere.

The researches of Wells and Tyndall have thrown much light
on the cause of dew, Humboldt, Dove, Buys Ballot, Jelinek,
Quetelet, Hansteen, KupfTer, Forbes, Welsh, Glaisher, and
others have done much to give us an accurate knowledge of the
distribution of terrestrial temperature. Great attention has like-
wise been given to the rainfall of Great Britain and Ireland,
chiefly through the exertions of one individual, Mr. G. J.
Symons.

To Dove we are indebted for the law of rotation of the wind,
to Redfield for the spiral theory of cyclones, to Francis Gaiton
for the theory of anti-cyclones, to Buchan for an investigation
into the disposition of atmospheric pressure which precedes
peculiar types of weather, to Stevenson for the conception
of barometric gradients, to Scott and Meldrum for an acquaint-
ance with the disposition of winds which frequently precedes
violent outbreaks ; and to come to the practical application of
laws, we are much indebted to the late Admiral Fitzroy and the
s-ystem which he greatly helped to establish for our telegraphic
warnings of coming storms.

Again, the meteorology of the ocean has not been forgotten.
The well-known name of Maury will occur to every one as that
of a pioneer in this branch of inquiry. Fitzroy, Leverrier,
Meldrum, Toynbee, and others have likewise done much ; and it
is understood that the meteorological offices of this and other
maritime countries are now busily engaged upon this important
and practical subject. Finally, the movements of the ocean and
the temperatures of the oceanic depths have recently been
examined with very great success in vessels despatched by her
Majesty's Government ; and Dr. Carpenter has by this means
been able to throw great light upon the convection currents
exhibited by that vast body of water which girdles our globe.

It would be out of place to enter here more minutely into this
large subject, and already it may be asked what connection has
all this with that part of the address that went before it.

There are, however, stiong grounds for supposing that the
meteorology of the sun and that of the earth are intimately con-
nected together. Mr. Broun has shown the existence of a
meteorological period connected apparently with the sun's rota-
tion ; five successive years' observations of the barometer at
Singapore all giving the period 25 74 days. Mr. Baxendell, of
Manctiester, was, I believe, the first to show that the convection
currents of the earth appear to be connected somehow with the
state of the sun's surface as regards spots ; and still more re-
cently, Mr. Meldrum, of the Mauritius Observatory, has shown
by a laborious compilation of ships' logs and by utilising the
meteorological records of the island, that the cyclones in the
Indian Ocean are most frequent in years when there are most
surspots. He likewise affords us grounds for supposing that the
lainlall, at least in the tropics, is greatest in years of maximum
solar disturbance.

M. Poey has found a similar connection in the case of the
West Indian hurricanes ; and finally, Piazzi Smyth, Stone,
Koppen, and still more recently, Blaaford, have been able to
brmg to light a cycle of terrestrial temperature having apparent
reference to the condition of the sun.

Thus, we have strong matter-of-fact grounds for presuming a
connection between the meteorology of our luminary and that of
our planet, even although we are in complete ignorance as to the
exact nature of this bond.

If we now turn to terrestrial magnetism the same coimection
becomes apparent.

Sir Edward Sabine was the first to show that the disturbances
of the magnetism of the earth are most violent during years of
maximum sunspots. Mr. Broun has shown that there is likewi.-e
a reference in magnetic phenomena to the period of the sun's rota-
tion about his axis, an observation recently confirmed by Horn-
stein ; and still more recently, Mr. Broun has shown that the
moon has an ac ion upon the earth's magnetism which is not
altogether of a tid^l nature, but depends, in part, at least, upon
the relative position of the sun and moon.

I must trust to your forbearance if I now venture to bring
forward considerations of a somewhat speculative nature.

We are all familiar with the generalisation of Hadley, that is
to say we know there are under-currents sweeping along the
surface of the earth from the poles to the equator, and upper-
currents sweeping back from the equator to the poles. We are

Aug. 26, 1875]

NATURE

349

likewise aware that these currents are caused by the unequal
temperature of the earth ; they are in truth convection- currents,
and their course is detern-.ined by the positions of the hottest and
coldest parts of the earth's surface. We may expect them,
therefore, to have a reference not so much to the geographical
equator and poles as to the hottest and coldest regions. In
fact, we know that tlie equatorial regions into which the trade
winds rush and from which the anti-trades take their origin, have
a certain annual oscillation depending upon the position of
the sun, or in other words upon the season of the year. We
may likewise imagine that the region into which the upper-
currents pour themselves is not the geographical pole, but the
pole of greatest cold.

In the next place we may imagine that these currents, as far as
regards a particular place, have a daily oscdlation. This has, I
believe, been proved as regards the lower currents or traJe-
winds which are more powerful during the day than during the
night, and we may therefore expect it to hold good wiih regard
to the upper-currents or anti-trades ; in fact, we cannot go
wrong in supposing that they also, as regards any particular
place, exhibit a daily variation in the intensity with which
they blow.

Again, we are aware that the earth is a magnet. Let us not
now concern ourselves about the origin of its magneiism, but
rather let us take it as it is. We muse next bear in mind that
rarefied air is a good conductor of electricity ; indeed, according
to recent experiments, an extremely good conductor. The return
trades that pass above from the hotter equatorial reg ons to the
poles of cold, con.-isting of moist rarefied air, are ihertfure to be
regarded in the light of good conductors crossmg hues of mag-
netic force ; we may therefore expect them to be the vehicle of
electric currents. Such electric currents will of course react on
the magneiism of the earth. Now, since the vclucity of these
upper currents has a daily variation, their influence as exhibited
at any place upon the magnetism of the earth may be expected
to have a dai.y variation also.

The question thus arises. Have we possibly here a cause
which may account for the well-known daily magnetic varia-
tion ? Are the peculiarities of this variation such as to corre-
spond to those which mi^ht be expected to belong to such electric
currents? I think it may be said that as iar as we can judge
there is a likeness of this kind between the peculiarities of these
two things, but a more piolonged scrutiny wdl of course be
essential before we can be absolutely certain that such currents
are fitted to produce the daily variation of the earth's mag-
netism.

Besides the daily and yearly periodic changes in these upper
convection currents we should also expect occasional and abrupt
changes forming the counterparts of those disturbances in ihe
lower strata with which we are familiar. And these may be
expected in like manner to produce non-periodic occasional dis-
turbances of the magnetism of the earth. Now it is well known
that such disturbances do occur, and further that ihey are most
frequent in those years when cyclones are most frequent, that is
to say in years of maximum suuspots. In one woro, it apptais
to be a tenable hypothesis to attribute at least the most promi-
nent magnetic clianges to atmospheric motions taking place in
the upper regions of the atmosphere where each moving stratum
of air becomes a conductor moving across lines of magnetic force ;
and it was Sir Wm. Thomson, I believe, who first suggested that
the motion of conductors across the hues of the earth's magnetic
force must be taken into account in any attempted explanation
of terrestrial magnetism.

It thus seems possible that the excessive magnetic disturbances
which take place in years of maximum sunspots may not be
directly caused by any solar action, but ujay rather be due to ihe
excessive meteorological disturbances which are likewise charac-
teristic of such yeais. On the other hand, that magnetic and
meteorological influence which Mr. Broun has found to be con-
nected with the sun's rotation points to some unknown direct
effect produced by our luminary, even if we imagine that the
magnetic part of it is cauved by the meteorological. Mr. Broun
is of opinion that this effect of the sun does not depend upon the
amount of spots on his surface.

In the next place, that influence of the sun in virtue of which
we have most cyclones and greater meteorological disturbance in
the years of maximum spots cannot, I think (as far as we know
at present), be attributed to a change in the heating power of
the sun. We have no doubt traces of a temperature effect which
appears to depend upon the sun-period, but its amount is very
small, whereas the variation in cyclonic disturbance is very great.

We are thus tempted to associate this cyclone producing in-
fluence of the sun with something different from his light and
heat. As far, therefore, as we can judge, our luminary would
appear to produce three distinct effects upon our globe. In the
first place, a magnetic and meteorological efftct, depending
somehow upon his rotation : secondly, a cyclonic effect de-
pending somehow upon the disturbed state of his surface ; and
lastly, the well-known light and heat effect with which we all
are familiar.

If we now turn to the sun we find that there are three distinct
forms of motion which animate his surface particles. In the first
place, each particle is carried round by the rotation of our
luminary. Secondly, each particle is influenced by the gigantic
meteorological disturbances of the surface, in virtue of which it
may acquire a \elocity rangmg as high as 130 or 140 miles a
second; and lastly, each particle, on account 01 its high tempe-
rature, is vibrating wiih extreme rapidity, and the energy of these
vibrations communicated to us by means of the ethereal medium
produces the well-known light and heat efl^ect of the sun.

Now, is it philosophical to suppose that it is only the last ot
these three motions that influences our earth, while the other
two produce absolutely no effect ? On the contrary, we are, I
think, compelled by considerations connected with the theory of
energy, to attribute an influence, whether great or small, to the
first two as well as to the last.

W^e are thus led to suppose that the sun must influence the
earth in three ways, one depending on his rotation, another on
his meteorological disturbance, and a third by meaijS of the
vibrations of his surface particles.

But wo have already seen that, as a matter of fact, the sun
does appear to influence the earth in three distinct ways — one
magnetically and meteorologically, depending apparently on his
period of rotation ; a second cyclonically, depending apparently
on the meteorological conditions of his surface ; and a third, by
means of his light and heat.

Is this merely a coincidence, or has it a meaning of its own ?
We cannot tell ; but 1 may venture to think that in the puisuic
of this problem we ougiit to be prepared at leist to admit the
pos>ibility of a three-iold influence of the sun.

Even from this very meagre sketch of one of the most inter-
esting and important of physical problems, it cannot fail to
appear that while a good deal has already been done, its progress
in the future will veiy greatly depend on the completeness ol ti e
method and continuity of the observations by which it is pur-
sued. We have here a field which is of importance not inertly
to one, or even to two, but almost to evciy conceivable brancti
of research.

Why should we not erect in it a sort of science exchange into
which the physicist, the chemist, and the }.eologist may each
cairy the fruits of his research, receiving back in return some
suggestion, some principle, or some other scientific commod.ty
that will aid him in his own field. But to establish such a mart
must be a national undertaking, and already several naiions
have acknowledged their obligations in this respect.

Already the German Government have established a Sonnen-
warte, the mere building and equipment of which is to cost
B laige sum. With an appreciation of what the spectroacope li is
done for this inquiry, the first directorship was offered to KircM-
holf, u.id on Iuj clc^l.uing it, llcrr Vogel has been placed in
charge. In France also a physical observatory is to be erected
at Fontenay, on an equal, if not greater scale, of which Jan sen
has already accepted the directorship ; while in Italy there are
at least three observatories exclusively devoted to this branch of
reseach. Nor must we forget that in this country the new
observatory at Oxford has been so arranged that it can be
employed in such inquiries. But what has England as a nation
done ?

Some years since, at the Norwich meeting of this Association,
a movement was set on foot by Col. Strange which resulted
in the appointment of a Royal Commission on the advance-
ment of science, wiih the Duke of Devonshire as chairman. This
Commission have quite recently reported on the steps that ought
in their opinion to be taken for ttie advancement ol scientific
research.

One of their recommendations is expressed in the following
words : —

" Important classes of phenomena relating to physical meteoro-
logy and to terrestiial and astronomical physics require observa-
tions of such a character that they cannot be advantageously
carried on otherwise than under the direction of Government.
Institutions for the study of such phenomena should be main-

;5o

NATURE

{Aug. 26, 1875

tained by the Government ; and in particular an observatory
should be founded specially devoted to astronomical physics."

If the men of science of this country who procured the
appointment of this commission, and who subsequently gave
evidence before it, will no'v come forward to support its recom-
mendations, it can hardly be doubted that these will be speedily
carried into effect.

lUit other things besides observitions are necessary, if we are
to pursue with advantage this great physical problem.

One of these is the removal of the intolerable burden that ha?
hitherto been laid upon private meteorologists and magneticians.
Expected to furnish their tale of bricks, they have been left to
find their own straw. Nothincj more wretched can be imagined
than the position of an amateur — that is to say, a man who
purnies science for the love of it and is unconnected with any
rs'a^ lishmicnt — who has set himself to promote observational
inquiries, whether in meteorology or magnetism.

He has first to obtam with great expenditure of time or
money, or both, copies of the individual observations taken at
some recognised institution. He has next to reduce these in the
way that fuits his inquiry ; an operation again consuming time
and demanding menns. Let us suppose all this to be successfully
accomplished, and a valuable result obtained. It is doubtless
embodied in the Transactions of some society, but it excites
little enthusiasm, for it consists of something which cannot be
repeated by every one for himself like a new and interesting
experiment. Yet the position of such men has recently been
improved. .Several observatories and other institutions now
publish their individual observations ; this is done by our
Tvleteorological Office, while Dr. Bergsma, Dr. Neumayer, and
Mr. Broun are recent examples of magneticians who have
adopted this plan. The publication of the work of the latter is
due to the enlightened patronage of the Rajah of Travancore,
who has thus placed himself in front of the princes of India and
given them an example which it is to be hoped they will follow.
But this is only one step in the right direction ; another must
consist in subsidis'ng private meteorologists and magneticians in
Older to enable them to obtain the aid of computers in reducing
the observations with which they have been furnished. The
man of science would thus be able to devote his knowledge,
derived from long study, to the methods by which results and
the laws regulating them are to be obtained ; he could be the
architect and builder of a scientific structure without being fprced
to waste his energies on the work of a hodman.

Another hindrance consists in our deficient knowledge as to
what observations of value in magnetism and meteorology have
already been made. We ought to have an exhaustive catalogue
(.f all that Las been done in this respect in our globe, and of the
conditions under which the various observations will be acces-
bible to outside inquirers. A catalogue of this kind has bten
framed by a commiitee of this Association, but it is confined to
the djminijns of England, and requires to be supplemented by
a list of that which has been done abroad.

A ihiid drawback is the insufficient nature of the present
facilities for the iaveUion and improvement of instruments, i.nd
lor their vtr.ficaaon.

We have, no duubt, a:Jvanced greatly in the construction of
instruments, especially in those which are self-recording, The
names of Brooke, Robinson, Welsh, Osier, and Beckley will
occur to us all as improvers of our instruments of observatioiu
bir W. I'homson has likewise adapted his electrometer to the
wants of meteorology. Dr. Robcoe has given us a self-recording
aclinoniv-tcr, but a good instrument for observiu;j the sun's
heat is still a desideratum. It ought likewise to be borne in
mind that the standard mercurial thermomettr "is by no nieaa* 9.
perfect iubiruriient.

In conclusion, it cannot be doubted that a great generalisalioa
is looming in the distance— a mii^hly law we cannot jet tc.l
what, that will reach us, we cannot yet say when. It will
involve facts hitherto inexplicable, facts that are scarcely received
as such because they appear opposed to our present knowledge
of their causes. It is not possible perhaps to hasten the arrival
of this generalisation beyond a certain point ; but we ought not
to forget that we can hasten it, and that it is our duty to do so.
It depends much on ourselves, our resolution, our earnestness ;
on the scientific policy we adopt, as well as on the power we
may have to devote ourselves to special investigations, whether
such an advent shall be realised in our day and generation, or
whether it shall be indefinitely postponed. It governments
would understand the ultimate material advantages of every step

forward in .'•cicnce, however inapplicable each may appear for
the moment to the wants or pleasures of r rdinary life, they would
find reasons patent to the meanest capacities for bringing tie
weilth of min ', now lost on the drudgery of commnn !abour«,
to bear on the search for 'hose wondrous laws which govern
every movement not rnly of the mighty masses of our system,
but of evfry atom distributed throughout srgce.

SECTION C.

OrENixa Address of Dr.- Thomas Wright, F'.R.S.E.,

F.G.S., President.

On the Geological and Fahmntological Character oj the Country

around Briitol.

In taking this Chair to-day, I desire first to express my deep
sense of gratitude to the Council of the British Association for
the honour conferred on me, and secondly, to say how much [
feel the responsibility of the position in which I am placed when
I recollect the long list of distinguished savans who in former
years have presided over this Section. The fact that Buckland,
Conybeare, De la Beche, Forbes, Geikie, Hopkins, Jukes,
Lyell, Murchison, Phillips, Ramsay, and other men illustrious
in the annals of British Geology have filled this chair, may well
make me doubt how far my own feeble powers are equal to an
efficient discharge of its duties ; however, I shall bring a willing
mind and an honest determination to do my best on this
occasion.

We have met again in one of the most interesting centres in
England to all students of practical geology ; for within a short
distance of this spot we can examine some of the most instructive
sections of PaLxozoic and Mesozoic rocks, and study a magni-
ficent collection of local fossils obtained from them. So I pur-
pose occupying the short space of time allowed for this intro-
ductory address in attempting to give you a general outline of
the geological character of the country around Bristol, with a
resume of some of its more remarkable Palseontological features,
by way of inducing you to visit and study the admirable collection
of local organic remains so well displayed in the Museum of the
Bristol Philosophical Institution.

Geology is the history of the Earth ; for it attempts to con-
struct a table of phenomena, physical and chemical, organic and
inorganic, which have succeeded each other from the past to the
present, and on the terrestrial surface traces of its origin and
progress are preserved.

That phase which we see to-day is only the most recent of its
eventful history, and although the last, is not the final one, as the
physical forces that are ever in action among its different parts
are slowly and steadily producing new combinations, which in
time will effect mutations in its structure, change its physiography,
and remodel the whole.

There is probably no other place in England where, within so
limited an area, typical example's of so many different formations
occur as around this city ; for within a short distance by road or
rail we may investigate the Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous,
Triassic, Liassic, Oolitic, and Cretaceous formations, all of which
will yield many interesting species for the cabinet of the paliEon-
tologist, and a valuable series of rocks and minerals for the
student of Physical Geology.

These different formations in relation to the entire series of
stratified rocks will be better understood by a reference to tlie
Tabic on the following page, in which the periods, divisions,
formations, and typical localities are given.

The localities in the Table may be grouped into six dis-
tricts : —

1. Tortworth district. 4. Bristol district.

2. Mendip Hills. 5. Dundry district.

3. Radstock district. 6. Bridgewater district.

I. Tortworth District.
Silurian. — Tortworth has long been classical ground to the
geologist, and was first brought into notice by Dr. Cooke, for-
merly (i 799-1835) rector of the parish. This gentleman made
an extensive collection of fossils from all the rocks in the district,
which after his death passed through my hands, and I can
therefore speak to the fact. A description of the Geology o(
Tortworth was made by Mr. Weaver,^ and by Buckland and
Conybeare.^ These memoirs were written at a time when the

I Trans. Geol. Soc. vol. i. p. 317 (2nd series).
' Ibid. p. sio.

Ati^: 26, 1875]

NATURE

351

correlations of the then so-called Transition rocks were not un-
derstood ; therefore they help us little toward a correct under-
standing of their age and character ; it was not until Murchison
had succeeded in making out the true relation and character of
the upper fossiliferous beds beneath the Old Red Sandstone, and
had arranged his grouj)s by their organic remains in consecutive
order under the name of the Silurian System, that the true age
and relation of the Transition strata of Tortworth were under-
stood. It then appeared that the Silurian rocks of Tortworth
are the southern extension of the same formations which, extend-
ing through Micklewood Chase and the Vale of Berkeley, appear
as a dome of Upper Silurian, rising near Tites Point on the left
bank of the Severn near Purton Passage. The same rocks are
found wrapping round the base of May Hill and Huntley Hill
in the Forest of Dean, in the Valley of Woolhope, Herefordshire,
on the western slopes of the Malvern Hills, and extending through
Eastnor and Ledbury to Wenlock Edge, Salop. Whatever,
thereibre, is true relating to the PaljEontological character of the
Upper Silurians in these other localities, is equally correct of the

same formations that lie m the miniature basin of Toitworth.
The Caradoc Sandstone, or, as it is now called, the Upper
Llandovery Sandstoue, is the oldest rock at Tortworth, and forms
the dominant stratum of the district. It covers an oxtensive
area ; and some small sections are seen at the south side of
Micklewood Chase, and on both banks of the Avon near Damory
Mill. Lithologically and paliEontologically it is indistincrnishable
from hand specimens of the same formation at May Hill. It
abounds in fossils : Pentanierus, Strophomena, Orthis, Atrypa,
Spirifera, and LcpUena, with broken Trilobites belonging to the
genera Trimideus, Calymene, L'licnus, and Phacops, aie found,
together with the stems of Crinoids and Tentaculites.

The Wenlock Limestone is exposed at Falfield Mill and Whit-
field, and other places ; from its various beds the characteristic
Upper Silurian Corals are collected, as Favosites, Syringopora,
Halysites, Forites, Caryophyllia, and Acervularia. Crinoidal

1 stems are very ab«ndant. Many Brachiopoda, as Leptana,
Atrypa, Orthis orbicularis, and Gasteropoda, as Euomphalus

, discors and Euomphalus funatus, are collected, vntb fragment*

Table I.— Geological Formations in the Bristol Districts.

Periods.

Post Tertiary -

Tertiary -

CRETACtOUS

Divisions.

Jurassic

LlASSIC

Triassic -
Permian -

Carhoniflkucs -

DhVUMAN -

Upper Silurian
Igneous Rucks -

j Recent -

1 Post Pliocene

Upper Oolite'
Middle Oolite

Lower Oolite -

Upper Lias -

Middle Lias -

} Lower Lias -

I Upper Trias -

Formations.

I ! Upper -
I , Lower -

Old Red

Alluvium . . -
Peat ....
Gravel - ■ - -

I Greensand ...

j Coral Rag

I Oxford Clay -

j Combrash
Forest Marble

j Bradford Clay
Bath Oolite -

I Fuller's Earth

I Inferior Oolite
Liassic Sands
Upper Lias Clay] -
Marlstone . . -
Clays . . . -
Clays ....
Limestones -

I Avicula coniorta

j Keuper - - - -

I Dolomitic Conglomerate

1 Coal Measures

i Millstone Grit

1 Upper Shales

I Carboniferous Limestone

Lower Shales

Sandstones
j Conglomerates

Ludlow
1 Wenlock
I Upper Llandovery -

Greenstone . . .

Basalt ....

Typical Localities.

Bristol, Shirehampton.

Cheddar, Glastonbury.

Cheddar railway, Keynsham, Saltford.

Absent.

Postlebury.]

Absent.

Cloford.

Cloford, Marston Bigot.

Chickwell, Faulkland.

Bradford.

Coombedown Lansdown P.

North Stoke, Lansdown, Box.

Dundry, Cotteswold Hills.

Dundry, Midford, Frocester,

Dundry, Midford, Frocester.

laundry, Sodbury, Stinchcombe.

Dundry, Sodbury, Stinchcombe.'

Horfield, Pell.

Keynsham, Saltford.

Aust, Beechum, Garden ClifT.

New River, Cotham.

Bristol, Portishead, Clevedon.

Absent.

Mangotsfield, Radstock, &c.

Brandon Hill, Fish-ponds, &c.

Clifion, Ashton, Fish-ponds.

Clifton, Mendips, Tortworth.

Clifton, Clevedon, Tortworth.

Clifton, Portishead, Mendips, &c.

Clifton, Portishead, Mendips, (S;c.

Berkeley, Purton Passage.

Tortworth, Falfield.

Tortworth, Damory.

Damory, Charfield, Woodford.

Uphill, Mendips, Weston.

of Calymene Blumenbachii and Phacops cautlatus. The Ludlmv
Koek is best exposed at low-water mark on the west bank of the
Severn at Purton Passage, where it rises in a dome-shaped mass,
and dips away beneath the beds of Old Red Sandstone of tiie
Devonian series on the opposite shore ; the upper portion of
tills formation consiats of greenislugrey micaceous beds, with
Leptana lata, Orthis unguis, and Terebratula Wilsoui, which
piobablv represent tlie Aymestry limestone.

Devonian. — The Old Red Sandstone, in its upper parts, con-
sists of fine-grained thin flagstones of a whitish-grey colour ; and
Tortworth Court is built of these fine Ijuilding beds. This
upper division is underlain by course quartzose conglomerates,
and at the base by red sandstone, which re>>ls on the Llandovery
strata. The same succession of beds is very persistent, with
conglomerate in the centre and lower third, and sandstone above
and at the base.

Carboniferous. — The Bone Bed at the base of this formation is

well developed, together with the Lower Limestone Shales.
Psammudus Itneatis, P. Uevissimus, Coprolites, and Pileopsis
angustus. Phi!., a sliell of the Carboniferous Limestone, are the
leading fossils here.

Millstone G>it and Coal Measures. — These beds have been
fully and accurately described in the "Geological Transactions,"
by Weaver, Buckland, and Conybeare, accompanied l)y many
valuable sections. They consist of Millstone Grit, Lower Coal
Measures, Pennant Sandstone, and Upper Coal Measures; the
whole series may be studied and examined in this district. A
section constructed from Tortworth Green to Frampton Cotierell
gives tlie following : — Tortworth Green, Old Red ; the Court
and Park, Lower Limestone Shales; Ley Hill and Cromhall.
Carboniferous Limestone ; Cromhall Heath, Millstone Grit ;
Sweethouse, Lower Coal Shales ; Sweethouse to Robin's-wood
House, Pennant, and from Robin's-wood House to Frampton
Cotterell, Upper Coal Measures of the Coal-pit Heath V.i in

352

NA TURE

\Aug. 26, 1875

An able ]-iaper on this subject, with Map and Sections, by my
friend Mr. Etheridge,' F.R.S., will be found in the papers of
the Cotteswold Club.

Dolomilu Conglomerate. — Weaver described this formation as
composed pnncipally of "rounded and angular fragments of
limestone, exceeding the size of the head, with fragments also
of quartz and hornstone. These are all cemented together by a
calcareous paste, which is frequently of a marly nature — or of
a carbonate uf lime either of an earthy or compact structure ; "
the cement is generally magnesian, and in this there are many
cavities frequently lined with crystals of calcareous spar and
quartz, and also with the sulphate of strontian.

This remarkable formation forms a kind of irregular broken
fringe, hanging on the flanks of the older rocks, and resting
unconformably upon them. We shall meet with this con-
glomerate again in connection with the beds in the Mendip Hills,
and in the Clifton section.

Ne'v Red Sandstone. — The upper and central members of the
New Red Sandstone are found near Tortworth ; they consist
chiefly of red clay and marl.

Avicula contorta beds have been found by the Earl of Ducie
in the form of the Bone Bed, the series resting on the inclined
edges of the Carboniferous Limestone.

2. Mendip Hills.

The Mendip Hills proper extend from Bleadon Hill near
Hutton on the west, to Elm and Whatley on the east ; and they
strike nearly due west and east, and are about thirty miles in
length, with an average breadth of five to six miles. They con-
stitute the southern base of the Bristol Coal Field, or the base
of an almost equilateral triangle, formed by the Palaeozoic rocks,
comprising the area from Purton Passage and Tortworth to the
south slopes of the Mendips ; this includes the outlier Bream
Down, which is only a westerly prolongation in the Severn,
separated from the main range of the Mendips by the alluvial
flat of the estuary of the Axe.

The Lithology of the Mendips consists of Old Red Sandstone,
Carboniferous Limestone, and Trias, the latter represented
chiefly by the Dolomitic Conglomerate, which lies unconform-
ably on the Old Red and Carboniferous, flanking nearly the
entire range of hills, and in places capping their summits.

Numerous islands of Carboniferous Limestone surrounded by
Triassic rocks occur east of Wells and south of Croscombe, also
encircled by fringes of Dolomitic Conglomerate, of which Church
Hill, Worminsler, and Knowl-foot Hill are examples ; these
outliers testify to the southern extension of the Carboniferous
Limestone beneath the New Red Sandstone and Lias south of
the Mendips, and lend us aid in determining the probable posi-
tion of deep-seated Coal Measures similar to those at Vobster,
Collord, Ed ford, Holcombe, &c., north of the Mendip range.

The lower flanks of the northern portion of the range are
covered by the New Red Sandstone, that of the south being a
mere strip traversed by the Wells and Axbridge Railway, the
peat plains and bogs of Sedgmoor covering them up to a certain
level to the east of the meridian of Glastonbury. The Lias
occupies an extensive plain, masking likewise the older rocks
beneath.

Old Red Sandstone forms the oldest stratified rock, and is,
strictly speaking, the axis of the Mendip Hills. It is exposed
in four well-marked areas along the highest ridge: — (l) Black-
down ; (2) North Hill and Pen Hill ; (3) Beacon Hill ; and (4)
Downhead Common, which is the largest exposed tract. The
intervening areas are occupied by a mantle of Carboniferous
Limestone, which arches over and covers the underlying Old
Red, denudation having yet spared the limestone.

The Old Red is exposed along two anticlinal axes, these being,
indeed, the chief cause of its exposure ; the axes being post-
Carboniferous and pre-Triassic, are not traceable beneath or
where the patches of Dolomitic Conglomerate and cherty Lias
cover up the Old Red Sandstone and Carboniferous Limestone,
as at Harptree Hill, Rowham, Shipham, &c.

The most northerly anticlinal brings up the fine range of
Blackdown, on the north, soutli, and east of which occur the
Lower Limestone Shales resting on Old Red.

The northern dip of the anticlinal is higher than the southern,
being in places as high as 54° in the north, whilst in the south it
does not exceed 20". This anticlinal is traceable from near the
exposure of the igneous rock at Uphill, along Bleadon Hill,
thence under the New Red Sandstone to Padingham, and Dolo-

• Procssdings of the Cotteswold Naturalists' Field Club, p. 28, 1865. ■

mitic Conglomerate and Calamine beds of Shipham, through the
Old Red Sandstone of Blackdown, and on through the Carboni-
ferous Limestone of Lamb-bottom, where it is lost under the
cherty Rhaetic beds of Harptree Hill. P>om Little Elm on the
extreme east, to Masbury Castle nearly due west of the range,
the Old Red is again exposed for three miles, which is likewise
due to the anticlinal axis.

At Masbury Castle we lose trace of this S.E. anticlinal, and a
second and parallel one to that of Blackdown occurs, ranging
from the Old Red of North Hill through the Carboniferous
Limestone of Stoke Warren, and last under the Dolomitic
Conglomerate of North Draycott. This may join the great
anticlinal near Egar Hill. We thus see that the strike of the
Mendips was induced by a force which has brought out its oldest
rock to the surface, and thereby produced the present physio-
graphy of the bold range of hills we are now considering.

Carboniferous Limestone surrounds the exposed and concealed
nucleus of Old Red, and is conformable therewith both in dip
and strike. The Carboniferous Limestone has grand development
in the Mendips, and constitutes the great mass of the chain,
having a continuous spread of five miles between Westbury
Beacon and Abbey, also between Croscombe and Emberrow.
The Lower Limestone Shales are nowhere more finely exposed
than around and resting on the upper members of the Old Red
Sandstone, and are highly fossiliferous throughout, the beds
being crowded with Strophomena, Chonetes, Spirifera, Polyzoa,
the ossicula of Crinoids, and many Trilobites, presenting a
strong contrast to the barren beds of the Old Red on which they
conformably rest. The Shales are well developed around Black-
down, especially to the east of Charterhouse, at Rowbarrow and
Piiddy, west of North Hill, and Nine Barrows; and east of
Egar Hill they attain a thickness of 500 feet, and are extremely
rich in organic remains. They present an extended outcrop from
Masbury to Stoke Lane, and Leigh upon Mendip, and in the
Downhead beds near Asham Woods. The local development
of these argillaceous beds of the lowest division of the Carboni-
ferous Limestone first gave origin to the name Lower Limestone
Shales. They are almost special to the west of England, and
are exposed on both flanks of the Mendip range. On them
rest the thick-bedded strata of the Carboniferous Limestone,
which is everywhere traceable for thirty miles from Oldford, the
gorge of the Vallis to Elm on the east, to the distant headland
of Bleadon in the west, and everywhere abounding more or less
with organisms which form the leading fossils in its beds.

Coal Measures. — On the northern flank of the Mendips,
between Binegar and Wells, and resting on the Millstone Grit,
highly faulted and contorted, are the well-known Coals of Vob-
ster, Holcombe, Pitcot, &c., that portion on the west at Stratton
on the Fosse, Downside, &c. being covered by Dolomitic Con-
glomerate, the eastern side at Newbuiy and Vobster being over-
lain by the same rock and the Inferior Oolite. There is no
reason why we should not conclude that the Coals of the northern
side once extended across the Mendips and now lie deeply buried
along the south parts of the range. At Ebber rocks, west of
Wells, we have evidence of the Millstone Grit resting on the
Carboniferous Limestone ; and the elevation of the Mendips
being post-carboniferous, lends an additional reason for the
occurrence of the Coals of the northern area to the south of the
Mendips, and beneath the Lias and Peat plain of Glastonbury,
Castle Carey, the Pennards, and the Poldon Hills. No Coal
area in the United Kingdom is so disturbed and folded both
along its strike and on the dip of the Coals as those of North
Mendips; and like the Coals of the " Mons Coal-field" in
Belgium, which exists under similar conditions, the seams are
vertical and thrown over, so that the same seams are passed
through by shafts two or three times. The Vobster and Hol-
combe Coal-seams are the same as those at Ashton and Kings-
wood near Bristol, Twerton near Bath, and probably the same
as those at Yate. They underlie the whole area between the
Mendips and Bristol, and are probably the same that occur at
Kingswood and underlie the Pennant at Coal-pit Heath.

'J he Tiias. — Two divisions of this group are greatly developed
around and upon the Mendips, especially the inferior or Dolo-
mitic Conglomerate, a peculiar and local condition of the base
of the Keuper Sandstone of the Bristol and South Wales Coal-
fields, chiefly that portion of the latter which extends from
Cardiff to Bridgend. The entire range of the Mendips is sur-
rounded by Dolomitic Conglomerate ; and ten or twelve patches
still remain as unconformable undenuded masses of that formation
resting upon the older rocks forming the massive range of the
Mendips. This remarkable deposit completely covered the

Aug. 26, 1875J

NATURE

353

range when at a lower level, its partial removal being conclu-
sively shoAvn by the remnants that still cling to the steep face of
the northern and southern flanks of the Mendips.

This Conglomerate is composed entirely of greater or lesser
fragments of the older rocks composing the hills, and is the
result of the denuding action of the sea that deposited the
Keuper beds. This marine denudation took place when the
entire area occupied by the Mendips and Coal-basin underwent
depression, the Dolomitic Conglomerate and sandstones accumu-
lating/re? rata with the depression and consequent destruction of
the rocks offered for resistance. This conglomerate, the '* over-
lie " of the coal-miners of the Bristol basin, although visible only
upon the Palaeozoic rocks surrounding the coal-bearing area, is
nevertheless entirely spread over them, and beneath the New
Red Sandstone that occupy nearly the entire area from Tort-
worth to the soutliern flanks of the Mendips, its presence being
marked by the marls and sandstones of the Keuper, the Lias
limestones, and in other places the Oolitic rocks that lie within
the Coal-basin, especially along its south-east border from Bath
to Wells. We have no physical evidence more convincing of
denudation, elevation, and depression over large areas of tlie
earth's surface than what we can witness so easily and study so
advantageously in the Mendip Hills ; for this conglomerate rock
here defines the limits between Mcsozoic and Palceozoic times :
the highly inclined Old Red Sandstone forms the nucleus of the
chain, the Carboniferous rocks resting upon it ; and the Coal
Measures in conformable succession to the latter were all in-
durated, metamorphosed, elevated, and thrown into folds long
prior to the time when, under slow depression, destruction, and
denudation, the Dolomitic Conglomerate was laid down by the
Triassic sea — the resultant of wave forces along a coast-line
which was then the Mendip range, its shingle and boulders being
slowly cemented by a magnesio- calcareous paste derived from
the wasting beds of the great limestone series. For further
details regarding the natural history of the Dolomitic Conglo-
merate I must refer to a valuable memoir on this formation by
Mr. Etheridge, F.R.S.1

2 he Rhcetic. — Singular beds of cherty and sandy deposits of
Rhactic age occur in several parts of the Mendips, in places brec-
ciated, or as a conglomerate, and resting either upon the Dolo-
mitic Conglomerate or Carboniferous Limestone.

The fossils are either cherty, or they have been removed, and
iheir moulds are formed of chert, or cavities are left where
organisms existed.

These beds are exposed at East Harptree, Egar Hill, Ashwick,
and Shepton-Mallet. In the Vallis they repose immediately on
the upturned edges of the Carboniferous Limestone, and even
fill in the numerous veins, pockets, and faults in that formation,
with fossil species common to the beds.

Nowhere can the geologist read more clearly the physical
history of the groups of associated rocks composing the structure
of the Eastern Mendips than at Wells, the Vallis, Watley, Elm,
Nunny, and Holwell, where Old Red Sandstone, Carboniferous
Limestone, Coal Measures, Dolomitic Conglomerate, Rha;tic
beds, Lia.s, and Oolites are all exposed in natural sequence to
each other. There can be no doubt that the Rhaetic sea sur-
rounded and covered the Mendips ; for its remains are found
reposing on the Old Red Sandstone, Carboniferous Limestone.
Coal Measures, and Dolomitic Conglomerate, and pass upwards
into the Lias beds.

The Lias. — Fragmentary portions of this formation are found
resting upon the summits of the Mendips, covering respectively
Old Red Sandstone, Carboniferous Limestone, Dolomitic Con-
glomerate, and Rhaetic beds, and in the Holcombe and Bar-
rington districts resting upon the Coal Measures, proving the
former extension of the Liassic sea over the Mendips ; for upon
some of their highest points, as near as Castle Comfort, the
cherty beds, with their characteristic fossils, are found ; also at
Chewton Mendip, Emberrow, Ashwick, &c. ; and on tlie south
side of the hills it is found at a considerable height, as at Dow-
side, Chilcott, and West Herrington. During the Lias age the
Mendips must either have been an archipelago, or they were
totally submerged beneath the sea which deposited the Liassic
plain to the north and south. The re-elevation of the Mendip
range has occasioned the removal by aqueous denudation of
most of the Lias beds deposited on their summit, whilst along
the southern flanks of the hills, and in the valley, a considerable
thickness of this formation still remains in siiu.

Igneous Rocks. — Mr. Charles Moore * has shown that there is

■ Quart. Journ. Gaol. Soc. vol. xxvi. p. 174 (1870).
- Ibid. vol. xxiii. p. 452 18O7).

an exposure of basaltic rocks (dioritic) along the anticlinal of the
Mendips, a little west of Downhead, extending visibly nearly as
far as Beacon Hill, between two and three miles in length and a
quarter of a mile in width.

This igneous mass appears in the form of a dyke, and is co-
incident with the anticlinal line along the axis of the Mendips,
which is here traceable for seven miles, and is again continued
from near Harptree to Shipham.

There is likewise at the south end of Uphill cutting (Bristol
and Exeter Railway), at the western extremity of Bleadon Hill,
an extensive patch of igneous rock, discovered when that line
was made, and described by Mr. W. Sanders, F.R.S. ; this ex-
posure was also in the line of the anticlinal, and ended in the
fault which there crosses the line. This rock, according to Mr.
Rutley's analysis, is a Pitchstone Porphyry, whilst Mr. David
Forbes considers it a Dolerite.

Whether this dyke was really eruptive or overflowed the Old
Red Sandstone is still a question to be solved ; and whether it
is co-extensive with the range is unknown ; but its age must be-
subsequent to the Coal Measures— the whole of the Palicozoic
rocks being disturbed alike, and lying at one general angle of
inclination, the overlying secondary strata not being influenced
or at all affected by these Palaeozoic changes. The Old Devonian
rocks in contact with the dyke are not altered or metamor-
phosed, thus establishing the facts of age and condition.

3. The Radstock District.

Among the many interesting features of the neighbourhood in
which we are assembled is the Bristol Coal-field, which still
offers an inexhaustible subject for scientific inquiry ; extending
from Cromhall in the north to Frome in the south, and from
Bath in the east to Nailsea in the west, comprising an area of
238 square miles.

From a very early date it attracted the attention of geologists,
and was long ago the subject of a paper by Mr. Strachey, which
was published in one of the local societies. Dr. Buckland^
contributed an able memoir on this Coal-field, in which a great
quantity of important information was placed on record, which
has been of the greatest possible use down to the present time.

Subsequently this area has formed the subject of able papers
contributed to the North of England and South Wales Institutes
of Engineers, by Mr. J. C. Greenwell, F.G.S., and Mr. Handel
Cossham, F.G.S., and to other scientific .societies by Mr. Robert
Etheridge, F.R.S., and Mr. Charles Moore, F.G.S.

During the past twelve years Mr. J. M'Murtrie, F.G.S., of
Radstock, has been continuously engaged in working out the
physical geology of the district, and has contributed a scries of
memoirs on the Bristol Coal-field to the Bath and Somerset-
shire Societies, which have thrown a new and important light
on these marvellous disturbances which have distorted the
strata.

That part of the Report of the Royal Coal Commission bear-
mg upon the Bristol Coal-field, and prepared by Professor
Prestwich, and papers by Mr. Horace Woodward and Mr. John
Anstey, have summarised our previous knowledge, and added
recent facts thereto ; but with all that has been done much remains
to be investigated before a full history of the Bristol Coal-field
can be written.

Although more or less connected throughout, the Coal-fields
adjoining Bristol consist of three well-defined areas, called the
Gloucestershire, Radstock, and Nailsea basins, each of which
has its own distinctive features. The Gloucestershire is sepa-
rated from the Radstock basin by the great Kingswood anticlinal,
which intersects in a ridge-like form the entire Coal-field from
east to west ; and the Nailsea basin has been almost, if not
entirely, cut off from the principal coal district by the elevated
limestones of Broadfield Down. Of these three areas Radstock
basin is the most extensive, both geographically and sectionally,
a great portion of its thickness being yet entirely undeveloped.
One of the features which will be remarked by visitors coming
from other parts of England is the number and character of the
Secondary formations by which the Radstock ba.sin is overlain.
Here and there, it is true, Mesozoic rocks have been denuded ;
but by far the greater portion of the Coal-field is hidden beneath
a covering of New Red Sandstone, Lias, and inferior Oolite,
and many of the shafts have had to pass through all these forma-
tions before the coal-seams were reached.

A very slight change in the geological circumstances of the
past would have left us in entire ignorance of the cxi»tcnce of a
Coal-field so far south as Bristol ; and this reflection induces the
» Trans. Geol. Soc. Second Scries, vol. i.

354

NATURE

\_Aug. 26, 1875

hope that in other parts of the country (at present believed to
be without coal, or, if present, to lie at such a depth from the
surface that it cannot be worked) it may yet be discovered at a
moderate depth.

Another feature of the Radstock Coal Measures is their great
thickness, which Mr. M'Murtrie estimates at 8,000 feet. From
this we may infer that, however limited the area in Somerset-
shire of which we have at present positive knowledge, we are
very far indeed from the edge of that infinitely more extensive
area which the Coal Measures of the South of England originally
occupied, and within which outlying basins may still be found.

It is abundantly evident that the Bristol Coal-field was origin-
ally connected with that of the Forest of Dean and South Wales,
with which it has many characters in common, although it differs
in other respects.'

In all we find the same arrangement of the different strata,
namely : — ist, an upper division of productive Coal Measures ;
2nd, a central mass of Pennant Sandstone ; and, 3rd, beneath,
a lower division of productive Coal Measures resting upon, 4th,
the Millstone Grit. Hitherto it has been found impossiljle to
correlate the seams of coal ; but they present many points of
general correspondence in the districts referred to ; and the in-
formation obtained leads to the conclusion that their greatest
sectional development occurs between Radstock and Bristol,
according to the following estimate of the thickness of the strata,
number of seams, and thickness of coal-seams : —

Table II. — Strata and Coal-Seams.

Division of
Strata.

Sectional
thickness.

Number of
Coal-seams.

Thicknessof
Coal seams.

Inches.

Feet.

Upper Coal
Measures

2,600

16

26

10

Pennant Sand-

stone

Lower Coal

2,750

4

5

10

Measures

2,800

26

66

6

26

8,150

46

97

This great sectional thickness is attended, however, with
serious disadvantages ; for although, according to the Report of
the Royal Coal Commission, the Bristol Coal-field was estimated
to contain 6, 104 millions of tons of coal, a large portion of it
lies at an unworkable depth. Another physical feature of the
district is the thinness of many of the seams from which coal is
at present obtained.

In many of the collieries seams of from 10 to 12 inches in
thickness are extensively worked, thus setting a good example
of economy of one of our most precious natural productions to
other parts of England, where veins of similar thickness are left
behind as worthless.

Another feature of the Radstock Coal-basin is the extreme
richness of its beds in the fossU flora of the Coal Measures. The
Pennant Sandstone and Lower Measures yield few plants ; but
the Upper divisions contain much finer specimens than I have
seen elsewhere, and the fossil flora of Radstock preserved in Mr.
M'Murtrie's museum is alone worth a journey to study and
admire. The fossil ferns are in great variety and beautifully pre-
served. The Sigillaricc, Lepidodendra, and other acrogenous
stems tell of the arborescent ferns that floated their plume-like
foliage on the islands of the Carboniferous period, and the
industry and genius of the man who has collected and preserved
them for our instruction and delight. The animal remains are
here very scarce ; two or three species of the genus Limulus,
and one or two Anthracosio:, are all that have been found ; and
I have the satisfaction of adding that I am authorised to say
that by previous arrangement Mr. M'Murtrie will be happy to
show his museum to any members of the Association to whom
the same might be interesting. As there will be, I understand,
memoirs on the Radstock Coal-field, I must refer to these papers
for further details on this interesting district.

4. The Bristol District.
In a radius of eight miles from the Guildhall we find ex-
posures more or less complete of the following Palseozoic and

Mesozoic formations : — i. The Old Red Sandstone ; 2. the Car-
bonifet ous Limestone ; 3. Millstone Grit ; 4. Coal Measures ; 5.
Dolomitie Conglomerate and Nexv Red Sandstone ; 6. Rhatic ; 7.
Lias, Lower, Middle, Upper ; 8. Upper JJas Sands ; 9. Inferior
Oolite; 10. Fuller's Earth; II. Great Oolite ; 12. Alluvium,
with igneous rocks of Palaeozoic age. Several of these forma-
tions I have already noticed in speaking of the Mendip Hills ;
therefore I shall only now add such special remarks as are
required to complete their sketch in the Bristol district.

The Old Red Sandstone forms, as we have seen, the axis of the
Mendip Hills, and here occurs as a massive rock in different
regions of the Bristol Coal-field, forming ranges of hills that
have been sculptured by denudation out of its anticlinal folds.
The beds in general are very unfossiliferous.

In the neighbourhood of Portishead, however, the remains of
some large fishes have been found in a hard conglomerate, be-
longing to the genus Holoptychius — reminding us of the fishes of
the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland, which were all encased in
a bony armour, and possessed some of the most remarkable
forms of the ichthyic type. Pterichthys or wing-fish, Holoptychius
or wrinkle-scaled fish, Cephalaspis or buckler-shielded fish, are
all forms of the OKI Red, and the earliest representatives of the
class Pisces in the Paloeozoic rocks.

The Carboniferous Limestone is a great marine formation,
and is formed of the sediments of an extensive and wide-spread-
ing sea ; the beautiful scenery so characterisric of the Avon,
Severn, and Wye is in a great measure due to the development
of this rock in these regions. One of the grandest sections of all
the beds of the Carboniferous Limestone is that exposed in the
gorge of the Avon near Clifton, where it is seen resting on the
Old Red Sandstone, and overlain by the Millstone Grit.

The various conditions of the old sea-bottom in which this
mass of calcareous rock was formed may here be studied with
ease. The entire thickness of the strata exposed is upwards of
4,coo feet ; of this the Old Red Devonian is 768 feet, the Car-
boniferous Limestone 2,338, and the Millstone Grit 950 feet.
This magnificent section has repeatedly been the subject of
memoirs by Buckland,^ Conybeare,^ Bright,^ and Williams,''
who have given ample details of all its different beds.

The Lower Limestone Shales, 500 feet in thickness, are very
fossiliferous ; they consist of alternations of shales and lime-
stone, with a bone-bed near their base _: in some places beds
several feet thick are formed of the ossicula of Crinoids. I.i the
main Limestone series you I ave a succession of Brachiopoda ;
Spirifera, Producta, and Orthis follow each other. Of Lamelli-
branchs we find Aviculopecten, Cardioviorpha, Sec, with Gas-
teropods, as Euot>iphalus and BelUrophon, and Cephalopods, as
Goniatites, Orthoceras, Actinoceras, &c. To these may be added
the teeth and defensive spines of large shark-like and other
fishes, as Cladodus, Psainmodus, Orodus, IPoloptychius, &c.
Some of the coral strata in the upper part of the series are very
interesting, and extremely rich in very beautiful specimens of
Actinozoa, belonging to the reef-building groupsof the ancient sea,
as Michelinia, Anipiexus, Lithostrolion, Syringopora, Lonsdaleia,
&c., reminding us of the structure of coral reefs in our present
seas. Associated with the coral masses are other organisms
which lived on the reefs, or in .shallow lagoons. The coral beds
are covered by strata formed of Oolitic limestone and other
detrital materials derived from the debris of wasted reefs, and
formed along the shores of the ancient coral strand ; sections of
these oolitic beds prepared as slides for the microscope disclose
the fact that the nucleus of the oolitic granules is often the shell
of Foraminifera.

Milhtons Grit is well seen at Brandon Hill ; it rests upon the
Limestone, and attains a thickness of 1,000 feet. On this
repose the Coal Measures of the Bristol Coal-field, which I have
already described in connec.tion with the Mendip and Radstock
districts.

Dolomitie Conglomerate. — The Paloeozoic rocks of the Bristol
Coal-field are here and there covered over by patches of Dolo-
mitie Conglomerate lying unconformably on their upturned edges,
at heights varying from 20 to 300 feet above the Avon. This
remarkable formation is very well seen in the new road leading
from the Hot- wells to Clifton and Durdham Down. It has been

I " On the South-Eastem Coal District of England," Geol. Trans. 2nd
series, vol. i.

^ Geol. Trans, ist series, vol. iv.

3 "On the Limestone Beds of the River Avon," Geol. Trans, ist series,
vol. v.

** " Memoirs of the Geol. Survey," Sir H. De la Beche's Essay, vol. i.
p. 115.

Aug. 26, 1875J

NA TURE

355

long well known to geologists, and was in former days described
by Bright, Gilby, Buckland, and others.

Rhivtic. — Between the uppermost beds of the grey marls of the
Keuper and the lowest beds of the Lias there lies a remarkable
assemblage of strata, which I formerly described,^ as the
^^ Azicula contorta beds," from that shell forming the leading
fossil therein. The name Rhoetic has since been given to the series,
from a supposition that the beds are identical with some that
occur in the Rha'tian Alps, which is, however, more than doubt-
ful. Typical sections of the Avicula contorta series are exposed
at Garden Cliff, Aust Cliff, Penarth, and Watchet on the Severn,
and at Weston, Keynsham, Willsbridge, and Saltford near Bath,
and Puriton, Uphill, and Wells in Somersetshire, as well as
at many other localities. Two of the most classical of the
series are Garden Cliff and Aust Cliff ; the latter has been long
known to continental geologists as the Bristol Bone-bed. In the
upper part of the section are dark grey shales, intersected by
hands of limestone ; Avicula contorta, Card'mm, RJuttictim,
Pecten Valottiensis, Axirius, &c. are found in these. The Bone-
bed consists of a hard dark-grey siliceous grit full of the bones,
spines, scales, and teeth of fishes belonging to the genera Nema-
canthus, Acrodus, Sargodon, Hybodus, Ceratodus, &c. Beneath
this thin Bone-bed, with its ichthyic debris is a bed of shale
which rests upon the grey marls of the Keuper. A similar suc-
cession of strata is repeated in most of the other typical sec-
tions. I have named especially those of Garden Cliff, Penarth,
Uphill, and Watchet.

Aust has been long famous for its Ceratodus teeth, and is, I
believe, the only locality where they are collected. You will
find a fine series of them in the Bristol Museum. This wonder-
ful collection is quite unique and will well repay an attentive
examination.

The only living representative of the genus Ceratodus now
lives in the rivers of Queensland ; and a fine specimen was lately
])urchased for and presented to the Museum by W. W. Stoddart,
Esq., F.G.S., for the purpose of showing the comparative size
of the recent and fossil teeth.

5. UuNDRY District.

The Oolitic Fonitations. — The Oolitic formations will long
remain classical ground to English geologists, as it was whilst
studying these rocks in Wilts and Somerset that Dr. William
Smith first acquired that knowledge which enabled him to
"identify strata by organic remains," and establish a true
natural system of stratigraphical geology.

The Oolitic period admits of a subdivision into three groups
— the Lower, Middle, and Upper ; each group is based on a
great argillaceous formation, on which rest minor beds of sands
and cream-coloured Oolitic and Pisolitic limestones. The
argillaceous formations form broad valleys, extending diago-
nally across England in a direction north-east by south-west.
The limestones constitute low ranges of hills, with escarpments
facing the south-west, and overlooking the valleys. The Lower
Oolites rest on tlie Lias, the Middle Oolites on the Oxford
Clay, and the Portland and Upper Oolites on the Kimmeridg
Clays.

The Lias Formation is well developed around Bristol ; and
many interesting and instructive sections of the Lower beds may
be studied at Horfield, Keynsham, Saltford, and Weston,
whilst the Middle and Upper divisions are exposed in other
localities. It has been often repeated of late years that the
geological record is imperfect, and that many of the leaves, and
even whole chapters of the Rock-book on which the hieroglyphics
of its history were written, are wanting ; yet "Time, which an-
tiquates antiquities, and hath an art to make dust of all things,
hath yet spared these minor monuments ; " for it is certainly
true that the Jurassic formations contain a marvellously complete
record of the succession of life in time during their deposition
from the dawn of the Lias until the close of the Coral Sea,
amid whose islands fossil Cycadea luxuriantly flourished, and
whose remains are buried in their native Dirt-beds in the Port-
land Oolites.

I have shown elsewhere that the three divisions of the Great
Lias formations admit of several subdivisions or zones of life,
each characterised by a group of species which individualise it.
A careful examination of these subdivisions has further proved
that there is no confusion in the rocks when carefully examined
— that Nature is always true to herself, although all geologists
are not true to Nature. The fossils of the Lower Lias are quite
' Quart Joum. Ceol. Soc. vol. xvi, p. 374.

distinct from those of the Middle Lias, and both specifically
different from those of the Upper.

The Ammonites are important leading Liassic shells, that
appear to have had a limited life in time, but a wide extension
in space ; and they have greatly aided us in determining periods
and making out the history of the Liassic sea. The great
Sauroptkrygia, represented by the Plesiosaurus, and the
ICHTHYOI'TERYGIA by the Ichthyosaurus, are remarkable forms
of Reptilia, adapted to the waters of that epoch, whilst the
DiNOSAURiA, represented by Scelidosaurus, the Pterosauria
by the Ptcrodactyltts, lived in this area during the Lias age ;
magnificent specimens of these different forms of reptiles adorn
the walls of the Bristol Museum.

The Jurassic Age. — Dundry Hill, 700 feet in altitude, is the
most westerly outlier of the Oolitic range, from which it is nine
miles distant. It is a locality of great interest to the local
naturalist, as it affords capital lessons of stratigraphical geology,
admirable examples of surface-rock sculpture by denudation,
and a commanding point of view for surveying the same, and
showing the grand panorama in the midst of which it stands.
The greater portion of the hill is composed of Lower Lias
strata, which are well exposed at Bedminster Down, Whitchurch,
Keynsham, Queen Charlton, Norton, Malreward, Winford, and
Barrow. The beds consist of alternations of limestones and
shales, having a total thickness of 550 feet. The Middle Lias
and Marlstone are feebly developed, and the Upper Lias repre-
sented by some thin clays, with dwarfed specimens of ^/;/wc7«//«
bifrons and A.communis ; and the Upper Lias sands, from one to
two feet thick, are not fossiliferous. On these rest beds of Inferior
Oolite rock which have long yielded a very fine series of organic
remains, some of the best of which are now preserved in the
Museum collection. The Inferior Oolite of the south of Eng-
land admits of a subdivision into three zones of life : the Lower
resting upon the Lias sands has the Ammonites Murchisotta: as
its leading fossil ; the Middle contains a large assemblage of
Mollusca, and especially of ^w;«<?«?to, among which Ammonites
Ilumphriesiamis, Sowerbyi, concavus, and Blagdeni are con-
spicuously characteristic ; the Upper contains Ammonites Par-
kiiisoni, Martinsii, and subradiatus, with many Echinoderms
and a large series of reef-building chorals. These three sub-
divisions are rarely all developed in the same section ; but the
order of their sequence in nature is as stated in Dundry. The
lower beds are feebly represented ; and there is an immense
development of the middle and upper divisions.

In the iron shot shelly beds there is a fine assemblage of
Lamellibranchs ; and the stratum which covers them is very rich
in Ammonites, many with their shells preserved, and having
their oral lobes and other appendages in situ.

These are succeeded by other conchiferous strata ; and the
whole is covered by Ragstone and Building-stone, forming the
upper zone, with Ammonites Parkinsoni, Echinidie, and Corals.
The stratigraphical, lithological, and palseontological conditions
seen in the Oolitic capping of Dundry Hill, are repeated in
other localities in Gloucestershire, Somersetshire, and Dorset-
shire ; and a full development of all the zones in actual super-
position may be examined in certain sections in the Cotteswold
Hills, as at Leckhampton and Cleeve.

The Fuller's earth must be studied at North Stoke and
Lansdown, and the Great Oolite at Coombedown, Lansdown,
and other localities around Bath ; the typical Bradford Clay,
with Apiocrinital heads and stems, and beautiful Brachiopoda
near Bradford ; the Forest Marble and Combrash at Faulkland,
Chickwell, Marston Bagot, and Cloford. The Middle Jurassic
rocks are admirably exposed near Calne, and the Upper Jurassic
near Swindon, Wilts.

The great importance of the Bristol district as a source of
mineral wealth, added to the complicated structure of this region,
led my old friend Mr. William Sanders, F.R.S., to construct
an elaborate geological map of the Gloucestershire and Somer-
setshire Coal-fields and adjacent country, on the scale of four
inches to a mile. The topographical portion of this undertaking
was reduced to one scale from the Tithe-Commission Maps ;
and Mr. Sanders traced out all the geological boundary lines in,
the field, and laid them down in MS. copies of the Tithe Maps,
making copious notes of the strata as he proceeded with his
work. The whole was finally reduced to one scale four times
the size of the Ordnance-Survey Maps, and reproduced with the
most scrupulous care by Mr. Stratton, who for many years
assisted Mr. Sanders with the work which he had made the
chief object and occupation of hii> later life ; and it is but simple

356

NATURE

{Aug. 26, 1875

Justice to say that, single-handed, no such exact map for any
one area was ever before constructed, either as regards scale or
details. This undertaking occupied its author 15 years, fills 19
separate folio maps, and is a most valuable acquisition to the
estate-agent, mineral engineer, and practical geologist. Its real
merits can only be fully appreciated by those who understand
how much patient labour, long-sustained energy, and high
mental qualities were required to complete so extended a survey
over such a complicated piece of country. In doing this, how-
ever, Mr. Sanders has made his scientific reputation, enriched
his native country, and achieved a success which falls to the lot
of few men. Having considered the stratigraphical relation of
the rocks in the Bristol district, I desire now to say a few woids
on a branch of the subject which falls more immediately within
the range of my own special studies — I mean the organic remains
found imbedded in these strata. The science of Paleontology
{palnios, old ; onta^ beings) forms an immense field of observa-
tion, and one that widens more and more every year. It is
impossible to enter upon any of its details now ; but some of
its principles may be satisfactorily explained, and this I shall
endeavour to do.

It is now established, ist, that the stratified rocks containing
organic remains admit of a division into four great groups,
representing four great periods of time : — a, the Palaeozoic or
Ancient ; h, the Mesozoic or Middle ; c, the Cainozoic or Ter-
tiary ; and d, the Quaternary or Modern periods. 2nd. That
each period is distinguished by its own hieroglyphic characters,
which are graven on the rocks in definite and determinable
characters. 3rd. That these hieroglyphics are the fossil remains
or imprints of animals that lived in the water in which the
sediments were formed in successive layers on the earth's crust,
and are only found in the rocks they distinguish, so that it is
possible to determine the age and position of the strata from
which they have been collected, or, in other words, identify
strata by organic remains ; and by this key we are enabled to
read the pages of the Rock-book, study the history of extinct
forms of life, and determine their distribution in time and
space.

Let us apply these principles to the subject we have in hand.
The Palaeozoic period comprises the history of the Cambro-
Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian ages ; and if
we attentively examine the fossils of this period, contained in
the cases of the magnificent Geological Museum of this institu-
tion, we shall see that all the organisms belonging to one age are
entirely distinct from those belonging to the others. You will
find, for example, in the case of the Silurian age, some beautiful
corals, crinoids, and cephalopods, with a remarkable assemblage
of Crustacea, the representatives of an extinct family, the Trilo-
bitidffi, which are so highly characteristic of this age that the
rocks may be called Trilobitic.

The Devonian age succeeds the Silurian ; and among the corals
and shells so well seen in this collection, we observe a striking
resemblance to those of the Silurian on the one side and the
Carboniferous Limestone on the other ; but when closely ex-
amined we find that many are generically, and all are specifically
distinct from both ; besides this we discover that a new group of
organisms of a different and higher type of stracture are now
introduced for the first time, namely, those remarkable forms of
tire ichthyic class the fishes of the Old Red Sandstone, and
whose singular forms with their bony armour and osseous scales
remind us of the remarkable fishes Lepidosteus and Folyptcrus,
from North American, African, and Australian rivers of our
time. The hieroglyphics, therefore, engraven on the strata of
the second age are visibly different from those on the first.

The Carboniferous succeeds the Devonian ; and here we find
a marvellous development of the life of this age preserved in the
cases of this institution. Pray study attentively the fine specimens
of Anthozoa here exhibited, all derived from the upper beds of
the^ Carboniferous Limestone at the gorge of the Avon, and
showing very clearly that this portion of the section was formed
in a tropical sea, and that the limestone is the product of the
living energies of those Polyps, sections of whose skeletons lie
there before you. Of the family Favositid^ we see Favosites,
Alveolites, Syringopora Michelinia ; and of the family CVATHO-
PHYLLiD^ we have Cyathophyllum, Lithostrotion, Lonsdalia,
&.C. Many of the beds of limestone are almost entirely composed
of the ossicula of Crinoids; and we see the stems, arms, and calyces
of these sea-lilies strewed in abundance in the rocks, such as
Actinocrinus,Poteriocrinus, Platyctinus, Cyathocrinus, Fentremites,
&c., with the remarkable ancient Sea-urchin Falcech'mus asso-
ciated with them. The MoUusca were chiefly represented by

the Bradhiopoda, which were very common in the Carboniferous
age, as you may see in the large slabs containing Orthis,
Spiri/era, and Froductus in great profusion. The Lamellibran-
chiata were represented by Cardiomorpha and Conocardiwn,
and the Gasteropoda by Euoinphahis, Fleurotomaria, and Natica,
and the Cephalopoda by Goniaiites, Orthoccras, &c. The
Trilobites which formed so remarkable a feature in the fauna
of the Silurian sea are here represented by a few specimens of
Fhillipsia, a dwarfed genus of this family. The fine collection
of teeth and spines of large fishes from the Carboniferous Lime-
stone enables us to compare the forms of this age with those of
the Devonian already desciibed, and shows at a glance that the
ichthyic types in the seas of these two periods were entirely
distinct, and both evidently adapted to conditions of existence
widely different.

The life of the Carboniferous Limestone proves that it was a
great marine formation accumulated during a long lapse of time
out of the exuviae and sediments of many generations of Mollusca,
Echinodermata, and Actinozoa, the reef-building corals having
contributed largely to the thickness of the Coral beds, and the
wasted reefs ot former generations having been used up again
and again in the formation of the Oolitic beds which succeeded
the reef-building periods.

The Coal Measures present a remarkable contrast to the Coral
sea of the Carboniferous era. The Ferns (Sigillaria, Lepido-
dendra) and other arborescent Acrogens of the Coal-seams grew
and flourished in low islands ; and their remains were accumu-
lated under conditions very different from those in which the
thick-bedded limestones of the Avon section were formed. Good
typical examples of the vegetation of this remarkable tmre in
the world's history are well preserved in the large collection,
filling several cases ; these specimens are all very fine, and
require, and I am sure will have, a careful examination.

With the close of Palaeozoic time there appears to have been a
great break in stratigraphical sequence of the fossiliferous rocks ;
mighty changes then took place. Volcanic agency was intense
and active, flexing, contorting, and upheaving the older beds.
These displacements in our area were post-carboniferous and pre-
triassic, and are well exemplified in the unconformable position
of the Dolomitic Conglomerate and New Red Sandstone of the
Bristol district.

The Dolomitic Conglomerate contains the bones of Dinosaurian
reptiles discovered in Durdham Down, and preserved in this
Museum ; they were described by Dr. Riley and Mr. Stuchbury
in 1836,^ and were then the oldest Dinosauria in Britain. Since
that date the Triassic sandstones of Cheshire, Scotland, and
North America have been found to contain the foot-imprints of
Cheirotheria, and the same formation near Warwick the bones
and teeth of remarkable reptiles belonging to the family Laby-
rinthodontia ; subsequently it has been discovered that the coal-
field of Miinster-Appel in Rhenish Bavaria, and that of Saar-
briick between Strasburg and Treves, contain the skulls and
bones of several species of air-breathing reptiles which were
described by Goldfuss under the generic name Archegosatirus.
The reptilian remains of the conglomerate, though now not the
oldest of their class, still retain their interest for the Palaeonto-
logist, as they prove that highly organised Dinosauria lived on
Triassic land. I must refer you to the original memoir for a full
account of these bones, which enabled its authors to establish two
genera for them. The one, Thecodontosaurus, has the teeth
placed closely together in the jaw-bones. They are sharp,
conical, compressed, and have their anterior and posterior borders
finely denticulated, and the extremity slightly bent, like the teeth
of Megalosa'urus. Falaosaunis has the teeth compressed and
pointed likewise ; but one of the borders only is denticulated,
and the other trenchant. The species are distinguished by the
size and form of the teeth. The vertebrae resemble those of
Teleosaurus in being contracted in the middle, and having their
articular surfaces slightly biconcave ; and the rest of the bones
of the skeleton resemble the forms of the Lacertian type.

We know very little of the life of the Trias in the district
under consideration, beyond the reptilian remains first noticed
here, until we come to the close of this age, when we find upper
grey marls of the Keuper overlain by and passing into a series
of black shales and limestones known as the Avicida conturta or
Rhoetic beds, which have a great interest for us, as they comprise
the famous Bone-bed of Aust Cliff known to all geologists. The
leading fossils are Avicula contorta, Cardium Rhceticum, Monotis
decussata, Fecten Valoniensis, and the small crustacean, Estheria
mimtta. The fishes are Nemacanthus, Saurichthys, Hybodjis,
' Trans. Geol. Soc. and series, vol. v. p. s-^P (1840).

Aug. 26, 1875]

NATURE

357

Gyrolepis, Sargodon, and Cetatodus, with bones of Plesitsaurus
and Ichthyosaurus . It is the teeth of Ceratodus, or homed teeth,
that have made Aust Cliff famous ; and more than 400 different
forms have been described. Mr. C. T. Higgins made the finest
collection of these remains, which has been purchased for the
Museum, and forms one of its rarest treasures. When these
homed teeth, so called from the prominences they exhibit, were
first described by Agassiz, the living species of this genus was
not known ; it is now ascertained that it lives in the Mary,
Dawson, and other rivers of Queensland, and is called by the
natives " Barramanda." The Ceratodus is very nearly allied to
the Lepidosircn, is cartilaginous, a vegetable-eater, and, like the
Lepidosirtn, lives in muddy creeks ; during the hot season it
buries itself in the mud, whence it is dug up by the natives, its
retreat being discovered by the air-hole through which it breathes ;
its nostrils are placed in the inside of the roof of the mouth.

A very interesting paper on Ceratodus Fosteri (the specimen in
the Museum) by Mr. Stoddart, F.G.S., will be found in the
" Proceedings of the Bristol Naturalists' Society," vol. i.
p. 145.

The Lias, which succeeds the Avicula contorta beds, presents
a remarkable contrast to them, and shows how much the life-
conditions of every age depend on the physical agents that sur-
round it. Two groups of animals appeared in great force in the
Liassic sea — Ammonites and Reptiles.

The Ammonites of the Lower Lias beds, A. angiilatus, A.
Bucklandi, A. Coitybcari, and others, attained a large size ; and
the middle and upper divisions of the same formations were all
characterised by different species that marked horizons of life in
these divisions. Associated with the Ammonites a large as-
semblage of other Mollusca are found, as Gryphtra, Lima, Uni-
cardium, Pholadomya, Cardinia, Hippopodium, Pleurotomaria ,
and a profusion of Belemnites and large Ahmtili.

The Reptiles were very large, as you can see by the fine speci-
mens on the walls : Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus were the
dominant forms of this class ; and Pterodactyles with expanded
wings performed the part of birds on the dry land of that era ; so
that the air, the estuary, and the ocean had each separate forms
of Reptile life in the Lias age. Another change of conditions
introduces us to new forms in the Lower Jurassic sea. A large
number of species of Conchifera and Gasteropoda crowd the
shelly beds of the Inferior Oolite ; and new forms of Ammonites
appertaining to groups entirely different from those of the Lias
are found in abundance in Dundry Hill. In addition to the
Mollusca we find many beautiful forms of Echinodermata, and a
large collection of reef-building corals in the upper beds of the
hill. Nothing gives us a clearer insight into the fact that all fossil
species had a limited life in time than the distribution of the
Echinodermata of the Jurassic strata, inasmuch as these animals
possess a skeleton of remarkable structure, on which generic and
specific characters are well preserved ; they form, therefore, an
important class of the Invertebrata for the study of the life-history
of species in time and space ; and this Table of the stratigraphical
distribution of the Jurassic Echinodenns which I now exhibit
reduces these observations to a practical demonstration.

The Oolitic rocks were formed in a coral sea analogous to that
which rolls its waters in the Pacific between 30° on each side of
the equator. In the Lower Oolites are four or five Coral forma-
tions superimposed one above another, with intermediate beds of
Mollusca. The Middle Oolite is remarkable for the number and
extent of its coral reefs, and the Upper Oolite for those found in
the Portlandian scries.

The Jurassic rocks were accumulated as sediments or shore-
deposits under many changes of condition ; and the idea of a
slowly subsiding bed of the coralline sea gives us, perhaps, the
nearest approach to what appears to have prevailed.

The Jurassic waters were studded with coral reefs, extending
over an area equ.il to that of Europe, as they stretch through
England diagonally from Yorkshire to Dorsetshire, through
Ffance from the coast of Normandy to the shores of the Medi-
terranean, forming besides a chain winding obliquely through the
Ardennes in the north to Charente-Inferieure in the south, in-
cluding Savoy, the Hautes-Alpes and Basses-Alpes, the Jura
Franche-comte, the Jura chain of Switzerland throughout its
entire length from Schaffhausen on the Rhine to Cobourg in
Saxony, and along the range of the Swabian Alps and Fran-
conian Jura. Throughout all this widely extended Oolitic region,
coralline strata were accumulating through countless ages by the
living energies of Jurassic Polyp ifera, as all the Madreporic lime-
stone beds in these formations are due to the life-energies of dif-

ferent species of Anthozoa ; and were we to venture to estimate
the lapse of time occupied in the sedimentation of the coral-
ligenous Oolites by what we know of the life-history of some
living species, we should find good reasons for concluding that
the Jurassic age must have been one of long duration. It is not
the mere coralline stmcture per se that is due to Polyp-life, but
the entire mass of Oolitic limestones are the products of the same
vital force ; for there could be no doubt in the mind of any com-
petent observer who carefully examined such a rock as that in
my hand that it was a mass of coral secreted by a Jurassic polyp,
and that the Oolitic limestone which surrounds the coral stem is
the product of a portion of a wasted reef which had been broken
up, ground into mud, and constituted the calcareous paste that
had coated particles on the shore, and formed by the roll of the
waves the oolitic globules which were afterwards cemented by
calcareous waters, and the whole transformed into the rock we
call Oolitic limestone ; and thus the genesis of the Oolites was
due to the vital energies of the myriads of polyps that lived in
the Jurassic seas.

The reefs that remain are merely fragments of what had
existed ; and those that have disappeared furnished the calcareous
material out of which the Oolites of subsequent formations have
been built up.

I have to thank my old friend Mr. Etheridge for the valuable
notes he has supplied on the Mendip Hills (which he knows so
well), and to Mr. M'Murtrie for his excellent notes on the
Radstock district (which he has so long explored), and to Mr.
Stoddart for kindness and assistance in many ways. Without
their friendly co-operation it would have been impossible for me
to have given so much exact information on the stmcture of the
interesting and complicated region in which we have again
assembled.

In these remarks I have carefully avoided any allusion to the
origin of species, because Geology suggests no theory of natural
causes, and Palaeontology affords no support to the hypothesis
which seeks by a system of evolution to derive all the varied
forms of organic life from pre-existing organisms of a lower type.
As far as I have been able to read the records of the rocks, I
confess I have failed to discover any lineal series among the vast
assemblage of extinct species which might form a basis and lend
reliable biological support to such a theory. Instead of a grada-
tion upwards in certain groups and classes of fossil animals, we
find, on the contrary, that their first representatives are not the
lowest, but often highly organised types of the class to which
they belong. This is well illustrated in the Corals, Crinoids,
AsteriadK, Mollusca, and Crustacea of the Silurian age, and
which make up the beginnings of life in the Palaeozoic period.
The fishes of the Old Red Sandstone we have already seen
occupy a respectable position among the Pisces ; and the Reptiles
of the Trias are not the lowest forms of their class, but highly
organised Dinosauria. Ichthyosaurus, Plesiosaurus, Pterodactylus,
Teleosaurus, and Megalosaurus stand out in bold relief from the
Mesozoic strata as remarkable types of animal life that were
specially organised and marvellously adapted to fulfil important
conditions of existence in the Reptilian age ; they afford, I
submit, conclusive evidence of special work of the Great De-
signing Mind which pervades all creation, organic and inorganic.
In a word. Palaeontology brings us face to face with the Creator,
and shows us plainly how in all that marvellous past there always
has existed the most complete and perfect relation between
external nature and the stmcture and duration of the organic
forms which gave life and activity to each succeeding age.

Palaeontology likewise discloses to our feeble understanding
some of those methods by which the Infinite works through
natural forces to accomplish and maintain His creative design,
and thereby teaches us that there has been a glorious scheme,
and a gradual accomplishment of purpose through unmeasured
periofls of time ; but Palaeontology affords no solution of the
problem of creation, whether of kinds, of matter, or of sjiecies
of life, beyond this, that although countless ages have rolled
away since the denizens of the Silurian beach lived and moved
and had their being, the same biological laws that governed
their life, assigned them their position in the world's story, and
limited their duration in time and space, are identical with those
which are expressed in the morphology and distribution of the
countless organisms which live on the earth's surface at the
present ttme ; and this fact realises in a material form the tmth
and force of those assuring words, that the Great Author of all
things, in these His works, is the same yesterday, to-day, and
for ever.

:>58

NATURE

[Aug. 26, 1875

THE FRENCH ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
''PHIS year's session of this Association was opened last Thurs-
*- day at Nantes, under the presidency of M. d'Eichthal, who
i-; largely connected with French railways. The income of the
Association for 1874 was 37,126 francs, and its capital fund
amounts to 174,731 francs. In 1874, 5,350 francs were dis-
tributed for purposes of research, and already, owing to the
•:enerosity of three of the foundation members, 7,000 francs
have been allotted to other purposes without trenching on the
regular resources of the Association, This year 13 foundation
members and 500 annual members have been added to the
Association.

The President in his opening address spoke of the intimate
connection between pure science and the various methods cm-
ployed to satisfy the wants of humanity. It would be almost
impossible, he said, to enumerate all the branches of human
activity which owe their success to the researches of pure science,
— Hygiene, Medicine, Surgery, the Fine Arts, Mechanics,
Industry in all its branches, Mining, Metallurgy, Textile
Industries, Lighting, Warming, Ventilation, Water Supply, &c.
He then referred in detail to several examples of the influence
which the results of science have had upon progress in the arts,
with the motive forces of water, air and steam, mentioning a
multitude of names of men eminent in pure science, from Pascal
and Boyle down to Faraday and Sir William Thomson, upon
the results of whose researches the great advances which have
been made in machinery of all kinds have depended. M.
d'Eichthal then spoke of electricity in connection with the
names of Oersted t. Ampere, Faraday, Becquerel and Ruhmkorff ;
passing on to speak at some length of the steam-engine in its
Various forms, of the progress which by means of scientific re-
search is being made in its construction and its uses, and of
the great services which this powerful application of a scientific
discovery renders to man. M. d'Eichthal advocated the esta-
blishment of local centres of culture as the best counterpoise
to that over-centralisation to which France owes so many of its
social misfortunes. " In our time," he said, "science, history,
literature, have great wants. Libraries, lecture-halls, labora-
tories, costly materials, instruments numerous and expensive,
are indispensable to pupils for learning and to teachers for carry-
ing on their researches ; it is by putting, on a large scale, these
resources at their disposal, that we can attract and fix in our
midst men eminent in all branches of human knowledge."

M. Oilier, the General Secretary of the Association, gave a
detailed resume of the work done at Lille last year.

M. d'Eichthal has been verv well received in Nantes, haAring
been greeted with a serenade on Wednesday night.

The most notable foreigner present at the meeting, Admiral
Ommaney, was elected, pro honore, 'president of the Geo-
graphical Section. The Geographical Congress of Paris has
evidently diminished the attendance at the Nantes meeting,
although M. Dumas and M. Wurtz have displayed on its behalf
a most creditable zeal. Two ladies delivered addresses, on
*' Female Condition," and the "Sanitary Condition of Schools ; "
rather a novelty in France, ladies very rarely appearing as lec-
turers.

The excursions, which are by far the most interesting part of
the proceedings, began on Saturday. A balloon ascent is con-
templated for to-day. The balloon will be exceptionally large,
4,000 metres, conducted by local aeronauts who have organised
an aerial sporting club.

NOTES
Amongst the objects which have been recently added to the
galleries of the Paris Industrial Exhibition of Geography, and are
attracting public notice, we may mention a collection of French
birds exhibited by M. Bouvier, the collection of apes from the
Gaboon, by the Marquis de Compiegne, and a number of ante-
diluvian fossils from the Mentone Caves. The skeletons of two
children which had been buried together are in a splendid state
of preservation, exhibiting admirably the characteristics of pre-
historic cave-life. These two young people were buried in the
liome of their parents, very probably because it was the only
means of defending their bones against the teeth of ferocious
hjrsenas and other large carnivorous animals which were

disputing with man the empire of the future Gaul. The
bones were covered with small shells, of which the loin cloth of
the departed youngsters had been made. Neither of them had
any ornaments in bone, jasp::r, or pearl, such as is generally dis-
covered under similar circumstances when the skeleton is that of
an adult. No child is buried with such objects in Polynesian
islands, as none are allowed to wear them even when belonging
to the regal families.

In connection with the Exhibition and Congress, it is believed
that a series of proposals will be made to the French National
Assembly for the promotion of the study of geography. The
principal and most effective is to have a relief map of each
parish in the parish school, so that pupils may learn to understand
the purpose of geographical maps.

The large reflecting telescope at the Paris Observatory is com-
pleted, although it will not be brought into use for two or three
months. The equilibrium of the tube is perfect, and it can be
directed with the utmost facility on any part of the heavens,
although it weighs about six tons.

The Commission appointed by the Prefect of the Seine for
deciding on the improvements to be introduced in the construc-
tion of lightning conductors have just published their report.
They are of opinion that the conductors should terminate in a
point of copper instead of platinum as recommended by the
Academy, and propose to institute an annual inspection of
lightning conductors, as recommended by M. Wilfrid de Fon-
vielle in his pamphlet, " Lightning Conductors and the neces-
sity of controlling them." A series of measurements will be
presented to the Municipal Council in the next session. The
inspection is to take place in autumn, when the stormy season
is over.

The annual provincial meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute
will commence, in Manchester, on Tuesday, September 7, under
the presidency of Mr. William Menelaus. The Council of
Owens College have granted the use of that building for the
business meetings. On Tuesday, the Mayors of Manchester and
Salford respectively will welcome the members of the Institute,
and the remainder of that and Wednesday morning will be
devoted to the reading and discussion of papers. On the after-
noons of Tuesday and Wednesday, various works in the
neighbourhood of Manchester will be open for inspection. On
Tuesday evening there will be a conversazione in the Town
Hall ; on Wednesday evening the members will dine together in
the Hulme Town Hall ; and on Thursday they will visit works
within easy reach of Manchester. On PViday, the whole day
will be devoted to North Staffordshire.

During last week the British Archreological Association
made frequent excursions to places around Evesham., and in the
evenings a number of papers were read, mostly of strictly
antiquarian interest. The Cambrian Archreological Association
also held its annual meeting last week at Carmarthen, both
meetings being brought to a close on Saturday. Next year the
latter body meets at Abergavenny under the presidency of
Mr. Freeman.

Mr. Henry Willett, writing with reference to the Sub-
Wealden Exploration, states that the committee have " succeeded
beyond their fondest anticipations in solving the original problem,
and can now state with certainty that palaeozoic rocks do not
exist at a depth variously estimated at from 700 ft. to 1,700 ft."
From 1,670 ft. to 1,750ft. — the depth now reached— the strata
are shattered and very soft, greatly retarding the work, and
seriously imperilling any prospect of attaining a much greater
depth. Although at any moment a change of strata may be
reached, Mr. Willett is not sanguine that he ever will be able to

'?fo: 26, 1875]

NATURE

359

report more than that Kimmeridge clay has been discovered
in Sussex, and that this clay is very thick.

An interesting geological discovery has been recently made
during excavations for a new tidal basin at the Surrey Commercial
Docks. On penetrating some 6ft. below the surface, the work-
men everywhere came across a subterranean forest bed, consist-
ing of peat with trunks of trees, for the most part still standing
erect. All ore of the species still inhabiting Britain ; the
oak, alder, and willow are apparently most abundant. The
trees are not mineralised, but retain their vegetable character,
except that they are thoroughly saturated with water. In the
peat are found large bones, which have been determined as those
of the great fossil ox (Bos primigenms). Fresh- water shells are
also found. No doubt is entertained that the bed thus exposed
is a continuation of the old buried forest, of wide extent, which
has on several recent occasions been brought to the daylight on
both sides of the Thames, notably at Walthamstow in the year
1869, in excavating for the East London Waterworks ; at Plum-
stead in 1862-3, in making the southern outfall sewer ; and a few
weeks since at Westminster, on the site of the new Aquarium
and Winter Garden. In each instance the forest-bed is found
buried beneath the marsh clay, showing that the land has sunk
below the tidal level since the forest flourished.

We have received a " Catalogue of the publication of the U.S.
Geological Survey of the Toritcries, F. V. Hayden, Geologist
in Charge." The catalogue covers twenty pages, and although
the publication extends only from 1S67, they already form quite a
large library of reports, monographs, catalogues, &c., relating to
all branches of the geology, natural history, meteorology, and
other points of the extensive region which is being surveyed.
The publications of the survey, we believe. Dr. Hayden is willing
to send to any societies, libraries, or persons engaged in active
scientific investigation who may desire them ; those who do
should communicate with Dr. Hayden, U.S. Geologist, Wash-
ington, D. C. (U.S.) Dr. Hayden is desirous of securing by
exchange the publications of foreign countries in geology, palse-
ontology, and natural history generally, to aid in the formation
of a library of reference for the use of the Survey, and he hopes
that all persons or societies who receive the publications of th«
Survey will aid him in this matter.

Vol. IV. of the second series of the Mhnoires of the Royal
Society of Science of Liege, contains only three papers, one of
them a mere note of two pages on a new species of Lepidotus,
L. mohimonti, by Dr. T. C. Winkler. The other papers are
long treatises, one by Dr. E. Candeze, being a *' Revision of the
Monograph of the Elateridae " (218 pp.), and the other a treatise
" On the Calculus of Probabilities," by the late A. Meyer, pub-
lished from the MSS. of the author by F. Folie {446 pp.)

Mr. J, Wood-Mason, of the India Museum, Calcutta, has
lately directed attention to the presence of a chain of superorbital
bones in the wood partridges {ArboricolcE), similar to that re-
corded by Mr. W. K. Parker in the tinamous.

The fourth number of the Bulletin de la SociStS ImpMale de
Naiuralistes de Moscou contains papers on entomology, botany,
geology, &c., by M. V. Motschoulsky, M.A. Petrovsky, M. H.
Trautschold, and others, in the French''and German Languages.

The Cincinnati Society of Natural History has lately received
a bequest of $50,000 from Mr. Charles Bodman, of that city.
The gift is absolute and without conditions.

A LARGE meteor was observed at Njort (Deux-Sevres), on
August 19, at 8.20 P.M. Although the moon was quite full, it
was a magnificent spectacle. It made its appearance in the
zenith, lasted tliirty seconds, and disappeared in the south-east

at an altitude of sixty degrees above the horizon. It must have
been seen from other parts of France, but no record has come
under our notice.

A CHAIR of Organic Chemistry has been created in the Faculty
of Sciences of Paris,

The additions to the Zoological Gardens during the past week
include two Kinkajous {Cercoleptts caudivolvulus) from British
Honduras, presented by Mr. James Wickin ; a Central Ame-
rican Agonti {Dasyprocta punctata), two Brown Gannets {Sula
fused) from Costa Rica, presented by Mr. J. C. Hussey ; a
Woodford's Owl {Syrnium woodfordi) from Natal, presented by
Mr. W. E. Oates ; a Purple-capped Lory (Lorius domicella)
from Moluccas, presented by Mr. T. P. Medley ; a Mexican
Guan {Penelope purpiirascens) from Central America, presented
by Mr. A. Warrington ; two Gordon's Terrapins {Platemys gor-
doni) from Trinidad, presented by Mr. Devonish ; a Tiger (Felts
tigris) from India, a White-thighed Co\oh\x3 (Colobus bicolor)
from W. Africa, a West Indian Agonti (Dasyprocta antillensis)
from St. Vincent, deposited ; a Blotched Genet ( Genetta ti^rina),
and two Crested Pigeons ( Ocyphaps lophotes) bred in the Gardens.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS
The Naturforscher for July contains the following among other
papers : — On the distribution of land and water in Northern
Europe during the ice-period, by K. Pettersen. — On the diffusion
of gases through thin layers of liquid, by Franz Exner. — On
Helmholtz's theory of vowels, by E. von Quanten. — On the
influence of the lurface of di-electric bodies upon their action
at distances, by Romich and Fajdiga. — On electrodes which
cannot be polarised, by A. Oberbeck. — On the changes of colour
in an alcoholic solution of cyanine, by El. Borscow. Cyanine is
the blue colouring matter of the flowers of Ajuga reptans and
A. pyramidalis. — On the determination of alcohol in wine, by
M. Malligand. — On the action of a weak ncid upon the salts of
a stronger, by H. Hiibner and H. Wiesinger. — On the influence
of the season upon the skin of embryos, by Herr Donhof. — On
the action of electricity of high tension upon liquids, by G.
Plante — On the motion of the imbibition water in wood and in
the vegetable cell, by Julius Wiesner. — On a simple means to
find the poles of a rod magnet, by F. Miiller. — On the analysis
of Japanese bronzes, by E. J. Maumene. — On the nutrition of
the animal body by peptone, by A. Gyergyai and P. Plosz. — On
the conducting of electricity by flames, by F. Braun.— On the
fauna of the Caspian Sea, by O. Grimm. — On the action of lime
upon the germinating process of Phaseolus multiflorus, by J.
Bohm. — The solubility of sodic nitrate and its hydrate, by A.
Ditte. — The electric conduction resistance of air, by A. Oberbeck.
— Influence of chlorine upon the nutrition of plants, by W. Knop.
— On some experiments with disinfectants, by Herr Erismann.
— Distinction between chemical and physiological ferments, by A.
Miintz. — On the time of the disappearance of the ancient Fauna
from the Island of Rodriguez, by A. Milne- Edwards. — Applica-
tion of the tuning-fork to electric telegraphs, by P. LaCour. — On
the climate at the Lower Jenissei, by W. Koppen. — Temperature*
and specific gravity of the water of the German Ocean, by H. A.
Meyer. — On the diffusion of moist towards dry air, by L. Dufour.
— On the condensation of water in the soil, by A. Mayer. —
What influences determine the sex of the hemp plants ? by Fr.
Haberlandt.

Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis (U.S.),
vol. iii. No. 2. — This part contains the following papers : — By
Dr. C. V. Riley : ' ' Hackberry Butterflies, Description of the
early stages oi Apatuta lycaon, Fabr., and Apatura herse, Fabr.,
with remarks on their Synonymy ; " "On the Oviposition of the
Yucca Moth ;" "Description of two new Subterranean Mites ; "
" Descriptions and Natural History of two Insects which brave
the dangers oi Sarracenia variolaris ;^' "Description of two
new Moths." " Notes on the genus Yucca," by G. Engelmann ;
"On the Well at the Insane Asylum, St. Louis County," an
account of a geological section, by G. C. Broadhead, who also
contributes a paper " On the occurrence of bitumen in Missouri ;"
" Results of Investigations of Indian Mounds," by J. R. Gage ;
"Catalogue of Earthquakes in 1872-3," by R. Hayes; "On
the Forms smd Origin of the Lead and Zinc Deposits of S. W.

36o

NA TURE

[Aug. 26, 1875

Missouri," by Dr. A. Schmidt; "On the Terebratula mor-
tnonii" by Jules Marcou ; "On Climatic Changes in Illinois^
its Causes," by A. Sawyer.

Annali di Chimica applicata alia Medicina, July.— The more
important papers in this part are : — On some preparations from
Eucalyptus globulus and E. amygdalinus, by G. Righini. — On
soluble phosphate of lime, or hydrochloro-phosphate of lime, by
G. Tarantino. — On a glycerine solution of salicylic acid, by Prof.
S. Zinno. — On the hydrate of croton-chloral, by Dr. Weill. — On
the aqueous solution of nitrous oxide, by Prof. Ritter. — On vera-
trine, by Lepage. — On the ozonisation of the air in unhealthy
rooms, by Dr. Lender. — On a green colour free from poison, by
Prof. Casali. — On the function of wine in nutrition, by Bouchardat.
— On diphtheria, by Dr. G. Tamborlmi.^ — On a remedy against
hydrophobia, by Jitzki. — On the reactions of cod-liver oil, by
Buchheim. — On mineral waters in their relation to chronic
diseases, by Durand Fardel.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

Vienna

Imperial Academy of Sciences, June 10. — On some
mechanical effects of the electric spark, by E. Mach. — On the
different solubility of different planes of the same crystal, and the
connection of this phenomenon with some general principles of
science, by Prof. Pfaundler. — On the boiling points of chloride of
calcium solutions of different concentration, by the same. — On
the latent melting heat of sulphuric bihydrate, by the same. — On
the Pyrrhulina species of the Amazon River, and on a new
Bryconops species, by Dr. F. Steindachner. — On the pretended
dependence of the wave-lengths from the intensity of light, by
Prof. F. Lippich. — Determination of the orbit of planet (100)
Hecate, by Dr. J. E. Stark. — On the theory of the functions of
three variables, by Prof. M. Alle. — On a new remedy against
Phylloxera (ethylsulphocarbonate of potash), by Dr. Ph.
Zoeller and Dr. E. A. Grete. — Dr. L. Lowy recommends
salicylic acid for the same purpose. — further researches on the
molecular theory, by Dr. A. Handl. — On the determination of
the mechanical equivalent of heat, by J. Puluj.

June 17. — Ichthyological researches, by Dr. Steindachner. —
On some determined integrals, by Prof. L. Gegenbaur. — On the
earthquake observed on June 12 in the vicinity of Vienna, by
Prof E. Suess. — On the conducting of heat by gases, by Prof.
Stefah. — Meteorological observations made at Hohe Warte,
near Vienna.

June 24.— On the determination of nitrogen in albuminates,
by Dr. L. Liebermann. — On the quantities of nitrogen and
albumen present in human and in cows' milk, by the same. — On
the origin of the acacia gum, by Dr. J, MoUer.— On alluvial
territories, by Dr. A. Boue. — On a new method to use Bottger's
sugar test, by Prof. Briicke. — On the action of chlorine upon
solutions of sodic citraconate and sodic mesaconate, by Th.
Morawski. — On the tannic acids of the oak, by Dr. J. Oser.—
On the manner in which guano is formed, by A. Habel.

July 8.— On a new form of Fresnel-Arago's interference ex-
periments with polarised light, by E. Mach and W. Rosicky. —
On acoustic attraction and repulsion, by Dr. V. Dvorak.— On
the elastic after-effects from torsion of steel wires, by Dr. J.
Finger. — Some experiments on the magnetic effects of rotating
conductors, by Dr. J. Odstrcil. — On the conversion of acids of
the series C^Hj^ _ 2 O2 into such of the series C„H2n02, by Dr.
G. Goldschmidt. — Theoretical kinematics, by F. Reuleaux. — On
the influence of pressure and draught on the thermal coefficients
of the expansion of bodies, and on the relative behaviour of
water and caoutchouc, by C. Puschl. — On gentisine, by Herr
Hlasiwetz and Dr. Habermann.— On glutaminic acid, by Dr.
Habermann. — On the structure of the spinal ganglia, by Herr
HoU. —On the Adriatic Annelida, by Dr. E. von Marenzeller. —
Researches on artificial misformations in hens' eggs, by Dr.
Szymkievicz.

Paris

Academy of Sciences, Aug. 16.— M. Fremy in the chair. —
The following papers were read : — Meridian observations of the
minor planets, made at Greenwich Observatory (transmitted by
the Astronomer Royal) and at Paris Observatory during the
second trimester of the year 1875, communicated by M.
Leverrier ; the planets observed were Nos. 7, 25, 8, 82, 93, 53,
54, 108, 55, 23, no, 72, 62, 68, 74, 128, 113, 26, 45, 29, 88,
and 64. — Remarks by M. Leverrier on the lately discovered

planets 144 and 145.— On the structure of the ovum and of the
seed of Cycadea;, as compared with that of different fossil grains
of coal deposits, by M. Ad. Brogniart. — Some remarks by M,
Chevreul on a historical note relating to J. B. van Helmont,
apropos of the definition and of the theory of a flame by M.
Melsens. — Ninth note on the electric conductibility of bodies
which are only moderate conductors, and on the electric
polarisation of minerals, by Th. du Moncel. — A note by
M, F. Tisserand, on the observations of shooting stars on
Aug. 9th, loth, and nth last. — On the reducing action of
hydriodic acid at low temperatures upon ethers proper and on
mixed ethers, by R. D. Silva. — Synthetical researches on the
uric group, by M. E. Grimaux (second paper).— A note by M.
Cornu, on the presence of Phylloxera galls, spontaneously
developed on European vines. — M. Vinot then presented an
instrument to the Academy, which he calls sideroscope and,
which enables any person, however ignorant of astronomy, to
find easily all constellations and the principal stars. — Note on a
new method of giving proper signals at sea, by M. Treve. —
On the action of copper and its derivatives on the animal
organism, by MM. Ducom and Burg. — On an acid obtained
from wine, which turns the plane of polarisation to the right,
by M. Maumene. — Analysis of the gases given off by the soil
on the island of St. Paul, by Ch. Velain. — On Blaen's globes,
and on a discovery made by the same in 1600, of a variable
star in the constellation of Cygnus, by M. Baudet.— Fourth
note by M. J. M. Gaugain on the process of magnetisation. —
On some new singing flames, by M. C. Decharme. — Researches
on tempered glass, by MM. V. de Luynes and Ch. Feil. — On
some double metallic sulphocarbonates, by M. A. Mermet. — On
a proper reaction by which to recognise sulphocarbonates in solu-
tion, by the same. — On the active part in the seeds of pumpkins
as employed as a remedy agamst tape-worms, by M. E.
Heckel. — On the post-tertiary fauna of the caves of Baousse
Rousse in Italy, commonly called grottoes of Mentone, by M.
E. Riviere.

BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

British.— A Yachting Cruise in the South Seas : C. F. Wood (H. S. King
and Co.)— Transactions of the Watford Natural History Society, Vol. i.
Part I — Rotomahina, and the Boiling Springs of New Zealand, by D L.
Mundy and Fcrd. von Hochstetter (Low and Marston).— Journal of the
Anthropological Institute, Vol iv. Part 2 ; Vol v. Part i. — Snicland, or Ice-
land ; its JokuUs and Fjalls : W. L. Watts (Longmans). — Protection of Life
and h'roperty from Lightning: W. McGregor (Beuford, Robinson). -Game
Preserves and Bird Preservers : G. F. Morant (Longmans). — Geology :
lames Geikie (Chambers) —Magnetism and Electricity : John Cook (Cham-
bers).— Chemistry : A. Crum-Brown (Chambers) — Astronomy : A. Fiudlater.
(Chambers).— On the Relation between Diabetes and Food : Dr. Donkin
(Smith, Elder and Co.)— Impressions of Madeira : Wm. Longman (Long-
mans)— Light as a Motive Power: Lieut. R.. H Aimet, Vol. i. (Trubner). —
Rambles in Search of Shells: J. E. Harting (Van Voor.st).— Syllabus of
Plane Geometry (Macmillan and Co ) — Instructions in the Use of Meteoro-
logical Instruments : Robt. H. Scott, MA, F.R.S. Official).— Quarterly
Weather Report of the Meteorological Office, Part 4, 1873 (Official). —
Second Report on the Sanitary Condition of Oxfordshire : G. W. Child
(Longmans).

CONTENTS Pack

Scientific Worthies, VI. — Sir Charles Lyell. By Prof. Arch.

Q,-B.i'g.\^,'c^.%. (}Vith Steel Engraving) 325

Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry. By R. Meldola 327

His ON Morphological Causation. By M. F 328

Our Book Shelf : —

" Bristol and its Environs" 32S

Letters to the Editor: —

" Climate and Time." — James Croll 329

A Lunar Rainbow, or an Intra-lunar convergence of Streams of

.slightly illuminated Cosmic Dust ? — J. W. N. Lefroy .... 329

"Insiinct" and "Reason."— James Hutchings 330

Our Astronomical Column : —

Double Stars 330

M. Leverrier's Theory and Tables of Saturn 331

The Great Comet of 1819 331

Science in Germany 331

Zoological Stations Abroad. By Dr. Mikluho-Maclav . . . 332

The Vatna J okull, Iceland. ^W.^L. Watts 333

On an Improved Optical Arrangement for Azimuthal Con-
densing Apparatus for Lighthouses. By Thomas Stevenson,

¥.K.S,.l^.{lVitMlhisiraiion) 333

The British Association 335

Inaugural Address by the President 336

Section A. — Opening Address 346

Section C. — Opening Address 350

The French Association for the Advancement of Science • . 358

Notes 358

Scientific Serials 359

Societies and Academies 360

Books AND Pamphlbts Bbcbivbo .360

NATURE

361

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 2, 1875

THE SCIENCE COMMISSION REPORT ON
THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE*

WE now proceed to indicate the tenor of the evidence
received by the Royal Commission on the last two
heads under which they have classified that part of their
inquiry- which relates to the Advancement of Science.
III. — T/ie Assistance ivhich it is desirable the State should
Qive towards that object [the promotion of Scientific
Research.]

On this head the evidence is enormously voluminous,
and it may be said to be practically unanimous in
demanding a very great increase to the aid now given
towards original scientific investigation and observation.
In order to afford some idea of the general tendency of
this mass of testimony, we cannot do better than sum-
marise the extracts appended in their Eighth and Final
Report to the recommendations of the Commission.

As to the general question, which must precede all
others, whether the State should aid science, the Com-
mission refers first, with great propriety, to the opinions
of eminent statesmen on what is as much a problem of
statescraft as a question of science.

The evidence of Lord Salisbury is emphatic : —

" Do you hold that the State may legitimately interfere
in giving aid to the advancement of science ? — I certainly
do. It is a very orthodox doctrine to hold, and one which
could be supported if necessary by quotations out of
Adam Smith, the essence of the doctrine being, that the
State is perfectly justified in stimulating that kind of
industry which will not find its reward from the preference
of individuals, but which is useful to the community at
large."

" The State has already, to a considerable extent, recog-
nised, has it not, that duty ; and there are a considerable
number of scientific institutions supported more or less
by the State ?— No doubt the State, in the money that it
gives, and has given in past times, to the best Uni-
versities, has recognised that duty."

" There are the Observatory at Greenwich, the British
Museum, and Kew Gardens ; you would consider those as
instances in which the State aids the promotion of
science ? — They would be all instances in point ; and I
do not apprehend that as to the abstract doctrine itself
there has ever been any serious contest." . . .

Lord Derby's evidence in favour of State aid to science
is all the more weighty from the limitations by which he
guards it : —

"I think there has been a very general consent
amongst a large number of men of science who have been
examined before this Commission that in the present state
of science there are many branches as to which there is
no probability of their being advanced to the degree to
which they are capable of being advanced by private
effort, and without the assistance of State funds in some
shape ; what is your lordship's opinion upon that sub-
ject ?— I am, as a general rule, very strongly in favour of
private effort, and very decidedly against the application
of State funds to any purpose that can be accomplished
without them ; but I think that if there is any exception
to that which I venture to call a sound and wholesome
rule, it is in the case of scientific research, because the
results are not immediate, they are not popular in their

* Contmued from p. 285.

Vol. XII.— No. 305

character, and they bring absolutely no pecuniary advan-
tage to the person engaged in working them out. A great
mathematical or a great astronomical discovery is a
benefit to the whole community, and in a certain sense to
mankind in general ; but it is productive of absolutely no
benefit, in a pecuniary point of view, to the person who
has given his labour to it."

Sir Stafford Northcote thus states his opinion on ths
point : —

"... The State should do what it can both to promote
scientific education and also to assist in the prosecution
of scientific experiments and inquiries when they can be
best prosecuted by the aid of the State."

It is a matter of congratulation that these opinions,
though expressed when out of office, are held, and will
doubtless be maintained, by three of the foremost
members of Mr. Disraeli's Cabinet. Nor can we forget
that the Premier himself some time ago forcibly descanted
on the extreme value of sanitary science, or that the
Home Secretary,"who has laboured so zealously in many
departments of social reform, reminded the House of
Commons, during the late session, that the proper method
of paving and cleansing our wretched London streets
really involved difficult scientific problems, at present
neglected, and with nobody to undertake their solution.

The Commissioners observe that " on the proposition
that it is the duty of the State to encourage original re-
search they might'multiply their extracts from the evidence
indefinitely," and they refer to the scientific testimony of
Dr. Frankland, Sir W. Thomson, Dr. Joule, Mr. Gore,
Dr. Carpenter, Prof. A. W. Williamson, Mr. Reed, Sir E.
Sabine, Dr. Siemens, Dr. Sclater, Mr. Farrcr, Admiral
Richards, and numerous others, to show that the aid of
Government to scientific research has been beneficial, so
far as it has gone, but that it. has been insufficient and
should be increased ; and as representing the opinions of
public servants occupying high official positions in Go-
vernment departments, they refer to the evidence of
Admiral Richards, late Hydrographer of the Admiralty,
and to that of Mr. Farrer, Secretary to the Board of
Trade.

The broad- general principle that 'the State should aid
original research, and that it at present does so insuffi-
ciently, being established, the next question is in Vi'hat
direction is additional aid required.? The evidence on
this question is classified by the Commissioners under
the heads Laboratories, Physical Observatories, Meteoro-
logy, Tidal Observations, the Government Grant adminis-
tered by the Royal Society, and Payment of Scientific
Workers.

Evidence relating to the Establishment 0/ Laboratories,
— Amongst the witnesses who are in favour of the erection
of new laboratories for research is Colonel Strange, whose
view of the national requirements in these respects is
thus given :—

" Will you be so good as to enumerate the institutions
which you think should be under the State?— (i) an
observatory for physics of astronomy ; (2) an observatory
for terrestrial physics, namely, meteorology, magnetism,
&c. ; (3) a physical laboratory ; (4) an extension of the
Standards Office; (5) a metallurgical laboratory; (6) a
chemical laboratory ; (7) an extension of collections of
natural history, and an able staff of naturalists ; (8) a
physiological laboratory ; (9) a museum of machines,
scientific instnxments, &c. I believe that under one or

T

^,62

NATURE

{Sept. 2, 1875

other of these and existing- institutions every requisite
investigation will range itself. I have not stopped to
inquire whether one or another is more or less important.
My aim in the spirit of my postulate No. 2 * has been
completeness. It may be necessary for a manufacturer to
prosecute only such particular investigations as promise
direct and speedy profit. A great nation must not act in
that commercial spirit. All the operations of nature are
so intimately interwoven, that it is impossible to say
beforehand that a given line of research, apparently unpro-
ductive, may not throw light in unsuspected directions,
and so lead to untold and undreamt-of treasures." . . .

Sir W. Thomson's evidence is as follows : —

" Are you of opinion that any national institutions sup-
ported by the Government are required for the advance-
ment of science ? — I think that there ought to be institu-
tions for pure research supported by the Government, and
not connected with the Universities. The only suitable
place at present for such institutions would be London,
or the neighbourhood of London ; in that situation, I
believe, very great things could be done by institutions
for pure research, at which work of a very great imme-
diate money value would be produced at an extremely
moderate cost, and I believe that discoveries redounding
to the honour and credit and pleasure of this country
would infallibly be made."

" Are you able to give any idea as to how many such
institutions would be required? — There should be five.
One at present exists, namely, the Royal Observatory at
Greenwich. Another in my opinion is very much wanted,
an observatory for astronomical physics, then again a
physical laboratory, and a laboratory for chemical re-
search, and a physiological laboratory are necessary." . . .

" Would such a physical laboratory differ in any essen-
tial respects from a physical laboratory attached to an
University ? — Yes ; it would be adapted solely for re-
search, with no provision for pupils except what may be
called apprentices, or pupils for research ; no provision
for teaching the mere elements of manipulation, but pro-
vision for researches directly adapted to increase know-
ledge, and for making pattern researches for the sake of
training research pupils who had already gained experi-
ence and proved ability in institutions of instruction."

" Would you leave the researches to be carried on at
such a laboratory mainly to the discretion of the person
who had charge of it, or would you place it in any degree
under the control of the council of which you have been
speaking ? — I would leave it to the discretion of the person
who has charge of it." . . .

"And that the Government should also be able to
command investigation on the advice of the council ? —
Yes."

" Of course the director would report ? — Yes, the
director would report on everything, both researches
undertaken at his own instigation, and investigations
undertaken for the council or for the Government."

*' And your view of what should be done in the chemi-
cal and physiological laboratories would, I presume, be
something of the same nature ? — Yes, something of the
same kind, imUatis mutandis^^

" With respect to the apparatus, and the annual supply
of apparatus, it is probable, is it not, that the physical

* Col. Strange opened his evidence before the Royal Commission in the
following terms : —

" I can hardly do better than by stating the four postulates on which I
base all my recommendations : it seems to me indispensable that I should
state the basis upon which I am about to speak. I'hose postulates are as
follows:— (i) That science is essential to the advancement of civilisation, the
development of national wealth, and the maintenance of national power. (2)
That all science should be cultivated, even branches of science which do not
appear to promise immediate direct advantage. (3) That the State or Go-
vernment, acting as trustees of the people, should provide for the cultivation
of those departments of science which, by reason of costliness, either in time
or money, or of remoteness of probable profit, are beyond the reach of pri-
vate individuals ; in order that the community may not suffer from the effect
of insufficiency of isolated effort. (4) That to whatever extent science may
be advanced by State agency, thatiagency should be systematically consti-
tuted and directed."

laboratories would be the most costly ? — Yes, the most
costly in apparatus."

*' Some very fine instruments of a costly kind are now
required in physiological inquiries, and large pieces of
apparatus are sometimes employed, such as the respira-
tion apparatus at Munich, which was put up on the
recommendation of Prof. Pettenkofer ? — Yes, it would ba
in my opinion necessary not to limit to a fixed endowment
the expenditure of any one of those institutions, but to let
it be determined (if I may use the expression once more)
by natural selection ; applications for money to be made
to the council to be duly weighed, and the council to
apply to the Treasury. That would be much more econo-
mical than giving a fixed sum which, being to be spent,
might be spent without due regard to economy, or
which, on the other hand, might prove to be insufficient
for valuable researches, causing the institution thereby to
be crippled and to lose efficiency,"

" You would not think it indispensable, would you, that
such institutions, if the Government thought fit to esta-
blish them, should be in the heart of London, or in any
very central situation ? — No ; it would be much better
that they should be in the country in positions conveni-
ently accessible to London." . . .

"You would not institute any regular provision for
teaching in those laboratories ? — No."

" But you would allow young men or students who
wished to carry out original research to avail themselves
of them under the direction of the persons who were in
charge of them ? — Yes, under the direction, and to some
degree under the instruction of the persons in cbarjje ;
but the instruction should be limited to methods for
advancing science. The director of such an institution
must not be occupied with lecturing in any other institu-
tion, or with lecturing at all. He ought indeed to be pro-
hibited from lecturing, except one or two occasional
lectures in the course of a year."

" You think that the object for which you recommend
the establishment of those laboratories could not be
accomplished by any other means — not by investigations
carried on in other laboratories in the country? — Certainly
not by any other means."

Dr. Frankland thus refers to the double function which
such laboratories might perform, and states his view in
reference to their management : —

" Can you make any suggestions as to stimulating
original research in this country? — .... We have in
this country a considerable body of investigators who are
not engaged in teaching at all, and I think that this is a
peculiarly hopeful feature of our case. It shows that the
English have not only a taste for research, but that they
have a natural talent for it. We have numerous men
like Mr. Gassiot, Sir W. Grove, Dr. De la Rue, Mr.
Spottiswoode, Mr. Huggins, Mr, Duppa, Mr. Buckton,
Mr. Joule, Mr. Lockyer, Mr. Perkin, Mr. Schunck, Col.
Yorke, and others whom I could name, who are not in
any way engaged in teaching, and never have been, but
who have made important original researches, and have
spent a good deal of their time in the working out of new
discoveries. Now that method of stimulating research
which I have mentioned in my former examination would
not of course apply to them. Men of this class are really
peculiar to England, for I have never known any such
instance in Germany or in France, of men altogether dis-
connected with teaching taking up research in the way it
is done in England. I think that for such men the esta-
blishment of national institutions such as those which are
recommended by Col. Strange would be pecuharly useful.
In fact, I have heard several of these gentlemen express
strong opinions as to the great advantage it would be to
them if they could go to some institution of that kind to
conduct research, where expensive instruments, which are
often required for their experiments, were provided for a

Sept. 2, 1875]

NATURE

363

number of such investigators, and where appropriate
rooms for carrying on these researches could be had. It
is exceedingly difficult to carry on chemical research in
one's own house, because of the want of proper con-
trivances for dealing with corrosive gases and vapours ;
and hence appropriate buildings ought to be provided for
carrying on such investigations. I think, therefore, that
it would afford a great stimulus to research of this kind if
such institutions were provided, and furnished with such
instruments as would be generally useful in research,
leaving the more special instruments and mnterials
adapted to the particular researches themselves, to be
provided by each operator, ... I have reason to believe
that no inconsiderable number of men, more especially of
those educated in some of the science schools, would
undertake researches if such facilities were afforded
them."

" Would you consider the chief use of such institutions
as laboratories to be to enable private inquirers to carry
on their researches, or would you propose that any inves-
tigations should be carried on there on behalf of the
State ? — I think that both things might be provided for.
The State requires many important investigations to be

carried on That might well form one part of the

objects of such a building, but I should think that so far
as abstract research, of which we are more especially
speaking now, is concerned, the other portion of those
objects, namely, the encouragement of original investiga-
tion in the case of amateurs would be more important,
because the investigations made for the Government are
essentially practical investigations ; they are not usually
of that character which lead to discoveries or to the
advancement of science."

" Would you place those laboratories under a perma-
nent official ? — They must of necessity be under the direct
and constant superintendence of some one thoroughly
conversant with the operations going on in them ; and,
so far as the conducting of the separate original researches
is concerned, I think that it would be very desirable that
the admission into such institutions should be granted
through some such body as the Research Fund Com-
mittee, for instance, of the Council of the Royal Society,
or some body of that kind, who would make intelligent
and impartial inquiry into the qualifications of the men
applying for accommodation."

"You would not throw upon the director the sole
responsibility of deciding who should be admitted and
who should not ?— I think that would not be desirable." . . .

" And do you think it would be requisite that those
institutions should be on a large scale? — I think that
they ought to be on a fairly large scale even to begin
with, because it is always a costly process to rebuild such
institutions ; and I am inclined to think that they would
be rapidly filled. A tolerably large institution of that
kind would probably in a very few years be filled with
workers." . . .

" You would not recommend, in the first instance^ at
least, more than the estabhshment of one for each depart-
ment of science ?— I think not more than that,"

•'And should it be in London?— Yes, I suppose they
must be commenced here, but eventually it would be
desirable that the important centres in the provinces
should also be furnished with such places."

" Col. Strange recommended the establishment of four
laboratories ; should you be disposed to agree with him
in that view ? — Yes, I think that those would be neces-
sary ; perhaps the least essential of them would be the
metallurgical one, but certainly the others would be quite
essential."

Mr. Warren De la Rue, whose opinion on this subject,
as that of one of the most eminent private scientific
workers on a large scale, must have peculiar weight -"v-
presses himself as follows :—

ex-

" Are you of opinion that any new institutions in the
way of laboratories should be established by the State ?
— I hold it to be so important that chemistry should be
extensively cultivated in England, that I would strongly
advocate that there should be a State laboratory. That
State laboratory should undertake all the chemical work
which the Government might require, but at the same
time, according to the views which I hold, it ought to be
such an estabhshment as could afford facilities to men
who have completed their scientific education, and who
might be desirous of continuing original investigations,
in which space for working and instruments should be
afforded them ; and, moreover, if men were not in a
position of fortune to continue their researches, in some
cases materials and even money might be granted to them
on the recommendation of the council. I may state that of
my own knowledge I know that chemical science at pre-
sent is not progressing in England in a satisfactory
manner, that we do not make so many original researches
as our continental neighbours, particularly the Germans,
do. In Germany very great patronage is given to science,
magnificent laboratories have been built, and the students,
who, after they are sufficiently advanced, are encouraged
to make original investigations, contribute at present
most largely to scientific chemistry."

" Do you think that the establishment of those Govern-
ment laboratories would be likely to give rise to com-
plaints from any existing institutions ? — I think not, if
those Government establishments were not educational
establishments. . . . What I contemplate is merely that
facilities should be given to men who have already been
educated, and not to interfere at all with the functions of
educational estabUshments."

'• Do you think that any other laboratories would be
needed ? — I attach the greatest importance to a chemical
laboratory, because I believe that chemistry is destined
to play a very important part in the advancement of the
arts in all civilised countries, but there also ought to be a
physical laboratory very much on the same footing as the
chemical laboratory, and in which facilities should be
afforded for conducting physical investigations."

" You would give admission to those laboratories on
the same principle as to the chemical laboratories ?— Yes,
to men who could show that they were qualified to make
a beneficial use of them."

" You think that any investigations required by the
State should also be conducted there 1 — Yes, they should
be conducted in either the chemical or physical labo-
ratory, according to the nature of the investigations. For
example, there were a great number of investigations car-
ried on at Woolwich relating to the strength of different
alloys whose chemical composition was determined by
analysis. Such investigations would be very well con-
ducted in the chemical laboratories."

" Would you transfer the work now done at Woolwich
to such a laboratory ?— Part of the work, but I would
except such special work as could be better done at each
of the Government establishments. Special investi-
gations would fall within the duties of the central govern-
ment laboratory. The testing of the purity of the pro-
ducts to be used in the department and routine work
would be better conducted in those establishments."

" With respect to the other purpose of the laboratory,
do you think that there would be a sufficient number of
independent inquirers to occupy an estabhshment hke
that ?-— I think that there would be a great number of
men who would be very glad to avail themselves of such
opportunities as a laboratory of that kind would afford,
and their doing so would not add materially to the cost
of the establishment,"

Mr. Gore, a distinguished practical chemist, also re-
commends the establishment of laboratories, his evidence
being essentially of the same purport as that quoted above.

T 3

364

NATURE

[Sept. 2, 1875

The great bulk of the evidence, in fact, on this part of
the question is to the same effect ; and it has not been
neutrahsed, in the judgment of the Commissioners, by other
views expressed by a small number of distinguished wit-
nesses.

Amongst the latter Dr. A. W. Williamson thinks that
the development of schools would be preferable to the
establishment of laboratories. His views however do not
seem to be fully matured ; the following extract from his
evidence showing that though more in favour than per-
haps anyone else of equal authority, of combining school
instruction with original research, he still perceives that
some independent provision for the latter might be desir-
able. He says : —

"At the same time it is quite possible that, in excep-
tional cases, research might with advantage be carried on
in separate places ; but I should always view with regret,
as a waste of resources, the separation of that higher work
of research from the more humble work of teaching, which
naturally belongs to it. They help one another, and I
think that each would lose from being separated from the
other ; still, in some cases, it might possibly be advisable."

Dr. Siemens, on the other hand, apprehends that the
establishment of Government laboratories, which, amongst
other functions, should be accessible to private workers,
might cause disappointment to some who might not be
able to gain access to them, and that there might be
favouritism and want of discrimination in the dispensing
of the privileges in question.

Dr. Burdon Sanderson would rather see increased faci-
lities given to the great schools of medicine for the pro-
secution of physiological research, than laboratories of
an independent character established. He questions
whether we have at present a sufficient number of trained
workers to use establishments of the latter kind ; whilst
Lord Salisbury is doubtful whether by any moderate
expenditure of funds we could provide an expensive class
of scientific instruments of all kinds for all the persons
who might be inclined to use them.

The Commissioners, after fairly balancing the views laid
before them, sum up this question in their final conclu-
sions, as follows : —

" More complete means are urgently required for scien-
tific investigations in connection with certain Govern-
ment departments ; and physical as well as other labora-
tories and apparatus for such investigations ought to
be provided."

{To be continued.)

IRBY'S BIRDS OF GIBRALTAR
The Ornithology of the Straits of Gibraltar. By Lieut.-

Col. L, Howard L. Irby, F.Z.S., &c. (London : R. H.

Porter, 6, Tcnterden Street ; Dulau and Co., Soho

Square, 1875.)
T_T ERCULES, as in our schooldays we used to be told,
— -- once took the trouble of cleaving asunder the
isthmus which in his time, whenever that was, joined
Europe and Africa. Colonel Irby has been at the pains of
reuniting the two continents, not indeed actually, tut for
the purposes of his work ; and has thus undone, so far as
ornithology is concerned, the labour of the demigod.
Though we certainly have no fault to find with the
exploit which gave the waters of the Atlantic access to

the Mediterranean basin, and fully admit the advantage
which has thereby accrued to most European nations,
and to our own in particular, it must be confessed that we
deem more highly the feat of our modern hero than the
prowess of him of antiquity.

It is now some years since all authorities have recog-
nised the fact that, if socially Africa begins, as the sati-
rical statesman said, at the Pyrenees, Europe does not
biologically end at the Strait of Gibraltar ; and the readers
of Nature do not need reminding that between the
animal and vegetable products of either side of that
narrow channel there is little essential difference. Thus
the southern part of Andalucia and the northern part of
Morocco form a very homogeneous district to come under
the survey of an observant ornithologist perched upon the
rocky heights of " Old Gib." Such an observant ornitho-
logist Col. Irby has proved himself to be, as might indeed
have been expected of him, when' we remember that he
was one of the few officers of the now ancient Crimean
time who was sufficiently undisturbed by war's alarms to
follow his pursuits over the steppes of the Tauric
Chersonese, and again, when called not long after to
India, in days yet pre-Jerdonian, did not intermit his
occupations in Oudh and Kumaon for all that rebellion,
if not something more, was still rife in those districts.

We have seldom had the pleasure of reviewing a more
engaging and more unpretending book than that which is
now before us. It is by one who shows himself in almost
every page to be a thorough field-naturalist, and a field-
naturalist of the best kind. Cherishing with pardonable
pride, as a man should do, his own observations, he can
yet believe that those of others may likewise have some
merit, and thus he gives us an admirable account of the
place of his choice, though, as he modestly remarks,
"there is ample room for anyone with energy to work
out a great deal more information on the birds of the
Straits." Nearly all that he has to say about those of the
Spanish side is from his own personal knowledge, acquired
during a more or less prolonged stay at "the Rock,"
between February 1868 and May 1872, and again from
February to May 1874, but including in this time only
one summer. " For the first three years of my residence
at Gibraltar," he says, " I was quartered with my regi-
ment, the remaining time being passed there chiefly with
a view to ornithological pursuits, from time to time
making excursions, generally of about a fortnight's dura-
tion, to some part or other within the districts above
mentioned, but chiefly confining my attentions to the
country within a day's journey of Gibraltar." The obser-
vations on the Moorish birds are in great measure culled
from the manuscript of the late Frangois Favier, a French
collector well-known to many ornithologists in England,
who died in 1867 after a residence of more than thirty
years at Tangier. This manuscript our author secured
at a high price,* to find indeed, " amidst a mass of bad
grammar, bad spelling, and worse writing, which cost
many hours to decipher, that it did not contain so much
information as I had reason to anticipate, a good deal of
the matter having been copied from other authors ; " and,
we may add, not copied with much discrimination.

The remaining materials of which the Colonel has

* This manuscript, or possibly an older one of which it is a corrected
copy, was seen at Tangier in 1844 by Wolley. Colonel Irby has lately pre-
sented it to the Zoological Museum of the University of Cambridge.

Sept. 2, 1 8 75 J

NAIURE

365

availed himself (would that he had discovered the lost
Fauna Calpensis of John White !) are the various papers
on Spanish Ornithology, by Lord Lilford and Mr. Howard
Saunders, published in the Ibis, and the late Mr. C. F.
Tyrwhitt Drake's notes on the birds of Tangier and
Eastern Morocco, which appeared in the same journal.
The list of Tangerine birds by Herr Carstensen {Nau-
viannia, 1852, i. pp. 76-79) gave but little help ; but our
author does not seem to have been aware of the late
Mr. G. W. H. Drummond Hay's observations {Froc.
Zool. Soc. 1840, pp. 133-135), which, though brief, appear
to be at least trustworthy.

Colonel Irby catalogues 335 species as unquestionably
occurring within his limits, besides some twenty-five
more which may be reasonably looked for, though he
himself has not fallen in with them ; while many others
are doubtless to be found as stragglers, for " so local are
birds in Southern Spain, that perhaps some may be
resident and overlooked in consequence of the exact
locality they frequent having been unvisited." His re-
marks on all these are exceedingly discriminative and to
the point, furnishing a supply of information for which
ornithologists will be duly grateful, but they are mostly of
too special a kind to give extracts from them here. We
prefer quoting what he has to say on Migration, as
being a subject in which more of our readers will take
interest : —

" Without doubt caused by the absence or abundance
of food, which in turn is caused by difference of tempera-
ture, the passage of birds in these parts begins with most
species almost to a day in spring, usually lasting for about
three weeks, though some, as the Hoopoe and the Swallows,
are more irregular in their first appearance ; and with
these the migration lasts throughout a longer period.

" Few (indeed hardly any birds) do not migrate or shift
their ground to some extent. I can name very few which do
not appear to move, viz., Griffon-Vulture, Imperial Eagle,
Eagle- O w]. Blue Thrush, all the Woodpeckers, Treecreeper,
Black-headed Warbler, Dartford Warbler, Crested Lark,
Chough, Raven, Magpie, Red-legged and Barbary Par-
tridges, and the Andalucian Quail. Generally speaking,
it seems to me that in the vernal migration the males are
the first to arrive, as with the Wheatears, Nightingales,
Night-herons, Bee-eaters ; but this is a theory which
requires more confirmation. Some species, as the Neo-
phron and most of the Raptcres, pass in pairs.

" Most of the land-birds pass by day, usually crossing
the Straits in the morning. The waders are, as a rule,
not seen on passage ; so it may be concluded they pass
by night, although I have occasionally obseived Peewits,
Golden Plover, Terns, and Gulls passing by day.

"The autumnal or return migration is less conspicuous
than the vernal : and whether the passage is performed
by night, or whether the birds return by some other route,
or whether they pass straight on, not lingering by the way
as in spring, is an open question ; but during the autumn
months passed by me at Gibraltar, I failed to notice the
passage as in spring, though more than once during the
month of August, which 1 spent at Gibraltar, myself and
others distinctly heard Bee-eaters passing south at night,
and so conclude other birds may do the same.

"... Both the vernal and autumnal migrations are
generally executed during an easterly wind, or Levanter ;
at one time I thought that this was essential to the pas-
sage, but it appears not to be the case, as, whether it be
an east or west wind, if it be the time for migration,
birds will pass, though they linger longer on the African
coast before starting if the wind be westerly ; and all the
very large flights of Raptores (Kites, Neophrons, Honey-

Buzzards, &c.) which I have seen passed with a Levanter.
After observing the passage for five springs, I am unable
to come to any decided opinion, the truth being that, as
an east wind is the prevalent one, the idea has been
started that migration always takes place during that
wind. Nevertheless, it is an undoubted fact that during
the autumnal or southern migration of the Quail in Sep-
tember they collect in vast numbers on the European side
if there be a west wind, and seem not to be able to pass
until it changes to the east ; this is so much the case that,
if the wind keeps in that quarter during the migration,
none are hardly to be seen.

" On some occasions the passage of the larger birds of
prey is a most wonderful sight ; but of all the remarkable
flights of any single species, that of the Common Crane
has been the most noteworthy that has come under my
own observation.

"On the Andalucian side, the' number of birds seen
even by the ordinary traveller appears strikingly large, '
this being, no doubt, in a great measure caused by the
quantity which are, for ten months at least out of the
year, more or less on migration ; that is to say, with the
exception of June and July, there is no month in which
the passage of birds is not noticeable, June being the only
one in which there may be said to be absolutely no migra-
tion, as, during the month of July, Cuckoos and some
Bee-eaters return to the south" (pp. 13-15).

For want of space we must pass over the spirited de-
scriptions which the Colonel gives of the various localities
within his limits, and his experience of several shooting
excursions, the relation of which is wisely subordinated to
the main object of the book. We can fully enter into his
feelings when he was for two hours the unobserved ob-
server of a vast assemblage (at the lowest computation,
he says, between three and four thousand) of wild geese,
for we ourselves remember watching just such a host, and
under much the same circumstances, years ago on the
banks of a Lapland river ; but we cannot here introduce
his account. Our author has added to the value of his
book by giving a list of the Mammals of Southern Spain,
forty in number without counting the Barbary Ape, whose
presence on "the Rock" is the origin of so many theories
facetious as well as scientific ; and the volume concludes
with a convenient summary of the Birds, besides a very
good index. As reviewers we are of course entitled to
our " growl," and this shall be that the two neat maps
■which illustrate the book are not drawn to the same scale,
and while that of Northern Morocco, for which we are
especially thankful, takes in a great deal more than
Colonel Irby's district, that of Southern Spain leaves out
at least as much. With this we bid him farewell.

nOFMANN'S REFORT ON THE FROGRESS
OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY

Bcricht iiber die Entvjicklung der Chemischen Industrie
ivdhrend des letzten Jahrzchendsj im Verein mit
Freunden und Fachgenossen erstattet von Dr. A. W.
Hofmann. Autorisirter Abdruck aus dem Amtlichen
Bericht iiber die Wiener Weltausstellung im Jahre 1873.
{Report on the Developtnent 0/ Chemical Industry durim^
the last Ten Years j in conjunction with friends and
fellow-workers. Composed by A. W. Hofmann. Au-
thorised reprint of the official report on the Vienna
Exhibition of 1873. Vol. iii. Part I.) (Braunschweig:
Fr. Vieweg und Sohn, 1875.)

THE Imperial Commission of Germany for the Vienna
Exhibition of 1873 have put the report on the third
group, " Chemical Industry," into the hands of Dr.

364

NATURE

{Sept. 2, 1875

The great bulk of the evidence, in fact, on this part of
the question is to the same effect ; and it has not been
neutralised, in the judgment of the Commissioners, by other
views expressed by a small number of distinguished wit-
nesses.

Amongst the latter Dr. A. W. Williamson thinks that
the development of schools would be preferable to the
establishment of laboratories. His views however do not
seem to be fully matured ; the following extract from his
evidence showing that though more in favour than per-
haps anyone else of equal authority, of combining school
instruction with original research, he still perceives that
some independent provision for the latter might be desir-
able. He says : —

"At the same time it is quite possible that, in excep-
tional cases, research might with advantage be carried on
m separate places ; but I should always view with regret,
as a waste of resources, the separation of that higher work
of research from the more humble work of teaching, which
naturally belongs to it. They help one another, and I
thmk that each would lose from being separated from the
other ; still, in some cases, it might possibly be advisable."

Dr. Siemens, on the other hand, apprehends that the
establishment of Government laboratories, which, amongst
other functions, should be accessible to private workers,
might cause disappointment to some who might not be
able to gain access to them, and that there might be
favouritism and want of discrimination in the dispensing
of the privileges in question.

Dr. Burdon Sanderson would rather see increased faci-
lities given to the great schools of medicine for the pro-
secution of physiological research, than laboratories of
an independent character established. He questions
whether we have at present a sufficient number of trained
workers to use establishments of the latter kind ; whilst
Lord Salisbury is doubtful whether by any moderate
expenditure of funds we could provide an expensive class
of scientific instruments of all kinds for all the persons
who might be inclined to use them.

The Commissioners, after fairly balancing the views laid
before them, sum up this question in their final conclu-
sions, as follows : —

" More complete means are urgently required for scien-
tific investigations in connection with certain Govern-
ment departments ; and physical as well as other labora-
tories and apparatus for such investigations ought to
be provided."

{To be continued.)

IRBY'S BIRDS OF GIBRALTAR
The Ornithology of the Straits of Gibraltar. By Lieut.-

Col. L. Howard L. Jrby, F.Z.S., *c. (London : R. H.

Porter, 6, Tenterden Street; Dulau and Co., Soho

Square, 1875.)
T_T ERCULES, as in our schooldays we used to be told,
— - once took the trouble of cleaving asunder the
isthmus which in his time, whenever that was, joined
Europe and Africa. Colonel Irby has been at the pains of
reuniting the two continents, not indeed actually, tut for
the purposes of his work ; and has thus undone, so far as
ornithology is concerned, the labour of the demigod.
Though we certainly have no fault to find with the
exploit which gave the waters of the Atlantic access to

the Mediterranean basin, and fully admit the advantage
which has thereby accrued to most European nations,
and to our own in particular, it must be confessed that we
deem more highly the feat of our modern hero than the
prowess of him of antiquity.

It is now some years since all authorities have recog-
nised the fact that, if socially Africa begins, as the sati-
rical statesman said, at the Pyrenees, Europe does not
biologically end at the Strait of Gibraltar ; and the readers
of Nature do not need reminding that between the
animal and vegetable products of either side of that
narrow channel there is little essential difference. Thus
the southern part of Andalucia and the northern part of
Morocco form a very homogeneous district to come under
the survey of an observant ornithologist perched upon the
rocky heights of " Old Gib." Such an observant ornitho-
logist Col. Irby has proved himself to be, as might indeed
have been expected of him, whence remember that he
was one of the , few officers of the now ancient Crimean
time who was sufficiently undisturbed by war's alarms to
follow his pursuits over the steppes of the Tauric
Chersonese, and again, when called not long after to
India, in days yet pre-Jerdonian, did not intermit his
occupations in Oudh and Kumaon for all that rebelUon,
if not something more, was still rife in those districts.

We have seldom had the pleasure of reviewing a more
engaging and more unpretending book than that which is
now before us. It is by one who shows himself in almost
every page to be a thorough field-naturalist, and a field-
naturalist of the best kind. Cherishing with pardonable
pride, as a man should do, his own observations, he can
yet believe that those of others may likewise have some
merit, and thus he gives us an admirable account of the
place of his choice, though, as he modestly remarks,
"there is ample room for anyone with energy to work
out a great deal more information on the birds of the
Straits." Nearly all that he has to say about those of the
Spanish side is from his own personal knowledge, acquired
during a more or less prolonged stay at "the Rock,"
between February 1868 and May 1872, and again from
February to May 1874, but including in this time only
one summer. " For the first three years of my residence
at Gibraltar," he says, " I was quartered with my regi-
ment, the remaining time being passed there chiefly with
a view to ornithological pursuits, from time to time
making excursions, generally of about a fortnight's dura-
tion, to some part or other within the districts above
mentioned, but chiefly confining my attentions to the
country within a day's journey of Gibraltar." The obser-
vations on the Moorish birds are in great measure culled
from the manuscript of the late Frangois Favier, a French
collector well-known to many ornithologists in England,
who died in 1867 after a residence of more than thirty
years at Tangier. This manuscript our author secured
at a high price,* to find indeed, " amidst a mass of bad
grammar, bad spelling, and worse writing, which cost
many hours to decipher, that it did not contain so much
information as I had reason to anticipate, a good deal of
the matter having been copied from other authors ; " and,
we may add, not copied with much discrimination.
The remaining materials of which the Colonel has

* This manuscript, or possibly an older one of which it is a corrected
copy, was seen at Tangier in 1844 by Wolley. Colonel Irby has lately pre-
sented it to the Zoological Museum of the University of Cambridge.

Sept. 2, 1 8 75 J

naiOre

365

availed himself (would that he had discovered the lost
Fauna Calpensis of John White !) are the various papers
on Spanish Ornithology, by Lord Lilford and Mr. Howard
Saunders, published in the Ibis, and the late Mr. C. F.
Tyrwhitt Drake's notes on the birds of Tangier and
Eastern Morocco, which appeared in the same journal.
The list of Tangerine birds by Hctr Carstensen {Nau-
niannia, 1852, i. pp. 76-79) gave but little help ; but our
author does not seem to have been aware of the late
Mr. G. W. H. Drummond Hay's observations {Free.
Zool. Soc, 1840, pp. 133-135), which, though brief, appear
to ba at least trustworthy.

Colonel Irby catalogues 335 species as unquestionably
occurring within his limits, besides some twenty-five
more which may be reasonably looked for, though he
himself has not fallen in with them ; while many others
are doubtless to be found as stragglers, for " so local are
birds in Southern Spain, that perhaps some may be
resident and overlooked in consequence of the exact
locality they frequent having been unvisited." His re-
marks on all these are exceedingly discriminative and to
the point, furnishing a supply of information for which
ornithologists will be duly grateful, but they are mostly of
too special a kind to give extracts from them here. We
prefer quoting what he has to say on Migration, as
being a subject in which more of our readers will take
interest : —

" Without doubt caused by the absence or abundance
of food, which in turn is caused by difference of tempera-
ture, the passage of birds in these parts begins with most
species almost to a day in spring, usually lasting for about
three weeks, tnough some, as the Hoopoe and the Swallows,
are more irregular in their first appearance ; and with
these the migration lasts throughout a longer period.

" Few (indeed hardly any birds) do not migrate or shift
their ground to some extent. I can name very few which do
not appear to move, viz., Griffon-Vulture, Imperial Eagle,
Eagle- O A'l, Blue Thrush, all the Woodpeckers, Treecreeper,
Black-headed Warbler, Dartford Warbler, Crested Lark,
Chough, Raven, Magpie, Red-legged and Barbary Par-
tridges, and the Andalucian Quail. Generally speaking,
it seems to me that in the vernal migration the males are
the first to arrive, as with the Wheatears, Nightingales,
Night-herons, Bee-caters ; but this is a theory which
requires more confirmation. Some species, as the Neo-
phron and most of the Raptores, pass in pairs.

" Most of the land-birds pass by day, usually crossing
the Straits in the morning. The waders are, as a rule,
not seen on passage ; so it may be concluded they pass
by night, although I have occasionally observed Peewits,
Golden Plover, Terns, and Gulls passing by day,

"The autumnal or return migration is less conspicuous
than the vernal : and whether the passage is performed
by night, or whether the birds return by some other route,
or whether they pass straight on, not lingering by the way
as in spring, is an open question ; but during the autumn
months passed by me at Gibraltar, I failed to notice the
passage as in spring, though more than once during the
month of August, which 1 spent at Gibraltar, myself and
others distinctly heard Bee-eaters passing south at night,
and so conclude other birds may do the same.

"... Both the vernal and autumnal migrations are
generally executed during an easterly wind, or Levanter ;
at one time I thought that this was essential to the pas-
sage, but it appears not to be the case, as, whether it be
an east or west wind, if it be the time for migration,
birds will pass, though they linger longer on the African
coast before starting if the wind be westerly ; and all the
very large flights of Raptores (Kites, Neophrons, Honey-

Buzzards, &c.) which I have seen passed with a Levanter.
After observing the passage for five springs, I am unable
to come to any decided opinion, the truth being that, as
an east wind is the prevalent one, the idea has been
started that migration always takes place during that
wind. Nevertheless, it is an undoubted fact that during
the autumnal or southern migration of the Ouail in Sep-
tember they collect in vast numbers on the European side
if there be a west wind, and seem not to be able to pass
until it changes to the east ; this is so much the case that,
if the wind keeps in that quarter during the migration,
none are hardly to be seen.

" On some occasions the passage of the larger birds of
prey is a most wonderful sight ; but of all the remarkable
flights of any single species, that of the Common Crane
has been the most noteworthy that has come under my
own observation.

" On the Andalucian side, the": number of birds seen
even by the ordinary traveller appears strikingly large, "
this being, no doubt, in a great measure caused by the
quantity which are, for ten months at least out of the
year, more or less on migration ; that is to say, with the
exception of June and July, there is no month in which
the passage of birds is not noticeable, June being the only
one in which there may be said to be absolutely no migra-
tion, as, during the month of July, Cuckoos and some
Bee-eaters return to the south" (pp. 13-15).

For want of space we must pass over the spirited de-
scriptions which the Colonel gives of the various localities
within his limits, and his experience of several shooting
excursions, the relation of \\hich is wisely subordinated to
the main object of the book. We can fully enter into his
feelings when he was for two hours the unobserved ob-
server of a vast assemblage (at the lowest computation,
he says, between three and four thousand) of wild geese,
for we ourselves remember watching just such a host, and
under much the same circumstances, years ago on the
banks of a Lapland river ; but we cannot here introduce
his account. Our author has added to the value of his
book by giving a list of the Mammals of Southern Spain,
forty in number without counting the Barbary Ape, whose
presence on "the Rock" is the origin of so many theories
facetious as well as scientific ; and the volume concludes
with a convenient summary of the Birds, besides a very
good index. As reviewers we are of course entitled to
our " growl," and this shall be that the two neat maps
which illustrate the book are not drawn to the same scale,
and while that of Northern Morocco, for which we are
especially thankful, takes in a great deal more than
Colonel Irby's district, that of Southern Spain leaves out
at least as much. WitTi this we bid him farewell

HOP MANN'S REPORT ON THE PROGRESS
OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY

Bericht iiber die Efitwicklung der Cheniischen Industrie
wdhrend des leizten Jahrzehends j im Verein mit
Freunden und Fachgenossen erstattet von Dr. A. W.
Hofmann. Autorisirter Abdruck aus dem Amtlichen
Bericht iiber die Wiener Weltausstellung im Jahrc 1873.
{Report on the Development ofCiieniical Industry diirins^
the last Ten Years j in conjunction with friends and
fellow-workers. Composed by A. W. Hofmann. Au-
thorised reprint of the official report on the Vienna
Exhibition of 1873. Vol. iii. Part L) (Braunschweig:
Fr. Vieweg und Sohn, 1875.)

THE Imperial Commission of Germany for the Vienna
Exhibition of 1873 have put the report on the third
group, " Chemical Industry," into the hands of Dr.

368

NATURE

{Sept. 2, 1875

time, is fully a ninth magnitude, and will be found even
with the Berlin chart for Hour 23 of R.A., which is by no
means one of the most complete of the series. Metis is
another member of this group of planets, at present easily
recognised.

D'Arrest's Comet. — M. Leveau is continuing his
researches on the motion of this interesting comet, and
has obtained elements which represent with considerable
precision the observations in 185 1, 1857-58, and 1870;
allowance being made for the difficulty of fixing the place
of so faint and diffused an object, and for the magnitude
of the perturbations due to the action of the planet
Jupiter ; these perturbations are found to have changed
the R.A. of the comet on September 24, 1870, by -- 14°'6,
and the declination by + 7°-6. M. Leveau has employed
Bessel's mass for Jupiter, and concludes that it is sus-
ceptible only of very small correction. He promises, in
a future communication to the Paris Academy of Sciences,
to furnish an ephemeris for the next return of the comet
to perihelion in the spring of 1877.

ON THE OCCURRENCE IN NEW JERSEY OF
SUPPOSED FLINT SCALPING-KNIVES

IN glancing over a considerable series of American stone
implements, we quite naturally expect to find that ever-
present feature of the modern Indian's outfit, the scalping-
knife. In every collection we recognise the stone axe that
preceded the iron tomahawk ; the jasper arrow and spear
heads, now replaced by metallic ones ; while neatly edged
flints of various shapes give us cutting implements adapted
to all ordinary uses ; but not so with the scalping-knife.
However large the series, we cannot, at a glance, point
out a form of knife peculiarly well adapted for such a
purpose, from the several shapes before us. While all are
possible scalping-knives, none probably are so. This, at
least, has been my experience until very lately, although I
have constantly sought out "probable scalping-knives"
from thousands of implements gathered and being
gathered in this neighbourhood. Among the hundreds of
specimens of flint knives there occurred none that re-
sembled the modern knife, and I supposed that the stone
scalpers were similar — the later being modelled from
earlier form.

Whether the above inference is correct or not, I have
at last detected some specimens that more nearly ap-
proach the '• ideal form," one such being the flint imple-
ment here figured. The result of my collecting labours
during the past summer amounts to about five hundred
specimens not including fragments, and it is among these
that I found the cutting implement above mentioned,
with several others like it, both perfect and fragmentary.
As the illustration shows, better than any description can
do, this slightly curved knife seems moderately well
adapted for scalping, as described by Loskiel.* He says :
" They place their foot on the neck of the victim, seizing the
hair with the left hand, and twisting it very tight together,
in order to separate the skin from the head ; then they cut
it all round with a sharp knife, and tear it off." The
specimen is a neatly chipped and evenly outlined jasper
" implement," having the edges still well defined and
sharp. The curved, and I presume cutting edge, is formed
by striking off comparatively large flakes, and is better
adapted to making a " clean " cut, than the straighter
side. The lower end, about one-fourth of the whole
length, is somewhat narrower, and while less sharp along
its edges, is thinner, and has no median ridge. This por-
tion, very possibly, was inserted into a bone handle as
modern Eskimo scrapers now are (vide " Reliquiae
Aquitan." Part ii. p. 14) ; and if so, we surely have, in
the figured implement, one that would conveniently
serve as a scalping-knife. In the interest of archeology

* Mission among North American Indians. London, 1794 ; P. 149.

I should like to experiment with this specimen, but have
no available scalp at hand ; my own, unfortunately, being
quite innocent of hair.

There being no mineral found near here that gives off
long thin flakes like true flint or Mexican obsidian, which
latter was used for razors by the Mexican Indians, and
the shells of our Delaware River unios being too thin
and small to serve such a purpose, we must fall back on
the jasper and quartz pebbles of the neighbourhood for .
the material for such knives.

The number of scalping-knives in use at all times must
have been considerable, and this fact alone seems counter
to my suggestion that the specimen figured may be a
scalping-knife, inasmuch as so very few knives of this
pattern have been found here. It must be remembered,
however, that every warrior would have his knife buried
with him, if not killed in battle, when the knife would
be lost or stolen ; and one such knife would last a lifetime,
so that here may be an explanation of their comparative

rarity, the great mass of them still lying in the nearly
obliterated graves. Or, like smoking pipes, they may
have been handed down from one generation to another,
their peculiar use rendering them sacred in the eyes of
the savage ; and when buried with the other " personal
effects " of the dead warrior, like the buried pipes, they
may have been exhumed by those too lazy to make or too
poor to purchase for themselves. That graves were thus
robbed is certainly true.

In the graves that I have been fortunate enough to
examine I have found cutting implements of jasper,
quartz, and slate ; and, twice, jasper specimens like the
above. These graves to which I refer are now only to be
detected by the presence of such imperishable relics as
stone implements, pottery, and by the discoloration of
the soil. Judging from appearances, the body was placed
at full length on the S7ir/ace of the ground, the weapons
placed with it being grouped together on the right side,
and a vase of rude pottery filled with a red powder at the

ScJ>L 2, 1 875 J

NATURE

369

feet. The body was then probably covered with bark, or
skins of animals. Of course the decomposition would
go on very rapidly, and soon no trace remain except the
bones and stone implements ; then the weapons only.
My reason for believing these graves to be "surface"
burials is in consideration of the fact that the inhumed
weapons and discoloured dirt are only from three to six
inches beneath the sod, and this accumulation of soil is
that arising from the annual decay of the preceding sum-
mer's foliage, coupled with the dust that would naturally
gather around any object lying on the ground. The
graves such as I have described, too, are only to be found
on the slopes of grassy hill-sides that as yet have not
been disturbed by the plough. 1 have never seen such a
grave in a ploughed field. Such have been long ob-
literated ; and the relics now found in fields may or may
not be those that were buried with their prehistoric
owners.

In conclusion, then, seeing that the custom of scalping
was not introduced with a knowledge of metals, but pre-
ceded it, it is certain that some stone implement was
used ; and if in a large series of cutting tools we find
some that bear resemblance to the modern form, then it
is fair to presume that these, and these principally if
not wholly, were those formerly in use.

A few words concerning this custom of scalping : is it
peculiarly North American? I should be much pleased
to learn from some correspondent of Nature what other
races, if any, have the same practice among them. Inas-
much as the Indian custom required of every warrior
incontestable proof of his success in battle or in single
combat, and considering that a warrior would frequently
attack singly some member of a hostile tribe (See Catlin's
"North American Indians"), it seems quite a natural
method of showing beyond doubt that the claimant had
indeed killed his foe. To produce any portion of
another's clothing, or his weapons, would not prove the
enemy to have been killed ; to produce his scalp shows
that such was certainly the case, as the instances of sur-
vival after scalping are too few to be considered. Did
the custom originate in North America, or was it brought
from beyond our borders ?

Chas. C. Abbott

Trenton, New Jersey, Aug. 7

THE SLIDING SEAT FORESHADOWED

IT is a curious and suggestive fact that nearly all the
most ingenious and important mechanical inventions
find their representatives in the human frame ; conse-
quently, the more we investigate the wonderful mecha-
nism of man's body, the more insight may we expect to
get into the principles necessary for the most perfect
adaptation of means to ends. Whether we take the lever,
the pulley, the inclined plane, the spiral or the curved
spring, the arch, or any other simple uncomplicated con-
trivance adapted with a view^ to securing strength, or
motion, or elasticity, we find it represented in animal
mechanics, and arranged sometimes simply, sometimes
in a more complex form, in a manner and with a result
far more wonderful than ever produced from the most
ingenious conceptions, of man's brain.

Of late years the application of the sliding seat to
rowing has attracted considerable attention, and although
it is beyond the purpose of this paper to consider fully
the advantages gained by its application, it will, I think,
be necessary to make some reference to what appear to
be its principles before we inquire whether it can be
traced as existing in certain of the joints.

In the mechanics of rowing we may look upon the hips
and spinal column as theoretically a firm, unyielding
lever (Fig. 3, s), since it is knit together by the power of
the muscles in a man thoroughly trained. The object of
this fixedness is evidently to avoid the loss of power and

time which would occur if parts had to be strung together
preparatory to the pull as the oar catches the water.
This spinal lever has its fulcrum at what we call the
tuberosities of the ischia (/), or in other words at the points
of contact of the body with the seat, and the motive power
is placed in the muscles of the back and those of the
thigh. The weight to be moved will be acted upon

Fig. I —Sitting at rest. Showing tip ef shoulder behind the line from
mastoid process to hip.

through the arms at the junction of the upper extremities
with the spinal lever.

As the body moves forwards, the lever formed by the
spine rotates round the tuberosities which constitute
the fulcrum, and which slide forward at the same time.
The knees are consequently slightly bent or separated.
As the oar catches the water the body is brought back to
the perpendicular by the action of the muscles of the back
and those of the thigh, and the lower end of the lever is
at the same time carried bodily back a distance of about
eight inches.

The whole principle appears to be that of a sliding
fulcrum, and the peculiar result seems to be that a greater
reach is given with less bending forward of the body ; for
to obtain the same length of stroke the body must either
be bent forward at a much more acute angle or carried
back beyond the perpendicular. An increased bending

Fig. 2. — Forward movement in rowing, showing tip of shoulder far in front
of the line from mastoid process to hip.

forwards, it must be borne in mind, must interfere with
the respiration in a long-continued strain as in a race, and
therefore with the staying powers of the individual.

If, on the other hand, the body be carried backwards
beyond the perpendicular, the power of recovery is dimi-
nished, and far greater work is thrown upon the muscles
of the trunk and lower limbs.

370

NATURE

{Sept. 2, 1875

With a sliding seat, therefore, we seem to have a pro-
vision for greater range of movement at the distal end of
the lever. In the upper extremity it seems to me we find
the same principle at work, and if so it is curious that we
should have adopted as a novelty or an invention what
nature has provided us with in other points, that we
should apply to the lower extremities in rowing the same
principle that already exists in connection with the upper,
and is brought into action perhaps especially in rowing,
and that this should have been done unknowingly.

The bony framework of the upper limb is connected
with that of the trunk at only one point, the inner or
sternal end of the collar-bone, and it is round this point
that movement occurs. The greatest freedom of motion,
however, takes place at the shoulder-joint, and as this
joint is, moreover, at the apparent junction of the free
limb with the body, the movements here are generally
looked into to the exclusion of those at the junction of
the collar-bone and breast-bone. But the importance of
the latter will at once be recognised when it is considered
that the collar-bone and shoulders rotate round the upper
part of the breast-bone, and according to their length and
mobility will move through a larger or smaller arc.

The amount of movement between the extremes of for-
ward and backward positions of the shoulder (Figs, i
and 2) can be readily tested, and I have found that the
average of several observations on different individuals,
taken at the tip of the shoulder, the chest being abso-
lutely fixed, is from six to seven inches ; or, in other
words, the tip of the shoulder moves backwards and
forwards to that extent between the extremes of forward
and backward movement.

Similarly in the vertical line a large extent of motion
occurs, the difference between the extremes being on the
average four inches. Now, when it is noticed that the
arm moves at the shoulder-joint with an extraordinary
amount of facility, and that its chief motions as a
m -chanical appendage to the trunk occur in that articula-
tion, we are led to look upon the arm, fore-arm, and hand
as a compound lever, working with its one end free and
the other rotating in the socket of the shoulder-joint.

In the lower extremity we also find the compound lever
working with one end somewhat similarly in a socket.
In the case of the upper, however, the socket is a movable
one, slipping backwards and forwards freely with the
limb and strangely increasing its range of motion ; still
capable of being fixed firmly in position by the superficial
muscles of the back. But in the lower extremity the
socket is fixed, and there is no provision for sliding, since
strength rather than range of motion is wanted, and
where greater range of motion is needed, as in rowing,
there a blind application of the principle found in the
upper extremity has been only recently effected.

I have referred only to the sliding fulcrum at the
shoulder as seen on both sides equally, and as is best
exemplified in the position of the arms in rowing, when
however the whole trunk also moves ; but it must be
borne in mind that a still further sliding of the fulcrum is
constantly taking place when one hand alone is used, for
the chest is also turned towards the object to be reached,
by rotating and flexing the spine. The advantage of the
vertical motion is seen in such actions as bell-ringing,
weight-Ufting, &c. Moreover it must be noticed that
when the lever forming the arm is raised from the side to
a rightlangle with the body it has reached its Hmit of
motion at the shoulder-joint, and that subsequently the
upward motion occurs in the collar-bone, since the top of
the shoulder checks the further movement of the arm
upwards. There is in connection with the lower extremity
a somewhat similar mechanical arrangement, which is not
however brought into play so fully as in the upper. The
sockets of the hip-joints can be brought forward by a
rotation of the spine. This is especially noticeable in
those who are prevented from using their feet freely, where
therefore the elasticity and spring which are so wonder-

fully provided in the foot are lost, and the length of stride
is obtained by the utmost use of mechanical advantages
commonly unused in connection with the hip. Plough-
men and labourers whose feet are cased in unyielding
clogs walk from the hips, or in other words they slide the
fulcrum forwards by rotating the spine, whereby they
gain a larger stride.

Fig. 3.— Diagram to show sliding-seat actional the shoulders. In the forward
position the arm is thrown forward so that the shoulder is about three to
four inches in front of the spinal line s A t. In the backward position the
same point is about one to two inches behind the same line s' a' t' , the
whole movement occurring at the sterno clavicular articulation. The
sliding of the tuberosities of the ischia backwards in this movement is
equal to about eight inches (t to t'). The dotted lines show the degree
of forward or backward movement of the body which w»uld be necessary
to gain the same range of arm-movement, if the tuberosities were fixed
and no sliding were used.

Such then are some of the curiosities of animal me-
chanics seen in our wonderful framework, and the subject
would repay us in interest as well as in usefulness if
studied more by those who are concerned in mechanics
generally. W. W. Wagstaffe

St. Thomas's Hospital

THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION

Bristol, Tuesday Night

OUR meeting has nearly run its course, and may so
far be pronounced a great success. BriUiant
weather has been added to hospitaUty and to skilful
direction, and has produced a generally harmonious
result. We may certainly expect that the Association,
not less than the Bristol people, will desire a repetition of
the visit within somewhat fewer than forty years.

Partly owing to the comparative weakness of the
President's voice, and partly to the deficient acoustic
properties of Colston's Hall, the President's address was
not quite so successful as it might otherwise have been.
Even Prof. Tyndall had to strain his voice considerably
in order to be well heard. Perhaps the most forcible
ideas left on the mind by Sir John Hawkshaw are his
patience and caution, his dislike for taking leaps in the
dark, and his eager desire to take steps in advance when
the way can be seen with tolerable clearness. His
modesty in not referring to any of his own great achieve-
ments, when pertinent references might have been made,
was very noticeable. Prof. Tyndall, in his admirable
opening address, spoke as follows : —

" It is my privilege to introduce to you as your president
for the coming year Sir John Hawkshaw, a name cele-
brated throughout the world for the practical application
to works of the greatest magnitude of some of these
sciences which it is the function of this Association to
foster and advance. In him, I doubt not, you will have
a wise and prudent head, a leader not likely to be caught

Sept. 2, 1875]

NATURE

371

up into atmospheric vortices of speculation, about things
organic or inorganic, about mind or matters beyond the
reach of mind, but one who, struggling, Anta^us-like, with
his subject here to-night, will know how to maintain
throughout a refreshing contact with his mother earth, I
have looked forward lor some time to the crowning act
still in prospect of his professional career, to give our
perturbed spirits rest in crossing the Channel in visiting
our fair sister France. But pending that great achieve-
ment, it is his enviable lot to steer this British Association
through calm waters to a haven of, at all events, tempo-
rary rest — rest all the more sweet and needful from the
tempestuous weather which rasher navigators who pre-
ceded him thought it their duty to encounter rather than
to avoid. To his strong hand I commit the helm of our
noble barque, wishing him not only success, but triumph
in that task he has undertaken, and which I now call
upon him to fulfil."

Both papers and discussions have been of very high
interest. Some of the papers mark epochs in science :
such as Prof. Cayley's, on the theory of chemical com-
binations. The Transit of Venus, the proposed flooding
of the Sahara, the Deep-sea Fauna, oceanic circulation,
Murchison's classification of Palasozoic strata, the ethno-
graphy of races at the commencement of civilisation, the
Channel and Severn tunnels, the coal question, and rail-
way safety, may be mentioned among the chief subjects
of wide interest. Social subjects have had a full share of
attention, considering the pre-scientific stage in which
most of them are.

Some of the personally interesting scenes have been
rather notable — as when Sir W. Thomson, in relation to
Mr. Croll's assault on Dr. Carpenter's doctrines of
oceanic circulation, pronounced that Dr. Carpenter's
demonstration was most conclusive and his reasons irre-
fragable ; when Prof. Hull, criticising Prof. Hughes, said
he had never before heard so many heresies in so few
minutes ; if it were possible for his hair to stand on end
it would immediately begin to friz out from the centre to
the circumference ; and when Mr. John Evans, Canon
Tristram, and Canon Rawlinson combined to give a
wholesome exposition of sound doctrine in ethnological
subjects and of the relative value of various kinds of
evidence, after the reading of a paper which was destitute
of scientific principles.

Dr. Carpenter was as happy as ever in his lecture to
working men, on "A Piece of Limestone." He had a
great audience of unmistakeable working men, with whom
he placed himself in most cordial rapport.

Mr. Samuel Morley, M.P., after the lecture, said the
subjects of the Association meeting were those in which
working men were deeply interested, for the competition
of manual labour must give way to the competition of
intellect. Men who wanted to get on, and masters who
wished to hold their own, must unite in promoting, by
their own investigation, the knowledge and the philosophy
which were to be found in, or connected with, their various
manufactures. Mr. Bramwell's lecture was of a useful
kind, but defended engineers and railway directors perhaps
too much.

Mr. Spottiswoode's lecture on the Colours of Polarised
Light was very successful both in exposition and in
experimental illustration. The lecturer used a splendid
instrument, in which two Nicol's prisms of great size,
and beautifully cut, serve the purpose of polariser
and analyser, with which he was able to secure the
maximum of illumination with a large field of view.
The meeting was made more interesting by Sir John
Hawkshaw's announcement that the President of the
French Association sitting at Nantes had that day tele-
graphed an expression of their good will and of their
wishes for the success of the Bristol meeting. His call
for a manifestation of their hearty reciprocation of those
feelings was responded to with enthusiasm.

Since no other sectional address was delivered on
Friday morning. Prof. Rolleston had a crowded audience
to hear his address to the Anthropological Department of
Section D. His auditors had one of the greatest treats
the meeting has afforded, and the vigorous individuality,
the vivacity of thought and action, the boldness and fear-
lessness, and the wit, scholarship, and research of the
Professor must have been vividly impressed on many.
At the commencement of the address, when he had to
give directions for the opening of an extra door in order
to allow a crowd of persons in the corridor outside to
hear him, his sudden sally describing their desire to enter
" for reasons inscrutable to me " was highly characteristic
and appreciated ; and the passages in which he spoke of
the relative capacity of female crania compared to men's
in former and present days, the toleration of nuisances
and epidemics, the deterioration and improvement of
races, and the value of missionary labours, were listened
to with deep attention.

The microscopical soiree on Thursday evening was a
very great success, and the Association owes its hearty
thanks to Messrs. W. Tedder and J. W. Morris, the
secretaries respectively of the Bristol and Bath Micro-
scopical Societies, and to the members of those societies.
A bold idea was well carried out, viz., that of exhibiting
chiefly living objects. The 1 10 microscopes were arranged
in classified divisions, devoted to Crustacea, Arachni-
dans, Insecta, marine and fresh-water fauna, ciliary
action, vertebrate circulation, vegetable circulation, fer-
tilisation of flowers, Cryptogamia, microspectroscopes,
&c. The idea of practically illustrating Sir John Lub-
bock's " Fertilisation of Flowers by Insects " was novel,
and so far carried out as to give a vivid idea of the pro-
cesses to those who were previously unfamiliar with them.
The geological division included an exhibition of the
perennial Eozoon canadcnse, which must be exhibited
again and again to live down the hostility to its animal
nature. Altogether the exhibition was a great evidence
of scientific enthusiasm, which had led many ardent stu-
dents to make special dredging and fishing expeditions
both in inland and marine waters.

The Museum of the Bristol Museum and Library
Society has been a very considerable attraction. Bris-
tol is exceptionally fortunate in its museum, to which
the local Naturalists' Society, the Chfton Zoological
Society, and many travellers and sea-captains have
contributed. In Zoology it contains many valuable
specimens, such as the large Gorilla from the River
Gaboon, W. Coast of Africa, both the skeleton and
stuffed skin being well preserved ; the fine skeletons of
Manatus atistralis and otaria from the Chilian coast ;
the ancient Peruvian human skulls from Arica and Islay ;
the very large Green Turtle's skeleton from Ascension
Island. The fossil collection is still more notable, for it
contains many unique and type-species of carboniferous
fishes. The grand collection of Ceratodus teeth, rescued
recently from purchase by Americans, is placed close to
a specimen of Ceratoctus forsteri from Australia, with jaws
and teeth detached. The additions to the Museum
buildings now in course of erection, which include the
fine lecture-theatre in which Section C is accommo-
dated, have enabled the local committee to find room for
a local loan collection of natural history, in which Bris-
tol ornithology and entomology are specially well repre-
sented.

The rich local flora is well represented by the efforts of
the botanical members of the Naturalists' Society. Sixty
comparatively rare species are exhibited. A convenient
handbook to the local museum and temporary additions
has been published, Messrs, Tawney, Stoddart, Wheeler,
Derham, and many others have worked zealously to make
this one of the most successful of the ei ceteras at this
meeting.

The temporary museum of objects illustrating papers

37:

NATURE

{Sept. 2, 1S75

or reports read before the Section?, has been well
stocked, and superintended by Mr. J. E. Taylor.

In accordance with resolutions presented at the Belfast
meeting, the Council this year memorialised Govern-
ment to take action in reference to several subjects con-
nected with the advancement of science. First, in
March this year. Prof. Tyndall addressed Government
in the name of the Council, urging upon them the de-
sirableness of continuing solar observations in India.
In accordance with this request. Lord Salisbury urged
upon the Governor-General of India the advisability of
establishing at Simla a Solar Observatory to continue
the work which is to be carried on at Roorkee in 1875-6.
Secondly, the Council urged upon Government the im-
portance of appointing naturalists to vessels engaged
on the coasts of little-known parts of the world. The
Admiralty thanked the Council for their suggestion.
The third resolution was that the Council be requested to
take such steps as they may think desirable with the
view of promoting any application that may be made to
her Majesty's Government by the Royal Society for a
systematic physical and biological exploration of the seas
around the British Isles. The Council have deferred the
consideration of this resolution until action be taken by
the Royal Society. The fourth resolution supported the
equipment of an Arctic Expedition : with what success the
efforts in this direction have been crowned, everybody
knows.

The balance-sheet of the Association for 1874-5 shows
a balance in hand, at the commencement, of 714/. ;
receipts from subscriptions, 2,324/. ; dividends, 238/. Pay-
ments were — for Belfast meeting, 405/. ; Report of Brad-
ford meeting, 689/. ; salaries, 470/. ; rent, &c., 104/. ;
grants, 960/, ; balance in hand, 624/. The estimate for
1875-6 was as follows .-—Receipts at Bristol, 2,316/. ; sup-
posed additional members' subscriptions, 230/. ; total esti-
mated income, 3,438/. ; probable expenses at Bristol,
430/. ; printing Belfast Report, 720/. A balance of 1,713/.
was shown, from which grants might be made. The
number attending the meeting is approximately as
follows : — Life members, 265 ; annual members, 385 ; asso-
ciates, 860 ; ladies, 670 ; foreign members, 16 ; total, 2,196.
Number at Belfast, 1,938.

Glasgow has been chosen as the place of meeting for
next year, and Plymouth for 1877.

Sir Robert Christison has been chosen President-elect of
the meeting at Glasgow. The Vice-presidents for the
Glasgow meeting were elected as follows : — The Duke of
Argyll, Sir W. Stirling Maxwell, Sir William Thomson,
the Lord Provost of Glasgow, Dr. Allen Thomson,
and Prof. A. C. Ramsay. The general secretaries and
treasurer were re-appointed, and the Glasgow meeting
was fixed to commence on Wednesday, Sept 6, 1876.

REPORTS

The Report of the Comfnittee on Specific Volumes, consisting of
Professors Roscoe, Balfour Stewart, and Thorpe, was presented
by Dr. Thorpe. — The committee have undertaken to report on
the validity of Kopp's laws concerning the specific volumes of
liquids. The greater portion of the experimental part of the
investigation has been finished, but the reduction and calculation
of the results have still to be completed, and the committee will
not be able to present their final report until the next meeting of
the Association.

Report on Dredging off the Coast of Durham and North York-
shire in 1874, by David Robertson and G. S. Brady. — The
greatest number of novelties occurred among the Copepoda,
twenty-eight species being new to science, and eleven others new
to British records. Twenty-one species are added to the list of
testaceous moUusca prepared by the late Mr. Alder ; other
orders afforded new species. Much interesting information was
obtained about the distribution of the species. While the tes-
taceous mollusca show distinctly boreal characters, in the Ostra-
coda and Foraminifera this is by no means so apparent. The

reporters do not suppose that a cold arctic current is the only or
even perhaps the chief agent in the continued existence of this
peculiar Northumbrian molkiscan fauna ; consequently some
more local circumstances must be looked to as the chief causes
of the retention of the species in question over particular circum-
scribed areas. Copious particulars of jthe dredgings are given,
with full lists of species.

Report on the Zoological Station at Naples.— Ai present the
station possesses twenty-one working tables, of which seventeen
are occupied or bespoken. Each table is in itselt a condensed
laboratory ; it is supplied with a number of small working
aquaria, with a constant stream of sea-water. The animals for
study are provided by the station. The large aquarium of the
station can also be used by students for suitable purposes. The
library has already become a fairly extensive one, being espe-
cially rich in embryological works. Students may accompany
and take part in the fishing and dredging expeditions of the
station. The large aquarium is partly a popular exhibition,
which helps to support the station. The staff consists of Dr.
Dohrn, the general director ; Dr. Eisig, his responsible assistant;
two other scientific assistants, one -to superintend the large aqua-
rium and the fishing, and the other to arrange for the collection
and preservation of animals ; three engineers, four house ser-
vants, and four fishermen. The work facilitated by the station
is of the following kinds : — i. Morphology and embryology
of marine animals ; this requires that students should visit the
laboratory at the periods when the specimens required can be
obtained. 2. Physiological investigation of marine animals, so
little worked at hitherto. 3. Study of the habits of marine
animals. 4. Systematic investigation of marine fauna and flora
of the Mediterranean in the vicinity of Naples. Few tasks are
more promising than a thoroughly systematic dredging of the
Bay of Naples. Animal forms naturally occupy the chief atten-
tion at the station, but no less facilities are offered for the study
of marine vegetable forms. This is [significantly indicated
by the fact that Prof. Cohn, of Breslau, and Prof. Reineke,
are to visit the station next session to carry on algolo-
gical researches. 5. Physical investigation of the sea in the
neighbourhood of Naples, v;ith the periodic appearance and dis-
appearance of certain animals in shoals or large numbers. 6.
Experiments on breeding and preserving delicate marine organ-
isms in a healthy condition. 7. Transmission of specimens to
investigators at home.

The scientific results of the station have been very consider-
able, and the students have included some of the most distin-
guished biologists. Next winter Dr. Dohrn proposes to begin a
series of annual accounts of the work done at the station. When
all the tables are taken up, it is calculated that with strict eco-
nomy the institution will pay its working expenses. But it would
be of the highest value if governments,' universities, and public
institutions would support the station to a much greater extent
than at present.

Intestinal Secretion. — A second report was presented by the
Committee on Intestinal Secretion — Dr. Brunton and Dr. Pye
Smith. The report detailed a number of experiments which
the committee had undertaken, and which were considered to
prove the absence of influence on Intestinal Secretion through
the splanchnic nerves, the pneumogastrics, the sympathetic
above the diaphragm or the spinal marrow ; and the probable
influence of the ganglia contained in the solar plexus, though
certainly not of the two semilunar ganglia exclusively. Also
the independent occurrence of haemorrhage and of paralytic
secretion appeared, in the view of the committee, to point to a
separate nervous influence on the blood-vessels and the secret-
ing structures of the intestines. They also observed the occur-
rence of vomiting after section of both splanchnics and vagi.

SECTIONAL PROCEEDINGS
SECTION A— Mathematics
The Section was well fijled to hear Prof. Balfour Stewart's
address, in spite of the great counter attraction offered by Mr.
Froude's address and experiments which were taking place
simultaneously in the room underneath. Section G. Atter the
conclusion of the address, and after a cordial vote of thanks,
moved by Col. Strange and seconded by Rev. R. Mason, had
been accorded to Prof. Stewart, Prof. Everett gave in a few
words the report of the Underground Temperature Committee,
specially referring to the observations recently made at the
St. Gothard Tunnel, at Chiswick, and at Swinderby near Lincoln.
Prof. Guthrie then showed his experiments on the measure-

Sept, 2, 1875]

JWA'IURE

373

ment of the rate of wave progress. His apparatus consisted of
three deep troughs, two circular and one rectangular, and the
steadiness of the motion in each was remarkable ; he compared
the velocities of the waves with the times of vibrations of
pendulums, and verified that in different sized troughs the rate
varied mversely as the square root of the diameter. The
experiments excited a good deal of interest.

The Rev. S. J. Perry, of Stonyhurst College (one of
the members of the expedition to Kerguelen to observe
the Transit of Venus), read a paper on that event. Father
Perry illustrated his remarks by diagrams of the sun and the
planet, as seen from various stations, and gave a very interesting
explanation which was attentively listened to. Ke said that
although much prominence had not been given to the idea, he
believed that a very important reason why so much expense was
gone into in the expedition was that the distance of the earth
from the sun entered into the calculation of lunar tables. The
observations were not of any striking nature ; they were simply
to watch a black spot pass across the sun. There was nothing
exciting about it, except that when the observations had to be
taken they had to be very careful about the precise time, and
they had to observe the spot during the whole time of its passage.
Having pointed out with reference to his diagrams the reason why
the different stations were chosen, he denied the assertions that
had been made that Sir George Airy neglected Halley's method
of observation for Delile's ; the truth was he had rightly decided
in favour of Delile, but he had not neglected Halley. With
regard to the (Halleyan) stations in the extreme north, they were
left to the care of the Russians, and the English, French,
Americans, Germans and others occupied in the southern hemi-
sphere. As it was mid-winter, the sun was very nearly on the
line of the southern tropics and nearly vertical at ingress over the
eastern border of Australia. There were primarily five English
Government expeditions, but as these were subdivided, there
were, including private observers and those of India and the
Colonies, about twenty English stations of observation. His
station was Kerguelen, to the south-west of Australia, and after
arriving there they found that the Americans had taken the
station recommended by the members of the Challenger Expedi-
tion, but in spite of that they had plenty of time to look about
the island (which was a very barren place, about ninety miles
by forty-five), and they were fortunate enough to get a much
better position than the Americans, after all, by going a little to
the south-west. They had been told before they went out that
there was always a mist over the island, but, though that might be
the case in the north of the island, which had been chiefly visited
before, it did not apply to the south while they were there, and
they had not more mist than there would have been in London.
On the morning of the transit, which they expected to begin at
6-30, they rose at four, and at once made preparations for the
day's work. They were divided into three parties, and were so
placed that, with the Americans, they formed four parties, about
eight miles distant from each other. They saw the sun very well
until after six o'clock, at the first (his own) station, until almost
the time that Venus was coming on to the sun's disc, and they
had the external contact as well as could be expected, for there
never could be absolute certainty with regard to such a point.
They continued very well until they had taken the bisection by
the planet of the sun's disc, but then there was just one little
cloud that came and placed itself right over the planet and
remained till ten minutes after the commencement of the transit.
At the other stations they were able to make obsei-vations of the
ingress. At his station they were able to get observations of the
internal and external contact at egress, and a few photographs.
Father Perry added particulars of the result of observations at
the other stations as far as could be ascertained, and narrated
his experience of a cyclone in the Indian Ocean on the home-
ward passage. He added that during their stay on the island
they not only made astronomical observations, but also a series
of magnetic and meteorological observations; and the Rev. A,
E. Eaton was sent by .the Royal Society to study the botany of
the island.

In answer to a gentleman. Father Perry said if they got the
results of the observations in seven years' time they would be
very lucky, as they had first to determine their longitude, and that
occupied a very long time.

Prof. Osborne Reynolds read a paper On the Refraction of
Sound by the Atmosfhcre, in which he remarked that in previous
papers he had pointed out that the upward diminution of
temperature in the atmosphere (known to exist under certain

circumstances by Mr. Glaisher's balloon a cents) must refract
and give an upward direction to the rays of sound which would
otherwise proceed horizontally, and it was suggested that this
might be the cause of the observed difference of the distinctness
with which similar sounds were heard on different occasions,
particularly of the very marked advantage that the night has
over the day in this respect. On this subject he had made a
series of experiments. He mentioned a case in which at sea,
when leaving a yacht in a small boat, for the purpese of makinir
experiments on sound, those in the yacht and the boat were able
to call to one another, and he heard at a distance of three-and-
a-half miles, and that the hiss and report of a rocket sent up
from the yacht was heard at a distance of five miles. Also on
the same occasion the barking of a dog on shore, which was
eight miles distant, was heard, and the paddles of a steamer
which must have been fifteen miles off were distinctly audible.
Prof. Reynolds remarked that the distinctness with Yvhich sounds
of such comparatively low intensity could be heard was perhaps
beyond anything definitely on record, although remarkable
instances of sounds heard a long way off were occasionally
heard •f. As the result of a series of experiments' made by
means of an electric bell. Prof. Reynolds found that when the
sky was cloudy and there was no dew, the sound could invari-
ably be heard much further with than against the wind ; but
when the sky was clear, and there was a heavy dew, the sound
could be heard as far against a light wind as with it. On one
occasion in which the wind was very light and the thermometer
showed 39° at one foot above the grass, and 47" at eight feet,
the sound was heard 440 yards against the wind and only 270
yards with it.

The paper by Prof. G. G. Stokes and Dr. J. Hopkinson, On
the Optical Properties of a Tiiano-silicic Glass, we give in extenso
on account of its importance. At the meeting of the Associa-
tion at Edinburgh in 1871, Prof. Stokes gave a preliminary
account of a long series of experiments in which the late Mr.
Vernon Harcourt had been engaged, on the optical properties of
glasses of a great variety of compositions, and in which since
1862 Prof. Stokes had co-operated with him.* One object of
the research was to obtain, if possible, two glasses which should
achromatize each other without leaving a secondary spectrum, or
a glass which should form with two others a triple combination ;
an objective composed of which should be free from defects of
irrationality without requiring undue curvature in the individual
lenses. Among phosphatic glasses, the series in which Mr.
Harcourt's experiments were for the most part carried on, the
best solution of this problem was offered by glasses in which a
portion of the phosphoric was replaced by titanic acid. It was
found, in fact, that the substitution of titanic for phosphoric acid,
while raising, it is true, the dispersive power, at the same time
produces a separation of the colours at the blue, as compared
with those at the red end of the spectrum, which ordinarily
belongs only to glasses of a much higher dispersive power. A
telescope made of discs of glass prepared by Mr. Harcourt, was,
after his death, constructed for Mrs. Harcourt by Mr. Howard
Grubb, and was exhibited to the Mathematical Section of the
late meeting in Belfast ; this telescope, which is briefly described
in the Report, + was found fully to answer the expectations that
had been formed of it as to destruction of secondary dispersion.

Several considerations seemed to m.ake it probable that the
substitution of titanic acid for a portion of the silica, in an
ordinary crown glass, would have an effect similar to that which
had been observed in the phosphatic series of glasses. Phosphatic
glasses are too soft for convenient employment in optical instru-
ments, but should titano-silicic glasses prove to be to silicic what
titano-phosphatic glasses have been found to be to phosphatic,
it would be possible, without encountering any extravagant
curvatures, to construct perfectly accurate combinations out of
glasses having the hardness and permanence of silicic glasses ;
in fact, the chief obstacle at present existing to the perfection of
the achromatic telescope would be removed, though naturally
not without some increase to the cost of the instrument. But
it would be beyond the researches of the laboratory to work
with silicic glasses on such a scale as to obtain them free from
striae, or even suficiently free to permit of a trustworthy deter-
mination of such a delicate matter as the irrationahty of dispersion.

When the subject was brought to the notice of Mr. Hopkinson,
he warmly entered into the investigation, and thanks to the
liberality with which the means of conducting the experiments

• Report for 1871. Transactions of the Sections, p. 38.
t Ditto for 1874. Transactions of the Ssctions, p. 26.

74

NA TURE 1^

[Sept. 2. 1875

were placed at his disposal by Messrs. Chance Brothers, of
Birmingham, the question may perhaps be considered as settled.
After some preliminary trials, a piece of glass free from strix
was prepared of titanate of potash mixed with the ordinary
ingredients of a crown glass. As the object of the experiment
was merely to determine in the first instance whether titanic acid
did or did not confer on the glass the universal property of
separating the colours at the blue end of the spectrum materially
more, and at the red end materially less, than corresponds to a
similar dispersive power in ordinary glasses, it was not thought
necessary to employ pure titanic acid ; and rutile fused with
carbonate of potash was used as titanate of potash. The glass
contained about seven per cent, of rutile, and as none was lost,
the percentage of titanic acid cannot have been much less. The
glass was naturally greenish from iron contained in the rutile ;
but this did not affect the observations, and the quantity of iron
would be too minute sensibly to affect the irrationality.

Out of this glass two prisms were cut. One of these was
examined as to irrationality by Prof. Stokes, by his method of
compensating prisms ; the other by Mr. Ilopkinson, by accurate
measures of the refractive indices for several definite points in
the spectrum. These two perfectly distinct methods led to the
same result, viz., that the glass spaces out the more as compared
with the less refrangible part of the spectrum no more than an
ordinary glass of similar dispersive power. As in the phosphatic
series, the titanium asserts its presence by a considerable increase
of dispersive power ; but, unlike what was observed in that
series, it produces no sensible effect on the irrationaUty. The
hopes therefore that had been entertained of its utility in silicic
glasses prepared for optical purposes appear doomed to
disappointment.
y A paper was read by Mr, J. A. Fleming, Oit the Decom-
/ position of an Electrolyte by Magneto-electric Induction. When
a solid conductor is moved in a magnetic field induced currents
are created in (it. In a solid these expend themselves partly
or wholly in producing heat in the conductor. The paper was
occupied with an examination of the effect produced on electro-
lytes under the same circumstances, viz., when made to flow
or move in a magreiic field : experiments were described to
show first that induced currents are produced under these condi-
tions in electrolytes, and then that the electrolyte is to some
extent decomposed by these currents. /

Dr. Moffat, in his paper On the apparent comiection between
Sunspots, Att>iospheric Ozone, Rain, and Force of Wind, stated
that in discussing ozone observations from 1850 to 1869, he had
observed that the maxima and minima of atmospheric ozone
occurred in cycles of years, and that he had compared the
number of new groups of sunspots in each year of these cycles
with the quantity of ozone, and the results showed that in each
cycle of maxima of ozone there is an increase in the number of
new groups of sunspots, and in each cycle of minima a
decrease. He also gave a table to show that the years of
maximum ozone and number of sunspots were generally
distinguished by an increase in the quantity of rain and the
force of the wind.

Sir W, Thomson's paper On the effectsof Stress upon the Mag-
netism of Soft Iron was a continuation of two that had been read
before the Royal Society. In the physical laboratory at Glas-
gow University he had stretched steel and soft iron wire about
twenty feet long from the roof. An electro-magnetic helix was
placed round a few inches of the wire, so that the latter could
be magnetised when an electric current was passed through the
former ; the induced current thus produced in a second helix
outside the first being indicated by a reflecting galvanometer.
"When steel wire was used, the magnetism dimmished when
weights were attached to the wire, and increased when they
were taken off ; but when specially made soft iron wire (wire
almost as soft as lead), the magnetism was increased when
weights were put on, and diminished when they were taken off.
Afterwards he discarded the electrical apparatus, and by suspend-
ing a piece of soft iron wire near a magnetometer consisting of a
needle, a small fraction of a grain in weight, with a reflecting
muTor attached, the wire was magnetissed inductively simply
by the magnetism of the earth, and changes in its magnetism
were made by applying weights and strains, the changes being
then mdicated by the magnetometer.

Prof W. F. Barrett read a paper On effects of Heat on the
mtitcul^r structure »f Stet Wins and Rods, in the course of

which he said he found that if steel of any thickness be heated
by any means, at a certain temperature the wire ceases to
expand, although the heat be continuously poured in. During this
period also the wire does not increase in temperature. The length
of time during which this abnormal condition lasts varies with
the thickness of the wire and the rapidity with which it can be
heated through. It ceases to expand, and no further change
takes place till the heat is cut off. When this is done the wire
begins to cool down regularly till it has reached the critical
point at which the change took place on heating. Here a
second and reverse change occurs. At the moment that the ex-
pansion occurs, an actual increase in temperature takes place
sufficiently large to cause the wire to glow again with a red-hot
heat. It is curious that this after-glow had not been noticed
long ago, for it is a very conspicuous object in steel wires that
have been raised to a white heat and allowed to cool.

Mr. Braharn exhibited some experiments on magnetised rings,
plates, and discs of hardened steel, and also experiments on air,
hydrogen and oxygen.

SECTION D.

Biology,

Opening Address by Dr, P, L. Sclater, M.A., F.R.S. ,
F.L.S., President.

On the Present State of our Knowledge of Geographical Zoology.

In the office, which I hare now held for more than sixteen
years, of Secretary to the Zoological Society, of London, I have
been not unfrequently requested by our members and correspon-
dents in various parts of the world to furnish them with infor-
mation as to the best works to be consulted on the zoology of
the countries in which they are respectively resident, or which
they are about to visit. With the well-furnished library of the
Zoological Society at my command this is not usually a very
difficult task, so far as publications are actually in existence to
supply the desired information. I am also frequently asked to
^point out the principal deficiencies in our knowledge of ihe ani-
mals of particular countries. This is also a not very difficult
request to reply to, although it is somewhat embarrassing on ac-
count of the very imperfect information which we still possess of
geographical zoology generally, and the largeness of the claims
1 am therefore constrained to put forward for the attention of
those who make such inquiries. Great, however, has been the
progress made of late years towards a more complete knowledge
of the faunas of the various parts of the world's surface. Expe-
ditions have been sent out into countries not previously explored ;
collections have been formed in districts hitherto little known ;
and many general works have been published, combining the
results of previous fragmentary knowledge on this class of sub-
jects. Under these circumstances I have thought that such an
account as I might be able to give of the general progress that
has been recently made towards a better knowledge of the zoology
of the various parts of the earth's surface, accompanied by a
series of remarks upon the best available authorities to be con-
sulted upon such subjects, might supply a want which, as above
mentioned, I know by personal experience is often felt, and at
the same time would form a not inappropriate address from the
chair which I have now the honour to occupy.

I must premise, however, that my observations must be re-
stricted mainly to the terrestrial members of the sub-kingdom
Vertebrata, To review the recent progress of our knowledge of
the various sections of invertebrate animals in different countries
would be beyond my powers, and would inordinately enlarge my
subject. Besides, it is certain that the higher classes of animals
have occupied the principal attention of recent writers on geo-
graphical zoology, and it is with their distribution that we are
best acquainted.

Taking, therefore, the seven great regions into which the
earth's surface may be most conveniently divided for zoological
purposes one after another, I will endeavour to point out our
leading authorities on the Mammals, Birds, Repriles, Batrachians,
and I'ishes of each of them, and their main constituent parts.
At the same time, I will endeavour to indicate the principal de-
ficiencies in our knowledge of these subjects, and may perhaps
be able to add a few suggestions as to how some of these defi-
ciencies might be best overcome.

In these remarks I will take the divisions of the earth's surface

Sept. 2, 1875]

NA TURE

375

in the saire order as I have generally usecU in my lectures on
zoological geography, namely :^

I. — Palseurctic Region "j

II. — Ethiopian Region |

\\a. — Lemurian Sub-region \ Ar

III. — Indian Region |

IV. — Neartic Region J

V. — Neotropical Region ) ^^^^

Va. — Anlillean Sub-region \

VI.— Australian Region . . . Antarctogaa.

VII. — Pacific Region .... Ornithogtsa.

I.— THE PALyEARCTIC REGION.
The Pa'a'arctic Region I shall consider for convenience sake in
the following seven sub-regions : —

1. The CisatlanUan Sub-re^wn, embracing all that] part of
the Paliuarctic Region lying south of the Mediterranean Sea.

\a. The Atlantic Islands.

2. The European Sub-region.

3. The Siberian Sub-region, embracing the whole of Northern
Asia.

4. The Mantchurian Sub-region, containing Northern China
and the adjoining part of Mongolia.

5. The Japanese Sub-region, embracing the Japanese Islands.

6. The Tartarian Sub region, containing the great deseit-
region of Central Asia.

7. The Persian Sub-region, embracing Persia, Asia Minor, and
Syria.

I. The Cisatlantean Sub-region.

As regards the zoology of the main western portion of this
district (Tunis and Algeria) our knowledge may be now said to
be prttty far advanced. The standard work on the subject is
the "Exploration Scientifique de I'Algerie" published by the
French Government, in which are treatises on the Mammals and
Birds of Algeria by Loche, and on the Reptiles and Fi^lus by
Guichenot. This work was commenced in parts in 1840, and
the portions relating to the Mammals and Birds were, I believe,
intended to have been written by M. Vaillant, the artist of the
Commission ; but only the plates were issued, and the text by
Captain Loche was not completed until 1867. A smaller and
more convenient work (or travellers is the last-named author's
catalogue of the Mammals and Birds of Algeria, published in
1858.

As regards the herpetology of Algeria, an excellent memoir
on this subject by Dr. Alexander Strauch will be found in
the fourth volume of the new memoir of the Academy of St.
Petersburg. Those who penetrate beyond the Atlas will find the
lists of the vertebrated animals appended to Canon Tristram's
"Great Sahara" very useful. Many interesting details about
the birds of Tunis and Algeria will likewise be found in the
papers communicated to the " Ibis," by Messrs. Salvin,
Tristram, and J. H. Gurney, jun.

Of Morocco and the extreme western portion of the Alias,
our knowledge is as yet by no means so perfect. As regards the
birds of Tangier and its vicinity, we have Colonel Irby's lately
published volume on the Ornithology of the Straits of Gibraltar,
in which the " observations on the Moorish birds are in a
great measure culled from the MSS. of the late M. Favier —
a collector long resident in Tangier." But in the south of Mo-
rocco, in the Western Atlas and surrounding district, there is
certainly a considerable terra incognita within easy reach of
England, which has hitherto been almost inaccessible to natura-
lists, though the short expedition of Dr. Hooker, Mr. Maw,
and Mr. Ball in 1871 (of which a notice only has been pub-
lished, but a complete scientific account is, 1 believe, in pre-
paraton), shows that it may be penetrated if proper precautions
are taken.

\a. The Atlantic Islands.

The Atlantean island-groups of the Canaries, Madeira, and
the Azores, may perhaps be most naturally appended to this
division of the Palrcarctic Region. Our knowledge of the fauna
of each of these three groups is tolerable, although there is of
course much to be done in working up details. As regards the
Canaries, the standard work is Webb and Berthelot's " Histoire
Naturelle des lies Canaries," published at Paris under the
auspices of the Minister of Public Instruction. Dr. Carl Bolle
has visited the group more recently, and written several excel-
lent articles in Cabanis's Journal on their ornithology.

Madeira has had the advantage of the residence of several

first-class English naturalists — I need only mention the names
of Lowe, Vernon, Wollaston, and Johnson, to establish this
point. More than twenty years ago Mr. E. W. Plarcourt, in
his "Sketch of Madeira," and in contributions to the "Pro-
ceedings of the Zoological Society," and "Annals of Natu-
ral History," gave us a good account of the ornithology of
Madeira. Mr. F. Godman has recently published an excellent
article on the Birds of Madeira and the Canaries in the " Ibis "
for 1872, in which a cc*nplete risume is given of the whole
of our previous knowledge of this subject, together with the in-
formation obtained by the author himself during his expedition
to these islands in 1871.

As regards the fishes of Madeira, they have formed a subject
of study of several excellent ichthyologists. The Rev. R. T.
Lowe made numerous communications to the Zoological Society
of London upon them in the early days of the Society, and
published in their "Transactions" a Synopsis of Madeiran
Fishes, to which divers supplements were afterwards added.
Subsequently Mr. J. Y. Johnson took up the subject and made
numerous additions to Mr. Lowe's experiences, which were
mostly published by the same Society. Dr. Giinther has like-
wise contributed to our knowledge of Madeiran fishes, so that
on the whole there is, perhaps, hardly any locality out of
Europe with the ichthyology of which we have a better general
acquaintance.

For our knowledge of the higher animals of the third island-
groups above spoken of, that of the Azores, we are mainly in-
debted to the energy of Mr. F. D. Godman, who made a special
expedition to those islands in 1865, with the |object of studying
their fauna. The results are embodied in his volume on the
Azores, published by Van Voorst in 1870. Morelet's work on
the Azores, previously published, is mainly devoted to the Land-
shell. Mr. Godman is almost the only authority upon the
Mammals, Birds, and other Vertebrates.

2. The European Sub-r.^gion.

To discuss, or even to give the titles of, all the works that
have been published on the Vertebrates of Europe would extend
this address to far . beyond its proper limits. I must content
myself with a few words on the principal works which have
appeared of late years — first, upon the Zoology of Europe
generally, and secondly, upon the Faunas of its chief political
divisions.

A. Mammals of Europe.

To begin with the Mammals, our standard authority upon the
European members of this class is Blasius's " Naturgeschichte
der Saugethiere Deutschlands und der angrenzenden Lander,"
and an excellent work it is. Unfortunately, however, it
does not extend into Southern Europe, where alone many of
the more interesting forms of European Mammal-life make their
appearance. A work founded on Blasius's volume and embra-
cing the additional species of Mammals to be met with in Spain,
Italy, and Turkey is very desirable, and it is with great
pleasure that I have been informed that an energetic member of
this Association has already set some such undertaking before
him. The only work of reference of this extent that I am at
present acquainted with is Lord Clermont's useful " Guide to the
Quadrupeds and Reptiles of Europe," published in 1859. As
regards the constituent countries of the European Sub-region,
there are but few recommcndable works devoted to the illustra-
tion of their Mammal-faunas. In England we have Bell's
"British Quadrupeds," belonging to Mr. Van Voorst's excellent
series. This remained long out of print, until its recent
re-issue in 1874 by the author, with the assistance of Mr.
R. F. Tomes and Mr. Alston. For France, M. Gervais's
"Zoologieet Paleontologie Fran9aise" enumerates both recent
and fossil Mammals, though most regard is paid to the extirict
fauna. As regards Spanish Mammals, almost the only authority
I am acquainted with is Rosenhauer's "Thiere Andalusiens"
which is, however, very defective, the author having devoted
himself principally to the study of the Invertebrates. Captain
Cork (afterwards Widdrington) was the original discoverer of
several of the rarer Mammals of Spain ; but the account of
them in his " Sketches " is very meagre. A bare list of
the Mammals of Portugal is given by Prof. Barboza de Bocage
in the "Revue Zoologique " for 1863. Passing over to
Italy, Bonaparte's "Fauna Italica" and Costa's "Fauna
del Regno di Napoli" must be mentioned, though both are
somewhat out of date. But the former work is still the only
authority on certain of the rarer Italian species and local form s.

Z1^

NATURE

[Sept. 2, 1875

A recent summary of Italian Mammals has been given by Prof.
Cornalia in "Italia;" but oh the whole it must be allowed
that a good work upon the Mammals of the Italian peninsula is
still a desideratum. Of the Mammals of Switzerland, on the
other hand, we have an excellent recent work by Dr. Fatio,
forming the first volume of his " Fauue des Vcrtebrees rie la
Suisse," in which special attention is devoted to the difficult
groups of Rodents and Insectivores. No student of the Euro-
pean Mammal-fauna should omit to consult it.

Passing to Eastern Europe, we find our state of exact know-
ledge as to the Mammals very defective. As regards Greece,
we may refer to the French "Expedition Scientifique en
Moree," in which there is a memoir on the Mammals by
Geoffroy St. Hilaire, and Erhard's "Fauna der Cycladeen,"
which gives some details on the Mammals of the Greek Archi-
pelago. Of Turkey we find very little information, and there is
certainly still much to be done as regards the smaller Mammals
of this part of Europe. In Russia we have Menetries's " Cata-
logue of the Animals of the Caucasus," and P. Demidoff's
"Voyage dans la Russie Meridionale," and perhaps other
works in the language of the country, which I am not acquain-
ted with. But there can be no doubt that it is in South-eastern
Europe that our knowledge of the Mammal- fauna of this
continent is exceedingly defective, and that much remains to be
done in order to complete our acquaintance with this branch of
European Zoology.

In Northern Europe, which we now turn to, the case is quite
different. The highly cultivated and laborious naturalists of
Scandinavia have for many years paid great attention to this as
to every other part of their fauna. The first volume of
Nilsson's " Scandinavian Fauna," published at Lund in 1874,
has long been a standard book of reference on this branch
of zoology. Much, however, has been done since that period ;
and in Prof. Lilljeborg's lately issued work on the Mammals of
Sweden and Norway, we have an exhaustive account of the
present state of our knowledge of this subject.

As regards the few Mammals of Spitzbergen, reference should
be made to the second volume of Heuglin's " Reisen nach
dem Nordpolarmeer," where that energetic naturalist has put
together an account of the nineteen species of Mammals that
penetrate so far north.

B. Birds of Europe,

(a.) Europe generally. — There can be no question, I suppose,
that the attractive class of Birds has received much more at-
tention than its sister-classes of Vertebrates in Europe as
generally elsewhere. Of late years especially a considerable
number of naturalists in almost every part of this continent have
devoted their principal attention to ornithology. Two journals
are devoted solely to this science — in which the larger number
of articles treat of the birds of some portion or other of Europe.
The mass of literature on the subject is large, and I must there-
fore be rather concise in my notices of the principal modern
authorities that should -be referred to by an inquirer on the sub-
ject of European Ornithology.

First, as to the avifauna of the whole continent, Temminck's
" Manual" — long the acknowledged authority on this subject —
was superseded in 1849 by the issue of Degland's " Ornithologie
Europeenne." The new edition of this work, issued by the author
and Gerbe jointly in 1867, is perhaps now the most complete
book of its kind. But it has great faults and imperfections,
particularly as regards its indications of the distribution of the
species. This branch of the subject had never been properly
worked until the recent issue of Mr. Dresser's (formerly Sharpe
and Dresser's) " Birds of Europe," which contains, so far as it
has hitherto progressed, by far the most exhaustive account of
the European birds yet attempted. Its large size and numerous
illustrations, however, render it rather cumbersome as a manual ;
but a handbook based on it when completed, and containing a
judicious abridgment of its information (which I hope Mr.
Dresser will not fail to prepare), will, I am sure, form a most
valuable work,

Fritsch's " Naturgeschichte der Vogel Europas," lately pub-
lished at Prague, is a cheap and useful manual for those who
understand German ; while Gould's "Birds of Europe," though
out of date, will be always referred to for its illustrations.

(b.) Birds op Great Britain. — For many years the standard
book of reference on the ornithology of these islands has
been Yarrell's " British Birds," and its several Supplements.
The new edition of this work, commenced in June 1 871 by
Prof. Newton, is familiar, no doubt, to most of the mem-

bers of Section D. As to its merits there can be no ques-
tion ; I think it is seldom indeed that a task is entrusted to one
so thoroughly competent to perform it, or so careful in the
execution of what he undertakes. But the slow progress of the
work is appalling. After four years only one of the promised
four volumes has been completed. As amongst the best of
numerous local works on the birds of this coxmtry recently
issued should also be mentioned Gray's "Birds of the West
of Scotland," and Hancock's memoir on those of North-
umberland and Durham. A very useful work of reference
for ornithologists is also Mr. Harting's ' ' Hand-book of British
Birds," in which the exact dates and places of occurrence
of all the rarer visitants are recorded. Those who love life-
sized illustrations, and have full purses, will not fail to acquire
(provided a copy is left) Mr. Gould's splendid work on the
"Birds of Great Britain," now complete in five volumes.
After this enumeration it will be almost needless to remark that
Ornithology has no reason to complain of want of support in
this country.

(c.) Birds of France. — In France less attention has been de-
voted to the native birds of late years ; and besides the new
edition of Degland's "Ornithologie Europeenne" already
spoken of, I have only to mention Bailly's " Ornithologie de
la Savrie," and Jaubert and Barthelemy - Lapommeraye's
" Richesse Ornithologique de la Midi de la France," in
each of which will be found much information about the rarer
birds of the districts respectively treated of.

(d.) Birds of Spain and Portugal. — Much attention has been
paid to the avifauna of Southern Spain of late years, but rather
by visitors from the north than by native naturalists. Lord
Lilford and Mr. Howard Saunders have both given us some
excellent articles in the "Ibis" on this subject, and have made
a variety of interesting discoveries, amongst which are actually
several new species, * or at all events well-marked local forms.
Dr. A. E. Brehm, long resident at Madrid, has also devoted
much attention to Spanish ornithology, and written a complete
list of Spanish Birds, which should be consulted. To Colonel
Irby's work on the Straits of Gibraltar I have already alluded ;
as regards the southern extremity of the peninsula he is our best
and most recent authority. For information on the birds of
Portugal we must again go to an English source — Mr, Alfred
Charles Smith, "Narrative of his Spring Tour" being the best
authority which I am acquainted with on this subject.

(e.) Birds of Italy. — Savi's " Ornithologia Toscana," pub-
lished as long ago as 1827, was for long almost our only
authority on Italian ornithology. Bonaparte's " Iconographia,"
already alluded to, gave some additional information as to
rarer species. Salvadori's memoir on the birds, forming the
second volume of the recently published " Fauna d'ltalia,"
is the best and most recent authority on this subject, and con-
tains an excellent "Bibliografia Ornithologica Italiana." A
large illustrated work on the birds of Lombardy has been
recently published at Milan by Bettoni. We must also call
attention to the persevering way in which Mr. C. A. Wright has
worked up the Avifauna of Malta, and to Mr. A. B. Brooke's
recently published notes on the Ornithology of Sardinia.

(f.) Birds of Turkey and Greece. — Dr. Kriiper, a well-known
German naturalist, has been long resident in various parts of the
Levant, and has contributed numerous articles upon the birds
met with to various periodicals. These have been recently put
together and edited by Dr. Hartlaub, and published as a number
of Mommsen's " Griechische Jahrezeiten," which thus contains
a summary of all our principal information on the birds of Greece
and its islands. Before that our best authority on Grecian birds
was Lindermayer's " V«gel Griechenlands. " As regards Euro-
pean Turkey, Messrs. Elwes and Buckley have lately published
a good paper in the "Ibis" on its birds; and MM. Alleon
and Vian have written several articles in the " Revue Zoolo-
gique " on the ornithology of the neighbourhood of Constanti-
nople. But there is certainly still much to be done as regards
birds in this part of the continent, as likewise amongst the
islands of the Greek Archipelago, many of which are almost
unexplored by the naturalist.

(g.) Birds of Southern Russia atid the Caucasus. — Though many
notices of the birds of Southern Russia have appeared in the
" Bulletin " of the Society of Nuturalists of Moscow, I am
not aware of any complete account of them having been issued.
Demidoff, in the third volume of his "Voyage dans la Russie
Meridionale," gives a list of the birds of what he calls the

* Geciiius Sharpii, P.Z.S. 1872, p. 153, and Calendrella bcetica. Dresser,
" Birds of Europe," pt. 21,

Sept. 2, 1875]

NA TURE

in

" Faune Pontique, " but his original observations are somewhat
meagre. Eichwald's "Fauna Caspio-Caucasica " and Mt'ne-
tries's Catalogue of the Zoology of the Caucasus, should also be
consulted, although both are rather out of date. An excellent
zoologist, Hr. Gustav Radde, is now resident at Tiflis ; but I do
not think he has yet prepared any general account of the birds
of the Caucasus, where there must be certainly much of inte-
rest, as is proved by the discovery of the remarkable Grouse,
allied to our Black Grouse, which has just been described by
M. Taczanowski,*

(h.) Birds of Germany and Central Europe. —'Loc^ lists of
the birds of the various States of Central Europe, and their
principal divisions, are very numerous ; and there are also many
manuals and memoirs on the same subject. But J. A. Nau-
mann's excellent " Viigel Deutschlands," commenced in 1822,
with its supplements, is still, I believe, quite unsuperseded
as a standard book of reference on Central European Orni-
thology. It was generally understood that Prof. Blasius, at the
time of his lamented death, had a work on the birds of his
native country in preparation ; but unfortunately this was never
finished, or it would have proved to be, no doubt, of first-rate
excellence. In no other country, however, except our own, is
ornithology so much cultivated as in Germany. Two societies
emulate each other in their pursuit of this science, and a special
journal is devoted to its progress. There is no lack, therefore,
of recent information upon the birds of every part of Germany,
although this has to be fished out of journals and periodicals of
different sorts, instead of being put together, as we should rather
wish to see it, in some general work,

(i.) Birds of Scandinavia and North Europe. — In Scandinavia
also there is no dearth of diligent observers of birds as of every
other class of animals. The bird-volume of Nihson's Scandi-
navian Fauna was published in 1858, and is still worthy
of careful study. But the more recent works of Collett upon
the Birds of Norway, in German and in English, should
be consulted, as also Sundevall's " Svenska Foglama,"
unfortunately not quite finished at the time of his decease,
and Von \Vright and Palmen's "Finland's Foglar." Many
memoirs have also recently appeared upon the birds of the ex-
treme north, which have always attracted great interest among
ornithologists. Amongst these special attention may be called
to V. Heuglin's account of the birds of Nova Zembla, first
published in Cabanis's Journal for 1872, and afterwards
enlarged and revised in the second volume of his " Reisen in
dem Nordpolarmeer ; " to Prof. Newton s essay on the birds of
Iceland in Mr. Baring-Gould's " Iceland, its Scenes and Sagas ; "
and lastly, to Messrs. Alston and Brown's narrative of their
adventures among the birds of Archangel — a little explored
district, and one of much promise, to which one of these active
explorers has returned this year.

C. European Herpetology.

In this field of research there is not so much of recent work
to record as among the birds ; but Dr. E. Schrieber's "Herpe-
tologia Europsea," which has just appeared, marks an im-
portant epoch in this branch of science, since there was
previously no good work of reference upon the Reptiles and
Batrachians of Europe. Dr. Schrieber's work is drawn up upon
the same plan as Blasius's well-known " Saugethiere Europas,"
and forms a most convenient handbook. The list of published
works and memoirs on the same subject prefaced to it renders it
unnecessary for me to refer to the previous authorities on Euro-
pean herpetology in detail. I observe, however, that Lord
Clermont's very useful " Guide to the Quadrupeds and Reptiles
of Europe " is not referred to in the list, and it would
appear that Dr. Schrieber is not acquainted with it. I must
also call special attention to Dr. Strauch's excellent memoir on
the Serpents of the Russian Empire, recently published in
the Memoirs of the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg, which
is as important for the European as for the Asiatic part of the
Russian dominion. As regards our native I lerpet ©logical Fauna
also, I may point out that the last edition of Bell's " British
Reptiles," published in 1839, requires considerable revision
to bring it up to our present standard of knowledge, and that it
is much to be desired that a new edition should be undertaken.
Let me venture to suggest that Mr. Van Voorst should com-
municate with Dr. Giinther upon this subject.

D. European Ichthyology.

I am not aware of the existence of any special work on Euro-
pean Ichthyology, but C. Th. v. Siebold published in 1863 a
» 7V/>v.-/wA>Xw/Vj-'/V=/", T.-ICZ., P.Z.S., 1S75.

volume on the Fresh-water Fishes of Central Europe, which
forms a useful guide to the Pisci-fauna of the principal
European river-basins. For the fishes of the Atlantic wliich
viiit the British eoasts we have the third edition of Yarrell's
"British Fishes," edited by the late Sir John Richardson,
which was published in 1859. Now that Dr. Giinther's great
general work on Fishes has been completed, this portion of Mr.
Van Voorst's excellent serifs would be also much benefited by
revision and rearrangement according to Dr. Giinther's modem
system and nomenclature. As a cheaper and more popular work
we may also refer to Conch's " British Fishes " in four volumes,
in which the figures are coloured.

Prof. Blanchard issued in 1866 a volume of the Freshwater
Fishes of France, which, however, does not bear so high a
character as Siebold's work above referred to. P'or our know-
ledge of the fishes of Spain and Portugal we are chiefly in-
debted to Steindachner's memoirs in the Sitzungsberichte of the
Vienna Academy, and to F. de Brito Capello's papers in
the Journal of Sciences of Lisbon. Of those of Italy, Prof.
Canestrini has lately published a revised list with short specific
characters, as a portion of the work called " Italia " already
referred to. Those interested in the fishes of the Black Sea
and adjoining river-basins should consult the ichthyological
portion of Demidoff's " Voyage dans la Russie Mcridionale,"
entitled "Pisces Faunse Pontics." I am not acquainted with
any other important recent memoirs on the ichthyological faunas
of the different European States which it is necessary to refer to
until we come to Scandinavia, where Malmgren published in
1863 an excellent essay upon the Fishes of Finland, which
was subsequently translated into German. As regards the
fishes of Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla, Heuglin's Synopsis of
therri in the second volume of his already quoted " Reisen nach
dem Nordpolarmeer " is the most recent authority, though it is
principally founded upon the labours of Loven and Thorell,
and of the naturalists of the Swedish expeditions of 1861 and
1864.

3. The Siberian Sub-region.

When I call to mind the numerous scientific expeditions sent
by the Russians into different parts of their recent acquisition in
Northern Asia, and turn over the pages of the excellent and
instructive work in which the results of these expeditions have
been given to the world, I must own to a feeling of indignation
at the manner in which such matters are usually dealt with by
the Government of this country. In the first place, in order to
get such an expedition sent out at all, great exertions and special
influence is necessary. The Treasury must be memoriahsed, the
Chancellor of the Exchequer besougkt, and the Admiralty peti-
tioned, before any grant of money can be sanctioned for the
purpose, and even then it is too often bestowed in a niggardly
and grudging way. When the expedition returns, similar appli-
cations have to be made in order to get the results worked out
and properly published, and these are in some cases altogether
rejected, so that the money already spent upon collecting becomes
virtually thrown away. In Russia, although the nation may be
less awake to the claims of science than in this country, the Go-
vernment is certainly more so ; and it is to the scientific men
attached to the Government expeditions that we are indebted for
nearly all the knowledge we possess of the fauna of Northern
Asia. Of the more important reports of the more recent of
these expeditions I will say a few words.

Middendorff's " Sibirische Reise," published in 1851, gives
an account of the fauna of the extreme north and east ot
Siberia. The second volume of the zoological portion is entirely
devoted to the Mammals, Birds, and Reptiles, and gives full
details concerning the structure and habits of the species met
with. Of Von Schrenck's " Amur-reise," a volume published in
1859, contains a complete memoir on the Mammals and Birds
of the newly acquired district traversed by the Amoor, lying
to the south of that investigated by Hr. v. Middendorff. Lastly,
two volumes of Radde's "Reisen in d«m Sudenv. Ost-Sibiricn,"
published in 1862 and 1863, render more perfect our know-
ledge of the Mammals and Birds of South-eastern Siberia. Hr.
Radde's chief observations were made in Transbaikalia, but he
incorporates the knowledge accumulated by his predecessors in
the surrounding districts, and goes deeply into general results.

Dr. A. V. Middendorff's " Isepiplesen Russlands" should
also be consulted by those who wish to understand the migra-
tion of birds in Siberia, or indcod throughout the Russian
dominions.

37^

NA TURE

[Sept. 2, 1875

4. The Mantchurian Sub-region.
Of this district, which embjaces the country lying south of the
Amoor and the greater part of Northern China, down perhaps
to the great river Yang-tze, we have, besides the Russian works
lastly spoken of, two principal sources of information. The first
of these consists in the researches of Mr. Robert Swinhoe, of
H.M. Chinese Consular Service, one of the most industrious and
successful exploring naturalists that have ever lived, as is well
known to many of my brother members here present. Mr.
Swinhoe's memoirs and papers on Chinese Zoology are very nu-
merous, but ihis last revised list of the birds of China will
be found in the Zoological Society's "Proceedings" for 1871.
Pere Armand David, a worthy rival of our Consul, has likewise
contributed in no small degree to our knowledge of the fauna of
Northern China. His journals, containing numerous remarks
full of interest, have lately been published in the ' ' Nouvelle
Archives du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris;" and
M. Alphonse Milne- Edwards's recently completed " Recherches
sur les Mammiferes " contains a section specially devoted to
the Mammals of Northern China, which is mainly based on Pere
David's researches. I shall, however, have again occasion to
mention the discoveries of both Mr. Swinhoe ahd M. David in a
subsequent portion of this address.

5. The Japanese Sub-region.
Temminck and Schlegel's "Fauna Japonica" have long
been our standard authority upon the zoology of Japan, and not
much has been done of late years to perfect it, except as regards
the birds. On this branch of our subject some very good
articles have been published in the "Ibis" by Capt. Blakiston,
based upon his researches in Hakodadi ; by Mr. Whitely,
who was for some time resident along with Capt. Blackiston
at the same port ; and by Mr. Swinhoe. Reierence should
also be made to the second volume of Commodore Perry's
"Narrative of the U.S. Expedition to Japan in 1852-54,"
wherein will be found articles on the birds collected by Cassin,
and on the fishes by Brevoort.

6. The Tartarian Sub-region.

Into the great desert-region of Central Asia, hitherto almost
unknown, except from Eversmann's " Reise nach Buchara,"
which contains a short natural-history appendix, excursions
have recently been made from two opposite quarters. The ad-
ran cing tide of Russian conquest from the north, accompanied,
as usual, by its scientific corps, has already made us well ac-
quainted with the zoology of Turkestan. Mr. Severtzoff has
unfortunately yielded to the unphilosophical spirit of nationality,
which has of late years attained such a monstrous development,
and published his " Turkestanskie Jevotnie," or review of the
distribution of animal life in Turkestan, in his native Rus-
sian. But a translation and reproduction of the portion relating
to the birds has already appeared in German, and an abstract
of it in English is now being given to the world by Mr. Dresser
in the "Ibis.".

From the south, the peaceful embassies of this country to Yar-
kand have led naturalists into the fringe ot the same zoological
district. Of the first of these expeditions we have an excellent
accoKut as regards the birds by Mr. A. O. Hume, forming the
second part of Henderson's "Lahore to Yarkand." Sir D.
Forsjth'g second expedition to Yarkand and Kashgar was
accompanied by Dr. Ferdinand Stolitzska, one of the most ac-
comphshed and energetic members of the staff of the Indian
Geological Survey, whose life was miserably sacrificed to the
hardships encountered on the return. Of this last expedition we
have as yet only incomplete accounts,* but may, I trust, look
forward to the publication of an equally interesting volume on
the zoological results. The ichthyological part of the collections
has, I believe, been entrusted to Dr. F. Day to work out in this
country.

7. The Persian Sub-region.

Of the Persian or " Mediterraneo-persic " Sub-region, as Mr.
Elwes prefers to call it,f which may be held to embrace European
Turkey, Palestine, and Persia, our knowledge was until recently
very limited, and even up to the present day remains very im-
perfect, considering the proximity of the district to Europe, and
the many interesting features which it presents. As regards Pales-
tine, Canon Tristram's energetic researches have done much to
remove what has long been a scandal to biblical scholars as well

* See Hume, " Stray Feathtrs," ii. p. 513 and iii. p. 215.

t q/.P.Z.S. 1873, p. 647.

as to naturalists. His long-promised "Synopsis of the Floni
and Fauna of Palestine " is, however, not yet issued by the Ray
Society, and we must be consequently content with Mr. Tris-
tram's papers on the Birds of the Holy Land in the "Ibis"
and Dr. Glinther's article upon the Reptiles and Fishes in
the Zoological Society's " Proceedings," until the finished
work appears. Of Asia Minor and Armenia it may be said that
we are miserably ignorant, Tchihatcheff's desultory account
of its natural history in his "Asia Mineure " being almost
the only authority we have to refer to. Thirty years ago the
Zoological Society had two excellent correspondents at Erzeroum
— Messrs. Dickson and Ross ; and it is a great misfortune that
no continuous account was ever prepared of the fine collection
which they sent home.*

As regards Persia, we may hope very shortly to be much more
favourably situated. Mr. W. T. Blanford and Major St. John
have recently ir.ade large zoological collections in various parts
of that country, particularly of birds, and it is generally under-
stood that the report of the Persian Boundary Expedition will
contain a complete account of the zoology of Persia from Mr.
Blanford's accomplished pen. Hitherto we have had to rely on
Dc Filippi's "Viaggio in Persie," and other fragmentary
sources of information.

IT.— ETHIOPIAN REGION.
This region I shall speak of, for convenience sake, under the
following six sub -divisions : —

1. Western Africa, from the Senegal to the Congo.

2. South-western Africa, or Angola and Benguela.

3. South Africa.

4. South-eastern Africa, from the Portuguese possessions up
to the Somali coast.

5. North-eaitern Africa, including Abyssinia, Nubia, and
Egypt.

6. Arabia.

I. Western Africa.

The Mammals of Western Africa are certainly not so well
known as they should be ; and there is no one work which gives
an account of them except Temminck's " Esquisses Zoologiques
sur la cote de Guinee," which is devoted to the collectioiis
transmitted to Leyden by Pel, a most energetic and successful
Dutch explorer. On the Mammals of Gaboon, Pucheran's article in
the French "Archives du Museum," and Du Chaillu's travels
and the literature connected therewith, should be consulted.

The birds of Western Africa, on the contrary, have attracted
much attention from European naturalists since the time when
Swainson published his " Birds of West Africa." This
work, however, has been quite superseded by Hartlaub's
classical " System der Ornithologique West-Afrikas," pub-
lished in 1857. Since that period many memoirs and papers
have appeared on the birds of various parts of this district,
principally by Cassin, of Philadelphia, Dr. Finsch, of Bremen,
and Mr. R. B. Sharpe, of the British Museum, who has paid
special attention to the African Ornis, and is understood to be
preparing a general work on the subject.

For information on the Reptiles and Fishes of West Africa
we must refer to Aug. Dumeril's memoir in the tenth volume
of the " Archives du Museum et Histoire Naturelle," founded
on the collections in the Paris Museum.

2. South-western Africa.
The Portuguese colonies of Angola and Benguela, which
seem to belong to a zoological sub-region, distinct from both that
of West Africa and that of the Cape, were until recently almost
unexplored. Within these last few years, however. Prof.
Barboza du Bocage has acquired extensive series of specimens
in nearly every department of natural history from these
countries for the Lisbon Museum, and has pubhshed several
important memoirs on the subject, which he will probably
ultimately incorporate into a general work. Mr. J. J. Monteiro
has also sent to this country collections of Mammals and Birds
which have formed the subject of several papers in the Zoolo-
gical Society's " Proceedings."

3. Southern Africa.

Sir Andrew Smith's "Illustrations of the Zoology of South

Africa " constitute four solid octavo volumes, devoted to

the new and rare vertebrates met with during that energetic

traveller's many explorations of the Cape Colony and the

* See notices, P.Z.S. 1839, 1842, and 1844.

Sept 2, 1875]

NATURE

379

adjoining districts. But there is no perfect list of the Cape
fauna given in Sir Andrew Smith's work, and Mr. Layard's
" Birds of South Africa," though not very completely elabo-
rated, was, therefore, a most acceptable and convenient work
to the ornithologist. Still more agreeable will it be to
witness the completion of the new and enlarged edition of Mr.
Layard's little volume, which Mr. Sharpe has undertaken,
and of which he has just issued the first part. Mr. Sharpe v/ill
however, I trust, pardon me for remarking that he has cut the
synonymy of the species rather short in his pages. It is
hard to expect every South-African colonist to have at
his side the British Museum Catalogue of Birds, to which
he always refers us. Another modern and much-to-be-re-
commended bird-book belonging to this sub-region is Mr.
J. H. Gumey's "Birds of Damara-land" founded on the exten-
sive collection of the late C. J. Anderson. No less than 428
species of birds were obtained by this indefatigable collector,
and the task of editing his field-notes has been well performed
by Mr. Giu-ney.

4. South-eastern Africa.

Our knowledge of the fauna of Mozambique is chiefly due
to the scientific visit made to that country by Dr. W. Peters,
of Berlin, in 1842 and the following years. The volume of
this distinguished naturalist, " Naturwissenschaftliche Reise
nach ^Mozambique," on the Mammals was published in 1852,
that on the Fishes in 1864. The delay in"the issue of the por-
tions relating to the Reptiles and Birds is much to be regretted,
more especially when we consider the high standard of the
work, although diagnoses of the new species discovered in these
groups have been long since published ; and I am sure I
am expressing the sentiments of naturalists in general when I
.say that I hope to see the series shortly completed. Proceeding
fiirther north along the African coast, we come to Zanzibar,
where an excellent ichthyologist, Consul Playfair, was lately
resident. The " Fishes of Zanzibar," by Giinther and Playfair,
founded on the extensive collections here made, was pub-
lished in 1866, and gives an account of above 500 species,
and many excellent figures.

The ornithology of the whole East-African coast, from Cape
Gardafin to Mozambique, has been elaborately worked out by Drs.
Finsch and Hartlaub. The results are contained in these
authors' "Vogel Ost-Afrikans," forming the fourth volume of
the unfortunate Baron Carl Claus von der Decken's " Reisen
in Ost-Afrika." Full details as to older authorities on the
subject are given in this excellent work, so that it is not
necessary to refer to them.

As regards the Mammals of this part of Africa, however, it
is necessary to say a few words. Our knowledge of this class
of animals is, as regards the coast opposite Zanzibar and the
country surrounding the great lakes of the interior, mainly com-
prised in the fragmentary collections of Speke and Grant (of
which an account has been published in the Zoological Society's
" Proceedings," and in the few specimens transmitted by
Dr. Kirk from Zanzibar. There is no doubt, however, that
much remains to be done here, and I believe there is at the
present moment no finer field for zoological discovery available
than this district, where we know that animal life in every
variety is still abundant, and excellent sport can be obtained to
add a zest to scientific investigation. The fishes of the great
lake of Tanganyika and the Victoria and Albert Nyanza are
likewise utterly unknown, and their investigation would be a
subject of the greatest interest. Of those of the more southern
Nyassa Lake, a few specimens have been obtained by Dr.
Kirk.

5. North-east Africa.

For many years Riippell's "Atlas" and " Neue Wirbel-
thiere," and, as regards birds, his " Systematische Ueber-
sicht," remained our standard works of reference upon the
zoology of North-eastern Africa. The recent completion of
Th. von Heuglin's " Ornithologie Nordost-Afrikas " has super-
seded Riippell's volumes for general use ; and no more valuable
piece of work for ornithologists has been accomplished of late
years than the reduction of the multitudinous obi^ervations and
records of this well-known traveller and naturalist into a
uniform series. V. Heuglin's work, however, concerns mainly
Upper Nubia, Abyssinia, and the wide territory drained by the
confluents of the Upper Nile. For Egypt and the Lower
Nile a more handy volume is Capt. Shelley's "Birds of Egypt,"
published in 1872, which will be found speciaUy acceptable

to the tourist on the Nile. Nor must I forget to mention
Mr. Blanford's interesting volume on the Geology and Zoology
of Abyssinia, which contains an account of the specimens of
Vertebrates collected and observed during his companionship
with the Abyssinian Expedition. Mr. Jesse's birds, collected
on the same occasion, were examined by Dr. Finsch, and the
result given to the world in a memoir published in the Zoolo-
gical Society's "Transactions."

A good revision of the Mammal-fauna of North-east Africa
is much to be desired. Meanwhile Fitzinger's list of v.
Heuglin's collection, and the latter author's own account of them
in his Travels on the White Nile may be consulted.

6. Arabia.
Of Arabia, as might have been expected, we know but little,
zoologically or otherwise. But little, it may be said, can be
expected to be found there, looking to the general aspect of the
country. Still it would be of interest to know what that little
is. At present the only district that has been visited by
naturalists is the peninsula of Sinai, and of this our knowledge
is by no means complete. Hemprich and Ehrenberg's un-
finished "Symbols Physical" was for many years our sole
authority. More recently Mr. Wyatt has published an article
in the "Ibis "upon the ibirds of the Sinaitic peninsula. Let
me suggest to some of the officers who are stationed idle at
Aden that an account of the animals to be met with in that part
of Arabia would be of great value, and would give them much
useful and interesting occupation. I have been more than once
told that there is nothing whatever to be found there. But this
I am slow to believe. Anyone with a good pair of eyes and a
taste forTcollecting might certainly do much good to science by
passing a few months at Aden, and making excursions into that
part of "Arabia Felix."

II«.— LEMURIAN SUB-REGION.
This aben-ant appendage of the Ethiopian Fauna I will
speak of under two heads, namely : —

1, Madagascar.

2. Mascarene Islands.

I. Madagascar.
To our knowledge of the extraordinary fauna of " Lemuria,"
as I have elsewhere proposed to call Madagascar and its islands,*
great additions have been recently made, but it is manifest that
Madagascar is by no means yet worked out.f Dr. Hartlaub 's
" Ornithologischer Beitrag zur Fauna Madagascars" was the
first attempt at a resume of the remarkable avifauna of this
part of the world. Since its issue two Dutch naturalists.
Pollen and Van Dam, have visited Madagascar, and forwarded
rich collections to the Leyden Museum. Of these the Mammals
and Birds have been worked out by Professor Schlegel and Mr.
Pollen, and the results published in a well- illustrated volume
entitled " Recherches sur la Faune de Madagascar." This has
been since followed by an accompanying account of the Fishes,
and treatise on the Fisheries, by Messrs. Bleeker and Pollen.
Following upon the footsteps of these naturalists, a French
explorer, Alfred Grandidier, has since visited the interior of
Madagascar, and in his turn has reaped a grand harvest, of
which some of the results have already been given to the public.
But we are promised to have these discoveries in a much more
extended and complete form, in a work now in progress,
in which M. Grandidier has obtained the efficient assistance of
M. Alphonse Milne-Edwards. There still remain to be spoken
of the discoveries recently made by an English collector in
Madagascar, Mr. A. Crossley. Mr. Crossley's birds have been
worked out by Mr. Sharpe in several papers published from
time to time by the Zoological Society, while Dr. Giinther has
described several new and remarkable Mammals from the same
source.

2, The Mascarene Islands.

The fauna of the islands of Bourbon, Mauritius, and Rod •
riguez forms an appendage to that of Madagascar, and merits
careful study. Our knowledge of these islands, since the recent
investigation of Rodriguez by the naturalists sent out with the
Venus Expedition, is tolerably complete, but requires to be put
together, as it consists of fragments dispersed over various

* Quart. Journ. of Science, 1864, p. 213.

t U itness the Mammal-forms, Brachytarsomys and Mixocebus, lately de-
scribed by Dr. Gunther and Dr. Peters, and the new genus of birds, Neo-
drejianis, recently characterised by_Mr. Sharpe.

,So

NATURE

[Sept. 2, 1875

i ournals and periodicals. I trust that Mr. Edward Newton, who
has had so many opportiu.itics of acquiring information on this
subject during his Colonial Secretaryship at Mauritius, and :has
so well used these opportunities, may shortly have leisure to
devote to this task. His labours to recover the skeleton of
Pezophaps, in which, I am pleased to think, he was aided by a
grant from this Association, are well known, as is likewise the
excellent memoir by himself and Prof. Newton, in which the
result of his labours was given to the world. Nor must I omit
to mention Prof. Owen's dissertations on the extinct fellow-bird
of Mauritius, recently published by the Zoological Society.

As regards the recent ornithology of these islands, we have
nothing later to refer to than Hartlaub's little work on Mada-
gascar, noticed above, which includes what was then known of
the avifauna of the Mascarenes.

The neighbouring group of the Seychelles was visited by
Mr. Edward Newton in 1867, and several new and most
interesting species of birds obtained there. A complete account
of the ornithology of these islands was given by Mr. Newton in
the "Ibis" for 1867. Since that period Dr. E. P. Wright,
formerly an active member of this Association, has made a
scientific excursion to the Seychelles, with a view, as was
generally understood, of preparing a complete monograph of
the [fauna and flora of these interesting islands. It is much
to be regretted that this very desirable plan has not yet been
accomplished.

III.-INDIAN REGION.

Of the extensive and varied Indian Region I will now proceed
to say something under the subjoined heads : —

1. British India.

2. Central and Southern China.

3. Burjnah, Siam, and Cochin.

4. Malay Peninsula.

4«. Andaman and Nicobar Islands,

5. East-Indian Islands.

6. Philippine Archipelago.

I. British India.

For British India Dr. Jerdon's well-known series of zoological
handbooks was intended to supply a long-slanding want ; and
it is a great misfortune that his untimely death has interfered
with their completion. The three volumes on Birds were
finished in 1866, and one on Mammals in 1867. Of the
volume on the Reptiles and Batrachians a portion, I believe,
was actually in type at the time of his decease ; but of the Fishes
no part, as far as I know, was so much advanced. P"or the
Reptiles, therefore, we must for the present refer to Dr.
Giinther's "Reptiles of British India," published by the Ray
Society in 1864. Indeed, as regards India, any future account
of these animals must, in any case, be founded upon the basis of
that excellent and conscientious work. For the Indian fishes
generally there is at present no one authority, though Dr. Day,
author of the " Fishes of Malabar " and of numerous other papers,
is understood to have in preparation a general work on this sub-
ject, which his office of Inspector-General of Indian Fisheries
has given him excellent opportunities of studying. Complete
lists of both the freshwater and marine species of India are given
in the appendices to Dr. Day's two " Reports on the Fisheries
of India and Burmah," published in India in 1873.

But although aur wants as regards the Indian Vertebrates will
probably be supplied in this way, it would be much more satis-
factory if the Indian Government would select a successor to
Dr. Jerdon, and place under his control the necessary means
for ; the preparation of a series of zoological handbooks for
India. There is no reason why botany should be more favoured
than zoology in this matter ; and I believe it is only the greater
energy of the botanist {that in this, as in other cases, has given
them the start. New editions of Dr. Jerdon's Mammals and
Birds are both necessary to bring our knowledge up to date, and
the original editions are long out of print. There can be no
question as to the great impetus to the study of natural history
in India that has already followed on the publication of these
handbooks ; and it will be a great misfortune to science if our
Indian rulers fail to continue the good work. They have only
to select a competent editor for the series, and to place the
necessary funds temporarily at his disposal. The sale of the
works would in the end recoup all the necessary expenses.

Amongst more recent contributions to our knowledge of
Indian ornithology, which, under the influence above referred
to, have been especially numerous, I can now only stop to call

attention to a few. Mr. Allan Hume, C.B., has been specially
active, and has published numerous papers in his queerly-titled
periodical " Stray Feathers," which is exclusively devoted to
Indian Ornithology. Amongst them the articles on the birds
of Scinde and those of Upper Pegu are of special interest.
Mr. Iloldsworth's most useful "Synopsis of the Biids of
Ceylon," lately published in the "Proceedings of the Zoological
Society," is also of great value, more especially as Ceylon
was omitted from the scope of Dr. Jerdon's work. Nor must
I omit to mention Major Godwin-Austen's series of papers on
the ornithology of the newly-explored districts on the north-
eastern frontier, which contains so much of novelty and
instruction.

As regards the Testudinata of India, we may shortly expect a
complete account of them from Dr. John Anderson, who has de-
voted much time and toil to their study. His magnificent series
of drawings of these animals, from living specimens, I have had the
pleasure of inspecting ; and I trust sincerely that some means
may be found of reproducing them for publication. Such a
work would vastly increase our knowledge of this very difficult
group of animals.

2, Central and Southern China.

In speaking ot Northern China I have introduced the names
of the two great modern zoological discoverers in China, Mr.
Robert Swinhoe and M. le Pere David. Mr. Swinhoe's article
on the "Mammals of China," recently published in the
Zoological Society's "Proceedings" gives a complete list of
the species known to him to occur south of the Yang-tze. It
includes those of the great island of Formosa, which is
essentially part of China, although it possesses some endemic
species, and which was a complete terra incognita to naturalists
before Mr. Swinhoe's happy selection as the first British Vice-
Consul in 1861. Mr. Swinhoe's last revised catalogue of the
Birds of China, published in 1871, has been already referred to.
He is now at home, unfortunately in ill health, but is by no
means idle on his bed of sickness, and has in contemplation,
and, I may say, in actual preparation, a complete work on
Chinese Ornithology, for which he has secured the co-operation
of one of our most competent naturalists.

The still more remarkable discoveries of Pere David have
revealed to us the existence on the western outskirts of China,
or on the border-lands between China and Tibet, of a fauna
hitherto quite unknown to us, and apparently a pendant of the
Sub-Himalayan Hill-fauna first investigated by Hodgson. In
his recently completed " Recherches sur les Mammifere?,"
already referred to, M. Alphonse Milne-Edwards has given us a
complete account of M. David's wonderful discoveries among
the Mammals of this district. M. David's birds were worked
out by the late Jules Verreaux, and the novelties described in
the " Nouvelle Archives," but no complete list of them has yet
been issued. In herpetology, I believe, M. David has also
made some remarkable discoveries, amongst which, not the
least assuredly, is the discovery of a second species of gigantic
Salamander * in the mountain-streams of Moupin.

3. BURMAH, SlAM, AND COCHIN.

I speak of these ancient kingdoms, which occupy the main
part of the great peninsula of South-eastern Asia, principally to
express my surprise at how little we yet know of them. There
are several good correspondents of the Jardin des Plantes in
the French colony of Saigou, who have, I believe, transmitted
a considerable number of specimens to the Museum d'Histoire
Naturelle, but beyond the descriptions of a certain number of
novelties we have as yet received no account of them. The
two philosophic Kings of Siam appear not yet to have turned
their attention to biological discovery, although there is certainly
much to be done in the interior of that State, with whicla ths
late M. Mouhot, had his life been spared, would certainly have
made us better acquainted. As it happens we have only one or
two published memoirs upon the results which this unfortunate
naturalist achieved.

Lower Burmah now forms part of British India, and will be
doubtless well explored. As regards Burmah proper and the
Shan-States, our Indian legislators appointed a most efficient
naturalist to accompany the Yucan Expedition of 1868; but
when he returned, refused or neglected to provide him with the
facilities to work out and publish his results. I rejoice, how-
ever, to learn that this error has been to a certain extent remedied,

* Sieholdia, Davidiana, Blanchard.

Sept. 2, 1875J

NATURE

3^1

and that Dr. Anderson has now in preparation a connected
account of his Yucan discoveries, which is to be issued by the
Linnean Society in their "Transactions." A separate publica-
tion of these results would not have involved much additional
expense, and would have been more worthy of the Government
lich sent out the expedition.

4. Malay Peninsula.
The Malay peninsula belongs unquestionably to the same
.,b-fauna as Sumatra. Its zoology is tolerably well known to
lis from numerous collectic ns that have reached this country,
but a modern revision of all the classes of Vertebrates is much
to be desired. About twenty years ago, Dr. Cantor, of the East
Indian Medical Service, published catalogues of the Mammals,
Reptiles, and Fishes of Malacca in the Journal of the Asiatic
Society of Bengal. To ob'ain a knowledge of its birds we must
refer to the papers of Eyton, Wallace, and various other orni-
thological writers.

4^;. Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

The two groups of islands in the Bay of Bengal have of late
years attracted considerable attention from naturalists. Port
Blair, in the Andaman Islands, having become the seat of an
Indian penal settlement, has received visits from several excellent
Indian workers who have made extensive collections, especially
in ornithology. The most recent authorities upon the birds
of the Andaman Islands are Lord Walden, who has worked
out the series forwarded to him by Lieut. Wardlaw Ramsay,
and Mr. Vincent Ball, who has published in " Stray Feathers "
a complete list of all the birds known to occur in the Andaman
and Nicobar groups.

5. East Indian Islands.

Up to a recent period tlie standard authority on the fauna of
the East Indian Islands was the great Dutch work on the
Zoology of the foreign possessions of the Netherlands Govern-
ment, based upon the vast collections formed by Macklot,
Midler, and other naturalists, and transmitted to the Leyden
Museum. This has been supplemented of late years by several
works and memoirs of Dr. .Schlegel, the eminent director of
that establishment, and in particular by his " Musee des Pays
Has," which contains an account of that magnificent collec-
tion drawn up in a series of monographic catalogues. Up
to this time, however. Dr. Schlegel has only treated of the
class of birds, though at the present moment, I believe, he is
engaged on a revision of Quadrumana. To the class of fishes,
and especially to the fishes of the Dutch Islands and Seas in
the East Indies, another naturalist, Dr. P. P. Bleeker, has for
many years devoted great attention. His memoirs and papers
on the Ichthyology and Herpetology of the various islands and
settlements are far too numerous to mention. But his ," Atlas
Ichthyologique," his principal work on the Fishes of the Indian
Seas, is one of great importance, and claims a special record
as embracing the results of the life-work of one of the most
energetic anil laborious of living naturalists.

The travels of our countryman, Mr. Wallace, in the Malay
Archipelago are well known to the general public from his
instructive and entertaining narrative, and to zoologists from the
large collections which he made in every branch of natural
history. It is a misfortune that no general account of them has
ever been prepared. But special articles on the birds of the
Sula group to the east of Celebes or those of Bourou, and on
those of the islands of Timor, Flores, and Lombock, will be
found in the Zoological Society's " Proceedings," besides other
ornithological papers referring more or less to this district.

Of the island of Celebes we have acquired more intimate
knowledge from the researches of Dr. A. B. Meyer, and from
two excellent memoirs on its Ornithology, prepared by Lord
Walden. The adjacent tenitory of Borneo has likewise not
escaped the attention of recent writers, an accomplished Italian
author. Dr. Salvadori, having made it the subject of a special
ornithological essay. For the animals of Java and Sumatra, we
have unfortunately no such recent authority, but must refer pri-
marily in the one case to Horsfield's Zoological Researches, and
in the other to Sir Stamford Raffles' Catalogue, supplementing
in each case the deficiency by reference to various more recent
books and memoirs. The fact is that before we can attain precise
notions as to the real zoological relations of these great islands,
we require a much more complete acquaintance with their dif-
ferent faunas, and special monographic essays upon them. So

there is certainly no lack of work remaining for the zoologist in
this quarter.

6. Philippine Archipelago.

In spite of the visits of Cuming, and more recently of Semper
and Jagor, there has been until very lately great lack of a
work lor reference on the Vertebrates of the Philippine Archi-
pelago. This deficiency has been partly supplied by the excel-
lent essay published by Lord Walden in the "Transactions"
of the Zoological Society, upon the Birds of the Philippines,
Although based upon the collections of Dr. A. B. Meyer, this
memoir contains a rcsum^ of all that is yet known upon the
subject. It likewise points out the deficencies in our present
information, which, I need hardly add, are many and numerous.

That the knowledge of our Mammal-fauna of the Philippines
is also by no means perfect, will be sufficiently manifest when I
recall to my hearers the fact that there is now living in the
Zoological Society's Gardens a very distinct species of Deer, *
quite unknown to all our Museums, which is undoubtedly
endemic in one of the Philippine Islands. There is much want
of more information on this subject, as also on the Reptiles and
Fishes, although Dr. Peters has lately made us acquainted with
many novelties from Jagor's researches in these branches.

IV.— NEARCTIC REGION.
This part of my subject will be most conveniently treated of
under two heads : —

1. North America dawn to Mexico,

2. Greenland,

leaving Mexico to be spoken of as a whole under the Neotropical
Region, although part of it undoubtedly belongs to the Nearctic.

I. North America.

(a.) Maf'imals. — The latest revision of the Mammals of North
America is still that of Prof. Baird, contained in the Reports on
the Zoology of the Pacific Railway Routes, published by the
War Department of the U.S. in 1857. I understand, how-
ever, that Dr. Coues is now engaged on a more perfect work
on the same subject, which will embrace the results of the
large additions since made to our knowledge of this subject.
The marine Mammals are not included in Prof. Baird's revision ;
and under this head I may notice two important works recently
issued, Mr. Allen's memoir on the Eared Seals, which spe-
cially treats of the North-Pacific species, and Capt. Scammon's
volume on the marine Mammals of the North-western coasts of
North America, which contains a mass of information relative
to the little-known Cetaceans of the North Pacific.

Prior to them Audubon and Bachman's Quadrupeds of North
America, pubHshed at New York in 1852, was the best book of
reference.

(b.) Birds of North America. — The American ornithologists
have been specially active of late years. Up to about twenty
years ago, the recognised authorities upon the Birds of the United
States were Wilson, Audubon, Bonaparte, and Nuttall. In 1856
Cassin's " Illustrations," chiefly devoted to the species then recently
discovered in Texas, Cahfornia, and Oregon, appeared. In 1858
the joint work of Messrs. Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence, on the
Birds of North America, forming part of the " Pacific Railway
Routes," was issued. This was republished with additions as a
separate work in i860 in two volumes, and still forms an excel-
lent work of reference on American ornithology. The List of
Authorities given at the end of the letterpress will be found
extremely useful for those who require a guide to the literature
of American ornithology. But even this bids fair to be super-
seded by the more recent publications of our energetic fellow
naturalists. In the first place, three volumes of a " History 01
North-American Birds," illustrated by plates and numerous
woodcuts, by Messrs. Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway (were
issued last year, and two more volumes to complete the work
will soon be ready. Then for those who require a handy book
for reference nothing can be more convenient than Dr. Coues'
"Key," in one volume, published in 1872. The same
energetic naturalist has also lately issued a "Handbook of
the Ornithology of the North-west," containing an account of
the birds met with in the region drained by the Missouri
and its tributaries, amongst which he has had such long
personal experience. Nor must I conclude the list with-
out mentioning Mr. D. G. Elliot's "Birds of North Ame-
rica," which contains life-sized illustrations of many rare

Cervus Al/redi, Sclater, P.2.S. 1870, p. 381, pi. xxviii.

382

NATURE

[Sept. 2, 1875

and previously unfigured species, and Cooper's " Birds of
California," devoted to an account of the birds of the Pacific
coast-region, which has been edited by Prof. Baird from the late
Mr. Cooper's MSS. Of the last-named work, however, only the
first volume is yet published. It will be thus seen that we have
ample means of acquiring the most recent information on the
birds of the Nearctic Region, and in fact in no part of the world,
except Europe itself, is our knowledge of the endemic avifauna
so nearly approaching towards completion.

(c.) Reptiles and Batrachians oj North America. — Holbrook's
"North American," in five quarto volumes, published at
Philadelphia in 1843-4, contams coloured figures of all the
North American Reptiles and Batrachians known to the
author, and is a reliable work. A large amount of information
has been acquired since that period and published in the vaiious
** Railway Reports " and periodicals by Hallowell, Baird, Cope,
and others. In 1853 Messrs. Baird and Girard published a
catalogue of North American Serpents, and Prof. Agassiz
devoted the first volume of his "Contributions" mainly to
the Testudinata of North America. Prof. Baird tells me that
Prof Cope is now engaged in printing a new catalogue of the
Reptiles and Batrachians of North America, which will contain
an enumeration of all the species and ;^an account of their
geographical distribution.

{&.)Fishes of North America. — Of the fishes of North America
there is up to the present time no one authority, and the in-
quirer must refer to the various works of De Kay, Agassiz,
and Girard for information. This, aided by the copious
references in Dr. Giinther's masterly Catalogue, he will have
little difficulty in obtaining, so far as it is available. But
the " History of American Fishes " is still to be written, and I
have no doubt that our energetic brethren of the United States
will before long bring it to pass.

2. Greenland.

Of Greenland, which is undoubtedly part of the Nearctic
Region, I have made a separate section in order to call special
attention to the "Manual" for the use of the Arctic Expedi-
tion of 1875, prepared under the direction of the Arctic
Committee of the Royal Society. A resume of all that is
yet known of the biology of Greenland is included in this
volume. I may call special attention to the article on the Birds
by Prof. Newton, and on the Fishes by Dr. Liitken, both pre-
pared specially for this work. I am sure you will all join with
me in thanking the present Government for sending out this new
expedition so fully prepared in every way, and in hoping that
large additions may be made to the store of information already
accumulated in the " Manual."

(To be continued.)

Department of Anthropology.

Address by George Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S., F.S.A.,

President of the Department.

Dr. Rolleston began his address by referring to a few of the
principal papers which were to be brought before the depart-
ment. He referred in congratulatory terms to the work in the
Pacific Islands brought out this year by Dr. Carl E. Meinicke,
and to an article' by the Rev. S. J. Whitmee in the Contemporary
Review for February as the most important recent contribu-
tion to the ethnology of Polynesia. He then spoke in high
terms of the services rendered to the native Polynesians by the
missionaries, quoting to the same effect from Ger land's con-
tinuation of Wurtz's "Anthropologic." He also referred criti-
tically to Mr. BageliOt's statement that savages did not formerly
waste away before the classical nations, as they do now before
the modern civilised nations. He then went on to say ; —

I come now to the consideration of the subject of craniology
and craniography. Of the value of the entirety of the physical
history of a race there is no question ; but two very widely
opposed views exist as to the value of skull-measuring to the
ethnographer. According to the views of one school, cranio-
graphy and ethnography are all but convertible terms ; another
set of teachers insist upon the great width of the limits within
which normal human crania from one and the same race
may oscillate, and upon the small value which, under such cir-
cumstances, we can attach to differences expressed in tenths of
inches or even of centimetres. As usual, the truth will not be
found to be in either extreme view. For the proper performance
of a craniographic estimation, two very different processes are
necessary : one is the carrying out and recording a number of

measurements ; the other is the artistic appreciation of the
general impressions as to contour and type which the survey of
a series of skulls produce upon one. I have often thought that
the work of conducting an examination for a scholarship or fel-
lowship is very similarly dependent, when it is properly carried
out, upon the employment of two methods — one being the system
of marking, the other that of getting a general impression as to
the power of the several candidates ; and I would wish to be
understood to mean by this illustration not only that the two lines
of inquiry are both dependent upon the combination and counter-
checking of two different methods, but also that their results, like
the results of some other human investigations, must not be
always, even though they may be sometimes, considered to be
free from all and any need for qualification. Persons like M.
Broca and Prof. Aeby, who have carried out the most extensive
series of measurements, are not the persons who express them-
selves in the strongest language as to craniography being, the
universal solvent in ethnography or anthropology. Aeby, for
example, in his " Schadelformen der Menschen und der Affen,"
1867, p. 61, says: — "Aus dem gesagten geht hervor dass die
Stellung der Anthropologic gegeniiber den Schadelformen eine
ausserordentlich schwierige ist;" and the perpetual contradiction
of the results of the skull-measurements carried out by others,
which his paper (published in last year's " Archiv fiir Anthro-
pologic," pp. 12, 14, 20) abounds in, furnishes a practical com-
mentary upon the just quoted words. And Broca's words are
especially worth quoting, from the " Bulletin de la Societe
d' Anthropologic de Paris," Nov. 6, 1873, p. 824: — "Dans
I'etat actuel de nos connaissances la craniologie ne peut avoir la
pretention de voler de ses propres ailes, et de substituer ses
diagnostics aux notions fournies par I'ethnologie et par I'archseo-
logie."

I would venture to say that the way in which a person with the
command of a considerable number of skulls procured from some
one district in modern times, or from some one kind of tumulus or
sepulchre in prehistoric times, would naturally address. himself to
the work of arranging them in a museum, furnishes us with a con-
crete illustration of the true limits of craniography, I say, " a
person with the command of a considerable number of skulls ; " for,
valuable as a single skull may be, and often is, as furnishing the
missing link in a gradational series, one or two sku-Ils by them-
selves do not justify us (except in rare instances, which I will
hereinafter specify) in predicating anything as to their nationality.
Greater rashness has never been shown, even in a realm of
science from which rashness has only recently been proceeded
against under an Alien Act, than in certain speculations as to
the immigration of races into various corners ot the world, based
upon the casual discovery in such places of single skulls, which
skulls were identified on the ground of their individual cha-
racters as having belonged to races shown on no other evidence
to have ever set foot there.

It is, of course, possible enough for a skilled craniographer to
be right in referring even a single skull to some particular
nationality ; an Australian or an Eskimo, or an Andamanese
might be so referred with some confidence ; but all such successes
should be recorded with the reservation suggested by the words,
ubi eorum qui perierunt 'i and by the English line, " The many
fail, the one succeeds." They are the shots which have hit and
have been recorded. But if it is unsafe to base any ethnographic
conclusions upon the examination of one or two skulls, it is not
so when we can examine about ten times as many — ten, that is
to say, or twenty, the locality and the dates of which are known
as certain quantities. A craniographer thus fortunate casts his
eye over the entire series, and selects from it one or more which
correspond to one of the great types based by Retzius not merely
upon consideration of proportionate lengths and breadths, but
also upon the artistic considerations of type, curve, and contour.
He measures the skulls thus selected, and so furnishes himself
with a check which even the most practised eye cannot safely
dispense with. He then proceeds to satisfy himself as to whether
the entire series is referable to one alone of the two great typical
forms of Brachycephaly or Dolichocephaly, or. whether both
types are represented in it, and if so, in what proportions and
with what admbcture of intermediate forms. With a number of
Peruvian, or, indeed, of Western American skulls generally, of
Australian, ofTasmanian, of Eskimo, ofVeddah, of Andamanese
crania before him, the craniographer would nearly always, setting
aside a few abnormally aberrant (which are frequently morbid)
specimens, refer them all to one single type.*

* It is not by any means entirely correct to say that there is no variety
observable among races living in isolated savage urity. The good people of

Sept. 2, 1875]

NATURE

Z^Z

Matters would le very clilTert nt when the craniographer came
to deal with a mixed race like our own, or like the population of
Switzerland, the investigation into the craniology of which has
resulted in the production of the invaluable " Crania Helvetica"
of His and Riitimeyer. At once, upon the first inspection of a
series of crania, cr, indeed, of heads, from such a race, it is
evident some are referable to one, some to another, of one, two,
or three typical forms, and that a residue remains whose exist-
ence and character is perhaps explained and expressed by calling
them "Mischformen." Then arises a most interesting question
— Has the result of intercrossing been such as to give a
preponderance to these " Mischformen ? " or has it not rather
been such as in the ultimate resort, whilst still testified
to by the presence of intermediating and interconnecting links,
to have left the originally distinct forms still in something
like their original independence, and in the posEession of an
overwhelmed numerical representation ? The latter of these two
alternative possibilities is certainly often to be seen realised within
the hmits of a modern so-called "English" or so-called "British"
family ; and His has laid this down as bting the result of the
investigations above mentioned into the ethnology of Switzer-
land, At the same time it is of cardinal importance to note that
His has recorded, though only in a footnote, that the skulls
which combine the characters of his two best-defined types, the
" Sion-Typus " to wit, and the " Ditentis-Typus," in the
" Mischform," which he calls " Sion-Disentis Mischlinge," are
the most capacious of the entire series of the "Crania Hel-
vetica," exceeding, not by their maximum only, but by tlieir
average capacity also, the corresponding capacities of every one
of the pure Swiss types.* Intercrossing, therefore, is an agency
which in one set of cases may operate in the way of enhancing
individual evolution, whilst in another it so divides its influence
as to allow of the maintenance of two types in their distinctness.
Both these results are of equal biological, the latter is of pre-
eminent archceological, interest. Retziusf was of opinion, and
with a few qualifications I tb.ink more recent Swedish ethnolo-
gists would agree, that the modern dolichocephalic Swedish cra-
nium was very closely affined to, if not an exact reproduction of
the Swedish cranium of the Stone period ; and VirchowJ holds
that the modem brachycephalic Danish skull is similarly related
to the Danish skull of the «ame period. There can be no doubt
that the Swedish cranium is very closely similar indeed to the
Anglo-Saxon ; and the skulls which still conform to that type
amongst us will be by most men supposed to be the legitimate
representatives of the followers of Hengest and Horsa, just as
the modem Swedes, whose country has been less subjected to
disturbing agencies, must be held to be the lineal descendants of
the original occupiers of their soil. I am inclined to think that
the permanence of the brachycephalic stock and type in Den-
mark has also its bearing upon the ethnography of this country.
In the Round-Barrow or Bronze period in this country, sub-
spheroidal crania (that is to say, crania of a totally ditferent
shape and type from those which are found in exclusive posses-
sion of the older and longer barrows) are found in great abun-
dance, sometimes, as in the south, in exclusive possession of the
sepulchre, sometimes in company, as in the north, with skulls of
the older type. The skulls are often strikingly like those of the
same type from the Danish tumuli. On this coincidence I
should not stake much, were it not confirmed by other indica-
tions. And foremost amongst these indications I should place
the fact of the " Tree-interments," as they have been called —
interments, that is, in coffins made out of the trunk of a tree of
this country, and of Denmark, being so closely alike. The well-
known monoxylic coffin from Grisihorpe contained, together
with other relics closely similar to the relics found at Treenhoi,
in South Jutland, in a similar coffin, a skull which, as I can
testify from a cast given me by my friend Mr. H. S. Harland,
might very well pass for that of a brachycephalic Dane of
the Neolithic period. Canon Greenwell diiCuvered a similar

Baden who, when they first saw theip, said all the Baskhirs in a regiment
brought up to the Rhine in 18x3 by the Russians were as like to each other
as twins, found, in the course of a few weeks, that they could distinj^uish
them readily and sharply enough (Crania Germanix Occid. p. 2 ; Archiv fiir
Anthrop. v. p. 485, 1872). And real naturalists, such as IHr. Bates, prac-
tised in the discrimination of zoological differences, express themselves as
struck rather with the amount of unlikeness than with that of likeness which
prevails amongst savage tibes of the greatest simplicity of life and the most
entire Ireedom from crossing with other races. But these observations relate
to the living heads, not to the skulls.

* See Dr. Beddoe, Mem. Soc. Anth. Lond. iii. p. 532 ; Huth, p. 308,
1875 ; D. Wilson, cit. Brace, "Races of the Old World," p. 380.

+ " Ethnologische Schriften," p. 7.

X "Archiv fiir Anthropologie," iv. pp. 71 and 80.

monoxylic coffin at Skipton, in Yorkshire ; and two others have
been recorded from the same county, one from the neighbour-
hood of Driffield, the other from that of Thornborough.

Col. Lane Fox is of opinion that the earthworks which form
such striking objects for inquiry here and there on the East
Riding Wolds must, considering that the art of war has been
the same in its broad features in all ages, have been thrown up
by an invading force advancing from the east coast. Now, we
do know that England was not only made England by immigra-
tion from that corner or angle where the Cimbric Peninsula joins
the main land, but that long after that change of her name this
country was successlully invaded from that peninsula itself.
And what Swegen and Cnut did some four hundred and fifty
years after the time of Hengest and Horsa, it is not unreasonable
to suppose other warriors and other tribes from the same locality
may have done perhaps twice or thrice as many centuries further
back in time than the Saxon Conquest. The huge proportions
of the Cimbri, Teutones, and Ambroncs, are just what the skele-
tons of the British Round-Barrow folk enable us now to repro-
duce for ourselves. It is much to be regretted that from the vast
slaughters of Aquse Sextise and Vercella; no relics have beea
preserved which might have enabled us to say whether
Boiorix and his companions had the cephalic proportions of
Neolithic Danes, or those very different contours which we
are familiar with from Saxon graves throughout England, and
from the so-called "Danes' graves" of Yorkshire. Whatever
might be the result of such a discovery and such a comparison, I
think it would in neither event justify the application of the
term " Kymric" to the particular form of skuUto which Retzius
and Broca have assigned it.

Some years ago I noticed the absence of the brachycephalic
British type of skull from an extensive series of Romano- British
skulls which had come into my hands ; and subsequently to my
doing this. Canon Greenwell pointed out to me that such skulls
as we had from late Celtic cemeteries, belonging to the compara-
tively short period which elapsed between the end of the Bronze
period and the establishment of Roman rule in Great Britain,
seemed to have reverted mostly to the prse-Bronze dolichoce-
phalic type. This latter type, the " kumbecephalic type" of
Prof. Daniel Wilson, maniests a singular vitality, as the late
and much lamented Prof. Phillips pointed out long ago at a
meeting of this Association held at Swansea — the dark-haired
variety, which is very ordinarily the longer-headed and the
shorter-statured variety of our countrymen being represented in
very great abundance in those regions of England which can be
shown, by irrefragable and multifold evidence, to have been most
thoroughly permeated, imbibed, and metamorphosed by the in-
fusion of Saxons and Danes in the districts, to wit, of Derby,
Leice.ster, Stamford, and Loughborough. How and in what
way this type of man, one to which some of the most raluabl*
men now bearing the name of Enghshmen, which they once
abhorred, belong, has contrived to reassert itself, we may, if I
am rightly informed, hear some discussion in this department.
Before leaving this part of my subject I would say that the
Danish type of head still survives amongst us ; but it is to my
thinking not by any means so common, at least in the mid-
land counties, as the dark- haired type of which we have just
been speaking. And I would add that I hope I may find that
the views which I have here hinted at will be found to be in
accord with the extensive researches of Dr. Beddoe, a gentleman
who worthily represents and upholds the interests of anthro-
pology in this city, the city of Prichard, and who is considered
to be more or less disqualified for occupying the post which I
now hold, mainly from the fact that he has occupied it before,
and that the rules of the British Association, like the laws of
England, have more or less of an abhorrence of perpetuities.

The largest result which craniometry and cubage of skulls
have attained is, to my thinking, the demonstration of the fol-
lowing facts, viz. : — first, that the cubical contents of many
skulls from the earliest sepultures from which we have any skulls
at all, are larger considerably than the average cubical contents
of modem European skulls ; and secondly, that the female skulls
of those times did not contrast to that disadvantage with the
skulls of their male contemporaries which the average female
skulls of modern days do, when subjected to a similar com-
parison.* Dr. Thurnam demonstrated the former of these facts,
as regards the skulls from the Long and the Round Barrows of

* The subequality of the male and female skulls in the less civilised of
modem races was pointed out as long ago as 1845 by Retzius, in MiilUr'c
" Archiv," p. 89, and was comiaented upon by Husclkke, of Jena, im hit
" Schadel, Him, und Seele," pp. 48-51, in 1834.

M

NA tURE

[Sept. 2, 1875

Wiltshire, in the Memoirs of the London Anthropological
Society for 1865 ; and the names of Les Eyzies and Cro-Magnon,
and of the Caverne de I'Homme Mort, to which we may add
that of Solutre, remind us that the first of these facts has been
confirmed, and the second both indicated and abundantly com-
mented upon by M. Broca.

The impression which these facts" make upon one, "when one
first comes to realise them, is closely similar to that which is
made by the first realisation to the mind of the existence of a
subtropical flora in Greenland in Miocene times. All our antici-
pations are precisely reversed, and in each case by a weight of
demonstration equivalent to such a work ; there is no possibility
in either case of any mistake ; and we acknowledge that all that
we had expected is absent, and that where we had looked for
poverty and pinching there we ceme upon luxurious and exube-
rant growth. The comparisons we draw in either case between
the past and the present are not wholly to the advantage of the
latcer : still such are the facts. Philologists will thank me for
reminding them of Mr. Chauncy Wright's brilliant suggestions
that the large relative size of brain to body which distinguishes,
and always, so far as we know, has distinguished the human
species as compared with the species most nearly related to it,
may be explained by the psychological tenet that the smallest
proficiency in the faculty of language may "require more brain
power than the greatest in any other direction," and that " we
do not know and have no means of knowing what is the quan-
tity of intellectual power as measured by brains which even the
simplest use of language requires. *

And for the explanation of the pre-eminently large size of the
brains of these particular representatives of our species, the
tenants of prehistoric sepulchres, we have to bear in mind, first,
that they were, as the smallness of their numbers and the large-
ness of the tumuli lodging them may be taken to prove, the
chiefs of their tribes ; and, secondly, that modern savages have
been known, and prehistoric savages may therefore be supposed,
to have occasionally elected their chiefs to their chieftainships
upon grounds furnished by their superior fitness for such posts —
that is to say, for their superior energy and ability. Some per-
sons may find it difficult to believe this, though such facts are
deposed to by most thoroughly trustworthy travcliei-s, such as
Baron Osten Sacken, referred to by Von Bacr, in the Report of the
famous Anthropological Congress at Gottingen, in 1861, p. 22.
And they may object to accepting it, for, among other reasons,
this reason — to wit, that Mr. Galton has shown us in his "Men
of Science, their Nature and Nurture," p. 98, that men of great
energy and activity (that is to say just the very men fitted to act
as leaders of and to commend themselves to savages)+ have ordi-
narily smaller-sized heads than men possessed of intellectual
power dissociated fi-om those qualities.

The objection I specify, as well as those which I allude to,
may have too much weight assigned to them ; but we can waive
this discussion and put our feet on firm ground when we say that
in all savage communities the chiefs have a larger share of food
and other comforts, such as there are in savage life, and have
consequently better and larger frames — or, as the Rev. S. Whit-
mee puts it [I.e.), when observing on the fact as noticed by him
in Polynesia, a more "portly bearing." This (which, as the
size of the brain increases within certain proportions with the
increase of the size of the body, is a material fact in every sense)
has been testified to by a multitude of other observers, and is, to
my mind, one of the most distinctive marks of savagery as
opposed to civilisation. It is only in times of civilisation that
men of the puny stature of Ulysses or Agesilaus are allowed
their proper place in the management of affairs. And men of
such physical size, coupled with such mental calibre, may take
comfort, if they need it, from the purely quantitative conside-
ration, that large as are the individual skulls from prehistoric
graves, and high, too, as is the average obtained from a number
of them, it has nevertheless not been shown that the largest indi-
vidual skulls of those days were larger than, or, indeed, as large
as the best skulls of our own days ; whilst the high average
capacity which the former series shows is readily explicable by
the very obvious consideration that the poorer specimens of
humanity, if allowed to live at all in those days, were, at any
rate, when dead not allowed sepulture in the "tombs of the
* The bibliographer will thank me also for pointing out to him that the
important paper in the North American Review for October 1870, p. 295,
from which 1 have just quoted, has actually escaped the wonderfully
exhaustive research of Dr. Seidlitz (see his " Darwin'sche Theorie," 1875).
+ Ad inieresting and instructive story in illustration of the kind of quali-
s which do recommend a man to savages, is told us by Sir Bartle Frere
his pamphlet, " Christianity suited to all forms of Civilisation," pp. 12-14.

kings," from which nearly exclusively we obiain our prehistoric
crania. M. Broca * has given us yet further ground for retaining
our self-complacency by showing, from his extensive series of
measurements of the crania from successive epochs in Parisian
burial-places, that the average capacity has gone on steadily
increasing.

It may be suggested that a large brain, as calculated by the
cubage of the skull, may nevertheless have been a comparatively
lowly organised one, from having its molecular constitution quali-
tatively inferior from the neuroglia being developed to the disad-
vantage of the neurine, or from having its convolutions few and
simple, and being thus poorer in the aggregate mass of its grey
ossicular matter. It is perhaps impossible to dispose absolutely
of either of these suggestions. But, as regards the first, it seems
to me to be exceedingly improbable that such could have been
the case. For in cases where an overgrowth of neuroglia has
given the brain increase of bulk without giving it increase of its
true nervous elements, the Scotch proverb, " Muckle brain,
mickle wit, " applies ; and the relatively inferior intelligence of
the owners of such brains as seen nowadays may, on the prin-
ciple of continuity, be supposed to have attached to the owners
of such brains in former times. But those times were times of
a severer struggle for existence than even the present ; and
inferior intelligences, and specially the inferior quickness and
readiness observable in such cases, it may well be supposed,
would have fared worse then than now. There is, however,
no need for this supposition, for, as a matter of fact, the brain-
case of brains so hypertrophied t has a very recognisable shape
of its own, and this shape is not the shape of the Cro-Magnon
skull, nor indeed of any of the prehistoric skulls with whicli I
am acquainted.

As regards the second suggestion to the effect that a large
braincase may have contained a brain the convolutions of which
were simple, broad, and coarse, and which made up by conse-
quence a sheet of grey matter of less square area than that made
up in a brain of similar size, but of more complex and slenderer
convolutions, I have to say that it is possible this may have been
the case, but that it seems to me by no means likely. Very large
skulls arc sometimes found amongst collections purporting to
have come from very savage or degraded races ; such a skull
may be seen in the London Colle^je of Surgeons with a label,
"5357 ^- Bushman, G. Williams. Presented by Sir John
Lubbock ;" and, from what Prof. Marshall and Gratiolet have
taught us as to other Bushman brains, smaller, it is true, in size,
we may be inclined to think that the brain which this large skull
once contained may nevertheless have been much simpler in its
convolutions than a European brain of similar size would
be. This skull, however, is an isolated instance of such propor-
tions amongst Bushman skulls, so far, at least, as I have
been able to discover ; whilst the skulls of prehistoric times,
though not invariably, are yet most ordinarily large skulls. A
large brain with coarse convolutions puts its possessor at a di^ad-
vaniage in the struggle for existence, as its greater size is not
compensated by greater dynamical activity ; and hence I should
be slow to explain the large size of ancient skulls by suggesting
that they contained brains of this negative character. And I am
glad to see that M. Broca is emphatically of this opinion, and
that, after a judicious statement of the whole case, he expresses
himself thus (/vdOT^i! cT Anthropologic, ii. I, 38) : — " Kien ne per-
met done de supposer que les rapports de la masse encephalique
avec I'intelligence fussent autres chez eux que chez nous."

It is by a reference to the greater severity of the struggle for
existence and to the lesser degree to which the principle of
division of labour was carried out in olden days, that M. Broca,
in his paper on the " Caverne de I'Homme Mort," just quoted
from, explains the fact of the subequality of the skulls in the two
sexes. This is an adequate explanation of the facts ; but to the
facts as already stated, I can add from my own experience the
fact that though the female skulls of prehistoric times are often
they are not always equal, or nearly, to those of the male sex of
those times ; and, secondly, that whatever the relative size of the
head, the limbs and trunk of the female portion of those tribes
were, as is still the case with modem savages, very usually dis-
proportionately smaller than those of the male. This is

* See his paper " Bull. Soc. Anthrop. de Paris," t. iii. ser. i. 1862, p. 102 ;
or his collected " Memoires,"^vol. i. p. 348, 1871.

t I may, perhaps, be allowed to express here my surprise at the statement
made by Messrs Wilks and Moxon, in their very valuable "Pathological
Anatomy," pp. 217, 218, to the effect that they have not met with such cases
of cerebral hypertrophy. They were common enough at the Children's
Hospital in Great Ormond Street when I was attached to it.

Sept. 2, 1875J

NATURE

385

readily enough explicable by a reference to the operations of
causes exemplifications of the working of which are unhappily
not far to seek now, and may be found in any detail you please
in those anthropologically interesting (however otherwise un-
pleasant) documents, the Police Reports.

Having before my mind the liability we are all under falla-
ciously to content ourselves with recording the shots which hit, I
must not omit to say that one at least of the more recently
propounded doctrines in craniology does not seem to me to be
firmly established. This is the doctrine of "occipital dolicho-
cephaly " being a characteristic of the lower races of modem
days and of prehistoric races as compared with modern civilised
races. I have not been able to convince myself by my own
measurements of the tenability of this position ; and I observe
that Ihering has expressed himself to the sa«ie effect, appending
his measurements in proof of his statements in his paper, " Zur
Reform der Craniometrie," published in the " Zeitschrift fiir
Ethnologie " for 1873. The careful and colossal measurements
of Aeby * and Welsbach f have shown that the occipital region
enjoys wider limits of oscillation than either of the other divi-
sions of the cranial vault. I have some regret in saying this,
partly because writers on such subjects as "Literature and
Dogma " have already made use of the phrase '* occipitally
dolichocephalic," as if it represented one of the permanent ac-
quisitions of science ; and I say it with even more regret, as it
concerns the deservedly honoured names •f Gratiolet and of
Broca, to whom anthropology owes so much. What is true in
the doctrine relates, among other things, to what is matter
of common observation as to the fore part of the head rather
than to anything which is really constant in the back part
of the skull. This matter of common observation is to the
effect that when the ear is "well forward" in the head
we do ill to augur well of the intelligence of its owner.
Now, the fore part of the brain is irrigated by the carotid
arteries, which, though smaller in calibre during the first years
of life, during which the brain so nearly attains its full size, than
they are in the adult, are nevertheless relatively large even in
those early days, and are both absolutely, and relatively to the
brain which they have to nourish, much larger than the vertebral
arteries, which feed its posterior lobes. It is easy therefore to
see that a brain in which the fore part supplied by the carotids
has been stinted of due supplies of food, or however stunted in
growth, is a brain the entire length and breadth of which is
likely to be ill-nourished. As I have never seen reason to be-
lieve in any cerebral localisation which was not explicable by a
reference to vascular irrigation, it was with much pleasure that
I read the remarks of Messrs. Wilks and Moxon in their recently
published "Pathological Anatomy," pp. 207, 208, as to the in-
dications furnished by the distribution of the Tacchionian bodies
as to differences existing in the blood-currents on the back and
those on the fore part of the brain. These remarks are the
more valuable, as mere hydraulics, Professor Clifton assures me,
would not have so clearly pointed out what the physiological
upgrowths seem to indicate. Any increase, again, in the length
of the posterior cerebral arteries is pro tanto a disadvantage to
the parts they feed. If the blood- current, as these facts seem to
show, is slower^ in the posterior lobes of the brain, it is, upon
purely physical principles of endosmosis and exosmosis, plain that
these segments of the brain are less efficient organs for the mind
to work with ; and here again, " occipital dolichocephaly " would
have a justification, though one founded on the facts of the nutri-
tion of the brain-cells, not on the proportions of the braincase.
In many (but not in all) parts of Continental Europe, again, the
epithet " long-headed " would not have the laudatory connotation
which, thanks to our Saxon blood, and in spite of the existence
amongst us of other varieties of dolichocephaly, it still retains
here. Now, the brachycephalic head which, abroad J at least,
is ordinarily a more capacious one, and carried on more vigorous
shoulders and by more vigorous owners altogether, than the
dolichocephalic, strikes a man who has been used to live amongst
dolichocephali by nothing more forcibly, when he first comes to
take notice of it, than by the nearness of its external ear to the
back of the head ; and this may be said to constitute an artistic
occipital brachycephalism. But this does not imply that the
converse condition is to be found conversely correlated, nor does

• Aeby, "Schadelform des Menschen und der Affen," pp. 11, 12, and
128.
t:Weisbach, "Die Schad
X See upon this point :-

t^Weisbach, "Die Schadelform der Boumanen," P- 321 1869.
-Broca, Bull. Soc. Anth. Paris, ii. p.
ibid. Dec. s, 1872 ; Virchow, Archiv fiir Anth. v. p. 535 ; Zeitschrift fiir

648, 1861 ;

Ethnol. iv. 2, p. 36; Sammlungen, ix, 193, p. 45, 1874 ; Beddoe, Mem. Anth.
Soc. Lond. ii. p. 350.

it justify the use of the phrase " occipital dolichocephaly " in
any etymological, nor even in any ethnographical, sense.

I shall now content myself, as far as craniology is concerned,
by an enumeration of some at least of the various recent memoirs
upon the .subject which appear to me to be of pre-eminent value.
And foremost amongst these I will mention Professor Cleland's
long and elaborate scientific and artistic paper on the Variations
of the Human Skull, which appear in the " Philosophical
Transactions " for 1869. Next I will name Ecker's admirable,
though shorter, memoir on Cranial Curvature, which appeared
in the "Archiv fiir Anthropologic," a journal already owing
much to his labours, in the year 1871. Aeby's writings I have
already referred to, and Ihering's, to be found in recent numbers
of the "Archiv fiir Anthropologie " and the "Zeitschrift fiir
Ethnologie," deserve your notice. Prefessor Bischoff's paper
on the Mutual Relations of the horizontal circumference of the
Skull and of its contents to each other and to the weight of the
Brain, has not, as I think, obtained the notice which it deserves.
It is to be found in the " Proceedings " of the Royal Society of
Munich for 1864, the same year which witnessed the publication
of the now constantly quoted " Crania Helvetica," of Professors
His and Riitimeyer. Some of the most important results con-
tained in this work, and much important matters besides, was
made advailable to the exclusively English reader by Professor
Huxley two years later, in the " Pre-historic Remains of
Caithness." I have made a list, perhaps not an exhaustive one,
but containing some dozen memoirs by Dr. Beddoe, and having
read them or nearly all of them, I can with a very safe con-
science recommend you all to do the like. I can say nearly the
same as regards Broca and Virchow, adding that the former of
these two savaits has set the other two with v/hom I have
coupled him an excellent example, by collecting and publishing
his papers in consecutive volumes.

But I should forget not only what is due to the place in which
I am speaking, but what is due to the • subject I am here con-
cerned with, if, in speaking of its literature, I omitted the
name of your own townsman, Prichard. He has been called,
and, I think, justly, the " father of modern anthropology,"
I am but putting the same thing in other words, and adding
something more specific to it, when I compare his works to
those of Gibbon and Thirlwall, and say that they have attained
and seem likely to maintain permanently a position and import-
ance commensurate with that of the "stately and undecaying"
productions of those great English historians. Subsequently to
the first appearance of those histories other works have appeared
by other authors, who have dealt in them with the same periods
of time. I have no wish to depreciate those works ; their
authors have not rarely rectified a slip and corrected an error
into which their great predecessors had fallen. Nay, more, the
later comers have by no means neglected to avail themselves of tlie
advantages which the increase of knowledge and the vast
political experience of the last thirty years have put at their
disposal, and they have thus occasionally had opportunities of
showing more of the true proportions and relations of even
great events and catastrophes. Still the older works retain a
lasting value, and will remain as solid testimonies to English
intellect and English capacity for large undertakings as long as
our now rapidly extending language and literature live. The
same may be most truthfully said of Prichard's "Researches
into the Physical History of Mankind. " An increase of know-
ledge may supply us with fresh and with stronger arguments than
he could command for some of the great conclusions for which
he contended ; such, notably, has been the case in the question
(though question it can no longer be called) of the Unity of the
human species ; and by the employment of the philosophy of
continuity and the doctrine of evolution, with which the world
was not made acquainted till more than ten years after Prichard's
death, many a w eaker man than he has been enabled to bind
into more readily manageable burdens the vast collections of facts
with which he had to deal. Still his works remain, massive,
impressive, enduring — much as the headlands along our southern
coast stand out in the distance in their own grand outlines, whilst
a close and minute inspection is necessary for the discernment of
the forts and fosses added to them, indeed dug out of their
substance in recent times. If we consider what the condition of
the subject was when Prichard addressed himself to it, we shall
be the better qualified to take and make an estimate of his
merits. This Prichard has himself described to us, in a passage
to be found in the preface to the third volume of the third
edition of the " Physical History," published in the year 1841,
and reminding one forcibly of a similar utterance of Aristotle's

;86

NATURE

[Sept. 2, 1875

at the end of one of his logical treatises (Soph. Elench. cap.
xxxiv. 6). These are his words : —

" No other writer has surveyed the same field, or any great
part ot it, from a similar point of view. . . . The lucubrations
of Herder and other diffuse writers of the same description, while
some of them possess a merit of their own, are not concerned in
the same design, or directed towards the same scope. Their
object is to portray national character as resulting from combined
influences — physical, moral, and political. They abound in
generalisations, often in the speculative flights of a discursive
fancy, and afi"ord little or no aid for the close induction from
facts, which is the aim of the present work. Nor have these
inquiries often come within the view of writers on geography,
though the history of the globe is very incomplete without that
of its human inhabitants." A generation has scarcely passed
away since these words were published in 1841 ; we are living in
1875 ; yet what a change has been eff'ected in the condition of
anthropological literature ! The existence of such a dignified
quarterly as the "Archiv fiir Anthropologie, " bearing on its title-
page in alphabetical order the honoured names of V. Baer, of
Desor, of Ecker, of Hellwald, of His, of Lindenschmidt, of
Lucte, of Rutimeyer, of Schaafhausen, of Semper, of Virchow,
of Vogt, and of Welcker, is in itself perhaps the most striking
evidence of the advance made in this time, as being the most
distinctly ponderable and in every sense the largest anthropological
publication of the day.

ArchcEology, which but a short time back was studied in a
way which admirably qualified its devotees for being called
"connoisseurs," but which scarcely qualified them for being
called men of science, has by its alliance with natural history
and its adoption of natural history methods, and its availing
itself of the light afforded by the great natural history principles
just alluded to, entered on a new career. There is, as regards
natural history, anatomy, and pathology, nothing left to be
desired for the conjoint scheme represented by the periodical
just mentioned, where we have V. Baer for the first and Virchow
for the last, and the other names specified for the rest of these
subjects ; whilst archa;ology, the other party in the .alliance, is
very adequately represented by Lindenschmidt alone. But when
I recollect that Prichard published a work " On the Eastern
Origin of the Celtic Nations " ten years before the volume of
"Researches," from which I have just quoted, and that this
work has been spoken of as the work "which has made the
greatest advance in Comparative Philology during the present
century," I cannot but feel that the Redaction of the "Archiv
fiir Anthropologie " have not as yet learnt all that may be leamt
from the Bristol Ethnologist ; and they would do well to add to
the very strong staff represented on their title-page the name of
some one, or the names of more than one comparative
philologist. This the Berlin " Zeitschrift " has done.

Prof. Rolleston concluded by a few words on the possible
curative application of some of the leading principles of modem
Anthropology to some of the prevalent errors of the day.

MEETING OF THE ASTRONOMISCHE
GESELLSCHAFT AT LEYDEN, AUGUST 13-16.

The sixth biennial meeting of the Astronomische Gesell-
schaft, founded in the year, 1863, at Heidelberg took place this
year at Leyden, according to the international character of the
Society, and in conformity with the resolution of the last meet-
ing at Hamburg. The first session was opened by the President,
O. Struve, in the rooms of the magnificent Observatory at
Leyden. Besides him were present the following members : Auer-
bach,'.Bruhns,iEngelmann, Scheibner, and Zollner from Leipzig;
"Winnecke, and Hartwig from Strassburg ; H. G. Bakhuyzen,
E.F. Bakhuyzen, Kaiser, Schlegel and Valentiner, from Leyden ;
Gyldenfrom Stockholm, Repsold from Hamburg, v, d. Willigen
from Harlem, Forster and Tietjen from Berhn, Seeliger from
Bonn, Bruns from Dorpat, Kortazzi from Nikolajew, Palisa
from Pola, Bosscha from the Hague, Block from Odesa.

After an address from the Curator of the Leyden University,
Baron Gevers van Endegeest, in which he spoke of the great
merits of the late Director of the Leyden Observatory, the
eminent Kaiser, and his exertions in promoting astronomical
studies in Netherland, the usual statistical notices were read.
The President stated that after the conclusion of the Ham-
urg meeting the number of members was 231, that 28 new

members had been admitted, while the loss by death or other-
wise had been 24, so that the actual number of members was
235. He gave biographical notices of some of the deceased
members, Hoek, Modler, Argelander, "Winlock, and d'Arrest.
The treasurer, Auerbach, read the balance of the two last years'
income and expenses ; the secretary, Prof. Winnecke, reported
that the publications of the Gesellschaft published were :
Publicatiop No. xiii. ; Sporer, " Beobachtungen der Sonnen-
flecken zu Anelam mit 23 Tafeln," and " Vierteljahrsschrifc der
Astron. Gesellschaft," (vol. viii., 3, 4, vol. ix., vol. x., i, 2, 3).
Prof. Scheibner reported on the library and mentioned, amongst
others, the very valuable gift of all the manuscripts of the great
astronomer of Gotha, Hansen, made by his widow to the
society.

Prof. Bruhns gave an account of the progress of work on
comets, undertaken by the Society. Of especial interest was
the communication and discussion on Encke's comet.

Prof. Scheibner presented the first copy of a posthumous
memoir of Hansen on the Pertubations of Jupiter, and explained
the present state of the undertaking.

Prof. Bruhns exhibited an apparatus for the graphical solu-
tion of Kepler's problem, and explained its use. The same
communicated a description of a new photometer, the execution
of which was in progress. Prof. Zollner explained then, by a
model, some improvements of his well-known photometer,
through which it becomes more easily adapted to all kinds of
telescopes. Some observations of Mars, made by Kononewitsch,
appear to indicate a real diminution in the brightness of
Mars.

Prof. Bakhuyzen laid before the Society two manuscript
volumes, bought lately ^by the Leyden Observatory, "the Areo-
graphischen Fragmente by Schroter" long reputed to be losf.
Besides these, he exhibited the very interesting diagrams of
Mars made two centuries ago by the celebrated Huyghens.

Dr. Engelmann of Leipzig announced that he is preparing ft r
press an edition of Bessel's various smaller papers.

At the second meeting, August 14, the members Astrar.<I
(Bergen), Gelmuyden (Christiania), Hohwii (Amsterdam), Neu-
mayer (Berlin) were present, and six new members were
admitted .

The Council gave the Report on the progress of the Meri-
dional Zone work by which all stars down to the 9th inclination
between 80° north and 2 south declination are catalogued. The
following observatories partake in this great work : Kasan,
Dorpat, Christiania, Helsingfors, Cambridge (U.S.), Bonn,
Chicago, Leyden, Cambridge (England), Berlin, Leipzig,
Neuenbu rg, Nikolajew.

It was then to be decided where the Gesellshaft would meet
the next time. After an invitation by Prof. Gylden from Stock-
holm, the Gesellshaft decided on Stockholm for the seventh
biennial meeting.

Prof. Forster of Berlin ihade a detailed communication on the
situation of different- Astronomical Institutions of Berlin, including
those which are in the course of construction. The erection of
the Astro-physical Observatory near Potsdam is in good progress.
It has not yet been possible to appoint a Director for this ex-
tensive institution ; meanwhile the services of Prof. Sporer, Dr.
Vogel, and Dr. Lohse are secured for it. This new institution
is intended to promote science principally in the higher optics,
and their application to astronomy, while the Observatory at
Berlin and the Institution for exact Numerical Computation
under the direction of Prof. Tietjen will pursue their given
ways.

Proi. Bakhuyzen exhibited a new wire micrometer, sent by
Merz, and explained its pecularities. Prof. Gylden gave a new
solution of Kepler's problem with the aid of elliptical functions,
and distributed some copies of a memoir on the use of elliptical
integrals in the theory of the motion of the heavenly bodies.
Dr. Palisa explained the construction of the new meridian circle
at Pola by many large plates. Different papers sent to the
meeting by Astrand, Covarrubias, Lockyer, and Struve were laid
on the table. '

The Observatory at Brussels appears, after the loss of its
founder and genial director, Professor Quetelet, to be in a critical
position. The Astronomische Gesellsshaft resolvediunanimously,
that it is to, be wished that the distinguished activity exhibited
by the Brussels Observatory in the determination of the places of
stars with sensible proper motion, may be maintained, and if
pcssible, improved by completing its instrumental means. It is
in the interest of science to reduce and print the results of the
measures in question as soon as possible.

Sept. 2, 1875J

NA TURE

387

At the third meeting, August 16, Covarrubias from Mexico,
and Metzger from Java were present.

After the discussion of various business matters, the Zone
observations, the computations on minor planets, and the reduc-
tion of the observations made during the transit of Venus 1874,
December 8, Engineer Metzger made from Java 'different
communications on the astronomical and geodetlcal proceedings
at Java. Professor Scheibner spoke on the use of the theory of
elliptical functions in the theory of perturbations, and communi-
cated a prize-question concerning this matter by the Tablonowski
Society at Leipzig. He also communicated very interesting
results of his researches in dioptrics.— Professor Neumayer gave
a statement on the regulations and field of labour of the Hydro-
graphical Office at Berlin, and of the Scientific Institutions under
its direction, the Observatory at Wilhelmshaven and the Deutsche
Seewarte at Hamburg. Professor Winnecke described the new
orbit-sweeper of the Strasburg Observatory, and announced the
beginning of a review of the nebula. The equipment of the
new Observatory at Strasburg is made with the direct intention
of activity in this branch of astronomy. — Professor Bruhns
remarked, that at the Leipzig Observatory charts for the nebula
are made, which are visible in a comet-seeker. — Professor Bakhuy-
zen communicated his researches on the latitude of Greenwich,
and its diminution in the later years.

The election of the New Council concluded the meeting :
President, Professor Struve ; Vice-President, Professor Bruhns ;
Secretaries, Professors Schonfeld and Winnecke,

NOTES

The Valorous, which accompanied the two Arctic ships, the
Alert and the Discovery, as far asDisco, with coals and provisions,
arrived at Plymouth on Sunday. She has really nothing remark-
able to tell, which is so far satisfactory. Severe storms were
met with in crossing the Atlantic, but all three vessels seem to
have borne themselves well, though the Alert and Discovery each
lost a whale boat, a loss which was made up to them by the
Valorous before leaving Disco. The Valorous was the first to
reach Disco, which she did on July 4, the other two not coming
up till the 6th. The ships remained together at Disco till the
15th, the two exploring vessels filling up from their consort as
much coals and provisions as they could stow away. During
their stay at Disco, officers and men seem to have enjoyed them-
selves and to have been treated with the greatest courtesy and
kindness by the Danish officials and the natives. Mr. Kraup
Smith, the Inspector of North Greenland, had orders from his
Government to pay every attention to the Expedition, and he
carried out his instructions most liberally. He provided the
Expedition with sixty-four dogs and an Esquimaux. While at
Disco the naturalists of the three ships were employed collecting
botanical and geological specimens on shore and dredging in and
outside the harbour. A very large number of plants were found,
some believed to have been previously unknown in this part of
Greenland. The Alert and Discovery\\z.s\nz been put into com.
plete trim, the Expedition left Godhavn on July 15, and on the
1 6th the Valorous took leave of her consort ships, after seeing
them fairly on their way to their work in the high north. The
Danish officials' reports as to the weather are favourable, leading
to the belief that the navigation of Melville Bay and northwards
will be comparatively easy. It is hoped that suitable winter
quarters will be found for the Discovery on the north shore of
Lady Franklin's Strait, from whence hunting parties will issue.
The /i/tv/ will then press onwardsj alone to the north, landing
depots, building cairns with records at intervals of about sixty
miles. The surest way of reaching the Pole, in Captain Nares's
opinion, is not to risk failure by pushing forward away from the
land. The Alert will probably winter in 84° and begin sledge
travelling so as to get information of the country, and then in
the summer of 1876 will push boldly northwards. The grand
achievement will be done by a system of depots and auxiliary
.vledges, enabling the foremost to be absent about 112 days, and
to advance upwards of 500 miles from the ship. The Discoi'ery,

in the meantime, will go on exploring and advancing slowly.
At the British Association on Tuesday, a paper by Mr. C. H.
Markham, who accompanied his cousin to Disco in the Alert,
was read ; and Mr. Carpenter, who with Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys
sailed in the Valorous for dredging purposes, added a few words.
He said, when they parted with the Alert and Discovery they had
every reason to believe from the state of the wind and weather
that the Expedition would go on favourably. He thought it was
more than probable that the Discovery was now in her winter
quarters, and the Alert was somewhere further north. The letters
which the ships wo aid deposit would probably reach England
before Christmas, and after that it is not likely they would hear
anything of them until next summer, or perhaps later. On its
way home the Valorous struck on a sunkea rock to the north of
Ilolsteinberg, but happily came off without serious damage.
Temperature, soundings, and dredgings were made by the
Valorous in its homeward journey, many interesting forms
having been obtained. In a series of temperature soundings
taken, 33° and a decimal was found to be the lowest When
the Valorous parted wiih the Expedition everybody on board the
two ships was in perfect health.

The annual meeting of the Ray Society was held at Bristol
on Friday ; Sir Philip Egerton presided. The Report of the
Council stated that the arrears in the issue of volumes were at last
overcome. The volumes for 1873 and 1874 had been distributed,
and much advance had been made in the " Memoir on the
Aphides," by Mr. G. B. Buckton, proposed as the volume for
1875. The very beautiful plates drawn and presented to the
Society by Mr. Buckton are now with the colourer, and the
whole will be sent to the binder probably in November. In
addition to Mr. Mivart's monograph on the Tailed Amphibia,
and Prof. Westwood's on the Mantidae, Mr. G. Brady has pro-
mised a work on the Copepoda, and it is found that the MSS.
and sketches of the late Mr. Hancock are sufficient to complete
the long-promised monograph on the British Tunicata. The
balance-sheet showed over 214/. in hand. The names of Prof.
Bentley, Mr. Hudson, Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys, and Mr. Mennell were
withdrawn from the Council, and those of Dr. A. Carpenter,
Mr. Collinson, Mr. Currey, and Dr. Millar were substituted for
them. Sir Philip Egerton was re-elected president, Mr. S. J. A.
Salter treasurer, and the Rev. Thomas Wiltshire secretary ;
and cordial votes of thanks were given to them for their services.

The Nantes Meeting of the French Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science was brought to a close last Thursday. It
has been decided with much propriety that next year's meeting
will be held at Clermont Ferrand, where the new Observatory
of Puy de Dome is sure to prove a great attraction. The
Observatory will be then in working order, and every-
thing will be ready for the inspection of visitors. Havre
has been chosen as the meeting-place for 1877. This meeting is
sure to be a success, Havre being almost to Paris what Brighton
is to London. M. Dumas has been appointed a vice-president
of the permanent council in room of M. Faye, who has resigned.
The accession of M. Dumas in the governing body is sure to
infuse new life into the Association. Most of the foreigners
present belonged to Oriental nations, being Greeks, Ottomans,
or Persians. We hope to give an abstract of the proceedings
next week.

The twelfth congress of the Italian Scientific Associations was
opened at Palermo on Aug. 29 by Count Mamiani, in presence
of an audience exceeding two thousand persons. Count Mamiani
began by thanking the Municipality of Palermo for the hospit-
able reception it had given brother Italians as well as strangers,
and explained that the future Congress will assemble under the
new name of the Italian Association for the Promotion of
Science. No longer representing a little aristocracy of savants.

388

NATURE

\Sept. 2, 1875

it would embrace all Italy. Nothing nowadays can flourish
which has not its root in the people. Great individuals have
given place to the co-operating multitude, and the sole thing left
for the people to reverence is science — the one surviving deity on
the deserts of Olympus. In Palermo, the city of the chivalric
Normans and the knightly Suabian Frederic, chivalry survives,
but its tournaments are philosophical discussions, and its mistress
is science, which is the immortal poetry of nature and truth.
Count Mamiani then signalised Sicily's services to science, and
spoke of what she will yet do for meteorology.

Petermann's MittJieilungen for September will contain the
following among other papers :— On the Linguistic Divisions of
Elsass-Lothringen, with a map coloured to show the districts
in which Dutch, German, and mixed Dutch and French are
spoken. — Travels in the Republic of Guatemala in 1870, by
Dr. G. Bemouilli, concluded from previous numbers. — Remarks
on a Map of Western Australia, which will accompany the num-
ber.—Under the title of " Bilder aus dem hohen Norden,"
Lieut. Weyprecht will commence a series of Sketches of Pheno-
mena in the Arctic Regions'; the article in the September number
dealing with the Aurora and the Ice.

M. Brazza, an ensign in the French navy, and M. Marche, a
traveller, who has already made important discoveries on the
banks of the Ogove, left Paris last week for Toulon, in order
to resume the exploration of Tropical Africa, and to discover the
sources of the river just named. They will stay for some time
Saint Louis, the chief town ofthe Senegal settlements, ""and recruit
a number of Laptots chosen from among the negroes engaged
under the French colours. The expedition is supported by the
Society of Geography, private subscriptions, and a small grant
given by the French Government. The principal resource is
the sale of objects of natural history, which are so numerous in
a country rich in plants, birds, and animals of every description.
They are to be sent to M. Bouvier, the well-known naturalist of
Paris, and catalogues will from time to time be circulated. The
exploration will last for five years.

M. Leverrier has published in the Paris papers a notice
intimating that the Observatory will be opened for observations
three times a week, from half- past seven, weather per-
mitting. Two large telescopes are placed at the disposal of
visitors, who may procure a letter of admission by writing to the
Secretary of the Observatory.

The reforms which the French Minister of Public Instruction
is preparing for the next University term are so numerous
that no holidays will be granted to the employes of the Ministry
of Public Instruction this year.

The French Government have published in the Journal
Officiel of August 24 a decree notifying the precautions to be
observed by manufacturers of explosives in which dynamite is
the base. The precautions, which are numerous, have been most
carefully drawn up by a special commission, and are worthy of
general attention.

In the Paris International Maritime Exhibition there is a
small object deserving of notice. It is a platinum wire placed
in a bottle and ignited by electricity from a bichromate battery.
It is intended to be immersed in the sea, and the light emanating
from it is said to attract an immense number of fishes. Experi-
ments have been tried lately on the coast of the Cotes du Nord
department with a fishing-boat, and have proved very satisfactory,
on a bank of sardines. The glass must be green or black, other-
wise the fish are frightened by the glare and do not follow the
submarine light.

The Civilian states that Major-Gen. Cameron, R.E., C.B.,
has been appointed Director ;^of the Ordnance Survey of Great
Britaiiv and Ireland.

The Russian expedition to Hissar has resulted in a complete
elucidation, from a scientific point of view, ofthe questions con-
nected with the llissar and Kuliaba rivers. All the important
towns in the country have been visited, astronomical observations
have been taken at fourteen places, and the members ofthe expedi-
tion are in a position to draw up a complete map of the country.
Moreover, a map of military routes has been draughted and an
entomological collection has. been made. The Expedition has
discovered that the Turkham river, whose very existence was so
long doubted by geographers, is one of the most important tribu-
taries to the Amu, and that the Drongate Pass, now called Busgol
Kham, fully bears out the formidable accounts of Asiatic
travellers.

The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the
past week include five Bonnet Monkeys (Macacus radlatus)
from India ; a Yellow Bdhoon [Cynocephalus lal/ouiit), and a
Sykes's Monkey {Ccrcopithccus aliigularis), from W. Africa,
presented by Mr. J. B. Tunnard ; a Common Marmoset
{Ilapale jaccJms) from S. E. Brazil, presented by Mrs. Puente ;
a Darwin's Pucras {Pucrasia darwini) from China ; an Indian
Cobra {Naja tripudians) from India, deposited ; and an Axis
Deer {Cei-mis axis) bom in the Gardens.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

Paris
Academy of Sciences, August 23. — M. Fremy in the chair.
The following papers were read : — Comparison of the theoi-y of
Saturn with the observations ; Tables of Saturn's motion ; by
M. Leverrier. — Theorems into which a condition of equality of
two rectilinear segments enters, by M. Chasles. — MM. Ch.
Galbruner, F. Crotte, and Lesthevenson, made several com-
munications with regard to Phylloxera. — A note by M. Declat
on the pathological us 2 of phenylic acid, and of phenylate
of ammonia. — A note by M. de Fonvielle on a new method
to determine the path described by a balloon. — On the inte-
gration of ^a system of equations with partial differentials,
by M. N. Nicolaides. — On the trisection of an angle by
aid j of the compass, by M. Ed. Lucas. — On the properties
of the diameters of wave-surfaces and the physical inter-
pretation of these properties, by M. A. Mannheim. — On a com-
pound of platinum, tin, and oxygen, analogous to Cassius'
gold purple (platinostannic oxide of M. Dumas), by MM.
B. Delachanal and A. Mermet.— On bankoul oil, by M. E.
Heckel. — A reply to M. Gauthier's objections regarding the role
of carbonic acid in the spontaneous coagulation of blood, by
MM. E. Mathieu and V. Urbain. — Note on the last elements at
which it is possible to arrive by histological analysis of striated
muscles ; by M. A. Ronjon. — On the shooting stars of August,
1875, by M. Chapelas.

CONTENTS Pack

The Science Commission Report on the Advancement of

Science 361

Irby's Birds of Gibraltar 364

Hofmann's Report on the Progress of Chemical Industry. By

Dr. A. Oppenheim 365

Letters to the Editor:—

The Spectroscope and the Weather.— Rev. C. Michie Smith . . 366
Sea Elephants from Kerguelea's Land at Berlin.— John Willis

Clark 3<^

Our Astronomical Column :—

Variable Star (?) 367

The Solar Eclipse of September 28-29 3<57

The Minor Planets 367

D'Arrest's Comet 368

On the Occurrence in New jERSEjr of supposed Flint Scalping

Knives, By T)t. Chas. C. Abbott (IViik niusiration) .... 368
The Sliding Seat Foreshadowed, By W. W. Wagstaffe (lyi/A

Illustration!,) 3^9

The British Association 37°

Reports 372

Sectional Proceedings , 373

Section D. — Opening Address 374

Department of Anthropology.— Opening Address ....•• 382
Meeting of the Astronomische Gesellschaft at Levden,

August 13-16 3^6

Notes 387

Societies AND Academies 388

NATURE

389

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 9, 1875

THE SCIENCE COMMISSION REPORT ON
THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE*

UNDER head III. is brought forward the " Evidence
relating to the Establishment of Physical Observa-
tories."

On the general question of the establishment and
maintenance of Physical Observatories, Lord Salisbury
agrees that —

". . . Some of these institutions which have been
alluded to in your grace's question, especially observa-
tories, clearly fall within the duties of the Government ;
and certainly, from all that one hears, it is probable that
their duty in that respect is inadequately performed, and
that observatories for a much larger range of observations
might with great advantage be multiplied." ....

Sir George Airy, Astronomer Royal, thus states his
view on the subject : —

" When I began to be an astronomer, such questions
as those of the constitution of the sun and the like were
not entertained." ....

" Are you prepared to express an opinion as to whether
it is an object which would be a proper one for the Go-
vernment to take up as a State Establishment ? — The
Government are already pushed very hard in their esti-
mates. • The screw is always put upon them, * Cannot
you reduce the estimates a little more?' And then it
would always com.e to a question of extensive feeling in
the House of Commons, and of popular feeling out of the
House of Commons ; and I am confident from what I have
seen that those two bodies would not in every case support
an extension." ....

" Should you say that it is an object which is not very
likely to be prosecuted with sufficient vigour unless taken
up by the Government.'' — I do not see how it could go on
except it were taken up by the Government. I do not
believe that it could go on in any other way."

" It is not likely, you think, to be prosecuted by private
individuals, or by other public bodies such as the Univer-
sities?—No, I think that their funds are almost all
required for other objects, and the difficulty even of get-
ting the business into shape is extremely great." ....

" Then such observations, in all probability, will either
not be made at all or must be taken up by the Govern-
ment ? — That is my view." ....

Mr. De la Rue's opinion is thus given in reply to
question 1 3,066 : —

" I think that the time for the State providing means
for reducing observations has now come : when the State
should take up, besides mathematical astronomy (which
deals with the places of the stars and planets, and the
moon especially), physical observations, more particularly
observations of the sun, which appear to me to bear
directly upon meteorological phenomena." ....

Sir W. Thomson points out the importance of multi-
plying such Observatories : —

" . . . In respect to the observatories, it might be
necessary to have several observatories for astronomical
physics in this country, if it were only to secure observa-
tions of interesting conjunctures, notwithstanding the
varieties of the weather, that there may be in different
parts of the country ; and, again, observatories for astro-
nomical physics ought most certainly to be founded in
other parts of the I3ritish dominions than England, Ire-
land, and Scotland ; in other latitudes and on the other
side of the world."

* CoDtiuued from p. 364.

Vol. XII.— No. 306

Dr. Siemens expresses the same view in the following
evidence : —

" . . . An observatory or several observatories should
be established for carrying on physical research, research
to obtain information on general subjects, such as solar
observations, magnetic observations, and other subjects
that might be thought desirable to obtain continually in-
formation upon." . . .

" I think that almost the only new establishments
which you recommend are certain physical observatories ?
— Yes."

" What would be the principal object of such observa-
tories ? — For the purpose of magnetic observations, solar
observations, and other general inquiries into physical
phenomena."

"Do you contemplate the establishment of more than
one such observatory? — Probably more than one would be
desirable."

"Do you contemplate the estabhshment of any such
observatories in any of the colonial possessions of the
country ? — Yes, I think so."

" Speaking generally, would they be costly establish-
ments to found ? — Not very costly, not so costly as astro-
nomical observatories."

Dr. Frankland has also given evidence on the impor-
tance of promoting the study of Astronomical Physics,
pointing out that " it would be necessary, in connection
with the Physico-Astronomical Observatory, to have the
means of performing various chemical experiments and
making physical observations. Of course the chemical
operations would be quite subsidiaiy to the cosmical
observations there."

Mr. De la Rue, in reference to locality and organisa-
tion, in answer to the question whether provision for
carrying out observations of this character should be in
connection with the Greenwich Observatory, says : —

" In connection with the Greenwich Observatory, yes,
but at the Greenwich Observatory, I should say not. I
do not think, in the first place, that there is space enough
at Greenwich, and the duties of the staff are already so very
onerous that it would require a separate establishment iw
such special work ; besides other new buildings it would
entail a chemical laboratory, and there is hardly space
for those at Greenwich. I believe also that it would
cause too divided attention on the part of the Astronomer
Royal, if he were called upon to personally superintend
investigations in the physics of astronomy, although I
think it would be very desirable that any new establish-
ments, if they are to exist, should be affiliated to Green-
wich."

Admiral Richards, late Hydrographer to the Admiralt)',
and a Visitor of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich,
says :—

"If you are going permanently to establish physical
observatories, I should prefer to see separate ones. I
think that the physical work probably would be belter
separated from the Royal Observatory."

" You thirik that the two classes of observations are so
distinct in character as to render that desirable.^ — Of
course there is a certain amount of meteorology that must
be observed at the astronomical observatory ; but it need
not be of any extended character."

A resolution in general accordance with the views ex-
pressed by Sir George Airy was transmitted to the Com-
mission in July 1872, by the President and Council of the
Royal Astronomical Society. This resolution is in favour
of the extension of the Royal Observatory at Greenwich
and other existing Astronomical Observatories, and does

u

390

NATURE

{Sept. 9, 1875

not recommend the establishment of an independent
Government observatory for the cultivation of astrono-
mical physics in England.

In connection with some points on which differences of
opinion have been expressed in this evidence, a paper was
banded in by Col. Strange, consisting of questions ad-
dressed by him to Prof. Sir W. Thomson, Prof. Hilgard,
the Secretary of the American National Academy of
Sciences, and Prof. Balfour Stewart, and to M. Faye, the
President of the French Academy of Science.

Col. Strange's questions were as follows : —

" I. Is the systematic study of the solar constitution
likely to throw light on subjects of terrestrial physics, such
as meteorology and magnetism ?

" 2. What means, at present known to science, are
available for studying the sun .''

"3. Do you consider that photography (one of the
assumed means) will suffice for the purpose ?

"4. Do you consider that the class of observations
(defined in your answer to my question 2) are such as
can be efficiently made in an observatory maintained by
the State, or that any of them would be better left to the
zeal of volunteer astronomers 1

" 5. Do you consider that it would be advantageous to
carry on physico-astronomical researches on an extensive
scale, and meridional observations, in one and the same
observatory, under a single director 1 "

We regret that our space will not permit us to give the
replies of these eminent men to Col. Strange's questions.
They were, however, strongly in favour of the establishment
of physical observatories on a footing quite distinct from
existing meridional observatories, and equipped with the
laboratories and workshops without which such institu-
tions would be useless. We commend to all who are
interested in this question the perusal of this correspon-
dence, which is to be found as Appendix vii. to vol. ii.
pp. 27-31. Its value is enhanced by the fact that two of
the writers, Prof Hilgard and M. Faye, are distinguished
foreign men of science.

Evidence relating to Meteorology.

Under this head a considerable amount of evidence
was taken, particularly as to the constitution, objects, and
results of the Meteorological Office.

This Office is under the management of the Meteoro-
logical Committee of the Royal Society, the functions of
which are thus described in the report annually presented
to Parliament : —

" The Meteorological Committee consists of Fellows of
the Royal Society who were nominated by its President
and Council, at the request of the Board of Trade, for the
purpose of superintending the meteorological duties for-
merly undertaken by a Government Department, under
the charge of Admiral Fitzroy.

" The Committee are credited with a sum of 10,0000/.
voted annually in the Estimates, for the administration
of which they are wholly responsible, and over which
they are given the entire control.

" The meetings of the Committee are held once a fort-
night, or oftener when necessary, when every subject on
which action has to be taken by their executive officers
receives their careful consideration. The duties of the
Committee are onerous and entirely gi'atuitoiis ; they
were accepted and are very willingly performed by the
members, on account of the earnest desire they severally
feel for the improvement of meteorological science."

The position of the Committee is anomalous. In the
words of the director of the Meteorological Office —

" The Government distinctly disclaims all connection
with us, whilst the Royal Society equally disclaims all
control over us, except merely the nomination of the
members of the Committee."

" As a matter of fact, all that the Royal Society does
is to nominate the members of the Committee? — That
is all."

", Having so done, it ceases to have any control what-
ever, does It not? — Entirely."

" What is the precise relation between the Office and
the Government ?— That the Government gives a vote of
10,000/. every year, and that it calls for no account of this
money excepting the account annually presented to
Parliament."

" Who audits the accounts ? — The members of the
Committee. There is no formal audit, because, as the
Government would not recognise any audit excepting its
own, the Committee considered that it was not worth
while paying an auditor if such audit would not be recog-
nised, and, as a matter of fact, two of the members take
the trouble of auditing the accounts every year."

" What, in your opinion, are the chief advantages and
disadvantages of such an arrangement as compared with
those of the direct management of the Office by the
Government 1 — The chief advantage is the perfect free-
dom from political management. The risk in bemg con-
nected with the Government is that if a new President of
the Board of Trade comes, he may reverse the action ot
the preceding one. The existence of a scientific super-
vision for the Office is exceedingly important ; it acts as
an intermediate party between the pubhc and the Office.
I may mention a decided disadvantage which results from
the Office not being connected with the Government,
ramely, the loss of prestige. The difficulty is, that if we
are sending instruments by sea or by railroad, if we do
not call them Government instruments we cannot get as
much attention paid to them ; and it is my opinion that
we should get more co-operation from the merchant navy
if we were an office of the Board of Trade. We should
have more prestige as acting directly from the Govern-
ment."

A very clear account of the'objects which the Meteoro-
logical Committee propose to themselves is given in the
evidence of Major-General Strachey, one of the mem-
bers : —

The Commissioners remark that it is admitted that the
objects thus described do not exhaust the whole of meteo-
rology, and that the Committee in their selection of these
objects have been, to a great extent, guided by the pro-
ceedings of the Meteorological Department of the Board
of Trade, which existed prior to, and which has been
superseded by the Committee. Thus Major-General
Strachey says : —

" The Committee is now in reality doing no more than
continuing the exercise of certain functions which had,
in the course of time, been thrown upon the Board of
Trade by the position which that department occupies in
connection with the public administration."

" Has the consequence been that the action of the
Committee has been from the outset rather in a practical
direction than in one of original research or scientific
observation, properly so called ?— I think distinctly that
such is the case, and that it has necessarily followed from
the position in which the Committee was placed. If a
reference is made to the earlier papers, and to the report
of the gentlemen on whose suggestions the present
arrangements originated, there perhaps is an indication
that they anticipated something more in the way of
scientific research than has actually occurred ; but the
turn that things have taken seems to me the necessary
result of the sort of duties that were put upon the Com*

Sept. 9, 1875J

NATURE

391

mittee under the essential condition that it had but a
limited sum of money to spend."

" Have any results of scientific importance in your
opinion been obtained by the action of the Committee ? —
In the direction of what one may call investigation of an
absolutely scientific character, I should say none at all.
Of course the observations that are made at the special
observatories are valuable scientific information, and so
far one has no right to say that scientific results have not
been produced ; but I do not think that these can pro-
perly be referred to as specific results of anything that
the Committee has done. To the best of my belief there
has been nothing undertaken in the way of original in-
vestigation into the specific physical causes of any of
the phenomena which are recorded, nor any original
research, properly so called, in relation to any of the
several branches of meteorology. The Committee hardly
has appliances at its command for any such investi-
gations, and, the funds at its disposal being limited, it
was hardly possible that it should attempt them. It is
also no doubt quite true that the observations which are
made at the seven observatories do not include any mat-
ters which are of great importance in physical science, and
which would properly come within the range of meteo-
rology."

"Are the fund 5 at the disposal of the Committee in
your opinion insufficient for doing anything more than
has been actually done at present ? — I should say dis-
tinctly that this is the case. The Committee has always
considered that it is bound to attend primarily to
the special objects before referred to, which were in a
specific manner made over to it, and it finds that after
this has been done there is no money left for other things."

Again, the same witness expressed a decided opinion
that the State should do more for the promotion of meteo-
rological science than it does at present, but entertains
some doubt whether any increased duties could advan-
tageously be allowed to devolve upon a body such as
the Meteorological Committee.

The same view is expressed by Professor Balfour
Stewart : —

" Would you organise the Meteorological Committee
in any really different form to that which at present
obtains ? — I should be inclined to dispense with the
Meteorological Committee altogether, and substitute
a Meteorologist Royal, or whatever his appellation might
be, a single official who should be responsible to the
Government in the same way as the Astronomer Royal is
responsible for his department. I do not see why the one
department should be on one footing and the other depart-
ment on a different footing. 1 think that there are grave
disadvantages with a department administered by an un-
paid committee."

" Would you appoint a Meteorologist Royal corre-
sponding with the Astronomer Royal? — Yes, whatever
the name might be ; I should appoint an official very
much corresponding to the Astronomer Royal, and respon-
sible to the same extent. A board of visitors would not
be objectionable, but the direction of an unpaid com-
mittee appears to me to be very objectionable."*

Evidence relatitig to Tidal Observations.

Evidence in reference to tidal observations has been
placed before the Commission by Dr. Joule and Prof. Sir
W. Thomson.

Dr. Joule is of opinion that-=-

" With regard to the sea level and the tides, although
the laws with regard to the tides are pretty well known,

* The whole of the evidence, of which the above are curtailed extracts,
coincides with the trenchant rem.ark of the Astronomer Royal in his last
Report to the Board of Visitors that " The subject of Meteorology hardly
deserves the name of a science."

they ought to be continuously observed, if only for
the purpose of registering the changes arising from the
alteration of banks, depth of channels, &c. Also with
regard to the sea level, there have been reports from
time to time with regard to the inroads of the sea on our
coasts, but sufficient steps do not appear to have been
taken to ascertain the facts in those cases. It seems to
me very important to be acquainted with any alterations
in the configuration of the earth which may be taking
place, however minute those alterations may be."

Sir W. Thomson gives the following evidence on this
point : —

"In addition to those institutions which you have
recommended, you consider, do you not, that it would be
advisable that the Government should undertake secu-
lar observations of the tides ?— Yes, certainly, secular
observations of the tides with accurate self-registering
tide gauges, with the triple object of investigating the
science of the tides, of perfecting our knowledge of the
actual phenomena of the tides, both in respect to naviga-
tion and as a branch of natural history, and, thirdly, with
a view to ascertaining the changes of the sea lev^el from
century to century."

" Is anything of the kind done at present ?— There
are several tide gauges, some of which have been carried
on with great care, others with not sufficient care, and
none with any security of permanence."

" Was not it in connection with the Ordnance Survey
of Great Britain ? — No sufficient steps have been taken
to ascertain whether the sea level is changing relatively
to the land in any part of this country."

The Commissioners state that the accurate reduction
of tidal observations, without which, of course, they are
useless, has not hitherto been undertaken by any depart-
ment of the State, and we are indebted to the zeal of indi-
viduals for the results which have been obtained. The
reductions are laborious, and require the employment of
paid computers. A memorial from the British Association
for the Advancement of Science to the Lords Commis-
sioners of the Treasury, put in evidence by Sir William
Thomson, shows the difficulty that has been felt in pro-
curing the moderate sum required for the reductions, the
amount asked for being only 1 50/.

The Lords Commissioners of the Treasury did not
accede to the prayer of the memorial, so that at present
there is no guarantee that the observations which have
already been accumulated, and those which are still in
progress, will ever be adequately discussed and utilised.

Evidence relating to the Extensioti of the Government
Grant administered by the Royal Society.

The Commissioners remark : " The strong and concur-
rent evidence which we have received as to the usefulness
of the Government grant, as at present administered by
a Committee of the Royal Society, has led us to inquire
whether this grant might not be advantageously extended ;
and the witnesses whom we have examined on this point
are unanimous in expressing the opinion that great bene-
fits might be expected from such an extension."

Prof. Owen, Mr. Spottiswoode, Prof. Grant, Mr. De la
Rue, and Col. Strange are amongst those who gave evi-
dence to the above effect. Lord Salisbury is also of opinion
that the Government grant might be increased, in order
to afford liberal assistance to " first-rate workers."
Evidence as to the Payment of Scientijic Workers.

The Commissioners remark ; —

" On this branch of our inquiry the evidence laid before

392

NA TURE

{Sept. 9, 1875

us, both by statesmen and men of science, is to the same
efiect, and in favour of increased State aid. It has also
especially been urged upon us, that to afford, by direct
pecuniary aid, the means of livelihood to men of distinc-
tion in pure investigation would be a great advantage to
science, as competent investigators would thus be enabled
and encouraged to pursue a strictly scientific career."

Lord Salisbury is of opinion that the cause of science is
hindered by the want of a sufficient career for scientific
men, giving the following statement of his reasons : —

" I am induced to think so, by noticing how very much
more rapid the progress of research is where there is a
commercial value attached to the results of it, than in
other cases. The peculiar stimulus which has been given
to electrical research, in the particular direction of those
parts of it which concern the telegraph, is a very good
instance in point, and the extent to which researches into
organic chemistry have almost clustered themselves round
the production of coal tar colours is another instance in
point. And therefore it is difficult to avoid the conclusion
that research is really hindered by the necessity under
which those who are most competent to conduct it feel
themselves, of providing for their own support by means
of the talent and the knowledge which they possess."

With regard to the scale on which such remuneration or
payments for maintenance should be made, Lord Salis-
bury observes : —

" I should say, taking the parallel [that of certain offices
in the Church], to which I have already alluded, that an
income of about 1,000/. or 1,500/. a year would be the
kind of income which would suffice for the purpose that I
have in view."

And he would also add provision for retirement.

With reference to the safeguards against abuse which
would be necessary. Lord Salisbury continues : —

"... It would, for their [the investigators'] own interest,
and to save them from invidious comments, be desirable
to impose upon them the necessity of publishing, either
in the form of books or in the form of lectures (but not
sufficient in number really to impede their work), an
account of the result of their labours during each succes-
sive year. Perhaps one or two stated lectures in the
course of a year, to be delivered to University students,
would be the best means of imposing upon them that test
of industry."

Lord Derby takes the same view : —

" I think that, in one way or another, where you have a
man of very great eminence as a scientific discoverer, it
is unquestionably the duty of the State to provide him
with means and leisure to carry on his work. Whether
that is to be done by giving him an office under the
British Museum, or in any similar institution, or whether
it is to be done by simply granting him a pension in
recognition of eminent scientific service, or in whatever
other way it is done, it seems to me to be immaterial, but
I certainly consider that it is a very important part of the
public duty, to relieve men who have shown an eminent
capacity for original discovery and research from the
necessity of engaging in a lower kind of work as a means
of livelihood." . . .

Sir W. Thomson, in a reply to which we have already
referred, stated his opinion on this point as follows : —

" That men should be enabled to live on scientific re-
search is a matter of most immediate consequence to the
honour and welfare of this country. At present a man
cannot live on scientific research. If he aspires to devote
himself to it he must cast about for a means of supporting
himself, and the only generally accepted possibility of
being able to support himself is by teaching, and to
secure even a very small income, barely sufficient to live

upon, by teaching, involves the expenditure of almost his
whole time upon it in most situations, so that at present
it is really only in intervals of hard work in professions
that men not of independent means in this country can
apply themselves at all to scientific research." . . .

Prof. Henry, the distinguished director of the Smith-
sonian Institution in the United States, who was good
enough to appear before the Commission when he was
in this country, gave the following emphatic evidence in
the same direction : —

" My idea would be that if the funds were sufficient,
and men could be found capable of advancing science,
they should be consecrated to science, and be provided
with the means of living above all care for physical
wants, and supplied with all the implements necessary to
investigation."

Prof. Balfour Stewart, after referring to the instances
of wealthy persons who undertake scientific research in
this country, points out that the number of those so cir-
cumstanced is very small in comparison with the number
of able men who are willing to give their time and capa-
cities to observations and research. He goes on to say
that able men, and men competent to conduct research,
suffer in this country from not having sufficient means at
their disposal to proceed as they would like to do.

" Do you anticipate, then, that if there were any intel-
ligent centre for the distribution of a sufficient fund to
persons having the requisite capacities for observation
and research, but not having the means, the distribution
of such a fund would have any benumbing influence upon
original observation and research? — No, I should think
quite the contrary ; it would encourage it very much."

Mr. Gore also advocates the enlargement of the present
system.

" .... I should strongly advocate that the present
system should be enlarged, so that the investigators
should not merely be reimbursed for all that they have
expended, but also paid in some measure for their time
and labour, because each invesdgator has to give up a
profitable employment in order to find the time."

He then gives his own personal experience, which
probably resembles that of many of those who, without
private fortune, engage in pure research.

" I refuse a great many engagements in analyses and
other scientific matters for the manufacturers who come
to me. ... I gave up some pupils a short time ago to
enable me to have more time for original investigation."

Dr. Joule, Dr. Siemens, Mr. De la Rue, and other
scientific authorities testify to the same effect, and urge
the adoption of some form of remuneration for valuable
work done, as a measure not merely just to the indi-
vidual, but serviceable to the State by the encouragement
it would afford to those able men of small means, who
abound in this country, to engage in original researches
of great importance to the community.
{To be continued.)

THE IRISH FISHERIES
Report of the Inspectors of Irish Fisheries on the Sea and
Inlatid Fisheries of Ireland for 1 874. Presented to
both Houses of Parliament. (DubUn : Alex. Thorn,
1875.)

DURING the last few years increased attention has
been paid to the vast stores of food, which this
country possesses, in the fish frequenting its inland

Sept. 9, 1875]

JSA I URE

393

waters and territorial seas. Legislation, attended on the
whole with marked success, has led to the development of
the salmon fisheries of the United Kingdom ; a much
less successful attempt has been made to increase the
produce of our exhausted oyster fisheries ; and a very
able Commission, which enjoyed the advantage of Prof.
Huxley's assistance, has investigated and authoritatively
disproved the allegation that our sea-fish were decreasing.
In England and Scotland, at any rate, satisfaction is
usually expressed at this state of things. With the
single exception of the oyster, the harvest of the sea
proves annually as productive, or even more productive,
than ever, while the increasing consumption of a growing
population and the greater destructiveness of modern im-
plements of fishing, are not apparently unduly diminish-
ing the numbers of our sea-fish. Ireland, however, to
judge from the language of her representatives in Par-
liament, is less satisfied with her position. The very
fish, if we may credit some authorities, are deserting the
coasts of this unhappy country ; and Irish fishermen, with
their old tackle worn out, and with no money to purchase
new, are emigrating to other fishing grounds on the other
side of the Atlantic. The picture annually presented to
us of the miserable condition of Irish fishermen was so
deplorable, that Parliament, last year, was induced to
interfere. The Ministry was surprised by a hurried
division, and unexpectedly defeated by a narrow ma-
jority. Its defeat compelled it to place a portion of the
Irish Reproductive Fund at the disposal of the Irish
Inspectors of Fisheries ; and the Inspectors are now
enabled to lend small sums of money to needy fishermen
on their personal security. No such loan has yet been
made. But, on the eve of adopting a new policy, it is
occasionally desirable to review the circumstances which
have led to it ; and we turn, for this reason, to the
recently published report of the Inspectors of Irish
Fisheries.

The Report is divisible into two portions. The first
and shorter portion refers to Sea Fisheries, Oyster Fish-
eries, and Harbours ; the second and longer portion to
the Inland or Salmon Fisheries. The salmon fisheries
of Ireland are fairly prosperous. The amendments which
are required in the law are not numerous or important ;
and we do not therefore propose to follow the Inspectors
into their review of them. But the ten pages of the Re-
port which are devoted to the sea fisheries and oyster
fisheries of Ireland, deserve for every reason most atten-
tive consideration. The oyster fisheries occupy a very
short space in the Report, and may be dealt with in the
first instance. The Inspectors have exercised almost
absolute powers in dealing with this question. They are
authorised to appropriate to any individual who applies to
them, large portions of the fore shore of Ireland, and 130
licensed beds, occupying 18,825 acres of fore shore and
sea-bottom, have thus been appropriated. The result of
this wholesale appropriation of public dredging ground
might well have justified Parliamentary interference.
•'The chief object," say the Inspectors, "in granting
licenses (cultivation) has not been fulfilled. In the majo-
rity of cases we believe there has not been anything
deserving to be called an attempt to cultivate the ground
granted. The proprietors in numerous instances content
themselves with getting as much as they can for their

private use, and do nothing to replenish. We would be
fully justified in cancelling the majority of the licenses."
We quite agree with the Inspectors in this view ; but we
should like to know why some of the licenses have not
already been cancelled. Two years ago the Inspectors
assured us that they had " warned some licensees that
their licenses will be withdrawn unless within twelve
months they proceed to cultivate." The public have
a right to inquire whether the warning has been
attended to, and if not, why the threat of the Inspectors
has not been carried out. The Inspectors, indeed, say
that they have so "many pressing duties to perform,"
that they have been compelled to postpone attending to
the oysters. But can any duty be more pressing than
the restoration to the public of ground really taken from
them under false pretences ? The Inspectors have found
time to grant five new licenses ; they would have done
much more to promote oyster culture if they had can-
celled five old ones. " Overdredging and a succession
of bad spatting years " are of course given as the cause
of the growing scarcity. But it is worth while remarking
that we had nothing of bad spatting years till overdredg-
ing had decreased the stock of oysters. If an oyster
bed be scraped clean of all the adult oysters, no spatting
season, however favourable, can be a good one.

But the most important portion of the present report is
undoubtedly that which relates to the Irish Sea Fisheries.
There can be no question about the decrease of Irish
fishermen. In 1846, or before the famine, 113,073 men
and boys were employed in 19,883 vessels and boats on
this industry. In 1874 the number of vessels was reduced
to 7,246 ! the number of hands to 26,924 ! The decline
both in boats and men has been continuous throughout
the period. But, with due deference to the Inspectors, it
is easy to account for it. The " melancholy ocean "
which surrounds Ireland is subject to very severe storms :
and no fishing-boat can prosecute its industry consecu-
tively throughout the year. Under such circumstances
one of two things must happen — either the Irish Seas
must be fished by men who, in strong weather, may
resort to quieter fishing-grounds, or the Irish fisherman
must combine other operations with his fishing. Before
the famine the last of these things occurred. Every Irish-
man was a cottier. He tended his potatoes and his pig in
bad weather : and he went a-fishing in calm weather.
But, since the famine, the cottiers have gradually been
worked out. Large farms have swallowed up small ones :
and the occupiers of large farms, and their servants have
no time to go out fishing. The class from which the mass
of Irish fishermen were drawn had ceased, or is ceasing,
to exist ; and Irish fishermen are consequently decreasing
in numbers. But, though Irish fishermen are decreasing,
the Irish fisheries are not decaying. What do the Inspec-
tors tell us? There were only 187 Irish boats engaged
last year in the herring fishery off Howth. But there
were 343 English, Scotch, and Manx boats. There were
only 61 Irish boats in the mackerel fishery off Kinsale.
But there were 226 English, Scotch, and Manx boats.
The Englishmen, Scotchmen, and Manxmen, following
the fish round the whole coasts of England, Scotland, and
Ireland, beat the Irishmen, who never follow them at all.
Every one has seen Cornish boats fishing for herrings
in the North Sea ; or Scotch boats beating the English in

394

NA TURE

{Sept. 9, 1875

their own waters. But no one ever saw an Irish fishing-
boat in either a Scotch or English sea. The Englishmen
and Scotchmen, with their capital continuously employed
throughout the year, beat, of course, the Irishman who
leaves it idle and unemployed for three-fourths of it.

The view which we have thus expressed is not, how-
ever, shared either by the friends of Ireland or the Irish
Inspectors. In their eyes the decrease in the number of
Irish fishermen is equivalent to the decay of the Irish
fisheries ; and both of these are due to the unsympathetic
attitude of this country. Last year nothing would do any
good but loans. Now that the Reproductive Loan Fund
has been utilised for this purpose with effects which we
shall immediately notice, nothing will do any good but a
safe and commodious harbour at Arklow. Such a har-
bour "is most necessary for the successful prosecution of
both herring and oyster fisheries," and " unless something
be done, there is little hope of any substantial improve-
ment." We have no desire to discourage the construction
of safe and commodious harbours, but we should like to
ask the Irish Inspectors whether they ever heard of a
place in England called Yarmouth. It is as important a
fishing station as Arklow, it is on as stormy a shore ; but
when a storm is raging, the Yarmouth fishermen have to
stand out to sea to avoid being'driven on to the coast. We
never heard that the want of a harbour at Yarmouth had
destroyed the Yarmouth fishery ; and we think that Yar-
mouth has at least as good a claim as Arklow for the con-
struction of such a harbour. The new system of loans to
fishermen remains for consideration. There has, of, course,
been no want of applicants for the loans. 2,800 indi-
viduals have already applied for the money, and we have
no doubt there are a good many more quite prepared to
follow their example. 1,300 of the 2,800 applications
emanate from County Galway, and 160 of these applicants
five in one parish. No more than six of the 160 "fulfil
the conditions which should entitle them to obtain a
loan ! " We presume that as the Inspectors pointedly refer
to the 160 applicants, they may be regarded as fair
examples of the 2,800 who have applied. In that case
only 105 persons throughout Ireland will, in the lenient
judgment of the promoters of the policy, be entitled to
participate in the loan. Is it possible to conceive a more
striking illustration of the consequences of the policy ?

MAGNUS'S ''ELEMENTARY MECHANICS"
Lessons in Elemeiitary Mechanics introductory to the
Study of Physical Scietice, with manerotts Exercises.
By Philip Magnus, B.Sc, B.A. (Longmans, 1875.)

IN order to assign any work to its proper place it is
necessary that we should try to ascertain what is the
author's aim in writing it, and also to see if that aim be
to any fair extent attained ; further, we should take into
our account the consideration of the question whether if
the author's end be attained it is one worth arriving at.
If the verdict on all these issues be favourable, then we
may say that the raisoti d'etre of the work is justified.
For the aim of the present volume the title will suggest
at once that the author does not attempt to produce a
treatise which shall enter into comparison with such
works as those produced by Thomson and Tait. Let us
hear his own statement : " The lessons are intended for

the use of those who have had no previous acquaintance
with the subject ;" and so he has endeavoured to bring into
prominence the leading principles of Mechanics, and to
exemplify them by simple illustrations. Here we may
observe that the term mechanics is used in the ordinary
acceptation of that word now-a-days, i.e., as the science
of the motion and equilibrium of bodies, and not in the
Newtonian sense to which Messrs. Thomson and Tait
seek again to restrict it. Starting on the hypothesis that
the idea of Motion is more elementary than that of Force,
since it is only from a combination of forces that equi-
librium can result, the author makes the subject of Statics
depend upon the laws of Dynamics. Hence the propo-
sition, which is generally cited as that of the Paral-
lelogram of Forces, Mr. Magnus derives at once from
Newton's second Law.

After a short preliminary introduction we have " Kine-
matics—Motion " treated under the heads of Measure-
ment of Motion and Falling Bodies ; then " Dynamics —
Force," under which heading we have Measurement of
Force, the Laws of Motion, Energy, Machines.

The second part of the book discusses " Statics — Rest,"
under the following heads ; Theory of Equilibrium,
Centre of Gravity.

The style is lucid, the solved exercises carefully chosen,
the work compact. With the exception above mentioned,
of Statics being made dependent on Dynamics, the
arrangement and matter are much the same as we find in
English treatises. An intelligent boy ought in a few
months to be able to make himself master of the greater
portion of this small book, which Mr. Magnus has aimed
at making suftrciently elementary to be placed in the
hands of a beginner. What we consider to be higher
praise is that we believe it to contain nothing that the
student will have to unlearn in a subsequent portion of
his career. We can recommend it as a trustworthy in-
troduction to more advanced text-books.

We have endeavoured to test its accuracy as regards
the answers to the numerous questions scattered over its
pagf s. Of these there are 279 in the Dynamical portion,
192 in the Statical portion, besides 79 questions in an
appendix composed of papers from the Matriculation,
South Kensington, College of Preceptors, Oxford Local,
Cambridge Local, and other Examinations. These answers
seem to us to be exceptionally correct, as, though we have
tried them all, we differ from Mr. Magnus's results in only
a dozen cases ; some of these cases are apparently clerical
errors. We make this statement, taking into account two
or three slips of errata which have been subsequently dis-
tributed by the author.

In Ex. 23, p. 86, i-368th should be i-368th, i.e., 3J3 ;
§ 199, we think, would not be easy for the pupil unless he
had some aid from a tutor. Some of the questions given
to the Matriculation candidates of the University of
London seem to us hardly suitable for them ; we shall
select one, because even so experienced a teacher as the
writer of the work we have noticed at first fell into an
error. The question is : " Suppose that at the equator
a straight, hollow tube were thrust vertically down towards
the centre of the earth, and that a heavy body were
dropped through the centre of such a tube. It would
soon strike one side ; find which, giving a reason for your
reply." The author gives an answer which we have heard

•pt- 9. 1875J

NATURE

395

one or two " coaches " give also, but on a slip he has cor-
rected his printed answer.

Again, in Ex. 27, p. 55 : "A balloon has been ascending
vertically at a uniform rate for 4*5 sees., and a stone let
fall from it reaches the ground in 7 sees. ; find the velocity
of the balloon and the height from which the stone is
let fall." Both Mr. Magnus and Dr. Wormell (" Natural
Philosophy," p. 129, Ex. 45) work this question as if the
balloon were at rest when the stone is let fall ; we see no
reason for their doing so in the wording of the question.
They give the same height for the balloon, but differ in
the velocity.

OUR BOOK SHELF

Game Preservers and Bi7-d Preservers. By Capt. J. F.

Morant. (Longmans, Green, and Co., 1875.)

To increase the annual rental of Scotch moorland, and
to feel certain that at least thirty brace of grouse will fall
to each gun after a whole day's sport, are the greatest
delights of a certain few, according to whom every other
consideration must be put in abeyance. Capt. Morant is
one of these. " The red grouse is about the best game
bird in the whole world, and deserves all the care we can
bestow upon him." This care involves the annihilation
of every creature that shows the least disposition to
destroy and feed upon the eggs, young, or adult of
La^opus scoiicus ; and the death-list is no small one, in-
cluding eagles, buzzards, hen harriers, all other Raptores,
ravens, crows, magpies, v/ild foxes, polecats, stoats, and
weasels. The stomachs of hawks are often found to con-
tain the remains of weasels and rats ; why kill them if
they destroy those vermin ? " If an alderman were ship-
wTCcked on an uninhabited island, he would probably live
upon the contents of a cask of biscuits which might be
washed ashore. But the scientific gentleman among a
party of savages who might examine him after his friends
who happened to land on that island had killed him for
their supper, would, we know, arrive at an erroneous con-
clusion if he entered it in his note-book as a fact that
the animal alderman lived entirely on dry biscuit." This
running analogy is the argument employed throughout
the book, and it is this which makes it a particularly
amusing one to glance through ; whether it carries con-
viction with it is a different thing. The grouse disease is
explained as depending on the fact that these birds, un-
like others, eat only one food, heather, and when this is
injured by cold or otherwise, they have no other to fall
back on. That many shot-damaged birds survive and
afterwards produce unhealthy offspring is considered un-
likely. " Can we fancy a grouse telling his mate on a
spring morning, My dear, I feel very poorly to-day ; that
No. 5 in my spine is troubling me dreadfully ? " The
author's raid against all the Raptores is very severe ; he
in this, as in other points, being much opposed to the
general tenour of the report of the evidence given before
the Parhamentary Select Committee appointed in 1873.
His considerable experience adds great weight to the
aspect of the question which he espouses.
The Handy-Book of Bees, being a Practical Treatise on
their Profitable Manage^tient. By A. Pettigrew. Second
Edition, revised and improved. (Edinburgh and Lon-
don : Blackwood and Sons, 1875.)
A Manual of Bee-keeping. By John Hunter, Honorary
Secretary of the British Bee-keepers' Association^
(London : Hardwicke, 1875.)
These two volumes have different objects and will serve
different purposes. The first edition of Mr. Pettigrew's
book was favourably noticed in our columns five years
ago (Nature, vol. ii. p. 82), and we are glad to see that a
second edition has been called for. Still more pleased
are we to find that the author is open to conviction, and

that he has acknowledged and corrected a few theoretical
errors in the first edition. For the economical manage-
ment of bees with a view to profit, there is no better
guide than Mr. Pettigrew.

Mr. Hunter's volume, on the other hand, is essentially
a book for the amateur, to whom profit is of less import-
ance than the amusement and interest of bee-keeping.
He gives an account of all the appliances of the modern
apiarian, and of the most recent improvements in the
treatment and study of bees. The various kinds of honey-
extractors, feeders, guide-combs, and queen-cages ; the
methods of artificial swarming, queen-breeding, and
ligurianising ; the diseases and enemies of bees ; and the
various methods of preparing and preserving the honey
and wax, are all briefly discussed. Some of the most
recent observations on the habits and instincts of bees
are given, including Sir John Lubbock's interesting proof
that they distinguish colours. The book is illustrated
with a number of useful woodcuts, chiefly of hives and
apparatus ; and it will be indispensable to amateurs who
wish to acquaint themselves with the most recent improve-
ments in the art of bee-keeping, and the latest discoveries
as to the habits, instincts, and general natural history of
the honey-bee. A. R. W.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return,
or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications,'^

Personal Equation in the Tabulation of Thermo-
grams, ^c.

In a late number of Nature (vol. xii. p. loi) you have com-
mented upon the work performed by the Meteorological Office.
Although in no way interested in the defence of that department,
I think objection may fairly be taken to the style ot criticism
adopted. Not onl)' would it, in most cases, be necessary to refer
to the original thermograms satisfactorily to detect the many
small errors pointed out, bat it is well known to practical men
that owing to certain idiosyncrasies of individuals some of the
numbers i, 2, 3 ... 8, 9, o do occur in estimations more
often than others, and of course more otten than they should
do theoretically. In no case are such personal peculiarities
likely to show themselves more than in the determination
of the position of a hazy photographic trace of sensible
breadth, as between two sharply defined lines. As an example
of my meaning, I may refer to somewhat similar estima-
tions of tenths of seconds, as tabulated by the highly-trained
and experienced observers of Greenwich, only premising for
the information of the uninitiated, that the tenth part of a
second is far too large a measure of time to be trifled with by
astronomers, and that practically the estimation is simply that of
the position of one sharply marked puncture or dot as referred to
two others equally well defined on either side of it, indicating
the beginning and end of the second, and separated by about
one-third of an inch. Referring to the Greenwich Observations
of 1864 (the only volume I have at hand), and taking three days'
observations at random for the experiment, I have determined
the percentage of times that each of the numbers i, 2, 3. ..8, 9, o
occur as the tenth at which transits of stars took place. As
there is no theoretical reason why one number should predomi-
nate over another, we may expect that the percentage for each
figure will be accurately 10, or each a tenth of the entire
number.

The following are the percentages founded upon 511 estima-
tions on April 21, upon 379 on April 19, and upon 393 on
Nov. S, 1864, respectively : —

Per. i
centages \

Mean of )
3 days \

69
8-4

7-0

2.

6-5
9-2
81

7-9

3.

90
lo-o
7-6

8-9

4-
211

i6-2

S-
117

IO-8
10-9

III

6. 7.

no 6-3
12-4 7-4

9-4 8-1

109 7-3

8.

9 '7

8-9 1

9-

5 9

5-3
8-9

67

0.

14-3
iS-6
150

15.0

396

NATURE

[Sept. 9, 1875

Although no one acquainted with the care bestowed upon this
description of work at Greenwich would for one moment think
of impugning the accuracy of these estimations, they show pre-
cisely the excess of whole seconds that is taken in the before-
naentioned article as indisputably proving the carelessness of the
tabulations at the Kew Observatory.

As regards these averages, it is to be remarked that with one
slight exception all the numbers that are above or below the
theoretical average in one example are above or below in all, and
that there is only one case in which the range of difference
exceeds 3 per cent. The partiality shown for the figures o and
4 is also most marked, and of itself would be enough to show
that the same person had made all the estimations.

There is another light in which We may regard these results,
which still more plainly indicates my meaning. The decimals
•I, '2, &c., ought to include all possible positions of the puncture
between '05 and "15, between '15 and "25, and so on; but
according to the reader of the chronographic sheets, 'i includes
only those positions of the puncture between "081 and '151 ; "z
includes those between TSi and "230; -3 those between '230 and
•319; '4 those between -319 and '481, and so on. Thus the
error of any single determination is very small indeed, a remark
that will apply equally to the tabulations
Meteorological Office.

To show that different observers have very different idiosyn-
crasies, I may append the following averages similarly deter-
mined, this time from the purely astronomical estimations of the
time of transit of stars across the well-defined spider lines of
the telescope by the method known as eye and ear observa-
tion, these estimations being made on a precisely similar principle.
From the Greenwich observations of 1864 I find 206 such esti-
mations bv Mr. Dunkin, the standard observer at that time ; 259
by Mr. Ellis ; and lastly, 500 by myself in-the present year, made
at this observatory, yield the following : —

I.

2.

3-

4-

5. 6.

7-

8.

9-

D., 1864 ...

7-8I6-5

11-7

12- 1

13-6 7-8

Q-2

13-6

6-8

10

E., 1864 ...

5-4 8-5

77

97

8-5II-2

12-4

i3-<;

12-4

IO-8

P., 1875 -

13-4 i3-0|io-6

10 -8

7-8 8-6 8 -81 13-6

4-8

8-4

Although founded on rather too few estimations, there is little
doubt that the salient features would be preserved in a more
extended discussion. Thus D's avoidance of whole seconds and
the adjacent numbers- i and 9, E's avoidance of the former of
these, and my own of the latter, may be expected confiJently,
however large a number of estimations are taken into account.
The universal fondness for 8 is also noteworthy.

Orwell Park Observatory, John J. Plummer

near Ipswich

Source of Volcanic Energy

In your report of the meeting of the Geological Society in
Nature, vol. xii. p. 79, I find notes of a communication sub-
mitted by the Rev. O. Fisher, F.G.S., on Mr. Mallet's theory
of volcanic energy, and as I consider Mr. Mallet's paper to be
one of surpassing value, I wish to make a few remarks on the
criticism of it by Mr. Fisher. Mr. Fisher objects to the possi-
bility of assuming high local temperatures to be produced by the
transformation of tangential forces into heat, within the earth's
erust.

If the strata of which the earth's crust is composed could be
represented in a diagram by so many concentric circles of perfect
regularity, the crushing force resulting from tangential pressures
caused by the regular contraction of the mass would of course be
equal all through the mass ; but, as a matter of fact, such a dia-
gram would not be a faithful representation of the lie of strata
in the earth's crust. These strata occur at all sorts of angles,
and are broken in upon by faults of great extent ; so the pressures
produced upon various parts of the earth's crust are far from
equal. These inequalities are also increased by the differences
in density of strata as also by the thinning out of strata of the
same density.

For instance, a strain may occur somewhat in the manner of
the annexed diagram. A set of strata may bear upon a point A,
considering the forces to act in the direction BA, CA, and so
cause the pressure upon a square foot at A to be a hundredfold
greater than on a square foot at E. The work done, therefore,
may not be equally distributed over certain areas : but forces

may converge upon various points, and if the work is thus inten-
sified in certain points, the heat developed in such points must
be greater than where the forces are not so concentrated. It
seems to me, then, that the rocks at A may be crushed to fusinq;-
point by converging forces, while at the same time the rocks of
the same set of strata at B may be at a much lower temperature.

If what I have attempted to point out contains no " untenable
assumption," the possibility of the developed heat being local-
ised remains intact ; and this is certainly the main feature of Mr.
Mallet's theory.

Mr. Fisher's objection to the primeval formation of our present
existing ocean beds and continents seems a fair one, notwith-
standing the fact of the remarkable steepness of the western coasts
of all continents remarked upon by Mr. Mallet, but this remarkable
similarity of formation may be no more remarkable than the
fact of all the great promontories of the world pointing to the
south and none to the north. Still, however, Mr. Mallet's paper
may help us, for if the tangential pressures produced in the
earth's crust be sufficient in some cases to produce long lines ot
volcanic activity, may they not in other cases be resolved into
motions acting in various directions and causing the upheaval of
continents and depression of ocean beds ?

In conclusion I may remark that if mere cooling is not con-
sidered sufficient fo account for the development of such forces,
may not forces produced by gravitation acting in the very same
direction be well acknowledged ? Not mere gravitation of the
surface upon a retreating nucleus, which of course is part of
Mr. Mallet's theory, but gravitation of the whole mass to itself,
which enormous source of energy must also express itself in tan-
gential pressures in the more resisting crust of the earth ?

Kenmare W. S. Green

Sanitary State of Bristol and Portsmouth

In reference to the peculiar low mortality of some large towns
in Great Britain, stated in the abstract of a communication
to the Scottish Meteorological Society in Nature, vol. xii.
p. 281, as Portsmouth and Bristol, in contradistinction to others
apparently in similar circumstances, having a high death-rate, I
beg leave to point out that each of these towns is differentiated
from the others mentioned in the paper in a social point of view
more than in physical conditions. There is a large district in
each of them, inhabited chiefly by visitors, tourists, retired pro-
fessionals, and mercantile people, who take up their quarters in
Southsea and Clifton, for the period of the regular seasons in
each, or for limited tenure of occupation, either with reference to
health, pleasure, or education of their families.

These divisions or quarters of Portsmouth and Bristol are
under different physical conditions from the parent cities they
are attached to, in that they are of separate growth, of later
date of construction, better built, and inhabited by a wealthier
class of people.

They might be compared to the apple-grafting on a crab-tree,
on the old stem of which they flourish, but bear more showy
flowers and more luxuriant fruit, and they thus tend to ameliorate
the inherent deficiencies of the original tree by adding a higher
and more cultivated life.

Topographically speaking, again, these two districts are entirely
different from eacti other, though equally healthy, as above
stated, Southsea being built upon a plain near the sea, and
Clifton being built upon a hill above a river : the one lies on
gravel and the other on limestone, so that these and other
material circumstances, oddly enough, can scarcely be thought
likely to produce a common result on their sanitary state.

The original towns of Portsmouth and Bristol, however, are
nearly alike in some points, but not in others, Both are shipping
ports, both are on tidal harbours, both are built along the banks
on each side, and are therefore low in altitude above the sea ;
but the former lies on gravel, while the latter is built on alluvium
and red sandstone. Most other large towns are of a homo-
geneous constitution, as Manchester in manufactures, Liverpool
in shipping, Scarborough as a seaside resort, and Cheltenham
as an inland watering-place; but Portsmouth and Bristol are
peculiar in having this coublc social compos'tion of a shipping

Sept. 9, 1875J

NATURE

397

port and a health-resort in one borough, and which, therefore,
ini;_'ht be taken into account in any deductions from statistics of
health or mortality of their united populations.

British Association, Bristol W. J. Black

A Lunar Rainbow ?

Theke can be little doubt that your Australian correspondent,
Mr. Lefroy (vol. xii. p. 329), has seen one of the phases of an
Aurora Auftralis. Similar appearances have been observed by
me in Scotland, passing south of the zenith (and nearly through
the anti-dip, as at Fremantle). Their sudden occurrence and
temporary persistence are perplexinp to those who have not seen
this particular display before. The first seen by myself (in 1844,
I think) was a single beam which remained in the same position
during some hours ; it was described by me next day in a local
paper, while a well-known observer in a communication to an
Edinburgh journal had taken it for a comet.

It is pleasant to see accounts of such phenomena sent to
N.^.TURE from all parts of the world, even when the true cause
has not always been apparent. It is not improbable that the
magnets at Melbourne will have shown some slight disturbance
about 8h. 30m. P.M. of May 16.

John Allen Broun

I DO not see any reason to doubt that the phenomenon seen
by "J. W.N. L." in Australia, and described by him in vol. xii.
p. 329, was an aurora, I never saw one with so many arches as
he mentions (eighteen or twenty), but there can be no reason for
supposing so large a number to be impossible. In almost every
other respect his description agrees exactly with auroras such as
may occasionally be seen. T, W, Backhouse

West Hendon House, Sunderland, Sept. 4

The House-Fly
I WAS somewhat interested in Mr. Cole's remarks on the house-
fly in Nature (vol. xii. p. 187), and recently had an example
of another of its enemies. On touching a rather small decrepit
house-fly which was making its way across a sheet of paper,
three minute, active animals, apparently beetles, tumbled out of
it ; they were light brown in' colour, and very much the shape of
aphides, and about the size of the hole a medium sized pin would
make when pushed through paper. F. P.

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN

M. Levekrier's Theory of Saturn.— Early in the
year 1874, M. Leverrier presented to the Paris Academy
of Sciences the conclusions he had drawn from the com-
parison of his analytical theory of the planet Jupiter with
the meridian observations made at Greenwich and Paris
during the long period of 120 years, which he found
to be represented thereby with all desirable precision ;
thus proving that the motion of Jupiter is not subject to
any sensible action beyond the effects of the known
planets.

The comparison of the theory of Saturn with a similar
extended course of normal positions, each one based upon
a great number of observations, has not run quite so
smoothly, but, on the contrary, has presented some slight
difficulties, upon which M. Leverrier makes known his
opinion, in a communication to the Paris Academy on
the 23rd of last month. During the thirty-two years of
modern observations, 1837-69, the differences between
theory and calculation, except in two instances, remain
below o'2S, in the times of passage observed on the
meridian ; for the older observations of Maskclyne and
Bradley, somewhat larger discordances are shown. The
residuals are, however, upon the whole, very small, and a
question arises, whether such quantities can be legitimately
neglected, or, if not, whether their cause is to besought
in incompleteness of the analysis or in errors of the
observations themselves. M. Leverrier has not been
content to rest upon the first supposition, but states that
he has used every effort to elucidate the source of the

remaining differences. To satisfy himself and astro-
nomers generally that there is no defect or inaccuracy of
theory, M, Leverrier has taken extraordinary pains to
guard against error or omission. When he found in his
earlier researches a discordance between theory and ob-
servation in the case of Mercury, he was able to explain
the whole by admitting an increase in the motion of the
perihelion, which might be attributed to the existence of
cosmical matter or the action of small bodies nearer to
the sun than the planet ; and again, when the comparison
of theory with the observations of Mars showed differ-
ences, they were explainable by a similar assumption of in-
creased motion of the perihehon, necessitating an increase
in the mass of the earth, and consequently of the solar
parallax. In the case of Saturn, the smallness of the
residuals has rendered it a much more difficult matter to
pronounce with confidence upon their cause. Having'
reviewed the whole of his analytical theory, M. Leverrier)
with the view to further verify it, considering this
theory as a first, though exact approximation, pro-
ceeded by methods of interpolation to reconstruct it,
taking account at once of the terms of all orders.
Every possible verification having been thus accumu-
lated, he concluded that no error was to be appre-
hended in this direction. The comparison with the
normal positions having been certified with equal care,
he ascertained the effect of small changes in the masses
of Jupiter and Uranus, the errors being exhibited in func-
tions of the corrections to these masses, and the results
prove that no alteration in the adopted value of either
mass will destroy the residuals as a whole ; if they are
somewhat diminished thereby in one part of the series, it
is only at the expense of increasing them in other parts.
Indeed, M, Leverrier establishes one point, and a very
remarkable one it will no doubt be considered, viz., that
the 120 years of meridian observations of Saturn are
insufficient to afford a reliable value of the mass of
Jupiter ; or, in other words, that the mass of Jupiter which
has so great an importance in the elements of the solar
system, is not yet determinable from the comparison of
the theory of Saturn with observations. This was not the
case as regards the mass of Saturn, which M. Leverrier
found from his researches upon the motion of Jupiter to

be

a somewhat smaller value than that resultin'.

3529-56
from Bessel's measures of the Huygenian satellite.

Under the above circumstances, the probability that
errors of observation are the cause of the remaining
differences from theory is much increased, and M.
Leverrier appears inclined to attribute these errors to the
interference of the rings under their various phases, an
explanation which practical men will assuredly regard
with favour. Considering that at certain times the rings
disappear entirely, when the planet's centre may be well
observed, while at others intervening in an elliptical form,
projecting shadows and occasionally rendering impossible
the observation of one of the limbs, there is nothing un-
likely, as M. Leverrier remarks, in an uncertainty of some
tenths of a second in R.A., which would sufficiently ex-
plain all. At any rate, whatever influence the interference
of the rings may have upon the observations, it is doubtless
of a variable character, as well on account of the physical
fact itself, as from the effect it may exercise on personal
equations.

Mr, De la Rue's Tables for Reduction of Solar
Observations, — " Auxiliary Tables for determining the
angles of position of the Sun's Axis and the Latitude and
Longitude of the Earth referred to the Sun's equator,"
which have been employed in the reduction of the ten-
year series of solar photograms taken at the Kew Obser-
vatory, have just been printed by Mr. De la Rue, pro-
fessedly for private circulation, though, as they have been
imposed in the size and type of the " Philosophical Trans-

398

NATURE

{Sept. 9, 1875

actions," it may possibly be the author's intention to
append them to a future communication to the Royal
Society, in continuation of Other important papers aheady
published in the "Transactions," — a place which the Tables
will advantageously occupy. They give with sun's longi-
tude as argument, the inclination of the solar axis to the
circle of decHnation, reckoned positive when the axis is
west of the north point of the sun's disc, and assuming
the inclination of his equator to the ecliptic to be 7° i5''o,
and the longitude of its ascending node 74°-i' ; and with
argument, sun's longitude + v, the " Heliographical lati-
tude of the earth " and " Reduction of longitude." The
obliquity of the ecliptic is taken, 23° 27'-5, but to correct
the angle between the circle of declination and the sun's
axis, for difference of true and assumed obliquity, a sup-
plementary table is provided.

The Tables have been calculated by Mr. Marth, and it
will be obvious to anyone initiated in such work, that
considerable trouble has been taken to ensure their accu-
rate production.

MiRA Ceti. — A minimum of this variable star is set
down in Schonfeld's ephemeris for September 30. The
minima have not been properly observed nearly so often
as the maxima, though equally important in the inves-
tigation of the laws which regulate the fluctuations of
light, and which, according to Argelander's researches,
involve a more complicated formula than has yet been
deduced for any other variable. The circumstances of
the approaching minimum are very favourable for obser-
vation.

SCIENCE IN GERMANY
{Frojn a German Correspondent^

ONLY for a small number of elements and their com-
pounds is the relatively low temperature of the non-
luminous gas flame sufficient to produce spectra which
can be of use in analytical researches ; by far the
larger number turn into vapour at such degrees of tem-
perature as we can obtain solely by the electric spark.
We are therefore confined to spark spectra for such
bodies which do not give spectra in the flame, and these
spark spectra can all the less be dispensed with in
those cases where new elements are sought for, or where
it is a question of proving beyond all doubt the presence
of certain bodies, which in their chemical properties are
so much alike that ordinary reagents do not suffice for
their discovery or separation.

But there are difficulties in the way of practically using
spark spectra, which have been the reason why these
important means of reaction have not yet found their
entry into all chemical laboratories. First of all, a
simple method has been wanting by which spark
spectra can be obtained at any time. Whoever has
been obliged to use currents of great intensity with tem-
porary interruptions of days, weeks, or months, knows
how much unpleasantness is caused by fitting, taking
to pieces, and cleaning the ordinary constant batteries
used hitherto. Another difficulty hes in the fact that
spectrum tables are still wanting which would be of suffi-
cient service for all practical purposes. It is true that a
large quantity of measurements have been pubUshed, and
doubtless some of them are extremely accurate, but with
the greatest part of them the purity of the substances
experimented with is not in the least guaranteed, and
very often it can be proved not to have been attended to
at all. If it is attempted to reduce to a universal scale
all the spectrum drawings at hand which have been ob-
tained by different observers, with different refractive
media, with different widths of the slit, some at a higher,
and some at a lower temperature, tables are obtained
which are completely and utterly useless in the laboratory.
Lately Prof. Bunsen,of Heidelberg, has tried to remove

all these difficulties. In a very important treatise, the
first part of which has just been published, he first de-
scribes a new battery and a new spark apparatus, by
means of which spark spectra can at any time be obtained
with the same ease and facility as ordinary flame spectra.
The battery is the charcoal-zinc battery without clay cells.
The exciting liquid is a mixture of bichromate of potash
and sulphuric acid. In order to prepare 10 litres of this
liquid. Prof. Bunsen gives the following instructions : —
0765 kilogrammes of commercial powdered bichromate
of potash, which as a rule contains about 3 per cent, of
impurities, are mixed with o'832 litres of sulphuric acid in
a stone jar while the mass is being constantly stirred ;
when the salt is changed to sulphate of potash and
chromic acid, 9*2 litres of water are added, the stirring
being kept up and the water allowed to flow from a spout
about \ inch wide ; the crystal meal, which already is
very warm, thus gets warmer and warmer and eventually
dissolves completely. The exciters for this liquid are : a
rod of the densest gas coal, 4 cm. broad, i '3 cm. thick,
and immersed 1 2 cm. deep into the liquid, and a rolled plate
of zinc 4 cm. broad, o"S cm. thick, and immersed to the
same depth as the coal ; the zinc plate is entirely coated
with a layer of wax (which is put on whilst hot), except
that plane which is turned towards the coal and which is
amalgamated. The distance between coal and zinc is
entirely optional ; in the spectral and analytical researches
of Prof. Bunsen it varied according t© circumstances
between 3 and 10 millimetres. The results with this bat-
tery are, however, not very satisfactory with regard to
duration and constancy of current, if the cell containing
the exciting liquid is made of the same size and shape as
those in the ordinary Grove or Bunsen battery. The
reason of this lies in the circumstance that in the
nitric acid of those batteries there is far more oxygen
contained, which is employed for depolarisation, than in
an equal weight of the chromate liquid, and that there-
fore a comparatively much larger quantity of the latter is
used up to obtain the same effect. The chromic acid
battery therefore, compared to Grove's battery, requires
cells of at least three to four times more capacity. The
best shape for these cells is that of narrow, high cyUnders.
The column of liquid, of about i'6 litres, has a diameter
of about o'o88 metres, and stands o'28 metres high in the
cylinder, which bears a mark at that height. The zinc-
coal pair is only immersed up to half its height into the
liquid column, and has an active zinc surface of about
forty-eight square cm.

With regard to the constants of this chromic acid bat-
tery without clay cells, it considerably surpasses in elec-
tromotive force all other apparatus with clay cells hitherto
used. It possesses an electromotive force which is about
13 per cent, larger than the ordinary charcoal-zinc or
Grove battery. Its essential conduction resistance is
about 12 per cent, smaller than that of Grove's battery
with clay cells. In order to be able to judge the econo-
mical effect of the chromic acid battery, we will consider
a little more in detail the chemical processes taking place
in this battery. In unconnected freshly filled Grove bat-
teries the consumption of zinc is very small, only when
after prolonged use an electrolytic and endosmotic ex-
change has taken place between the two exciting liquids,
a consumption of zinc, independent of the generation
of the current, becomes apparent. In the unconnected
chromic acid battery, however, the consumption of zinc
at the very beginning is entirely the same as that which
is observed in connected batteries during the genera-
tion of the current. This circumstance makes it indis-
pensable to arrange the chromic acid battery in such a
manner as to make it easy, at every interruption of the
current, to bring the exciting plates out of contact with
the liquid. This is attained by a simple hand lever
arrangement by which the plates can be dipped into or
raised out of the liquid. It is of particular interest, not

Sept. 9, 1875J

NATURE

399

only for practical purposes, but also from a theoretic point
of view, to compare the consumption of zinc during the
generation of the current with that in the unconnected bat-
tery, as theory alone gives no basis on which to decide
the question whether the zinc disssolved in the uncon-
nected battery is entirely, partly, or not at all used in the
connected battery for the generation of the current. In-
vestigation showed that the quantity of zinc dissolved in
the disconnected battery is a little under half of the con-
sumption of zinc necessary acording to theory to generate
the current in the connected battery, and that only a part
of the metal dissolved in the disconnected battery without
current-generation is used up in the connected one for
the generation of the current. This fact entirely corre-
sponds with the view that the dissolution of the zinc
must not be looked upon as the cause of the current, but
as a necessary condition of the same. Investigation
further showed that while in the chromic acid battery
above desciibcd, on the average only 22 per cent, of
zinc was lost, the loss in the nitric acid battery expe-
rimented with was 48 per cent, on the average. The
chromic acid battery without clay cells is the least
constant one amongst the ordinary constant batteries.
But if used in a proper manner it may serve for a
very long time. Prof. Bunscn possesses a battery of
this kind, of forty pairs, with an active zinc surface on
each plate of only forty square cm. For the last eight
lecture-terms it has served for all experiments without
its having been necessary during this long time to renew
the zinc plates, or their coatings of wax, or the original
exciting hquid, nor to clean the conducting connection
parts ; it has been merely necessary to renew now and
then the amalgamation of the zinc plates (an operation
which only takes a few minutes of time) and to replace
that part of the liquid which was lost by evaporation in
the air, by simply filling the cylinders with water up to
the marks on their sides. The apparatus to this day
still gives an electric arc between carbon points which
amply suffices for the photo-chemical lecture experiments.
The currents obtained by this battery, which has now
been in use for already more than four years, are still
powerful enough for demonstrations in electrolysis, spark
spectra, decomposition of gases by induction sparks,
&c., and will doubtless continue to suffice for all these
purposes for some time to come. But we must again
repeat that effects of such magnitude can only be ex-
pected if the precaution is used (and it is very easy to do
so) not to leave the pairs in contact with the liquid for
one moment longer than the duration of the current
necessary for the experiments requires it.

The battery used for the production of spark spectra
consists of four of the pairs above described. The pole
wires conduct the primary current, of which a branch
puts the current interrupter into action, to a Ruhmkorff
apparatus, the induction coil of which has a diameter of
nearly 0-2 metres and a length of 0-5 metres. The cur-

rent induced in the same is conducted to the spark appa-
ratus, standing in front of the slit of the spectroscope :
a, a Ijottle with three necks, serves as a stand for the
spark apparatus. The induced current goes from the
mercury cup b, through the fine wire c to the carbon point
d, which is fastened on a pointed platinum wire ; thence
it passes as a spark to the other carbon point e, and from
this it reaches the second mercury cup f, which is con-
nected with the other end of the induction coil. The
platinum wires, which are surrounded by glass tubes
sealed firmly upon them, can be moved upwards or down-
wards by the corks h, and this allows of a quick and
exact fixing of the carbon points before the slit of the
spectroscope.

The carbon points destined to receive the little quanti-
ties of liquids under, examination are best prepared from
the ordinary and not too light drawing charcoal, which
is easily procurable. In order first to impart con-
ducting power to the charcoal, a great number of the
sticks are exposed to the most intense white heat for
some time in a covered porcelain crucible, which stands
in a larger clay crucible, and is on all sides surrounded
by charcoal powder. Then the sticks are cut to points at
one end, and the little charcoal cone thus obtained is
cut off with a fine watchmaker's saw. In order to re-
move the silica, magnesia, manganese, iron, potash, soda,
and lithia which the charcoal contains, about a thous and of
the points are boiled in a platinum dish, first with hydro-
fluoric acid, then with concentrated sulphuric acid, then
with concentrated nitric acid, and finally with hydro-
chloric acid, repeating each process several times, while
between each manipulation each of the acids is removed
by washing and boiling with water. After this treatment
the carbon points are ready for use. A carbon cone of
this description weighs about o'oi5 grammes, and can
absorb more than its own weight of liquid. The spark
spectra obtained by aid of them are of very long duration.

We will report on the second part of Prof. Bunsen's
treatise as soon as it has been published. W.

HISTORICAL NOTE ON THE OBSERVATION
OF THE CORONA AND RED PROMINENCES
OF THE SUN*

SO much interest attaches to the phenomena of the
corona and red prominences, as observed during
total solar eclipses, and correct views of their nature and
of the proper means of observing them are so recent, that
I feel it proper to give here a brief account of what I
believe to be the first attempt to see these, under ordinary
conditions, with an uneclipsed sun.f This account is con-
tained in the private diary of the late G. P. Bond, formerly
director of the Observatory of Harvard College, which
has become known to me through the kindness of his
daughters.

Bond observed the total solar ecHpse of July 28, 1851,
at Lilla Edet in Sweden, and his report is published in
the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xxi.,
p. 97.

From Sweden, Bond went to Geneva, where he arrived
in September 1851, and from this point I may transcribe
from his diary, making no changes except the occasional
insertion or omission of unimportant words.

" Geneva, Sunday, Sept, 14, 1851.— I think I must go
to Chamounix to try whether it may be possible to discern
the red flames on the sun's disc by occulting all but the
very edge, upon one of the lofty peaks. It seems to me not
altogether impossible. Certainly an experiment worth
trying and a new application of the 'Aiguilles.' . . .

'•'■Geneva, Sept. 15, 1851. — ... The weather looks
dark and lowering, with an uncomfortable north-east

• By Edward S. Holdcn. Reprinted from the August number of the
Amerkiiii Journal of Science.

\ Airy, Nasmyth, Baden-Powell, Piazzi-Smyth, and others experimented
in this direction, about this time, with various results. See Edinburgh Ast.
Obs., vol. xi. p, 279 ; Mem. R. A. S., vol. xvi. p. 301, &c.

400

NATURE

{Sept. 9, 1875

wind, but M. Plantamour thinks it is likely to be fine
weather, and on this recommendation I took a place in
the diligence for Chamouriix. . . .

" Chamounix, Sept. 18, 185 1. — Last evening the stars
were shining through the opening clouds, giving promise
of improving weather, but a glance out of the window
this morning dispels all such anticipations. . . .

" Chamoiimx, Sept. 19, 1851. — I woke this morning at
five, and my first impulse was to go to the window to see
the signs of the weather. Last night I had hopes of an
improvement. But I was surprised to find a clear sky ;
some clouds were resting round the aiguille, but the
summit of Mont Blanc was clear. Started for Mon-
tanvert at 7. 1 5 with a guide. ...

" Mer de Glace. — . . . Attempted two or three times
to hide the sun's disc by projecting rocks to try to see
the red prominences, but could not get a station far
enough off. . . .

" Chamounix, Sept. 20, 185 1. — Snowing fast in morning.
Weather desperately bad. But before going to bed it was
quite clear. . . .

^' Chainotinix, Sept. 21,1851. — . . . The fine prospects
of last night were effectually put aside by another snow-
storm. ...

Chamounix, Sept. 22, 1851. — The morning bad as
usual. . . .

Chamounix, Sept. 23, 1851. — This morning still cloudy,
yet the prospect for an improvement was encouraging.
Soon after breakfast the sun appeared struggling in the
clouds, and I hurried oif with a spy-glass not to lose the
slightest chance of seeing the phenomena I wished to.
... I spent two or three hours in the wet fields to no
purpose. In the afternoon there was an effort at clearing
again.

'■'■ Chamotcnix to Martigny,Sept. 24, 1851. — The clouds
this morning still hung on the mountains, but overhead
there seemed some signs of clear sky. To make sure of
losing no chance I took an early breakfast and left for the
fields with the ordinary spy-glass belonging to the hotel
under my arm. Sometimes it would be almost clear, and
then again it began to rain, and I was undecided whether
to give up and start for Martigny or to stay another day.
At last I saw the sun's disc and took up my station on
the edge of the shadow of the Aiguille de Blettilre. It
was still cloudy, but I was satisfied from the nature of the
experiment —

" I St. That a very clear air is necessary.

" 2nd. Plenty of time to choose projections, affording
views of as large a portion of the circumference of the
disc as possible while the rest is hidden.

" And lastly, a good achromatic telescope easily moved.

" I did not expect to find it so easy an experiment, nor
to find a mass so well fitted for the purpose as the Aiguille
de Blettiere, which has a smooth edge, inclined, so as to
allow the sun to disappear slowly behind it,

" The naked eye easily bears a small portion of the sun-
light. From 7 to 9^ I followed the shadow over the
valley. It was nearly clear for a few moments before it
reached the woods on the side of the mountain, but there
were still some hght clouds over the sun, and nothing
could be seen certainly of the corona 5 the clouds and
mist would account for what I did see, and on the other
hand the colour of the telescope supplied too much red
just at the edge for one to be able to see any of the red
flames, if they existed there.

" On the whole, I am more than ever sure that the
experiment can be made, and I think will be by some one
more fortunate than I."

SOLAR OBSERVATION IN INDIA

"M^ OW that the subject of solar observation in India is
■'■^ likely to occupy the attention of the scientific public,
he following details of the Solar Observatory now in pro-

gress of construction at Calcutta may be of interest to
readers of Nature.

The suggestion emanated in the first place from the
well-known Italian astronomer and spectroscopist, Prof
Tacchini, who was sent to India by the Italian Govern-
ment as director of the Transit of Venus Expedition.
The idea thus put forth was at once taken up by Pere
Lafont, the principal of St. Xavier's College. A subscrip-
tion was opened to enable the work to be carried on, and
in a short time the collections had amounted to 10,000
rupees, to which the Indian Government added 5,000
rupees. So warmly does the idea seem to have been
taken up, that a theatrical benefit was given, at the sugges-
tion of Col. Wyndham, in aid of the Observatory fund.

The observations proposed to be carried out are to
supplement those made in Italy, where from November
to March (inclusive) the sky is often unfavourable for
observation. A complete annual record of changes in
the sun's chromosphere, &c., will thus be kept up. With
regard to instruments, an equatorial of 7-inch aperture is
now being constructed by Merz, but more funds are
needed to complete the instrumental " plant " of the Obser-
vatory, In course of time it is to be hoped that a transit
instrument and a complete set of meteorological appara-
tus will be added.

The Italian Transit of Venus Expedition has thus been
the means of sowing seeds which, finding themselves in
a soil most favourable for development, are calculated
at no very distant period to bear fruit of the greatest
value to science. When in Calcutta with the Royal
Society's Eclipse Expedition, last April, I visited the
Observatory in company with Prof. Tacchini, and the
work of construction was then in a very advanced state.
Prof. Tacchini has recently written to say that the build-
ing is now almost completed.

The energy which has been displayed in connection
with the Calcutta Observatory * redounds greatly to the
credit of our Indian colleagues. It is only by systematic
observations of this kind, carried on by public enterprise,
that we can ever hope to detect cyclical changes in
the sun's composition and constitution — changes which,
taking enormous periods for their completion, may de-
mand continuous records to be carried on even through
many generations. R. Meldola

THE LAWS OF STORMS \

MFAYE, in the article referred to below, and of
• which we propose to give an abstract at con-
siderable length, begins by referring to the stupendous
force of tropical tempests as contrasted with those of
Europe, and to the practical importance of knowing the
laws which regulate them. Many persons, he believes, on
reading the title of his paper, will be surprised to learn
that hurricanes have laws, or will ask what an author
means by proposing to expound and vindicate the Law of
Storms.

Laws of Storms. — Not only are storms subject to laws
of great interest to science, but from these laws practical
rules may be deduced which will enable us to avoid these
dangers, or escape from them, should we happen to be
caught in a storm. These rules are taught in all naval
schools, and are the foundation of the sailor's safety.
The validity of the laws on which they are based has,
however, been disputed by some writers on Meteorology,
and therefore the Bureau des Longitudes has authorised
the pubhcation of M. Faye's paper, in which he attempts
clearly to expound and to defend the disputed laws.

Referring to the valuable labours of Piddington in
India and Redfield in the United States, and of Reid,
M. Faye says that the only premises they had to start

* The Observatory is situated in St. Xavier's College, Park Street,
Calcutta.

t Abstract of a paper, " Defense de la Loi des Tempetes, par M. Faye,
Membre de I'lnstitut," in the Annuairt of the Bureau des Longitudes for

187s.

Sept. 9, 1875]

NATURE

401

from were the idea that there ought to be something
regular in the progress of hurricanes, and the observed
fact that in every disastrous storm the wind appeared to
move in a circle. They said to themselves : " We do not
seek to know how storms are formed, but how they pro-
gress." Instead of speculating, as did former meteoro-
logists, on storms of aspiration, on the role of electricity,
on the conflict of opposing currents, &c., they collected
for each tempest extracts from the log-books of all the
ships which had been involved in it. After having
abstracted and arranged this immense quantity of ma-
terial, they marked upon a chart, at certain dates, the
positions of these ships and the direction of the winds
observed. Then, by placing on this chart, after several
trials, a series of tissue-papers on which had been drawn
concentric circles, they made sure that the wind-arrows at
the same instant closely coincided with these circles, so that
at that very instant, over all the region subjected to the
storm, the mass of air resting on the ground or on the sea
must have been acted on by a vast gyrating movement
around a centre. Some idea of the nature of these re-
searches will be obtained from Fig. i, which shows a very
small part of the chart of the hurricane which ravaged the
island of Cuba in 1844. Redfield collected sufficient

information to determine the figure of the hurricane at
twenty-five different times, between Oct. 4 and 7 ; the figure
shows two of these. The same phenomenon was repro-
duced at all the other times ; everywhere the hurricane
assumed this strikingly circular form.

All tornadoes, typhoons, hurricanes, present the same
character wherever they occur, and they preserve it
throughout the entire duration, and over all their area,
which often extends to more than 600 leagues. The con-
clusion is evident ; there is evidence here of a vast rota-
tory movement, definitively confined to one portion of
our atmosphere, which is at the same time subjected to a
movement of translation.

It is remarkable that when all the separate results
obtained over the whole of the northern hemisphere are
compared, it is seen that the gyration takes place always
and everywhere from right to left, in a direction opposite
to that of the hands of a watch (see Fig. i). Still more
remarkable is it that over all the southern hemisphere the
same law, the same gyration is found, but in a direction
opposite to that of the preceding, from left to right, i.e.,
the same direction as that of the hands of a watch. There
is here evidently one law, and that a law without excep-
tion ; these terrible gyratory movements turn constantly

Fig. I.— Hurricane at Cuba from Oct. 5 to 7, 1844.

to the left in the northern hemisphere, to the right in the
southern hemisphere.

Finally, the trajectories present some very striking
common characteristics in each hemisphere, and in both
hemispheres a remarkable symmetry. The lines tracked
by the centres of these cyclones do not descend directly
from the equator to either pole ; on the contrary, they
incline first to the west, then, after having passed the limit
of the trade-winds, they bend towards the east, in a
final direction roughly perpendicular to the former. Fig. 2
will enable the reader to follow in the two hemispheres
the development of cyclones. Originating not far from
the zone of calms or of variable winds, on both sides of
the equatorial zone, they measure scarcely more than two
or three degrees at the outset, but as they proceed towards
higher latitudes their area gradually enlarges. In the
two temperate zones they attain a diameter of more than
ten degrees, and frequently occupy upon the terrestrial
globe a space considerably larger than that of France.

Thus all is symmetrical on each side of the equator, or
rather of the zone of calms, which oscillates a little each
year with the course of the sun. There is symmetry in
the direction of rotation, symmetry in the direction of
progressive motion, general symmetry in the figure of all
these trajectories ; and this holds good all over the globe.

Such are the storm laws, the discovery of which is
mainly due to England and the United States, " the two

greatest maritime powers of the world." The product
purely of observation, of empiricism, to use that word in
its highest sense, they have not yet reached the stage of
theory. On the contrary, in order to discover these laws, it
has been necessary to cast aside contemporary prejudices
and doctrines, the deadening influence of which we have
hourly opportunities of witnessing.

Practical Rules.— ^vX the practical object of these
investigations is to save human life. Do we know of no
premonitory signs ? After the cyclone has commenced,
have we any means of discovering the direction of the
centre where the rotation is accelerated, where all the
sources of danger are accumulated ? How can we find
out the direction of its march ? How learn whether a
ship is caught in the dangerous region, where the rate of
the wind is the sum of the rates of rotation and of pro-
gress ; or in the moderate region, where the rate of the
wind is only the difference 1 Finally, what manoeuvres
are necessary in order to avoid the tornado or to escape
from it if by mischance we should be caught in it 1

To all these questions there are answers, some exact,
imperative as are the exigencies of the danger ; others
more elastic, leaving room for tact and ability on the par
of a commander.

By a fall continuous and prolonged, the barometer,
which is never at fault in the tropics, announces that a
cyclone is at a distance. As soon as the wind blows with

402

NA TURE

\_SepL 9, 1875

a certain force, it is easy to determine the direction in
which the centre of the cyclone will be found. The
following is Piddington's rule : — Turn the face to the
wind and stretch out the right arm ; the centre is in this
direction. The left arm must be used when a ship is in
the southern seas. Soon the wind increases, and the fall
of the barometer becomes more rapid ; the centre is getting
nearer, for the cyclone has an onward motion. If the
wind continues to increase without changing direction,
you are in the very path of the centre, and soon you will
be in the very heart of the tempest Then suddenly a

calm ensues ; at the centre of the cyclone exists a circular
space where a relative calm prevails. There the sky
reassuming its serenity, the sailor might be led to believe
himself safe; but this space is soon passed, and imme-
diately the tempest recommences. Only the wind has
suddenly jumped round 180 degrees ; it blows now in the
direction opposite to the previous one, at right angles to
the trajectory of the centre of the cyclone.

The situation which we have just supposed is a peculiar
case ; in general the vessel will be found to the right or
the left of this trajectory, whose direction, moreover, aa

Fig. 2. — Hurricanes of the northern hemisphere (July to October).

/

hni tJc nord rl( 7(i/i<! \ L\

\- -r-

^

c

)- y

Zone f/cs vciils ucinaMnT''ef''"cf^('¥'ciffmcT^

Hurricanes of the southern hemisphere (January to April).

attempt must be made to determine.* The alternative is
far from being a matter of indifference ; it is a question
of life or death, for the one corresponds to the favourable
semicircle, the other to the dangerous. The following is
Reid's rule, which eliminates all uncertainty : — In what-
ever hemisphere, if the wind changes direction succes-
sively by turning in the same direction as the cyclone
itself, the favourable semicircle is indicated ; if the wind

* We do not dwell on this last point, which can only be solved by skil-
fully comparing the indications of the.barometer with those of the direction
and force of th« winds.

changes by turning in the direction opposite to that of
the proper rotation of the cyclone, the dangerous semi-
circle is indicated.

This may be accounted for by examining Fig. 3. The
observer, supposed to be immovable, has his face turned
towards the series of winds which will strike him succes-
sively as the cyclone passes over him.

In the favourable semicircle (southern hemisphere), if
the ship behaves well in a rough sea, it is possible to
avoid the centre and the cyclone itself by the shortest
way, perpendicularly to its trajectory. The storm is

Sept. 9, 1875

NATURE

403

always formidable, but it is manageable. If, however,
the violence of the wind, the state of the sea, and the
weakness of the ship should make flight impossible, there
should be no hesitation in putting about ship and bring-
ing to on the starboard tack (the wind on the right side).
The vessel appears then to make for the centre of the

Fig. 3.

hurricane, but it makes no headway ; it thus escapes
being covered by the wind, and there is no risk of being
struck by seas behind, inevitable consequences of a port
tack. Soon the hurricane disappears by its motion of
translation, good weather reappears, and at last sail may
be made.

(TV be continued.^

THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION

T^HE second soiree was very interesting, although not
-»■ remarkable for novelties. The Post Office Tele-
graphic staff appeared in force, showing all varieties of
method and apparatus. A splendid series of Geissler
vacuum tubes was exhibited by Mr. F. J. Fry. Sir W.
Thomson's tide-gauge and tide-calculator, the apparatus
for deep-sea sounding, models of railway signals, means
of communication between passengers and guard, and
Dr. Leitner's collections from Dardistan were among the
most attractive objects.

The concluding general meeting presented no remark-
able feature, and called forth no very notable speeches.
Among the papers to be printed in full in the Report is
that of Prof. Cayley, on the application of mathematical
trees to chemical theory. The local committee and
officials were thanked most heartily and deservedly.
They have had the best intentions, adequate means, and
good plans, and have employed the energy needed for the
fruition of their ideas. The actual number of members,
associates, and ladies present during the meeting was
2,249, ^^ number having been somewhat swelled by late
arrivals.

The vote of thanks to the President, moved by Sir VV.
Thomson and seconded by Dr. Carpenter, was not merely
formal. Sir W. Thomson eulogised Sir John Hawkshaw
as a man who believed that good practice proceeded from
good theory. Certainly the President's tone of mind
seems to have influenced the work and proceedings of the
meeting, for it has been on the whole quiet and genial,
yet busy and important in useful results obtained by the
scientific employment of common sense, if not of imagina-
tion. Thus ended the formal proceedings of a meeting in
which three Sections had to sit up to the latest moment
in order to get through their work.

The following is the list of grants of money appro-
priated to scientific purposes. The names of the mem-

£

s.

d.

159

4

9

100

0

0

30

0

0

50

0

0

20

0

0

50

0

0

200

0

0

25 o o

bers who would be entitled to call on the general treasurer
for the respective grants are prefixed : —

Mathanatks and Physics.

*Cayley, Prof. — Printing Mathematical Table

* Brooke, Mr. — British Rainfall

*Glaisher, Mr. J. — Luminous Meteors (25/. renewed)
*Maxwell, Prof. C. — Testing the exactness of Ohm's

Law (renewed)

•Stokes, Prof. — Reflective Power of Silver and other

Substances (renewed)

*Tait, Prof. — Thermo-Electricity (renewed)

Thomson, Sir W.— Tide Calculating Machine ...

Chemistry.
*Roscoe, Prof. — Specific Volume of Liquids

* Armstrong, Dr. — Isomeric Cresols and the Law of

Substitution in the Phenol Series 10 o o

Clowes, Mr. F. — Action of Ethylbromobutyrate

on Ethyl Sod-aceto-acetate 10 o o

*Allen, Mr. — Estimation of Potash and Phosphoric

Acid 20 o o

Geology.

* Lubbock, Sir J., Bart. — Exploration of Victoria

Cave, Settle 100 o o

* Evans, Mr. J. — Record of the Progress of Geology 100 o o

*Evans, Mr. J. — Kent's Cavern Exploration 100 o o

*Herschel, Prof. — Thermal Conductivities of Rocks 10 o o
*Hull, Prof. — Underground Waters in the New Red

Sandstone and Permian 10 o o

*Bryce, Dr. — Earthquakes in Scotland 20 o o

Biology.

*Sclater, Mr. — Record of the Progress of Zoology. . 100 o o
*Dresser, Mr.— Close Time for the Protection of

Indigenous Animals 5 o o

Balfour, Prof. — Physiological Action of Sound ... 25 o o

Huxley, Prof. — Zoological Station at Naples ... 75 o o

*Brunton, Dr. L.-— Nature of Intestinal Secretion... 20 o o

Fox, Col. Lane — Instructions for Use of Travellers 25 o o

Fox, Col. Lane — Prehistoric Explorations 25 o o

Statistics and Economic Science.
Beddoe, Dr. — Examination of Physical Characters

of the Inhabitants of the British Isles 100 o o

Mechanics.
*Froude, Mr. W. — Instruments for Measuring the

Speed of Ships (renewed) 50 o o

Napier, Mr. J. — Effect of the Propeller on the

Turning of Steam Vessels 50 o o

;^I489 4 9
• Re-appointed.

I was fortunate enough to get a ticket for the Salisbury
and Stonehenge excursion, for which the applications
were very numerous. Mr. Blackmore's magnificent
museum illustrating the Stone Age was a delight to all
scientific minds ; and the presence of the founder, his
brother, and his brother-in-law, Mr. E. T. Stevens, en-
hanced the pleasure of the visit. The Cathedral and
Stonehenge, in addition, made up a very full day's round.
The Mayor of Bristol took a party to Bowood and Avebury.
How the Rev. Bryan King obtained his data for esti-
mating that Avebury was about seven centuries older
than Stonehenge I cannot conceive. The Silbury tumulus
afforded a splendid view to the visitors, if very little science
could be got out of it. A third party, that drove through
the Cheddar valley, saw at Stanton Drew yet a third of
the famous stone erections so conveniently placed around
Bristol. The Tortworth excursion was a really hard day's
work among many varieties of rock, especially palaeozoic,
but it was as profitable as it was hard, for the geologist.
The Bristol waterworks were of high interest for engi-
neers ; and the attractions of Bath, Wells, and Tintern
were displayed to every advantage by reason of beautiful
weather and hearty welcomes.

404

NATURE fl-

\Sept. 9, 1875

REPORTS.

Report of the Committee on Mathematical Tables.— The portion
of the report that had been prepared by Prof. Cayley during the
year contained a rhumS of works and memoirs on the theory of
numbers. The publication of the elliptic function tables had,
under the direction of Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher, proceeded during
the year, and the first sixty-four pages of the table, printed from
the stereotype plates, were exhibited to the Section. It was
expected that the whole table would be printed by the next
meeting. Mr. Glaisher stated that considerable additions had
been received from mathematicians relating to the report on
general tables, and that it was probable a supplementary report
on this subject might be presented at the next meeting of the
Association.

Hyperelliptic Functions. ^"bUx. W. H. L. Russell stated the
contents of the portion of his report that he had written in the
year, and which related chiefly to memoirs of Weierstrass. His
report would be completed in two more parts.

Report of the Committee on Mathematical Printing, by Mr. W.
Spottiswoode. — At the Belfast meeting the committee, consisting
of Mr. Spottiswoode, Professors Stokes, Cayley, Clifford, and
Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher, was appointed to report on mathematical
notation and printing, with the view of leading mathematicians
to prefer in optional cases such forms as are more easily put into
type, and of promoting uniformity of notation. The report
related wholly to printing, and contained a list of forms having
the same signification, the one requiring "justification," and the
other not (such as ex. gr. \/a + x, and \J{a + x)) There were
also attached diagrams showing the mechanical operation of
setting up mathematical expressions in type, so that when there
were two forms equally satisfactory from the mathematical point
of view, writers might choose the one that would give the printer
less trouble ; as everything that tended to cheapen mathematical
printing tended to the spread of the science. With regard to
notation, the committee had thought it better not to report, feel-
ing that in presence of the differences of opinion that must exist,
it would be desirable that the matter should be discussed by a
larger committee. The committee was reappointed to report on
mathematical notation, with the addition of Sir Wm. Thomson,
Professors H. J. S. Smith and Henrici, and Lord Rayleigh.

Report of the Committee on Tides, by Sir William Thomson. —
He remarked that tides rise and fall in a series of harmonic vibra-
tions, like the various tones in music, some tidal waves being due
to the moon, others to the sun, others to meteorological causes.
Even the overtones in music — so thoroughly studied by Helm-
holtz — were represented in the tidal waves. The committee had
been engaged upon tides ioralongtime, and had shown theGovern-
ment, harbour authorities, and others interested, the way to con-
tinue the work, but it could do so itself no longer, for he believed
that day to be the last of the existence of the committee. The
calculations connected with tidal observations were of a laborious
nature. Col. Walker, of the Trigonometrical Survey of India,
had helped the committee very much by printing the forms re-
quired for the calculations. Col. Walker had also had a series
of tidal observations made in the Indian seas, and might possibly
send the results home to have the calculations made from them.
The Indian Government would probably have further obfcrva-
lions made, especially in an important new harbour they were
constructing at Madras. A great mass of other observations was
accumulating. Mr. H. C. Russell, the Government astronomer
at Sydney, had made several years' tidal observations, but had been
obliged to stop them on account of the cessation of the grant for
the work, but he hoped that the duty would be undertaken once
more j as yet, the committee had no reductions whatever of tidal
observations in the southern hemisphere, and knew nothing
about the tides there. He had been promised a long series of
observations, extending over eighteen years, from Brest, and he
had applied for a series of eighteen years' observations from
Toulon ; so that he expected to obtain some information about
tides on the French coast. The Tidal Committee had had some
assistance from the Royal Society, which had given it a grant of
100/. to carry on tidal calculations. It had thus ascertained that
the tides in Erebus Bay were connected with the Atlantic and
not with the Pacific. Sir William Thomson then exhibited to
the meeting and described his tide-gauge and tide-calculating
machine, the latter being an improvement on that first described
at Brighton and shown at Bradford two years ago. Although
the old committee on tides ceased to exist at this meeting, a new
one was appointed, consisting of Sir W. Thomson, Prof. J. C.
Adams, Rear- Admiral Richards, General Strachey, [Mr. W.

Parkes, Col. Walker, Prof. Guthrie, Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher,
Mr. John Exley, Mr. J. N. Shoolbred, and Mr. J. R. Napier,
and the sum of 200/. was granted to them for completing and
setting up in I^ondon, where it may be available for use, Sir
William Thomson's tide- calculating machine. It was suggested
that perhaps the machine might be placed at South Kensington.

Report of the Committee on Wave Numbers. — Portions of a letter
were read from Mr. G. Johnstone Stoney relating to the work done
in the year. At the Belfast meeting it was arranged that Mr.
Stoney should interpolate Kirchhoff's lines into the table of wave
numbers of the solar spectrum which Mr. Burton had prepared
for the committee. When this was attempted, however, it was
found that there were points requiring personal explanations from
Mr, Burton, who was absent at Rodriguez on the Transit of
Venus expedition, and the delay so occasioned had prevented any
portion of the table being as yet printed. About thirty-four
folios in manuscript, forming about two-thirds of the whole, were
complete and were exhibited to the section,
-■'^n interim Report of the Committee for testing experimentally
Ohm's Law, by Prof. Clerk-Maxwell, was read. It stated that
he had had two compound resistance coils constructed by
Warden and Co., one containing five equal, or nearly equal,
coils of thirty ohms each, and the other two similar coils of
thirty ohms, and by means of these he had devised a satisfactory-
test of Ohm's Law which could be worked to about TFurtr'
Nothing had, however, been done as yet. It was mentioned
that Mr. Chrystal had compared the resistances of the standard
coils belonging to the Association, and now in the Cavendish/^
Laboratory at Cambridge. /

Prof. Thorpe presented a preliminary Report of the Committee
appointed for the purpose of determining the specific volumes of
liquids. It gave a resume of experiments upon certain liquids
and gases, experiments made with a view of following up the
work of Hermann Kopp, to whom almost all our knowledge of
the subject is due, and further to arrive at definite conclusions
with reference to the laws laid down by Kopp.

Prof. Corfield, on reading the Report of the Srwaqe Committee,
observed that want of funds during the past year had prevented
them from employing a sufficient amount of labour to obtain
many useful results, but he was happy to state that the prospect
for the ensuing year was brighter, as they had had a very liberal
offer of pecuniary assistance. The observations which have been
made on the Sewage Farm (situated near Romford) go to show
that the weight of the crops removed from the land has increased
each year. The great thing required is to make a comparison
between the nitrogen taken up by the crops and the effluent
nitrogen, and in order to accomplish this with accuracy it was
necessary that the experiments should be constantly repeated,
and should extend over a considerable number of years.

Report of Committee for considerifig the desirability of establishing
a close time for the Protection of Indigenous Animals. — This
report expressed regret that it had been found impossible to in-
troduce the desired measure into Parliament this year in time
to allow of its being carried; but Mr. Henry Chaplin, M. P. for
that part of the Atlantic Doldrums which lies in the track of
Mid- Lincolnshire, holds out the hope that he will bring forward
such a measure early next session. The committee continue to
receive assurances of the efficient working of the Sea Birds' Per-
servation Act of 1869.

The report (unfortunately the last) of the Sub-Wealden Ex-
ploration states that the new bore-hole has failed to penetrate to
the Paleozoic rocks. The small diameter prevents tubing, and
the sides now appear to be too friable to preserve verlicality.
Cessation of the work is hourly expected. The most note-
worthy result of this heroic but unsuccessful investigation is the
great thickness of the Kimmeridge clay, which, as was predicted
by Mr. Searles Wood, considerably exceeds the estimate of the
Sub-Wealden Boring Committee.

SECTIONAL PROCEEDINGS
SECTION A— Mathematics and Physics
Dr. J. Janssen made four communications to the Section, the
first of which related to the eclipse of April 1875, as observed
at Bangchalio (Siam). He used a special telescope for the study
of the corona. The results were — I. The establishing that the
line 1474 is infinitely more pronounced in the corona than in the
protuberances. This line seems even to stop abruptly at the
edge of the protuberances without penetrating them. The light,
then, which gives the line 1474 belongs entirely to the corona.
This observation is one of the strongest proofs which can be

Sept, 9, 1875]

NATURE

405

adduced to prove that the corona is a real object, a matter
radiating by itself. The existence of a solar atmosphere slla-
ated beyond the chromosphere— an atmosphere which M.
Janssen had recognised in 1871, and proposed to call the coro-
nal atmosphere— thus receives confirmation. 2. Height of the
coronal atmosphere. In 1871 Dr. Janssen announced that the
coronal atmosphere extended from half the sun's radius to a
whole radius at certain points. This assertion has been con-
firmed not only by the direct views of the phenomenon, but also
by photography. At Dr. Janssen's request Dr. Schuster took
photographs of the corona with exposures of one, two, four, and
eight seconds. In this series of photographs the height of the
corona increases with the time of exposure. The height of the
corona in the eight-seconds' photograph exceeds at some points a
solar radius. (It is true that we ought to take account of the
influence of the terrestrial atmosphere. ) 3. As the sky was not
of perfect clearness at Bangchallo, Dr. Janssen observed phe-
nomena that explain previous observations of eclipses which
seemed to invalidate the existence of the corona as a gaseous
incandescent medium. On the whole, the observations of the
5th of April, 1875, have advanced us a fresh step in the know-
ledge of the corona by bringing forward new proofs of the
existence of an atmosphere round the sun, principally gaseous,
incandescent, and very extended.

In his second paper Dr. Janssen stated the results obtained by
the expedition to Japan to observe the Transit of Venus. The
expedition, which was under Dr. Janssen's direction, divided into
two parts, the one taking up its station at Nagasaki and the
other at Kobi. At Nagasaki Dr. Janssen observed the transit
with an equatoreal of 8 inches aperture. (l) He obtained the
two interior contacts. (2) He saw none of the phenomena of the
drop or of the ligament ; all the appearances were geometrical.
(3) He observed facts which establish the existence of an atmo-
sphere to Venus. (4) He saw the planet Venus before her entry
on the sun, with suitable coloured glasses. This important ob-
servation proves the existence of the coronal atmosphere. {5)
There was taken at Nagasaki a plate of the revolver for the first
interior contact. (6) M. Tisserand observed the two interior
contacts with a 6-inch equatorial ; the contacts were sensibly
geometrical. (7) Sixty photographs of the transit on silvered
plates were obtained ; and (8) also some other photographs (wet
collodion and albumenised glass). At Kobi (weather magnifi-
cent) fifteen good photographs of the transit (wet collodion and
albumenised glass) were obtained of about 4 inches in size ; they
will admit of being combined with the English photographs at
the southern stations. The astronomical observation of the
transit was successfully made by M. De la Croix, who was pro-
vided with a 6.inch telescope. His observations attest the
existence of an atmosphere round Venus.

Dr. Janssen's third communication related to his magnetic
observations in the Gulf of Siam and the Gulf of Bengal. He
made observations at Bangkok, Bangchallo, Ligor, Singora, and
Singapore, and concluded that the magnetic equator passes
actually between Ligor and Singora, about 7° 43' N. latitude.
The line without declination passes very near to Singapore. In
the Gulf of Bengal the equator passes through the north of
Ceylon (the precise position will be given). The position of
Ligor has been rectified. It is erroneously placed on the maps
lat. 8" 24' 30",

Dr. Janssen had also made some observations which relate to
mirage at sea. He had paid great attention to the phenomena
in all his journeys since 1868, and had observed some very
curious fads relating to mirage chiefly at sunrise and sunset.
He found that (l) the mirage was almost constant at the surface
of the sea ; (2) that the appearances were exphii led by admitting
the existence of a plane of total reflection at a certain height
above the sea ; (3) that the phenomena are due to a thermic and
hygrometric action of the sea on the neighbouring atmospheric
strata ; (4) that there exist at sea direct, inverse, lateral, and
other mirages ; (5) that the phenomena have a very general in-
fluence on the apparent height of the sea horizon, which is some-
limes diminished, sometimes increased. This variation of the
apparent horizon it is very important to take into account, if we
remember the use made of the horizon in nautical astronomy.

Prof. Hennessy, of Dublin, read two papers, one On the in-
fluence of the physical properties of water on climate, and the
other On the possible influence on climate of the substitution of
water for land in Central and Northern Africa. In the former
the author referred to his earlier writings, in which he had taken
an opposite view to Sir John Herschel, who stated that the
effect of land under sunshine was to throw heat into the general

atmosphere, and to distribute it by the carrying power of the air
over the whole earth, and that water was much less effective in
this respect, the heat penetrating its depths and being there ab-
sorbed, so that the surface never acquires a very elevated tempera-
ture even under the equator. I'rof. Hennessy had arrived at
the conclusion that of all substances largely existing in nature,
water was that which was the most favourable to the absorption
and distribution of solar heat throughout the external coating
of the earth.

In his second paper, the author referred to'the fact that more
than six years since he had put forward proofs of the connection
between some of the hot winds that blow from the south-west in
Central and Southern Europe with the currents of the Atlantic,
and not with the Desert of Sahara, as has been usually supposed.
Similar views had been enunciated by Prof. Wild, director of
the Physical Observatory of Russia, and others. The attention
excited by the great midday heat of Central Africa caused many to
overlook the remarkably low nocturnal temperature, and thus to
ascribe to the desert a thermal influence that it does not possess.
The author's views with regard to the physical properties of
water in connection with climate, indicate that the substitution
of an area of water over the Sahara for the existing dry land
would be followed by the storing up of the heat received so
largely in that region from the sun's rays which is now partly
dissipated by nocturnal radiation. A great mediterranean sea
in Africa would become a source of positive thermal influence on
distant places. In the Red Sea the temperature is high by night
as well as by day, and this would also occur in the hypothetical
mediterranean of the Sahara. The climatal effect of this sea
would upon the whole result in a higher mean temperature for
the=e parts of the globe, and it would undoubtedly not operate
in producing a lower temperature in Europe so as to cause a
descent of the snow line. Its operation would probab'y be the
reverse.

Prof. Osborne Reynolds read a paper On the Force caused by
the comjunnication 0/ Heat between a Surface and a Gas. — This
paper dealt chiefly with the remarkable discovery recently made
by Mr. Crookes, that, under certain conditions, discs of pith
suspended in a very perfect vacuum, and at the end of arms free
to rotate, are made to spin round when light or radiant heat falls
upon them. Prof. Reynolds said that he believed that Mr,
Crookes asserted that radiant heat was attended by a force which
produced this effect, but no such assumption would, he thought,
explain the results. When a candle was presented the disc
would tend to run away, and when a piece of ice was presented
it would tend to follow ; this showed that the force was not a radia-
tive one, and he thought that, except as regarded the raising of
the temperature of the body, radiant heat had nothing to do
with the motions. The suspended body might give up its heat
to the ether or to the surrounding gas, and thus propel itself, for
the communication of this heat to the surrounding medium must
be accompanied by a reaction. It had been said that Mr. Crookes
used a perfect vacuum, so that there could be no gaseous reac-
tion ; but it remained to be proved that he used a vacuum so
absolutely perfect. The greater the perfection of the vacuum
the less was the resistance, and that was why the body appeared
under such circumstances to be driven by a greater force. He
had not witnessed the experiments Lwith light, made by Mr.
Crookes, but he thought that the results were probably due to
the conversion of light into heat. — The discussion on this paper
was adjourned, as it was hoped that Mr, Crookes would be able
to be present ; unfortunately, however, he was not able to
arrive in time, and Prof. Balfour Stewart, the president, re-
marked that, as had been said by Prof. Stokes, it was doubtful
whether Prof. Reynolds's explanation covered the whole ground.
There was something else besides residual gas in the bulbs, viz.,
ether, and the particles of the radiometer might communicate
more force to the ether when moving in one direction than when
Jailing back again ; consequently, motion might be given to the
whole body to restore the balance. At all events Mr. Crookes's
experiments were among the most interesting in the range of
physical science.

Capt. H. Toynbee read a paper On the physical geography oj
that part of the Atlantic Doldrums which lies in the track oj
ships crossing the Equator. The paper was accompanied by
diagrams, which showed the isobaric lines of mean pressure for
each -05 of an inch, together with arrows showing the prevailing
winds and their force, also the isothermal lines for every second
degree of air temperature, and further the isothermal lines for
every second degree of sea temperature, together with arrows
showing the prevailing currents and their speed in twenty-four

4o6

NATURE

[Sept. 9, 1875

hours. The paper called attention to important facts relating to
atmospheric pressure, temperature, wind, currents, weather, sea-
charts, natural history, earthquakes, &c. The diagrams gave
monthly pictures of the Doldrums, showing how in some months
they are wedge-shaped, as the late Commodore Maury remarked.
The whole paper was a resume of a work about to be published
by the Meteorological Office.

Sir W. Thomson gave an account of the graphical process
employed by him and Mr. J. Perry (now professor in Japan) for
determining the form of a hanging drop, and other cases of the
capillary surface of revolution.

On account of the interest attaching to the address of the Pre-
sident of the Mechanical Section On Stream Lines, and to the
fact that as it was being delivered simultaneously with Prof.
Balfour Stewart's address only a few members of this Section
were able to hear it, Mr. Froude repeated it and the experiments
with which it was accompanied again in Section A on the
Tuesday morning. One experiment in particular was very inte-
resting. A wooden wheel was fixed at a height of about 14 feet,
and an endless chain hanging loosely over the wheel in a loop
drooped to within 4 feet of the ground. When the wheel with
its suspended chain was made to rotate rapidly by means of mul-
tiplying gear, the links of the chain symbolised the particles of a
running stream ot water. When the chain was struck, while it
was rotating, with a wooden mallet, the curved forms into which
it was thus beaten were to some extent persistent, as if it
v;ere a stiff, fixed wire rope, instead of being a loose chain in
motion. Mr. Froude said that this experiment illustrated how
water in flowing through pipes did not tend to push them
straight, but rather adapted its motions to their curvatures.

In a letter from Mr. Meldrum, of Mauritius Observatory,
written to accompany forty-nine tables (which, however, had
not arrived), he expressed an opinion that the evidence adduced
in favour of a rainfall periodicity was so strong that he believed
we should by and by be able to predict the general character of
the seasons.

Communications were made to the Section by Mr. H. A.
Rowland, of John Hopkins University, Baltimore, On (he Mag-
netising Function of Iron, Nickel, and Cobalt, and On Magnetic
Distribution ; and Mr. A, Malloch explained a method he had
found accurate and convenient for producing a sharp meridian
shadow.

On the whole, the physical papers read before the Section were
not equal to the average of recent years, either in number or
importance ; but, as a compensation, the number of mathematical
papers was unprecedented, and the Bristol meeting will be
remembered both on this account and for the numerous attend-
ance of mathematicians. On the Saturday, which has by custom
long been set apart for mathematics, no less than twenty-four
papers (including the three reports noticed in another column)
on pure mathematics were read. Prof. Cayley explained the
theory of the analytical functions which he had termed factions.
Sir W. Thomson had three papers all relating to the mathe-
matical treatment of the differential equations that occur
in I,aplace's theory of the tides. Prof. FI. J. S. Smith
explained the effect of the quadric transformation on the
singular points of a curve, showing how singularities lying
upon one side of the triangle of reference became trans-
formed into singularities of a higher order at the opposite
angle ; and in another paper of great interest he pointed out
the connection between continued fractions and points in a

line (for example, between "^ expressed as a continued fraction,

and the order in which the points of section occur if a given line
be divided into twenty-four and also into seven parts). Prof.
Smith also spoke on the subject of singular solutions. Prof.
Clifford's communications related to the theory of linear trans-
formations, and one contained a graphical representation of
invariants. Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher gave some theorems on the
;/th roots of unity, and explained a formula of verification in
partitions, which was founded on and is complementary to one
communicated by Sylvester to the Edinburgh meeting in 187 1,
viz., that

"t^i - X ■\- xy - xyz + ...) = o,

while the theorem in the paper was that

. -S,(i -^ X + xy + xyz -^^ ...) = Sa"",
r being the number of different elements employed in any parti-
tion. Mr. H. M. Jeffery's papers related to cubic spherical
curves with triple cyclic arcs and triple foci, and to the shadows

of plane curves oh spheres. Mr. H. M. Taylor's paper con-
tained a contribution to the mathematics of the chessboard, and
his process enabled him to determine by a mathematical procedure
the relative values of the pieces at chess probably as accurately
as they admit of being found. Prof. R. S. Ball's communication
related to a screw-complex of the second order, and Prof.
Everett spoke on motors. Prof. Paul Mansion, of Ghent, had
sent two papers, one containing an elementary solution of
Iluyghens's problem on the impact of elastic balls, and the other
relating to singular solutions. Mr. W. Hayden contributed some
geometrical theorems.

SECTION C— Geology

After the President's address, a lengthy and elaborate paper
on the Northern End of the Bristol Coalfield was read by
Messrs. Handel Cossham, PI Wethered, and Walter Saise.
The paper was illustrated by many maps and sections. This
was followed by a paper by Mr. J. M'Murtrie on moun-
tain limestone lying in isolated patches at Luckington and
Vobster. The singularity of this case will be realised when it
is mentioned that the mountain limestone lies above the coal-
measures, which, when originally deposited, overlaid the lime-
stone. The Geological Survey examined the ground many
years ago, and came, not unnaturally, to the conclusion that the
limestone areas were bounded on all sides by faults. Mr.
M'Murtrie has been able to show that the coal-measures are
continued without disturbance beneath the limestone. The
whole thing is inverted, and much interesting talk arose as to
the possible movements which could have produced so great a
displacement. Mr. Moore, of Bath, followed with an account
of the deposits of Durdham Down yielding Thecodont jsaur?/'.
The age of the deposit in which this most remarkable Dino-
saurian occurs was discussed at some length, but no definite
result was arrived at, and the discussion was deferred till
Monday.

Mr. Stoddart described an auriferous limestone found at
Walton. The metal was distributed through the mass in
extremely minute quantity, and the difficulty of obtaining recog-
nisable samples was very great.

Prof. Hughes's paper, On the Classi/icatioti of the Sedimentary
Rocks, began by pointing out that the great divisions are not now
drawn where the greatest breaks, all evidence considered, occur
in nature. The sequence may be shortly given in these terms.
Laurentian — Gap — Labrador Series — Gap [ ? Huronian — Gap]
— Cambrian (from red conglomerates of St. David's up to
base of May Hill Sandstone)— Gap— Silurian (from May Hill
Sandstone = Upper and Lower Llandovery, to top of Red
Marls of Sawdde and Horeb Chapel)— Gap — Carboniferous
(from bottom of Devonian and Upper Old Red to top of Upper
Coal Measures) — Gap — Jurassic (from bottom of breccia and
conglomerates of so-called Permian and New Red to top of
fluviatile and estuarine deposits of Weald.) The author deferred
the full consideration of the rocks above this horizon to a future
time, merely commenting on some of the points which seemed
to him more especially to call for change.

In supporting this classification he criticised the division of
the May Hill Sandstone into Upper and Lower Llandovery, and
commented severely upon the re-naming of these beds, which had
been previously correctly described by Prof. Sedgwick under the
title May Plill Sandstone. He went into the Cambrian and
Silurian controversy at some length, and pointed out that not
only was Sedgwick's classification found to be the best in the
present state of our knowledge, but that Murchison's had not
correctly placed any one of the beds about which he came in
collision with Sedgwick. What Murchison then called Caradoc
overlapping Llandeilo at Llandeilo, has turned out to be May
Hill Sandstone ; what Murchison then called Cambrian under-
lying Llandeilo Flags, has turned out to be Caradoc resting on
them, ar.d part of the Llandeilo has had to be turned the other
way up. The Survey corrected this, and it has appeared corrected
in Murchison's later works, but he has never allowed that Sedg-
wick was right and he was wrong in 1839. Prof. Hughes
thought it was too bad that some should still claim for Murchison
the credit of having correctly placed the Ludlow and Wenlock,
Caradoc and Llandeilo, but say nothing of the names having at
that time been applied to totally different rocks.

He considered the Devonian and Upper Old Red to have
been deposited over a continental area which sunk first on the
south : hence the earlier character of the Devonian fauna in the

Sept. 9, 1875]

NATURE

407

south, and the greater denudation of the pre-Deronian land of the
north. The Termian he wished to abohsh as a separate forma-
tion, as it was a group made up of some stained carboniferous
rocks and some of Sedgwick's previously described Magnesian
Limestone and New Red. He thought that the continental area
on whose submerged surfiice the New Red was deposited sunk un-
equally, and that conglomerates, where there was material to
furnish them, were formed along the receding shore line, but at
different dates as difiercnt parts of the land got down below the
waves. He challenged anyone to show a section in which a
greater break could be seen between the Trias and so-called
I'ermian than several which occur amongst various members of
the Upper New Red itself— and commented upon the unsatis-
factory character of the palKontological evidence and of the
strat graphical evidence derived from tracing lines through a
distiict where the rock was seldom seen.

Prof. Hull commented upon the difficulty of introducing any
material changes in a nomenclature now so widely accepted.
Prof. Harkness stated that he was in favour of adopting the
classification of Silurian rocks given in Lyell's *' Student's
Manual." In reply, Prof. Hughes maintained his original
claims with much humour and energy.

Prof. Hcbert's very interesting communication on Undulations
in the chalk of the North of i:"'rance had special reference to
the strata likely to be encountered in the drift-way of the
Channel Tunnel. The Professor considered that observations of
dips established the existence of two series of folds, one trans-
verse to the other, which by their intersection produce bosses, or
geological hills. The lower rocks, and notably the Grecnsand,
may thus come to the surface in the Channel, and admit the sea-
water through their porous substance. Sir John Hawkshaw was
present, and combated the geological difficulties with great suc-
cess. A course of no fewer than five hundred borings, made by
a plunger from the side of a vessel, had satisfied him of the
substantial accuracy of the geological map of the Straits con-
structed from shore observations, and the information yielded by
these bormgs was in his opinion adequate to prove that the
tunnel will run through Lower Chalk in its whole extent. A
small irregularity, bringing in some less compact rock, may be
successfully and easily encountered by the engineer. In answer
to a suggestion that the shallow holes made by the plunger
might be deceptive, owing to a superficial detritus along the
floor of the Straits, Sir John Hawkshaw explained that the
strong wash of the Channel produced a perfectly clean floor.
All along the Straits the instrument had brought up chalk where
chalk was expected, and gault where gavdt was expected, and
these formations had a perlectiy definite boundary upon the floor
of the sea.

A paper by Mr. Sanders described some large bones from the
Rhaetic beds of Aust Cliff. The dimensions of these fragments
are so great as to suggest a large Dinosaurian, but the absence of
any medullary cavity seems to imply that the body was habitu-
ally submerged. The articular ends, which might be expected
to yield uselul characters, are not preserved. A communication
from Mr. Brodie opened the question of the extent and classifi-
cation of the RhDstic beds. The interesting discovery of these
deposits at Leicester formed the chief and most novel feature of
the discussion. Confident statement was on the whole more
conspicuous than matured reasoning in this part of the proceed-
ings of the Section, and much evidently remains to be done to
elucidate the palseontological and physical relations of the de-
posits in question. For the moment the preponderance, at least
of authority, rests with those who affirm the universal spread of
a Rhcetic age, and look in every quarter of the globe for a bone-
bed with Ceratodus and an Avicula-contorta zone.

A large audience assembled to hear Dr. Carpenter's paper on
the red clay found by the Challenger, The substance of his re-
marks has already appeared in the Proceedings of the Royal
Society.

The greater part of Tuesday's sitting was occupied by papers
and discussion upon the Glacial Period. By this time the easily
observable glacial phenomena have been co-ordinated, and there
is not quite so much room as formerly for supposition and uncon-
nected lacts. The discussion elicited a few curious points, and
was interesting, if not particularly instructive. Most readers of
such modern summaries as are given in Lyell's " Principles" or
Geikie's " Ice Age" would demur to the too sweeping language
in which the Chairman summed up the argument. Dr. Wright's
opinion that no man living knows anything of the Glacial Period
may possibly be just, but it _is not sulficiently incontestable to be
enunciated excathedrd. The most novel pomts of Dr. Carpenter's

communication upon the "Sea Bottom of the North Pacific" were
the low temperature of the water at great depth=!, and the sup-
posed existence of coral reefs, drowned by too rapid submergence,
upon all the submarine summits. The species are believed to
be recent, and the submergence comparatively modern. Some
notice was taken of the results obtained by the Valorous, and of
Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys' view that the Arctic shells of the Sicilian
Tertiaries were derived from polar areas by migration through a
marine gap not far distant from the present canal of Languedoc.
Mr. Thomson's views as to some new genera of fossil corals,
which met heavy criticism at the Geological Society, were
brought up once more here, but gained no support of conse-
quence. The method of investigation is curious, but it has
hitherto proved somewhat barren of results.

Among other good papers may be cited Prof. A. II.
Green's account of the Millstone Grit of North Derbyshire
and South Yorkshire. This was a highly- condensed statement
of the stratigraphical relations of an extensive group of very
interesting rocks. The variations in thickness of the different
grits were referred to inequahties of the old sea-floor upon
which they were accumulated, hollows permitting a greater
thickness to form. Had discussion been allowed, it would have
been interesting to notice the remarks thrown out by those
classifiers of strata who regard the formation of every rock as a
definite and almost universal event in the earth's history. Rarely
has a better example been given than this of the local conditions,
often quite trivial in themselves, which regulate the extent, divi-
sions, and thickness, as well as the mineral and fossil characters
of a large formation.

SECTION D.
Biology.
Opening Address by Dr. P. L. Sclater, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.L.S., President.*
v.— NEOTROPICAL REGION.
The Neotropical Region is, I suppose, on the whole the
richest in animal life of any of the principal divisions of the
earth's surface. Much work has been done in it as regards
every branch of zoology of late years, and I must confine my-
self to noticmg the most recent and most important of the
contributions to this branch of knowledge.

I believe the following t to be altogether the .most natural
sub-divisions of the Neotropical Region, which are nearly as
they are set forth in Hr. v. Pelzeln's " Ornithology of BraziL"

1. Central American Sub-region, from Southern Mexico to
Panama.

2. Andean or Columbian Sub-region, from Trinidad and
Venezuela, along the chain of the Andes, through Columbia,
Equador, and Peru, down to Bolivia.

3. Amazonian Sub-rigion, embracing the whole watershed of
the Orinoco and Amazons up to the hiils, and including also the
highlands of Guiana.

4. The South Brazilian Sub-region, containing the wood-
region of S.E. Brazil and Paraguay and adjoining districts.

5. The Patagonian Sub-region, containing Chili, La Plata,
Patagonia, and the Falklands.

Besides these we have : —

6. The Galapagos, which, whether or not they can be assigned
to any other sub-region, must be spoken of separately.

I. The Central American Sub-region
was, up to twenty years ago, very little known, but has recently
been explored in nearly every part, and is perhaps now more nearly
worked out than any other of the above-mentioned sub-regions.
There is as yet no complete work on the zoology of any portion
of it, and the discoveries of Salle, Boucard, dc Saussure, and
Sumichrast in Mexico, of Salvin in Guatemala, of v. Frantzius
and Hoffman in Costa Rica, of Bridges and Arce and Veragua,
and of McLeannan in Panama, together with those of numerous
other collectors, are spread abroad among the scientific peri-
odicals of Europe and America. Even of Mexican zoology,
long as it has been worked, we have no general account. To
mention all these memoirs in detail would be impossible within
the limits of this address ; but I will say a few words about the
more important of them that have lately appeared.

* Continued from p. 382.

t A general sketch of the Mammal-life of this region is given in my article
on the Mammals of South America in the Quar. Jouni. of Science for 1865,
and a Summary of the Birds in Sclater and Salvin's "Nomenclatw Avium
Neotropicalium."

4o8

NATURE

[Sept. 9, 1875

The French are now j^ubltshing a work on the results of their
scientific expedition to Mexico dining the short-lived. Empire.
Three parts on the Reptiles by Dumeril and Bocourt were issued
in 1870, and a part on the Fishes, by L. Vaillant, has recently
appeared.

A paper on the Mammals of Costa Rica has lately been
published by v. Frantzius in Wiegmann's Archiv. Unfor-
tunately, it seems to have been drawn up mainly from notes
without reference to the specimens in the Berlin Museum, but
nevertheless contains much that is useful and of interest.

Dr. Giinther's admirable memoir of the fishes of Central
America, published in the Zoological Society's " Transactions "
in 1869, is based upon the collections made by Capt. Dow
in various parts of the coast, and by Messrs. Salvin and
Godman in the freshwater lakes of the highlands of Guatemala
and in other localities.

Its value in relation to our general knowledge of the fishes of
this portion of America, heretofore so imperfectly known, can
hardly be over-estimated. As regards the birds of Central
America, it is much to be regretted that we have at present no
one authority to refer to. The collection of Messrs. Salvin and
Godman embraces very large series from differem parts of this
region, and together with those of my own collection, wherein
are the types of the species described in my own papers, would
afford abundant materials for such a task. Mr. Salvin and I
have often formed .plans for a joint work on this subject, and I
trust we may before long see our way to its accomplishment.
A similar memoir on the Mammals of Central America is like-
wise of pressing necessity for the better understanding of the
Neotropical Mammal Fauna. There are considerable materials
available for this purpose in the collections of Salvin and Arce
in the British Museum, and I trust that some naturalist may
shortly be induced to take up this subject.

2. The Andean or Columbian Sub-region.

Of this extensive sub-region, which traverses six or seven
different States, there is likewise no one zoological account ;
but I may mention some of the principal works lately issued
that bear upon the subject. Leotaud's "Birds of Trinidad"
gives us an account of the ornithology of that island, which
forms a kind of appendage to this sub-region, and Dr. Finsch
has more recently published a supplementary notice of them.
Of Venezuela, Columbia, and Ecuador there are only scattered
memoirs in various periodicals on the numerous collections
that have of late years been made in those countries to be
referred to. Several excellent collectors are now, or lately have
been, resident in these republics, HerrGeoringand Mr. Spence in
Venezuela, Mr. Salmon in Antioquia, Professor Jameson and
Mr. Eraser in Ecuador, whose labours have vastly added to
our knowledge of the zoology of these districts. When
we come to Peru, we have Tschudi's "Fauna Peruana" to
refer to, which, though unsatisfactory in execution, contains
much of value. How far from being exhausted is the rich
fauna of the Peruvian Andes, is sufficiently manifest from the
wonderful discoveries lately made by Jelski in the district east
of Lima, which was in fact that principally investigated by
Tschudi. Of these, M. Taczanowski has lately given an
account as regards the birds in the Zoological Society's " Pro-
ceedings " ; and Dr. Peters has published several notices
of the more remarkable Mammals and Reptdes.

Further south, in Bolivia, our leading authority is still the
zoological portion of D'Orlaigny's "Voyage dans I'Amerique
Meridionale." This rich and most interesting distiict has, it is
true, been visited by several collectors since D'Orbigny's time ;
but the results of their journeys have never been published in a con-
nected form, though many of their novelties have been described.
Bolivia, I do not doubt, still contains many new and extraordi-
nary creatures hid in the recesses of its niountain valleys ; and
there is no part of South America which I should sooner suggest
as a promising locality for the zoological collector.

3. The Amazonian Sub-region.
On Guiana, where the Amazonian fauna seems to have
had its origin, we have a standard work in Schomburgk's
"Reise," the third volume of which, containing the Fauna,
was drawn up by the Naturalist of the Berlin Museum.
For the valley of the Amazons itself, the volumes of Spix
and Martius, though not very accurate, and rather out of date,
must still be referred to, as likewise the zoology of Castelnau's
" Expedition dans I'Amerique du Sud," for the natural history
of the Peruvian confluents. As regards the birds, however, we

have several more recent authorities. In 1873 Mr. Salvin and
I published in tlie Zoological Society's "Proceedings" a rhumi
of the papers treating of Mr. E. Bartlett's and Mr. John
Hauxwell's rich ornithological collections on the Iluallaga,
Ucayali, and other localities in Eastern Peru. Subsequently
we communicated to the same Society an account of Mr. E.
L. Layard's collection of birds made near Para, and took
occasion to deduce therefrom some general ideas as to the re-
lations of the Avifauna of the Lower Amazons.

As regards the two lower great confluents of the Amazons, Rio
Madeira on the light bank, and the Rio Negro on the left bank
of the mighty river, our knowledge of their avifaunas is
mainly due to the researches of Johann Natterer— -one of the
most successful and energetic zoological collectors that ever
lived — of whose discoveries in ornithology a complete account
has lately been first publishe I by Mr. A. v. Pelzeln, of Vienna.
It is much to be wished that a similar resume of Natterer's
discoveries and collections of Mammals, in which order his
investigations were of hardly less importance, should be given
to the world ; and I trust Herr v. Pelzeln will forgive me if I
press this subject on his attention.

The fishes of the Amazons and its confluents are many and
various, and fully deserve a special monograph. The late Pro-
fessor Agassiz made his well-known expedition up the Amazons
in 1865 with the particular view of studying its fishes, and
amassed enormous collections of specimens for the purpose.*
Whether (as other naturalists have hinted) Professor Auassii's
estimate of the number of new and undescribed species con-
tained in their collection was exaggerated or not is at present
uncertain, as the specimens unfortunately lie unstudied in the
Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge, Mass. It is a
thousand pities this state of things should continue ; and I
venture to suggest to the great Professor's numerous friends and
admirers in the U. S. that no more appropriate tribute to his
memory could be raised than the publication of a monograph of
Amazonian fishes based on their collections.

4. The South-Brazilian Sub-region.

This sub-region, which embraces the wood region of S.E.
Brazil and adjoining districts, and contains in nearly every branch
of zoology a set ot species and genera allied to but separable
from those of the x\mazoniau Sub-region, has been much fre-
quented by European naturalists. Its productions are con-
sequently tolerably well known, though there is even here still
very much to be done. Burmeister's " Systematische Ubersicht "
and " Erliiuterungen " maybe referred to for information on
its Mammals and Birds ; likewise Prince Max. of New Wied,
"Beitriige," which, although of old standing in point of date, is
still of great value. The late Dr. Otto Wucherer, a German
physician resident at Bahia, paid much attention to the Reptiles
of that district, and has written an account of its Ophidians
which will be found in the Zoological Society's "Proceedings."

Ilr. Henselhas also recently publi.-hed in Wiegman's "Archiv"
a valuable memoir on Mammals collected in South Brazil,
which should be referred to. Prof. Reinhardt has recently com-
pleted an excellent account of the avifauna of the Campos of
Brazil, based on his own collections and those of Dr. D. W.
Lund ; and Hr. v. Berlepscli has treated of the birds of
Santa Catharina. These are all three most useful contribu-
tions to our knowledge of this sub-region. But it is melancholy
to think that although a [soi-disant) highly civilised European
race has resided in the Brazilian Empire so long, and has intro-
duced railways, steamboats, and many other of the appliances of
modern Europe, there has never, so far as I know, been pro-
duced by them any one single memoir worthy of mention on
the teeming variety of zoological life that everywhere surrounds
them.

For information on the animals of Paraguay we must still
refer to the writings of Don Felix d'Azara, and to Dr. Hart-
laub's reduction of his Spanish terms to scientific nomenclature.
But modern information about this part of the South-Brazilian
Sub-region would be very desirable.

5. The Patagonian Sub-region.

For the zoology of the Argentine Republic, which forms the
northern portion of this sub-region, the best work of reference
is the second volume of Dr. Burmeister's " La- Plata Reise,"
which contains a synopsis of the Vertebrates of the Republic.
Dr. Burmeister, who is now resident at Buenos Ayres as director

"* See "Travels in Brazil," by Prof, and Mrs. Louis Agassiz, Boston,

Sept 9, 1875J

NATURE

409

of the public museum of that city,' has lately devoted himself to
the study of the extinct Mammal- fauna, and specially to that of the
Glyptodont Armadillos, of which he has lately completed a splen-
didly illustrated monograph. He has likewise been the chief
adviser of the Government in their plans for recognising the
University of Cordova, which will ultimately no doubt do much
for the cause of natural science in the Argentine Republic, Mr.
W. H. Hudson, of Buenos Ayres, has long studied the birds
and other animals of that country, and deserves honourable men-
tion in a country where so few of the native-born citizens pursue
science. His bird-collections have been worked out by Mr.
Salvin and myself, and Mr. Hudson has likewise published
a series of interesting notices on the habits of the species.

The "Zoology of the Voyage of the Bea^/e" contains much
information concerning the animals of La Plata, Patagonia,
and Chili. The "Mammals" by Waterhoase, the " Birds" by
Gould and G. R. Gray, the "Fishes" by Jenyns, and the
" Reptiles " by Bell, illustrated with notes and observations of
Mr. Darwin, will ever remain among the leading authorities on
the animals of this part of America. On the Rio Negro of
Patagonia, where Mr. Darwin made considerable collections,
we have a more recent authority in Mr. W. H. Hudson, whose
series of birds from this district was examined by myself in
1872.

Dr. R. O. Cunningham has recently followed on the footsteps
of Mr. Darwin in Patagonia, and besides his journal of travels
has published notes 'on the animals met with, in the Linnean
Society's Transactions. Mr. Salvin and I have given an
account of his ornithological collections in several papers in
the "Ibis."

As regards the Falkland Islands, two excellent collectors and
observers have of late years been stationed there, and have
provided the means of our becoming well acquainted with the
native birds. Capt. Packe's collections have been examined by
Mr. Gould and myself, and CapL Abbott's by myself in a
paper to which he has added many valuable notes.

Lastly, as regards Chili, we have Gay's somewhat pretentious
"Fauna Chilena," forming the zoological portion of his
" Historia Fisica y Politica de Chile." The volume on the
Mammals and Birds was compiled at Paris by Desmurs, and
that on the Reptiles and Fishes by Guichenot, but they are not
very reliable. The naturalists of the National Museum of
Santiago, Philippi and Landbeck, have of late years published
in Wiegman's " Archiv" many memoirs on the zoology of the
Chilian Republic, of which I have given a list in a paper on the
Birds of Chili in the Zoological Society's " Proceedings " for
1867. More recently Messrs. Philippi and Landbeck have
published a catalogue of Chilian birds in the " Anales de la
Universidad de Chile." But Mr. E. C. Reed, F.Z.S., who
is likewise attached to jthe museum of Santiago, writes me
word that he is now engaged in preparing for publication a com-
plete revision of the Vertebrates of the Republic, which will no
doubt give us still better information on this subject.
6. Galapagos.

Until recently our knowledge of the very singular fauna of
the Galapagos was mainy based upon Mr. Darwin's researches,
as published in the "Zoology of the Beagle" above referred to.
Recently, however, Mr. Salvin and I have described some new
species of birds from these islands from Dr. Habel's collection,
and Prof. Sundevall has published an account of the birds
collected there during the voyage of the Swedish frigate
Eugenic in 1852. Mr. Salvin has likewise prepared and
read before the Zoological Society a complete memoir on the
Ornithology of the Galapagoan Archipelago, which will shortly
be printed in the Society's "Transactions." Much interest has
likewise been recently manifested concerning the gigantic Tor-
toises of the Galapagos, which, Dr. Giinther has reason to believe,
belong to several species each restricted to a separate island.*
Indeed, I am much pleased to hear that the Lords of the Admi-
ralty, incited by Dr. Giinther's requests, have'despatched H.^LS,
Tenedos for the Pacific squadron at Panama to the Galapa-
gos, for the express purpose of capturing and bringing to England
specimens of the tortoises of each of the islands. We may, there-
fore, hope to be shortly more accurately informed upon this
most interesting subject.

Va. The A.ntillean Sub-region.
The study of the fauna of the West India Islands present*
problems to us of the greatest interest : first, on account of the

* See Natlre, vol. xii. p 238 (1875).

relics of an ancient and primitive fauna which are found there,
as indicated by the presence of such types as Solenodon, Dulus,
and Starnotnas ; and, secondly, from the many instances of repre-
sentative species replacing each other in the different islands.
Much, it is true, has been done towards the working out of
Antillean Faunas of late years, but much more remains to be
done ; and it is indeed scandalous that there should be many
islands under the British rule, of the zoology of which we are
altogether unacquainted. The greater aodvity of our botanical
fellow-labourers has supplied us with a handy volume of the
Botany of these islands ; * and it is by no means creditable to the
zoologists to remain so far behind in this as in other cases already
alluded to. Within the compass of the present address it would
not be possible for me to enumerate all our authorities upon An-
tillean zoology, but I will mention some of the principsd works
of reference under the following heads : —

1. The Bahamas. 3. Jamaica. 5. Porto Rico.

2. Cuba. 4. Haiti. 6. The Lesser Antilles.

I. The Bahamas.

The late Dr. Bryant has published in the Boston Journal of
Natural History several articles upon the birds of the Bahamas,
where he passed more than one winter. These islands, how-
ever, merit much more minute investigation than has as yet
been bestowed upon them.

2. Cuba.

Ramon de la Sagra's " Historia Fisica y Politica de Cuba "
and Lenbeye's "Aves de la Isla de Cuba," were up to a
recent period our chief authorities upon Cuban zoology. But
Cuba has long had the advantage of the residence withm it of
an excellent naturalist— Don Juan Gundlach — who has laboured
hard towards the more complete investigation of its remarkable
zoology. \Ve are indebted to him for collecting the specimens
upon which Dr. Cabanis based his revision of Cuban ornithology,
published in Wiegmann's "Archiv," as also for a tabular
list of Cuban birds, published in the same journal for 1861,
and for several supplements thereto, for the more recent reviews
of the mammals and birds of the island, published in the first
volume of Poey's " Repertorio," and for many other contributions
to the natural history of Cuba. This last-named work, as
also the previous " Memorias sobre la historia natural de la
Isla de Cuba" of the same author, contains a number of
valuable contributions to our knowledge of the rich fauna of this
island, and should be carefully studied by those who are anxious
to become acquainted with the peculiarities of the Cuban fauna.

3. Jamaica.

Mr. Gosse's meritorious work on the Birds of Jamaica, and
his "Naturalists' Rambles," are still the main source of our
information on the fine island of Jamaica, and very little has
been done since his time. A young English naturalist, Mr. W.
Osburn, made some good collections in Jamaica in i860, of
which the Mammals were worked out by Mr. Tomes and
the Birds by myself. Mr. \V. T. March has also more
recently sent good scries of the birds of the island to America,
and Prof. Baird has edited his excellent notes on them. I must
not lose the opportunity of calling special attention to the
Seals of the Antilles {Monachus tropicalis and Cystophora antilla-
rum of Gray), of which, so lar as 1 know, the only specimens
existing are the imperfect remains in the British Museum brought
home by Mr. Gosse. More knowledge about these animals (if
there be really two of them) would be very desirable.
4. Haiti.

Of this large island very little more is known as regards its
zoology than was the case in the days of Buffon and Vieillot.
Of its birds alone we have a recent account in a paper which I
wrote upon M. Salle's collection, and in a more recent memoir
drawn up by the late Dr. Bryant, and published in the " Pro-
ceedings" of the Boston Society of Natural History for 1863.
5. Porto Rico.

Nearly the same story holds good of this Spanish island, oi
which our only recent news relates to the birds, and consists of
two papers — one by Mr. E. C. Taylor in the "Ibis," and the
other by the late Dr. Bryant, in the journal above mentioned.
6. The Lesser Antilles.

As I remarked above, every one of the numerous islands, from
Porto Rico down to Trinidad, requires thorough examination.
* Griesbach's " Flora of the West Indies."

4IO

NATURE

\_Sept. 9, 1875

It is remarkable that no one has yet been found to attack this
interesting subject, which might easily be performed by excursions
during the winter months of a few succeeding years.

As regards the ornithology of these islands, the subjoined
summary of what we really know and do not know is mainly
taken from a paper on the Biids of St. Lucia, which I read before
the Zoological Society of London in 1871.

I. The Virgin Islands. — Of these islands wc may, I think,
assume that we have a fair acquaintance with the birds of St.
Thomas, the most frequently visited of the group, and the halt-
ing place of the West Indian mail steamers. Mr. Riise, who
was long resident here, collected and forwarded to Europe many
specimens, some of which were described by myself,* and
others are spoken of by Prof. Newton in a letter published
in the "Ibis" for i860, p. 307. Mr. Riise's series of skins
is now, I believe, at Copenhagen. Frequent allusions to the
birds of St. Thomas are also made by Messrs. Newton in their
memoir of the birds of St. Croix, mentioned below. In the
' ' Proceedings" of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia
for i860, Mr. Cassin has given an account of a collection
of birds made in St. Thomas by Mr. Robert Swift, and presented
to the Academy ; twenty'Seven species are enumerated.

Quite at the extreme east of the Virgin Islands, and lying
between them and the St. Bartholomew group, is the little
islet of Sombrero, "a naked rock about seven-eighths of a mile
long, twenty to forty feet above the level of the sea, and from a
few rods to about one-third of a mile in width." Although
•' there is no vegetation whatever in the island over two feet
high," and it would seem a most unlikely place for birds,
Mr. A. A. Julien, a correspondent of Mr. Lawrence of New
York, succeeded in collecting on it specimens of no less than
thirty-five species, the names of which, together with Mr. Julien's
notes thereupon, are recorded by Mr. Lawrence in the eighth
volume of the "Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of
New York."

The remaining islands of the Virgin group are, I believe, most
strictly entitled to their name so far as ornithology is concerned,
for no collector on record has ever polluted their virgin soil.
Prof. Newton ("Ibis," i860, p. 307) just alludes to some birds
from St. John in the possession of Mr. Riise.

2. St. Croix. — On the birds of this island we have an excellent
article by Messrs. A. and E. Newton, published in the first
volume of the "Ibis."t This memoir, being founded on the
collections and personal observations of the distinguished
authors themselves, and having been worked up after a careful
examination of their specimens in England, and with minute
attention to preceding authorities, forms by far the most
complete account we possess oi the ornithology of any one of the
Lesser Antilles. It, however, of course requires to be supple-
mented by additional observations, many points having been
necessarily left undetermined ; and it is much to be regretted
that no one seems to have since paid the slightest attention to
the subject.

3. Anguilla, St. Martin, and St. Bartholomew. — Of this
group of islands St. Bartholomew alone has, as far as I know,
been explored ornithologically, and that within a very recent
period. In the Royal Swedish Academy's " Proceedings " for
1869 will be found an excellent article by the veteran
ornithologist Prot. Sundevall, on the birds of this island, founded
on a collection made by Dr, A. Von Goes. The species
enumerated are forty-seven in number.

4. Barbuda. — Of this British island I believe I am correct in
saying that nothing whatever is known of its ornithology, or of
any other branch of its natural history.

5. St, Christopher and Nevis, to'wh.\ch.m.3Lyh&^Mtd.ihtSid.]d>.ctni
smaller islands St. Eustathius and Saba. — Of these islands also
our ornithological knowledge is of the most fragmentary descrip-
tion. Mr. T. J, Cottle was, I believe, formerly resident in
Nevis, and sent a few birds thence to the British Museum in
1839. Amongst these were the specimens of the Humming-birds
of that island, which are mentioned by Mr. Gould in his well-
known work. Of the remainder of this group of islands w«
know absolutely nothing.

6. Antigua.— Oi this fine British island, I regret to say, no-
thing whatever is known as regards its ornithology. Amongst
the many thousands of American birds that have come under my
notice during the past twenty years, I have never seen a single
skin from Antigua.

* Ann. N.H. ser. 3, vol. iv. p. 225 ; and P.Z.S. i860, p. 314.
t " Ibis. 1859, pp. 59, 138, 252, and 365.

7. Montserrat. — Exactly the same as the foregoing is the case
with the British island of Montserrat.

8. Guadelotipe, Deseadea, and Marie-galante. — An excellent
French naturalist, Dr. I'Herminier, was for many years resident
as physician in the island of Guadeloupe. Unfortunately, Dr.
I'Herminier never carried into execution the plan which I believe
he contemplated, of publishing an account o*" the birds of that
island. He sent, however, a certain number of specimens to
Paris and to the late Baron 1 de la Fresnave, to whom we are
indebted for the only article ever published on the birds of
Guadeloupe or of the adjacent islands.

9. Dominica. — Dominica is one of the few of the Caribbean
islands that has had the advantage of a visit from an active
English ornithologist. Although Mr. C. E. Taylor only passed
a fortnight in this island in 1863, and had many other matters to
attend to, he nevertheless contrived to preserve specimens of
many birds of very great interest, of which he has given us an
account in one of his articles on the birds of the West Indies,
published in the " Ibis " for 1864. It cannot be supposed,
however, that the birds of this wild and beautiful island can
have been exhausted in so short a space of time, even by the
energetic efforts of our well-known fellow-labourer.

10. Martinique. — This island is one of the few belonging to
the Lesser Antilles in which birdskins are occasionally collected
by the residents, and find their way into the hands of the
Parisian dealers. There are also a certain number of specimens
from Martinique in the Musee d'Histoire Naturelle in the Jardin
des Plantes, which I have had an opportunity of examining j
but, beyond the vague notices given by Vieillot in his " Oiseaux
de I'Amerique du Nord," I am not aware of any publications
relating specially to the ornithology of this island. Mr. E. C.
Taylor passed a fortnight in Martinique in 1863, and has recorded
his notes upon the species of birds which he met with in the
excellent article which I have mentioned above ; but these were
only lew in number. The International Exhibition in 1862
contained, in the department devoted to the products of the
French colonies, a small series of the birds of Martinique,
exhibited by M. Belanger, director of the Botanical Garden
of St. Pierre in that island.* This is all the published in-
formation I have been able to find concerning the birds of
Martinique, t

11. St. Lucia. — Of this island I gave an account of what is
known of the birds in a paper published in the Zoological
Society's "Proceedings" for 1871, based upon a collection
kindly forwarded to me by the Rev. J. E. Semper. Mr.
Semper subsequently communicated some interesting notes on
the habits of the species.

12. St. Vincent. — St. Vincent was formerly the residence of
an energetic and most observant naturalist, the Rev. Lansdowne
Guilding, F.L.S., well known to the first founders of the
Zoological Society of London, who, however, unfortunately died
at an early age in this island without having carried out his plans
for a fauna of the West Indies.

Mr. Guilding paid most attention to the invertebrate animals ;
but his collections contained a certain number of birds, amongst
which was a new Parrot, described after his decease by Mr,
Vigors as Psittacus Guildingii, and probably a native of St.
Vincent.

13. Grenada and the Grenadines. — Of the special ornithology
of this group nothing is known.

14. Barbados. — The sole authority upon the birds of Barbados
is Sir R. Schomburgk's well-known work on that island.
This contains (p. 681) a list of the birds met with, accompanied
by some few remarks. It does not, however, appear that birds
attracted much of the author's attention ; and more copious
notes would be highly desirable.

15. Tobago, I believe, belongs zoologically to Trinidad, Sir
W. Jardine has given us an account of its ornithology from Mr,
Kirk's collections,

VL— THE AUSTRALIAN REGION,

Of the Australian Region I will speak in the following sub-
divisions : —

1, Australia and Tasmania,

2, Papua and the Papuan Islands,

3, The Solomon Islands.

* See an article on Ornithology in the International Exhibhion, " Ibis,'
1862, p. 288.

" t On animals formerly living in Martinique but now extinct, see Guyon,
"Comp. Rend."Ixiii, p. 589(1866).

Sept. 9, 1875J

NATURE

411

Tliat we know more of the fauna of Australia than of other
English colonies in different parts of the world is certain, but
no tlianks are due from us for this knowledge either to the
Imperial or to any of the Colonial Governments. The unassisted
enterprise of a private individual has produced the two splendid
works upon the Mammals and Birds of Australia, which we all
turn to with pleasure whenever reference is required to a member
of these two classes of Australian animals. Mr. Gould's
•'Mammals of Australia" was completed in 1863. Since
that period the little additional information received respecting
the terrestrial Mammals of Australia has been chiefly furnished
by Mr. KrefTt, of the Australian Museum, Sydney, in various
papers and memoirs. Mr. Kreflft has also written the letterpress
to some large illustrations of the " Mammals of Australia," by
Miss II. Scott and Mrs. II. Forde, in which a short account of
all the described species is given. On the Marine Mammal.",
however, which were scarcely touched upon by Mr. Gould, we
have a treatise by Mr. A. W. Scott published at Sydney in
,1873, which contains a good deal of useful information con-
cerning the seals and whales of the Southern Hemisphere.

The magnificent series of seven volumes of Mr. Gould's
"Birds of Australia" was finished in 1848. In 1869 a supple-
mentary volume was issued, containing similar full-sized illus-
trations of about 80 species. In 1863 Mr. Gould reprinted
in a quarto form, with additions and corrections, the letterpress
of his great work, and published it under the title of a " Hand-
book to the Birds of Australia." This makes a convenient work
for general reference. Of two colonial attempts to rival Mr.
Gould's series I cannot speak with much praise. Neither Mr,
Biggie's " Ornithology of Australia " nor ^Ir. Halley's proposed
"Monograph of the Australian Parrots" are far advanced
towards conclusion — indeed, of the last-mentioned work I have
seen but one number.

Several large collections of birds have been made in the
peninsula of Cape York and adjoining districts of Northern
Queensland of late years, and it is a misfortune for science that
we have had no complete account of them. One of the largest
of these, however, made by Mr. J. T. Cockerel!, has luckily
fallen into the hands of Messrs. Salvin and Godman, and will,
I trust, be turned to better uses than the filling of glass cases
and the ornamentation of ladies' hats.

It seems to me that there is still much to be done even in
birds in Northern Australia, and I cannot help thinking that
Port Darwin, the northern extremity of the trans-continental
telegraph, would be an excellent station for a collecting naturahst,
and one where many novelties, both zoological and botanical,
would certainly be met with.

On the Snakes of Australia we have an excellent work
published in 1869 by Mr. Gerard KrefTt — one of the few
really working Australian naturalists, who, it appear.*, is not
appreciated in Sydney as he fully deserves to be. Mr. Kreflt,
during his long residence in Sydney, has become well acquainted
with the Ophidians of the colony and has devoted special at-
tention to them, so that he has the advantage of practical as well
as scientific acquaintance with his subject. The late Dr. Gray
has written many papers on the Tortoises and Lizards of
Australia. Of the latter we have to thank Dr. Giinther for a
complete monographic list just published in one of the newly
issued numbers of the "Voyage of the Erelms and Terror.^'
Most of the plates of this work were also issued in 1867 by Dr.
Gray in his " Fasciculus of the Lizards of Australia and New
Zealand."

For information on the fishes of Australia reference must be
made to the ichthyological portion of the " Zoology of the Erebus
and Terror," by Sir John Richardson, and to the same author's
numerous papers on Australian fishes in the "Annals of Nat.
Hist." and " Transanctions " and "Proceedings" of the Zoo-
logical Society of London. The Count F. de Castelnau, who
seems to be almost the only working ichthyologist in Australia,
has recently published in the "Proceedings of the Zoological
and Acchmatisation Society of Victoria," several papers on the
fishes of the Melbourne fish-market and of other parts of Australia,
which include a complete synopsis of the known Australian
species.

2. Papua and its Islands.

I believe that my paper upon the Mammals and Birds of New
Guinea, published by the Linnean Society in 1858, was the
first attempt to put together the scattered fragments of our
knowledge of this subject. In 1859 a British Museum Catalogue
by Dr. J. E. and Mr. G. R. Gray, gave r hiimc of the

then known members of the same two classes belonging to New
Guinea and the Aru Islands, and included notices of all Mr.
Wallace's discoveries. In 1862 Mr. Wallace gave descriptions
of the new species discovered subsequently to his return by his
assistant, Mr, Allen. In 1863 Dr. Finsch published at
Bremen an excellent little essay called " Neu-Guinea und seine
Bewohner," in which is given a complete account of our
then state of knowledge of the subject. But within these last
ten years still more serious efforts have been made by naturalists
of several nations to penetrate this terra incognita. Two emis-
saries of the Leyden iMu.seum— Bernstein and V. Rosenberg-
have sent home full series of zoological spoils to that establish-
ment, and have discovered a host of novelties. Of these the
birds have been described by Prof. Schlegel in his "Observa-
tions Zoologiques." An intrepid Italian traveller, Signor
L. M. d'Albertis, made a still further advance, when in Sep-
tember 1872 he accomplished the first ascent of the Arfak
Mountains,* and discovered the splendid Bird of Paradise and
other new species which I described in 1873. Quickly
following on his footsteps. Dr. A. B. Meyer penetrated still
further into the unknown interior, and reaped the abundant
harvest of which \ he has given us an account in six papers
lately published at Vienna. Dr. Meyer has now become
director of the Museum of Dresden, and is ro doubt occupied
in the further elaboration of his rich materials. In the mean-
while some accomplished Italian naturalists are engaged on the
collections of D'Albertis and his quondam companion Beccari.
Count Salvadori, who is at work on the birds, will take the
opportunity of preparing a complete account of the ornithology
of Papua and its islands, similar to that in Borneo, of which I
have already spoken. The Marquis Giacomo Doria has al-
ready published one excellent paper on "The Reptiles of
Amboina and the Ke Islands," collected by his compatriot
Beccaii, and is preparing other memoirs on the Mammals
and Reptiles of New Guinea and the Am Islands obtained by
D'Albertis.

Dr. Meyer has lately given an account of his herpetological
discoveries in New Guinea, which comprehend several new and
most interesting forms, in a memoir read before the Academy
of Berlin ; and Dr. Bleeker some years ago gave a list of
the reptiles obtained by V. Rosenberg in that island, and enu-
merated the Papuan reptiles then known to him.

All these expeditions, however, have been directed towards
the western peninsula of New Guinea, which alone is yet in any
way explored by naturalists. Of the greater south-eastern por-
tion of the island (unless we are inclined to give credit to Capt,
Lawson's wonderful exploits) we have as yet very little informa-
tion. A cassowary + and a kangaroo, J brought away by the
Basilisk from the southern coast, both proved to be new to
science, as did likewise a Paradise Bird obtained in the same
district by Mr. D'Albertis. § This is sufficient to give us an
idea of what we may expect to find when the interior of this part
of New Guinea is explored. And I may take this opportunity
of mentioning that a most active and energetic traveller is perhaps
at this very moment at work ther^. M. L. M. d'Albertis, ot
whose previous labours I have just spoken, returned to the East
last autumn. Letters received from him by his Italian friends in
June last state that he had at the time of writing already suc-
ceeded in reaching Yule Island near Mously Bay, on the south-
east coast of New Guinea, and proposes to establish his head-
quarters there for expeditions into the interior.

3. New Ireland, New Britain, and the Solomon
Islands.

I devote a few words specially to these islands because they are
easy of access from Sydney, and because their productions are
of particular interest, belonging, as they do, to the Papuan and
not to the Polynesian fauna. I have put together what is known
of the birds of the Solomon's group in a paper read before the
Zoological Society in 1S69, Seeing the interesting results
obtained from the examination of one small jar of birds col-
lected by an unscientific person, there can be little doubt of the
value of what would be discovered on the more complete investi-
gation of the group. As regards New Ireland and New Britain,
we have but scattered notices to refer to. The last-named island
is, we know, the home of a peculiar cassowary {Casttarius
bennetti).

* See Nature, vol. viii. p. 501 (29).

t Cazuarius picticollis, Scl., P.Z.S. 1875, p. 85.

t Do*copsis luctuosa (D'Albertis), v. Garrod, P.Z.S.

§ l\xra(tisca ragg^iaita, Sclatcr, P.Z.S. 1873, p. 559.

[875, p. 48.

412

NATURE

{Sept. 9, 1875

A list of the fishes of the Solomon Islands is given by Dr.
Guntherin Mr. Brenchley's ",Cruise of _the _Cnracoa," which I
shall allude to presently.

VII.— PACIFIC REGION.
Of this region, where Mammals (except a few bats) [are alto-
gether absent, and birds are the predominant form of verte-
brate life, I will say a few final words under three heads : —
I. New Zealand. 2. Polynesia. '3. The Sandwich Islands.

1. New Zealand.

In New Zealand, of all our Colonies, most attention has lately
been devoted, to natural history, and several excellent naturalists
are labouring hard and well — I need only mention the names of
Dr. Hector, Dr. Haast, Capt. F. W. Hutton, and Dr. Buller.
The commendable plan of affiliating the various local societies
together to one institute has resulted in the production of an
excellent scientific journal, already in its sixth volume, which
contains a mass of most interesting papers on the fauna and flora
of the colony. To refer to these memoirs in detail is quite
unnecessary ; but it is obvious, on turning over the pages of the
• volumes of the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, how
great are the exertions now being made to perfect our knowledge
of the natural products, both recent and extinct, of our anti-
podean colony.

Dr. W. L. BuUer's beautiful volume on the ornithology of
New Zealand, finished in 1873, is likewise a most creditable
production both to the author and to those who have supported
and promoted his undertaking. Few, indeed, are the colonies
that can boast of a similar piece of work !

In 1843 the late Sir John Richardson presented to this associa-
tion a special report on the Ichthyology of New Zealand ;
but much advance has, of course, been made since that period.

The lizards of New Zealand have been recently enumerated
along with those of Australia in Dr. Giinther's memoir above
referred to.

2. Polynesia.

Great additions have recently been made to our knowledge of
the natural productions of the Polynesian Islands by the travellers
and naturalists employed by the brothers Godeffroy of Ham-
burgh. These gentlemen not only have extensive collections
made, but also trouble themselves to get them properly worked
out. The excellent volume on the ornithology of the Fiji, Samoa,
and Tonga Islands, published in 1867 by Drs. Finsch and Hart-
laub, is based entirely upon materials thus obtained, as are
likewise the many capital memoirs which fill the parts of
the illustrated quarto jfournal der Museum Godeffroy — a
journal replete with information upon the geography, ethno-
graphy, and natural history of Polynesia. Amongst these
memoirs I must call special attention to Dr. Giinther's "Fische
der Sudsee," founded upon Mr. Andrew Garrett's splendid
collection of fishes and of drawings of them, coloured from life,
of which three parts are already issued. We have now almost
for the_first time the after opportunity of becoming acquainted
with the exceeding beauty of the tropical fishes in life.

The late Mr. Julius Brenchley's account of his cruise in H.M.S.
Curafoa among the South Sea Islands, and published in
1873, contains an appendix of " Natural History Notices," illus-
trated by figures of remarkable specimens obtained on the occa-
sion. Of these the part relating to the birds is by the late Mr.
G. R. Gray, and those concerning the reptiles and fishes by Dr.
Giinther.

3. The Sandwich Islands.

The Sandwich Islands stand apart zoologically as geographi-
cally from the rest of Polynesia, and merit more special attention
than has yet been bestowed upon them. Of their birds, which
form the most prominent part of their vertebrate fauna, Mr.
Dole has given a synopsis in the " Proceedings of the Boston
Society of Natural History." In noticing this paper in the
" Ibis " for 1871, 1 have introduced some supplementary remarks
upon the general facies of the Avifauna.

Conclusion.

In concluding this address, which has extended, I regret to say,
to a much greater length than I anticipated when I selected the
subject of it, I wish to endeavour to impress upon naturalists the
paramount importance of locality.

In the study of distribution more probably than in any other
direction, if perhaps we except embryology, will be ultimately
found the key to the now much vexed question of the origin of

species. The past generation of naturalists could not understand
the value of locality. A museum was regarded as a collection of
curiosities, and so long as the objects were there it little mat-
tered in their eyes whence they came. The consequence is that all
our older collections, and even, I regret to say, our national collec-
tion itself, are filled with specimens utterly without a history
attached to them, unless it be that they were purchased of a
certain dealer in a certain year. Even in the present generation
it is only the more advanced and enlightened thinkers that really
understand the importance of locality. It is with the hope of
impressing the value of locality and distribution more firmly upon
you that I have devoted my address not to the general progress
of biology, but to the present state of, and recent additions
made to, our knowledge of the geographical distribution of the
Vertebrata.

Dr. Carpenter, in moving a vote of thanks to the President for
his address, said its value would only be fully appreciated by the
working naturalist studying and consulting it in the prosecution
of his researches. Such a stock-taking was of the highest value'
in guiding to the right study of what was known, and in laying
bare deficiencies. Within a few years the subject of geographical
distribution had arisen to great dimensions, both in relation to
the origin of species and to the changes in the earth's surface
since the present distribution of life had been approximately
attained. Any single fact with regard to distribution liad its
value, but accuracy was vital ; as he proceeded to show. The
different species of fresh-water fish in Swiss lakes were now
regarded as modifications due to differences of food, temperature,
bottom, &c., having their slow effect in developing races since
the time when the various waters were in communication, and if
changes were admitted to such an extent in our existing fauna as
the result of plain causes, it was legitimate to argue that much
greater changes might have taken place in the ages of geological
time. — Professor Allman spoke of the increased importance of
all the results of exploration since the promulgation of the doc-
trine of descent, which was now almost universally accepted in
one form or another. — Professor Rollest on said that Dr. Sclater's
paper on Geographical Distribution had come out in 1858, before
Messrs. Darwin's and Wallace's papers had been published ; and
yet what he had laid down in 1858, he had in no important points
had to modify. He did not know of any biological doctrines
that had undergone so little change since that period. — Dr.
Sclater announced that he proposed to add an appendix to his
address, containing the full titles of all the works he had referred
to.

Department of Zoology and Botany.
Professor Newton read a paper " On certain neglected subjects
of ornithological investigation." He said that it seemed to him
that ornithologists had been getting into certain well-worn ruts,
to the abandonment of other tracks which were well worth
travelling upon. He had recently had occasion to take stock of
our present ornithological knowledge, and on the whole the
result was gratifying. Some departments had received an
enormous impetus from the .doctrines of evolution, and that
impetus would continue and would probably be increased. Some
years ago there was a very general disposition to cry down species-
mongers, as they were called in opprobrium ; but it was a very
short-sighted view ; and in his opinion they were having their
revenge, for their work had now a value far above that which it
had in the Pre-Darwinian days. The result of labours on
geographical distribution was good, and was gradually helping
to build the edifice of evolution ; not that the edifice was erected
yet ; its walls were still far from complete. Yet he thought
its completion was about as sure as anything well could be. The
subject of what he might call developmental osteology, in which
the illustrious name of Parker stood practically alone, was one
in which it might truly be said that the harvest was plenteous
and the reapers few. There was room for a score of Parkers ;
yet it was no more likely that they would get them than that
they would get a score of Shakespeares. Fossil ornithology
had not as yet produced very great results, but descriptive
anatomy was in a fairly good condition, although he was afraid
that a great many skilled observers of the outsides of birds knew
very little about it. As to pterylography, he feared it was not
very much thought of, and that a vast majority of ornithologists
did not k»ow the meaning of the word. He recommended all to
read the translation of Nitzsch's great work on the subject in the
Ray Society's publications. He noticed the greatest falling-off in
observational ornithology. They had outdoor ornithologists by

Sept. 9, 1875]

NATURE

413

dozens, all going on in exactly the same way as their predecessors,
each trying to find out the same facts for himself ; so that they
were almost at a standstill, especially on the subject of the
migration of birds. Observers were content not to do anything
more than had been done by Gilbert White, forgetting that he
had had to prove or disprove the fact of migration, about which
there was no question now. We wanted to know something of
the causes of migration and of the faculties by which it was
performed. Hundreds of records of dates of arrival of birds
would bring us no nearer to these discoveries. He thought a
digestion and collation of the immense mass of facts on these
subjects already existing in Great Britain was wanted, such as
had already been prepared for Germany ; but one thing that
would itot come of it, he was persuaded, was an answer to the
questions he had indicated. There was great want of information
as to the routes taken in migration, and also as to the facts of
partial migration. He thought they must look in this direction
for the solution of the larger question. It would be very
enlightening if they could know something of the reasons which
induced the migration of the majority of individuals of a species,
leaving some behind. It had been suggested by Dr. von Mitten-
doriT that probably birds in their migrations were guided by a
knowledge of the situation of the magnetic pole ; and however
much they might disbelieve that, they had really no facts which
could controvert that or any other wild theory on the subject.
As to birds learning the way by experience, and by the teaching
of those who had traversed the route before, that would not
explain migrations which took place by night, or over a thousand
miles of sea. The laws of plumage and of moulting were little
known, and might with advantage be studied by those who
had constant access to zoological gardens, such as those at
Clifton. The duration of the periods of incubation of birds was
almost unknown, as well as the reasons for the variations.
Nothing was known for certain as to the effect of variations of
atmospheric temperature or other conditions in shortening or
lengthening the period. Out of more than 200 species of British
birds, the duration of incubation was known in only about
twenty ; and of foreign birds even less was known. He could
mention other branches in which knowledge was deficient, but
perhaps what he had said would be sufficient to induce some of
those who had not adopted any special branch of study to pro-
secute some of the inquiries he had recommended. The good
workers at present labouring were fully occupied with important
subjects. He could not expect that they would be able to divert
their attention from their chosen departments. — In the discussion
which followed, Canon Tristram remarked on the ease with
which many who go abroad for the winter or summer might
make valuable records of the time of arrival or the latest time of
seeing migratory birds. Mr. Ehves urged on country clergymen
the valuable service they might easily render by taking ornitho-
logy as a recreation ; much was lacking in regard to osteology
4nd nidification ; skins were too much attended to. Mr.
3ettany urged the study of Mr. Parker's papers on all orni-
thologists who could make themselves capable of compre-
hending them, in order to prepare the way for a better under-
standing of the genetic affinities of birds in the future ; and also
mentioned the service that might be done to such men as Mr.
Parker by any naturalist who would collect a series of specimens
from the earliest to the adult stage of any single species, and
preserve them for study by such an authority.

On the reading of the report on the Zoological Station at
Naples, which we have abstracted elsewhere, Mr. Spence Bate
said it was greatly to be desired that such schools of study should
be established in Great Britain. He did not think they should
have to go to Naples lor one. They should be attached to the
various aquariums now being established.

Dr. C. T. Hudson read an able paper, the result of many
years' study, on the classification and affinities of the Rotifera.
It was illustrated by a large number of beautiful magnified draw-
ings of their anatomy, bearing testimony to the industry and
ability of the author. He commenced by discussing Ehrenberg's
classification, and showed that its fundamental principles were
erroneous, for it was based on a supposed structure of the trochal
disc which did not really exist, on a forced interpretation of the
term lorica, and on the presence, absence, and number of certain
red spots, which Ehrenberg took for granted as eyes, but which
were not always so. Moreover, those that really were eyes were
often present in the young animal, but invisible in the adult
Ehrenberg's symmetrical system brought together widely dis-
similar forms, and separated those that were intimately connected.
Not a single Rotifer, as far as the author could find, properly

came under Ehrenberg's Monotrocha. A new Melicerta had been
found, that did not make a tube ; and his Sorotrocha included
every form of head. There was no such thing really as a Holo-
trochous form. The systems of Leydig and Dujardin were then
examined and shown to be inferior to Ehrenberg's, though it
was pointed out that each naturalist had contributed a happy
idea, the former having brought into prominence the gieat value
of the foot as a characteristic for classification, the latter having
the thought of classifying the Rotifers by their mode of locomotion.
Dr. Hudson then proceeded to offer a natural classification,
using the best results of preceding observers, based on the habits,
teeth, water, vascular and nervous systems. There were four
great groups, subdivided into families. (i) Rhizola, the perma-
nently attached forms, all having teeth of the same pattern,
including the Floscularina and Melicertidx ; (2) Bdelloida, those
that swim and creep like a leech, including the Philodinida.',
the lowest and most worm-like forms ; (3) Ploima, or free-
swimmers, including BrachionidEe, Pterodinida: (a new genus
aad species of his own), Euchlanidre, and Notommatina ; (4)
Scirtopoda, or jumpers, including Pedalionida>, and Synchoetidoe.
As to the affinities of the Rotifers, while giving up Philodinidae
to the Vermes, he advanced numerous reasons for believing that
the other Rotifers were allied to Entomostracans, and ought to
be classed with them. He claimed to have destroyed some of
the arguments of Professor Huxley on this point, by finding male
forms which had been previously unknown, and among them
the male of Laciniilaria socialis, the very species taken as the text
of Professor Huxley's remarks on the whole class. The
resemblance of Pedalion to some Entomostracous larvre was
insisted on, as also its connection by other aberrant rotifers with
those of typical form. — Mr. Spence Bate spoke highly of the
labour and skill which Dr. Hudson had spent upon this class,
but he must say that in regard to the affinities of Rotifera the
evidence brought forward had been such as to convince him
most conclusively that they were 7iot related to the Crustacea.

0)1 the Primary Divisions of ike ChitonidiC, by P. P. Carpenter,
B.A., Ph.D., Montreal. — He divided them into articulated or
perfect, and non-articulated or imperfect ; each of these were
naturally divided into regular and irregular. The Palaeozoic
Chitons were all imperfect, and culminated in the Carboniferous
period ; very few are now living. The Neozoic epochs gradually
developed perfect Chitons which culminate at the present time.
The writer sought information as to unusual forms, recent or
fossil, to be posted to 508, Guy Stieet, Montreal.

Department of Anatomy and Physiology.
Address by Professor Cleland, M.D., F.R.S., Vice-
President.

1 shall not venture to occupy the time of the Section with
any resumJ ol the work done in anatomy and physiology during
the past year, as such information is readily accessible in the
pages of journals and year-books, I shall content myself with
making some comments on the condition of anatomy at the pre-
sent time in a few important particulars.

I had intended to speak also of some subjects connected with
physiology ; but I find that I cannot do so without lengthening
my remarks to a greater extent than might be desirable. I shall
be content, therefore, so far as that science is concerned, to
mention that, although experimental physiology is probably
less cultivated in this country than in any other in which biol(^y
is studied, it has been practically decided by Parliament that it
is quite time to put some check on investigation in that direc-
tion ; for, as everyone knows, a Royal Commission has been
appointed to inquire into vivisection. In the scientific world all
are agreed, whatever opinions may prevail in other sections of
the community, that the man who would wantonly inflict pain
on a brute beast is himself a brute, and deserving to be roughly
handled ; and because there is no difference of opinion on that
subject, and bjc^use no experimental science can well prosper
if one man is to judge for another what experiments are justifi-
able to institute or to repeat, or are likely to give important
results, I do deplore the clamour which well-meaning persons
have raised, and regret that it has been so far yielded to.

In anatomy the most important progress in recent years
has been made in those departments which abut most closely on
physiology, namely, the microscopy of the tissues and develop-
ment. Tlie whole conception of the nutrition of the body has
become altered in comparatively recent years by the additions to
our knowledge of the nucleated corpuscles, which are the living

414

NATURE

\Sept. 9, 1875

elements of which it is composed ; and principally by the recog-
nition of the secondary nature of cell- walls, the close connection
or even continuity of the nerves with other textures, and the
identity of the white corpuscles of the blood with amoeboid or
undifferentiated corpuscles outside the vessels. The origin of
every living corpuscle from corpuscles pre-existing is no longer
difficult to imagine, but may, I incline to think, be almost
looked on as proved. The history of each may be traced back
through conjugated germs to the corpuscles of preceding genera-
tions in uninterrupted succession, and the pedigree of the
structural elements is seen to differ in no way from that of
individual plants or animals. It is true, indeed, that no abso-
lute proof exists that new living corpuscles originating by mere
deposit are not added to the others ; l)ut the evidence against such
a thing taking place is exactly of the same description as that
which exists against spontaneous generation of independent
organisms, namely, that things previously unexplained by the
theory of parentage are explained now, while, on the other
hand, there is no sufficient evidence of the origin of life by any
other mode.

Leaving histology (he said), I shall devote the rest of my re-
marks to the morphology ot the Vertebrata. Here I am less
disposed to indulge a gratulatory vein. No doubt within the
last dozen years we have had work to be grateful for. Worthy
of a prominent place in this, as in other departments of anatomy,
is the encyclopaedic work, the " Le9ons," of Milne-Edwards,
invaluable as a treasury of reference to all future observers ;
while the memoirs of Gegenbaur on the carpus, on the shoulder-
girdle, and on the skulls of Selachian fishes, and Kitchen
Parker's memoirs devoted to mature forms, may be taken as
examples that morphological problems suggested by adult com-
parative anatomy have not lost their attraction to men capable
of elaborate original research. And I the more willingly select
the names of these two writers, because on one subject on which
they have written, the shoulder-girdle, I am compelled to differ
from their conclusions and to adhere rather to those of Owen,
so far as the determination of the different elements in fishes is
concerned ; and by stating this (although the subject cannot be
now discussed) I am enabled to illustrate that the appreciation
of the value of elaborate and painstaking work is a matter
totally distinct from agreement with the conclusions which may
be arrived at in the investigation of complicated problems,
although wisdom and penetration as to these must ever command
admiration.

But when one looks back on the times of Meckel and Cuvier,
and on the activity inspired by the speculations of the much-
abused Oken, the writings of Geoffroy St.-Hilaire, the less
abstrusely speculative part of the works of G. C. Carus, and
the careful monographs of many minor writers ; when one re-
flects on the splendid grasp of Johannes Miiller, and thinks of
the healthy enthusiasm created in this country for a number of
years by Owen's " Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate
Skeleton," and then contemplates the state of vertebrate mor-
phology at the present moment, it seems to me that its homolo-
gical problems and questions of theoretical interest do not
attract so much attention as they did, or as they deserve.

77^,? Origin of Species by Natural Selection.

There can be no doubt that a great and curious influence has
been exercised on morphology by the rise of the doctrine of
the origin of species by natural selection. Attention has been
thereby directed strongly for a number of years to varieties,
and probably it is to this doctrine that we owe the larger
number of observations made on variations of muscles, nerves,
and other structures. Particularly elaborate have been the
records of muscular variations, very praiseworthy, interesting to
the recorders, very dry to most other people, and hitherto, so
far as I know, barren enough of any general conclusions. So
much the more credit is due to those who have worked steadily
in faith that beauty will emerge to gild these results some day.

But the doctrine of natural selection has had a further effect
in anatomical study, aiding the reaction against the search for
internal laws or plans regulating the evolution of structures, and
directing attention to the modifying influences of external
agencies. This effect has happened naturally enough, but it has
been far from just ; rather is it a pendulum-Hke swing to another
extreme from what had previously been indulged in. The
doctrine of natural selection starts with the recognition of an
internal formative force which is hereditary ; and in the develop-
ment of the doctrine, the limits of hereditary resemblance have
een greatly studied ; and further, it will be observed that one

of the fundamentals of the doctrine is, that the formative force
alters its character gradually and permanently when traced from
generation to generation in great tracts ot time. Now I am
not going to enter on a threadbare discussion of the origin of
species in this company ; suffice it to say that, while the existence
and extensive operation of such a thing as natural selection
seems to have been convincingly proved, it is a very different
thing to allege that it has been the sole, or even the principal
agent in producing the evolutions of living forms on the face of
the earth. So far as anatomy is concerned, it is a secondary
matter whether the link between the members of the evolving
hosts of life have been genetic or not. But I wish to point out
that, even pushing the Darwinian theory to the utmost possible
extreme, the action of external agents infers the existence of
something acted on ; and the less directly they act, the more
importance must be given to the hereditary or internal element.
We are therefore presented with a formative force, which ex-
hibited itself in very simple trains of phenomena in the first
beginnings of life, and now is manifested in governing the
complex growth of the highest forms. We are set face to face
with that formative force, and are obliged to admit its inherent
capability of changing its action ; and that being the case, is it
more of an assumption to declare that the changes are all
accidental and made permanent by accident of external circum-
stances, or to consider that it has been the law proper to this
force to have been adequate to raise forms, however liable to
modification by external circumstances — to raise them, I say,
from the simple to the complex, acting through generations on
the face of the earth, precisely as it acts in the evolution of a
single egg into an adult individual? This is that formative
force which has been elaborately shown by Mr. Darwin, in
launching his theory of " pangenesis," not only to be conveyed
through whole organisms and their seed, but to pervade at all
times the minutest particles of each ; and I merely direct atten-
tion to the fact that its extension over the whole history of life
on the globe must be granted, and ask if, in the range of forms
which furnish at the present day an imperfect key to the ages
which are past, there is not exhibited a development comparable,
in its progression to definite goals, with what is shown in the
life of a single plant or animal. For my own part, I am fully
convinced of a unity of plan running through animal forms, and
reaching, so far as the main line is concerned, its completion in
the human body. I confess that I think that there is evidenc ;
that animal life has reached its pre-ordained climax in humanity ;
and I cannot think it likely that, as myriads of years roll on,
descendants differing ?« toto from man will be developed. To
argue the subject would be to enter on the largest subjects of
morphological anatomy, and on speculations on which agreement
could not be expected. Even, however, in the nature of the
variations in the human race there seems to be some evidence
that the progress of evolution is to be traced from man, not to
other animal forms yet to appear, but, through his physical
nature, into the land of the unseen. Those variations, keeping
out of view differences of bulk and stature, which appear to
have some relation to geographical position, are principally to
be found in the head, the part of the body most closely con-
nected with the development and expression of the mental
character ; and I may mention that when, some years ago, my
attention was directed to the variations of the skull, the only
part whose variations in different races I have had opportunity
of studying with any degree of minuteness, I became satisfied
that in uncivilised races there might be distinguished skulls
which had undergone hereditary degeneration, others which had
reached the most advanced development possible for them, and
a third set, notably the Kaffirs, with large capabilities for im-
provement in the future. Indeed it is beyond doubt that there
is a limit for each type of humanity beyond which it cannot
pass in the improvement of the physical organisation necessary
for mental action.

There are also some curious indications in human structure of
the formative force nearing the end of its journey. In the
details of the skeletons of other animals one sees the greatest
precision of foim ; but there are various exceptions to this neat-
ness of finish in the skeleton of man, and they are found in
parts specially modified in connection with the peculiarities of
liis development, and not requiring exactness of shape for
physiological purposes ; while, on the other hand, physiogno-
mical mould and nicety of various physiological adaptations are
found in perfection. Look at the variations in the breast-bone,
especially at its lower extremity, which is never shapely, as it
is in the lower animals. Look at the coccygeal vertebrae ; they

Sept. 9, 1875

NATURE

415

are the most irregular structuies imaginable. Even in the
sacrum and in the rest of the column the amount of variation
finds no jiarallel in other animals. In the skull, except in some
of the lowest forms of humanity, the dorsum selhc is a ragged,
warty, deformed, and irregular structure, and it never exhibits
the elegance and finish seen in other animals. The curvature of
the skull and shortening of its base, which have gradually
ittcrcased in the ascending series of forms, have reached a degree
which cannot be exceeded ; and the nasal cavity is so elongated
vertically, that in the higher races nature seems scarcely able to
bridge the gap from the cribriform plate to the palate, and pro-
duces such a set of unsymmetrical and rugged performances as
is quite peculiar to man ; and to the human anatomist many
other examples of similar phenomena will occur.

Questions of homology are matters which must be ever pre-
sent in the study ol structure, as distinct from function — both
the correspondence of parts in one species to those in others,
and the relations of one part to another in the same animal ;
and perhaps I shall best direct attention to the changes of
opinion on morphological subjects in this country during the
last twenty-five years by referring shortly to the homological
writings of three eminent anatomists —Professors Owen, Goodsir,
and Huxley.

Changes of Opinion on Morphological Subjids.

For the first time in English literature the great problems of
this description were dealt with in Prof. Owen's work already
referred to, published in 1848 ; and it is unnecessary to say that,
notwithstanding the presence of unquestionable errors of theory,
that work was a most valuable and important contribution to
science. The faults in its general scope were justly and quietly
corrected by Goodsir at the meeting of this Association in 1856
in three papers, one of them highly elaborate ; and in these he
showed that the morphology of vertebrate animals could not be
correctly studied while reference was made exclusively to the
skeleton. He showed the necessity of attending to all the
evidence in trying to exhibit the underlying laws of structure,
and especially of having constant regard to the teachings of
embryology. Among the matters of detail which he set right it
may be mentioned that he exposed the ualenability of Prof.
Owen's theory of the connection of the shoulder-girdle with the
occipital bone, and pointed out that the limbs were not appen-
dages of single segments corresponding with individual vertebra;.
Referring to the development of the hand and foot, he showed
the imporlance of observing the plane in which they first appear,
and that the thumb and great toe are originally turned towards
the head, the litiie finger and little toe toward the caudal end of
the vertebral column. But he probably went too far in trying to
make out an exact correspondence of individual digits with
individual vertebral segments, failing to appreciate that the
segmentation originally so distinct in the primordial vertebras
becomes altered as the surface of the body is approached — a
truth illustrated in the vertebral columns of the plagiostomatous
fishes, in the muscle-segments over the head in the p euronectids,
and in the interspinal bones bearing the dorsal and anal finrays
of numbers of fishes, but, so far as I know, not hitherto sufficiently
appreciated by any anatomist.

In 1858 Prof. Huxley delivered his Croonian Lecture on
the vertebrate skull, and in 1863 his lectures at the Royal College
of Surgeons on the same subject. He profited by the wisdom
of Goodsir, and studied the works of Ralhke, Reicheit, and
other embryologists. But, rightly or wrongly, he took a step
further t'^an Goodsir. He assumed from the first that the homo-
logies of adult structures could be determined by development,
and that by that study alone could they be finally demonstrated.
As regards the skull, the constitution of which always remains
the central study of the vertebrate skeleton, his writings marked
the introduction of a period of revulsion against not only the
systems of serial homologies previously suggested, but even
against any attempt by the study of the varieties of adult forms
to set them right. Mr. Huxley has added materially to the
previously existing number of interpretations as to what elements
correspond in different animals, ,and in doing so has found it
necessary to make various additions to the already troubled
nomenclature. Those who consider these changes correct will
of course see in them a prospect of simplicity to future students ;
but to those who, Ike myself, have never been able to agree with
them, they are naturally a source of sorrow. Among the changes
referred to may be mentioned the theory of the ^'periotic bones."
That theory, I venture to think, a very unfortunate one, intro-
ducing a derangement of relations as widespread as did Good-

sir's theory of the frontal bone. And do not think me presump-
tuous in saying so, seeing that this theory is in antagonism with
the identifications of every anatomist precedmg its distinguished
originator, not excepting Cuvier and Owen ; nor is it easy to
discover what evidence it has to support it against the previously
received decision of Cuvier as to the external occipital and mastoid
of fishes. Without entering into the full evidence of the subject,
it may be stated that, so far as this theory affects the alisphinoid
in the skull of the fish, it must be given up, and the determination
of Prof. Owen must be reverted to, when it is considered
that in the carp the third and fourth nerve pierce what that
anatomist terms the orbitosphenoid, the bone which is alisphenoid
according to the theory which terms the alisphenoid of Owen the
prootic. A proof still more striking is furnished by Malapterurus
and other Silurids, in which the bone in question is pierced by
the optic nerve. That being the case, the prootic theory will be
seen to have arisen partly from giving too much importance to
centres of ossification, and partly from considering the nerve-
passage in front of the main bar of the alisphenoid of Owen as
corresponding with ihe/orame>i ovale of man rather than with the
foramen rotundum and sphenoidal fissure. A spiculum, however,
separating the second from the third division of the fifth nerve,
and having therefore the precise relations of the mammalian
alisphenoid, does exist in the carp and other fishes. But in
reptiles Prof. Huxley's determination of the alisphenoid is
right, and Prof. Owen's clearly wrong ; for in the crocodile
the alisphenoid of Huxley and others is perforated by the sixth
nerve, so that it cannot have any claim to be called orbiiosphenoid.
I must, however, maintain, against Prof. Huxley's view. Prof.
Owen's determination of the nasal in fishes, notwithstanding that
Prof. Owen has failed to appreciate the exact relation of
that bone to the nasals of mammals, and has thereby laid his
position open to attack. The arguments on that point Prof.
Huxley was good enough to lay before the public fourteen years
ago, by kindly reading for me before the Royal Society a paper
which subsequently appeared in its " Transactions ; " and I am
not aware that anyone has since attempted to controvert
them.

I shall not trouble you further with such matters of detail ;
but it will be clear from what has been said that the beginner in
comparative anatomy must at the present day find himself at the
outset, in the most important part of his osteological studies,
faced with a diversity of opinion and confusion of nomenclature
sufficient to produce much difficulty and to have a repelling
effect on many minds. Such difficulties might well be en-
countered with enthusiasm where a belief existed that behind
them lay a scheme of order and beauty ; but not many will spend
time in investigating such intricate details if they doubt the interest
of the general conclusions likely to be reached by mastering them.
On this account it is a great pity that the scepticism generated
partly by the difficulties of the subject, and partly by reaction
from the dogmatism of the admirers of Oken, does too frequently
discourage the investigation of the serial homologies of the parts
entering into the segments of the skull, and the determination of
the nature and number of those segments. It is a pity that so
much clamour has been made for a number of years against the
expression "vertebral theory of the skull," because fighting
against words is but stupid warfare at the best, and because a 1
that was really meant, and could be justly stated, could have
been brought into prominence without objecting to a time-
honoured phrase. It is questionable if anyone who ever used
the convenient term "vertebral theory " meant to indicate more
than a certain community of plan on which were built the
segments of the skull as well as those of the spinal column ; that,
in fact, the two constituted one complete chain, of which the
first few segments were so different from the rest, that till Oken
pointed the fact out, it was not recognised that they were
segments lying in lineal continuity with the rest. But the matter
has recently stood thus : — that to some minds, in the imperfect
state of our knowledge, one thing seemed essential to a segment
compatable to the rest, and to others something else seemed
requisite ; and the oddity of the position of affairs is this, that
the objectors to the phrase "vertebral theory " have been as
crotchety in setting up imaginary essentials to a segment as their
neighbours. On tlie one side we were taught to expect certain
definite osseous elements in each segment, to which definite
names were given ; while, on the other, in opposition schtm^s,
centres ol ossification have been built on as matters of primary
consequence, although a glance at the modifications in the
vertebral column proper might convince anyone that they are
things of the very slightest importance morphologically. Ako

4i6

NATURE

{Sept 9, 1875

those who have objected to speaking of cranial vertebrae have
put great importance on the point at which the chorda dorsalis
terminates, although it has been long known that in one animal
the chorda dorsalis runs right on to the front, that in others it
fails to enter the skull at all, while in the majority it passes for
a certain distance into the base. Johannes Miiller, on such
grounds, concluded thirty years ago that the presence of chorda
dorsalis was not necessary to constitute a cranial vertebra ; and
there seems no reason to doubt that he was right. Looking at
the early embryo, the cerebro-spinal axis is seen to be one
continuous structure ; and the walls of the canal containing it
are likewise manifestly continuous, not at first distinguishable
into a spinal and a cranial portion. Looking at the adult
condition, in the higher classes the vertebrse of the tail are seen
dwindling into mere bodies developed round the chorda,
and giving off rudimentary processes without separate centres of
ossification, while towards the head the bodies diminish and the
arches enlarge ; and in the skull the chorda, round which the
bodies in the rest of the column are developed, comes to an end,
and the neural arches are enormously enlarged and have
additional centres of ossification, precisely as in the mammalian
thorax costal centres of ossification are found which do not exist
in the costal elements of cervical vertebras. It would therefore
be quite as justifiable to object to the term vertebra as applied to
a joint of the tail because it has no lainince, or none with
separate centres of ossification, as to object to its applicability to
segments of the skull because the chorda is absent, or the osseous
elements different in number from those found usually in the
segments of the trunk.

However, it is gratifying to observe that among the most
recent additions to morphological anatomy there is a highly
suggestive paper by Prof. Huxley, appearing in the Royal
Society's " Proceedings" for December last, and entitled "Pre-
liminary Notes upon the Brain and Skull oiA^nphioxus lanceo-
latus," in which the learned Professor, who has for many years
been the most determined opponent to the mention of cranial
vertebrse, declares, so far as I can apprehend his meaning, that
the region of the head represents no less than fourteen segments,
all of which he terms protovertebra in Amphioxus. This deter-
mination of correspondences is made the more remarkable by
being followed up with a suggestion that the numerous proto-
vertebrse lying in front of the fourteenth in Amphioxus are repre-
sented only by muscles and nerves in the higher vertebrates.

I hail this paper as being practically at last an ample acknow-
ledgment that there is no escape from admitting the correspon-
dence of the region of the head with the segments of the trunk :
but the details of the new theory scarcely seem convincing ; and
I might have preferred to leave its discussion to others, were it
not that the notions which it opens up are far too important to
allow it to be passed over in any account of the present state of
opinion on the subject of vertebrate morphology. The argument
in this new theory runs thus : that the palate-curtain oi Amphioxus
is homologous with that of the lamprey, and that the palate-
curtain of the lamprey is attached below the ear ; that therefore
all the seven segments seen in front of the palate- curtain of
Amphioxus are represented by parts in front of the ear in the
lamprey and the other Vertebrata, Again, the branchial arches
of the higher Vertebrata are assumed to be of the nature of ribs,
and in none of the Vertebrata next shove Amphioxus "are there
more than seven pairs of branchial arches, so that not more than
eight myotomes (and consequently protovertebrae) oi Amphioxus,
in addition to those already mentioned, can be reckoned as the
equivalents of the parachordal region of the skull in the higher
vertebrates." Everything, observe, depends on the segment to
which the palate-curtain of Amphioxus belongs. Now I have
already pointed out to you that the segmentation of the vertebrate
body is not perfect ; and there is no method by which the alimen-
tary canal, of which the mouth and palate are the first part, can
be divided into segments corresponding with the cerebro-spinal
nerves. Most certainly we cannot judge that a portion of a
viscus belongs to a particular segment from its lying underneath
some other structure in definite relation, like the ear, to the
cerebro-spinal system ; for then should we be obliged to grant
that one-half or more of the heart belongs to segments in front
of the ear, since it is undoubtedly so situated in a chick of the
thirty-sixth hour. But the branchial arches are in front of the
heart, and, according to the theory which we are considering,
are behind the ear ; thus the principle assumed in the starting-
point of the theory is taken away.

Again, it is important to observe that the branchial skeletal
arches cannot be ribs, for they lie internal to the primary circles

of the vascular system formed by the branchial arteries and veins,
while the ribs are superficial to both heart and aorta. If the ribs
are represented at all in the branchial apparatus (and I doubt it
very much), it is by the cartilages superficial to the gills in
sharks, rays, and dog-fishes ; and it would seem impossible for
anyone who has dissected them to doubt that those cartilages
are homologous with the branchial skeleton of the lamprey,
which they somewhat resemble. In fact, if the external and
internal branchial openings of the lamprey be enlarged, its gills
are reduced to a form similar to those of the shark.

There is nothing in this, however, which interferes seriously
with the proposed theory of the skull. It is merely a point in
the argument which I have thought right to clear. More im-
portant it is to remark that, on the supposition that numerous
protovertebrae are represented in the region of the head, there
arc most serious difficulties interfering with the idea that they
are, as Prof. Huxley states, "represented only by muscles
and nerves in the higher Vertebrata," and that there is any
correspondence between " the oculo-motor, pathetic, trigeminal,
and abducens nerves with the muscles of the eye and jaws " and
the regular nerves and muscle-segments of the fore part of
Amphioxus. Even in the lamprey the eye-balls are supplied
with muscles similar to those to which, in other vertebrates, the
oculo-motor, pathetic, and abducens are distributed ; and I find
in the large species that, notwithstanding this, the series of
regular muscle-segments is continued over the head, not indeed
in the same way as in Mixine, but in a highly instructive and
curious manner. After further dwelling upon this point. Prof.
Cleland said : —

It may be noticed as a wholesome symptom in anatomical
speculation, that the new theory which has led to these remarks
is founded on arguments drawn altogether from comparison of
different species, and not from embryology, a very remarkable
circumstance as coming from one who so lately as last autumn
reiterated in this Section his slowness to believe in reasonings
founded on adult forms, and even on "later development."
The wisest know so little, that humanity must be content to
gather information from every possible source, and leave no set
of ascertained facts out of view in attempting to arrive at
generalisations. If we had before us all the adult anatomy of
every species that ever lived on the earth, we should only then
have the record completed from which to frame a full system of
morphology ; and as matters stand we must translate embryolo-
gical phenomena with the aid of the series of adult forms, as
well as translate the teachings of the adult series with the aid of
embryology.

Falling back on my proposition, that the segments of the
vertebrate body are nowhere complete, and that segmentation ;at
one depth may exist to a greater extent than at another, I may
mention certain embryological phenomena in the brain, which
have received too little attention, and which to some extent
warrant belief in a larger number of segments in the head than
is usually admitted ; although I do not see that they are
necessarily at variance with that theory of seven segments in
every ossified skull which I indicated in 1862. In the chick, in
the middle of the second day of hatching, already is the third
cerebral vesicle divided into a series of five parts, separated by
slight constrictions, the first part larger than those which
succeed, and the last part narrowing to the spinal cord. The
auditory vesicle lies opposite the constriction between the fourth
and fifth parts. At the end of the second day and during the
third, these divisions assume dimensions which give them a
general appearance exceedingly similar in profile to the proto-
vertebrse of the neck. In the following day they exhibit a more
complex appearance, and after that the first compartment alone
remains distinct as cerebellum, while the divisions between the
others disappear in the thickening of the cerebral walls. In
their first two stages, Mr. Huxley, whom I have already referred
to so often, has figured these crenations, but he has not, so far
as I know, described them,

I may also direct attention to another embryological point,
to which I referred last year at Belfast as a probability. I speak
now from observation. That which is termed the first cerebral
vesicle in the early part of the second day of hatching of the
chick, is an undifferentiated region of the brain from which a
number of parts emerge successively from behind forwards. As
early as the thirty-sixth hour the optic nerves can be traced,
separated from the rest of the vesicle by distinct elevations of
the floor of the brain, reaching inwards to the constriction
between the first and second vesicles : and as fearly as this date
the first trace of bifidity of the brain in front may be discerned—

Sept. 9, 1875]

NATURE

417

that bifidity which, to my thinking, is only one of several
instances of longitudinal fission in the fore part of the head, the
trabeculse presenting another instance of the same thing, and
the cleft between the maxillary lobe and the part of the head
above it a third ; while in the muscular system such longitudinal
cleavage or fission is common even in the trunk. In a chick of
the third or fourth day, when rendered very transparent, the
optic nerves can be seen extending from beneath the front of the
2

Fig. I.— Embryo chick of 36 hours, a, primary optic vesicle ; b, optic com-
missure ; c, third cerebral vesicle ; d, ear ; e, heart

Fig. 2. — Chick three days old. a, nostril ; b, hemisphere ; c, d, divisions of
first cerebral vesicle ; e, eye ; /, optic nerve ; g, optic lobe ; h, crenations
of third cerebral vesicle ; ;, ear ; k, first primordial vertebra.

optic lobes ; while in front of the optic lobes there are placed
in series from behind forwards a posterior division of the first
vesicle, an anterior division, the cerebral hemispheres, and the
olfactory lobes. Thus there is a large supply of material pre-
sented in the brain for the study of segmentation ; the difficulty
to be overcome by future inquiry and careful collation of all
available facts is to determine the value of the parts placed one
in front of another.

Perhaps I have occupied time too long with matters involving
a large amount of technical detail ; but I trust that I may have,
in some measure, illustrated that both in aim and in accomplished
work anatomy is no mere collection of disconnected facts, no
mere handmaid of the physician and surgeon, nor even of phy-

FiG. 3.— Chick of fourth day. Letters the same as previous figure,

siology. I do not doubt that it is yet destined, as dealing with
the most complex sequences of phenomena, to take the highest
place among the sciences as a gtiide to philosophy. One can-
not help noticing the increased importance now given to Natural
History studies as a part of education ; and it is worth while to
note that it is most of all in anatomy and physiology that the
close connections of matter with mind are brought under review,
—physiology exhibiting the relations of our own mental being

to our bodies, and anatomy revealing a body of organised
nature, whose organisation points to a source ^of beauty and
order beyond. /

The people of Bristol do well to rally round their Medical
School, They do well to furnish it with buildings suitable for
the prosecution of all the Natural History studies which adhere
to medical education ; and they do well to join with that school
a complete college of literature and science. Let us hope that
they will make it worthy of so wealthy and historic a city. But
if they will have their medical school the success which In so
flourishing a locality public enthusiasm may well make it, and
if they will have it aid as well as be aided by a school of general
education, let them follow the system latterly adopted in Oxford
and Cambridge, long carried out in the Universities of Scotland,
and recognised, though not in all instances sufficiently provided
for, in Ireland. Let anatomy, human and comparative, receive
its place as an important and fundamental science. Let thorough
and adequate provision be made for its being' taught as a science ;
and see that it do not, as in too many medical schopls which
shall be nameless, degenerate to the etymological and original
meaning of the word, a mere cutting up of carcases.

Mr, H, B, Brady exhibited a series of micro-photographs
chiefly from physiological and pathological preparations, taken
by a new and simple process, devised by Mr. Hugh Bowman, of
Newcastle. The apparatus was also shown and described. It
consisted of a simple mirror of speculum metal, placed at an
angle of 45 degrees in front of the eye-piece of the microscope,
and directed downwards. The image was received upon a
collodion plate set in the frame of a common photographic
camera, and the photograph taken in the usual way. About 1 1
seconds was stated to be a sufficient exposure for the purpose.

A paper was read by Dr. Martyn entitled Some New Researches
on the Anatomy oj the Skin. Dr. Martyn had discovered that the
cells which appeared " spinous " or "echinate," when isolated
from their connection, if they could be at any time seen in single
layers, were simply united together by delicate bands. These
are so constantly seen broken across that they assume the form
of tubercles or "prickles." As repeated observations confirmed
this, the name " conjoined epithelium" had been proposed for
this form or stage in the cell life.

A paper On the Physiological Action of the Chinoline and
Pyridine Bases, by Dr. J. G. M'Kendrick and Prof. Dewar,
was read by the former gentleman. The following are the general
conclusions arrived at :— i. There is a marked gradation in
extent of physiological action of the members of the pyridine
series of bases, but it remains of the same kind. The lethal
dose becomes reduced as we rise from the lower to the higher.
2. The higher members of the pyridine series resemble in
physiological action the lower members of the chinoline series,
except (i) that the former are more Hable to cause death by
asphyxia, and (2) that the lethal dose of the pyridines is less
than one half that of the chinolines. 3, In proceeding from
the lower to the higher members of the chinoline series, the
physiological action changes in character, inasmuch as the lower
members appear to act chiefly on the sensory centres of the
encephalon and the reflex centres of the cord, destroying the
power of voluntary or reflex movement ; while the higher act
less on these centres, and chiefly on the motor centres, first, as
irritants, causing violent convulsions, and at length producing
complete paralysis. At the same time, while the reflex activity
of the centres in the spinal cord appear to be inactive, they may
be readily roused to action by strychnine. 4. On comparing the
action of such compounds as C9H7N (chinoline) with C9H13N
(parvoline, &c.), or CgHuN (collidine) with CgHijN (conia,
from hemlock), or CjoHipNa (dipyridine) with C10H14N2
(nicotine, from tobacco), it is to be observed that the physio-
logical activity of the substance is, apart from chemical structure,
greatest in those bases containing the larger amount of hydrogen.
5. Those artificial bases which approximate the percentage com-
position of natural bases are much weaker physiologically, so
far as can be estimated by amount of dose, than the natural
bases ; but the kind of action is the same in both cases. 6.
When the bases of the pyridine series are doubled by condensa-
tion, producing dipyridine, parapicoline, &c., they not only
become more active physiologically, but the action differs in kind
from that of the simple bases, and resembles the action of
natural bases or alkaloids having a similar chemical constitution.
7. All the substances examined in this research are remarkable
for not possessing any specific paralytic action on the heart likely
to cause syncope j but they destroy lif»-dther by exhaustive con-

4i8

NATURE

{Sept. 9, 1875

vulsions, or by gradual paralysis of the centres of respiration,
thus causing asphyxia. 8. There is no appreciable immediate
action on the sympathetic system of nerves. There is probably
a secondary action, because after large doses the vasomotor
centre, in common with other centres, becomes involved. 9.
There is no difference, so far as could be discovered, between
the physiological action of bases obtained from cinchonine and
those derived from tar.

This paper, besides its purely scientific value, is of some interest
to general readers on account of the fact discovered by Vohl and
Eulenburg, that chinoline and pyridine are produced during the
combustion of tobacco, and that the effects of tobacco smoking
are to a great extent due to the action of these and similar
bases.

Department of Anthropology.

INIr. John Evans, in moving a vote of thanks to Prof. RoUeston
for his address, said it supplied the strongest evidence of the
necessity for the application of the natural history method to
anthropology ; and the value of the study was shown by the
way in which it had been brought to bear on questions of the
present day. — Dr. Carpenter, in supporting the resolution, desired
to refer to Dr. Prichard as a Bristol man, and because he had
been mainly instrumental in directing his course at the outset
of his public life ; by his advice he had read his first paper
before the British Association at its former visit to Bristol. His
thoughts were those of a physiologist among physiologists,
and a scholar among scholars, but he was resolved to keep
the threads together if possible. He was perhaps the first
to bring a large idea of species to bear upon the origin of
man, and to trace out intermediate links and gradational cha-
racters, and to investigate the analogous features in the history of
domesticated animals. With regard to the antiquity of man,
he believed that Prichard was the first to propound the doctrine,
now so generally accepted, of the much greater antiquity of man
than could be supposed if the genealogies of Genesis were accu-
rate. He made a careful and scientific investigation of those
genealogies, and found it absolutely necessary to conclude that
they could not be relied upon for chronological evidence ; and
when he further came to consider the amount of time necessary
to produce such strongly marked races as the Jewish and the
Egyptian, on the hypothesis of the unity of the race and the
time which would be required to produce such divarications of
language as existed in the early historical period, he was addi-
tionally supported in his view as to the antiquity of the human
race.

Col. Lane Fox gave a most interesting account of recent exca-
vations in Cissbury Camp, near Worthing, of which full details
will be published at the earliest possible time. He said that the
entrenchment was one of the largest in the south of England,
and had all the peculiarities of a British earthwork. Camden
spoke of this camp as the work of Cissa, the Saxon king of the
district, from whom, in his opinion and in great probability,
it derived its name of Cissbury. He believed the first notice of
the place as a flint factory was by himself in 1868, when, finding
a large quantity of flint flakes on the surface and a number of
large pits which filled the interior of the camp on the west side,
he dug into some of them to a depth of four or five feet, and found
in them a still further number of flakes, together with finished
and unfinished flint tools. It was evident that here was a flint
factory, and that it was established because of the much greater
ease of working the flints when first removed from the chalk.
He had no idea then of the great extent of the mining operations
of these chalk people, nor did he think it necessary to dig deeper,
some of the pits as left open, and further opened by himself,
being twenty feet deep. They appeared to be quite deep enough
for a sufficient quantity of flints to be got. The true nature of
these flint works was illuminated by accident, viz., by the cutting
of a railway from Franieres to Chimay, when fifty-five deep
shafts of this kind were cut through, with galleries proceeding
from them. In 1870 Canon Green well had excavated pits at
Brandon, and found similar shafts and galleries. Since then
Mr. Tindall, of Brighton, had opened one of the pits at Ciss-
bury, and found a shaft thirty-five feet deep, with Bos prinii-
genius and other remains of wild animals. Mr. E. Willett had
excavated another twenty-five feet deep, and found galleries
leading from them ; and it was established that the flints did not
exist so near the surface as he (Col. Lane Fox) had supposed.
The question now became of great importance as to the relative
age of the flint factory and the entrenchment in which it was
situated. Since June last, and up to the week before the meeting

of the Association, he had superintended work at these pits,
aided by subscriptions from members of the Anthropological
Institute. In April last he had opened a section in the ditch
round the entrenchment in layers of eighteen inches to two feet,
and found, in the upper layer, two oval flint implements, frag-
ments of red earthenware, oyster shells, snail shells, bones of
domestic animals, and fragments of Romano- British pottery. In
the second layer there was ferruginous chalk rubble, with un-
touched nodules, and abundance of Helix nemoralis. In the
third layer was found white chalk rubble, with bones of pig and ox,
and oyster shells, and small fragments of British pottery. There
was no indication of anything absolutely of the Roman period ;
any such indications were in the upper layer, and they were not
conclusive. In the subsequent investigations he had been
assisted by Professors Rolleston and Hughes, Mr. Harrison, and
others. He saw that there were pits on the outside of the camp,
that they were shallower, and that there were no flints about.
He thought that if he dug out one or two nearest the entrench-
ment, he might see whether they were the mouths of old shafts.
He found that they were so, and became satisfied that they were
all shafts. Then he thought that the best means of ascertaining
the relative ages of shafts and entrenchment was to dig in the
ditch at the point where the line of shafts intersected the rampart.
He first dug out the bottom of the ditch in layers as before, and
in the second layer below the surface found fragments of
Romano-British pottery, but none in the bottom layers. It was
evident that this filling in of the ditch was due to the degrada-
tion of the central part of the entrenchment. It was also clear
that pottery of the kind found was not used when the ditch was
sunk. The side of the ditch sloped inwards to the west, but
towards the east the inner side was perfectly upright, and the
rubble near the upright part was quite white instead of yellow,
showing that the excavators, when they came to the shafts, had
cut through the rubble which had been used previously to fill
up the shaft ; the excavation was then continued into the shaft to
6 feet 6 inches below the old bottom of the ditch, and deer-horn
tines and the scapula of an ox were found. In the bottom of
the shaft galleries were found opening out of it ; one ran north
for twenty feet, and was two feet high. It rose at an angle of 5°,
which was the angle of stratification of the chalk. In the sides
of the galleries, at a height of a foot and a half, here and there,
flints were found in situ, so that it was plain that the seam of
flints had been followed. The flints were not 1 cached till they
got to seventeen feet below the original surface of the ground.
Another gallery was found running south, and then a chamber
was entered, which became high, and it was discovered that it
communicated with a shaft in the counterscarp of the ditcli. It
was conclusively proved that the shaft had been filled in before
the ditch was made, and that afterwards the rubble which filled
in the inner shaft had been thrown up over the outer shaft
forming the rampart. The shaft had been filled in up to
the top, apparently by the people who had made it. In
filling it they had partly used rubble and partly clay. It
was found in layers sloping down, intersected with seams
of clay ; these seams were quite unconformable with the
shaft or with the surrounding strata, but they were evi-
dently derived from clay which was to be met with near the
surface of the upper part of the entrenchment. They then fol-
lowed out another shaft, and when nearly at the bottom he was
astounded by a human jaw-bone falling down at his feet from the
wall of the shaft ; and looking up, he saw the skull resting with the
base downwards between two of the blocks of chalk rubble. He
procured at once other eyes to see it in its actual position, and
then it was taken away, for it was in a very precarious situation.
It and the accompanying human bones would be commented
on by Prof. Rolleston. This and another shaft gave the same
evidences, and had galleries running out of them, and it was
clear that the outer rampart had been formed by the rubble
thrown out from these fiiled-up shafts. A seam of flints was
found in one of the galleries, and around and on the surfaces of
some of them were found a number of marks which corresponded
exactly with the deer-horn tines found, so that evidently the flints
had been picked out by the aid of deer-horns. As to the imple-
ment found, in his opinion there were all transitions between
Palaeolithic and Neolithic implements. But the resemblance to
paleolithic might be, he thought, more apparent than real, and
partly might be due to their being unfinished. It was very diffi-
cult to command the breaking of flints, as he had found by actual
experiment ; and thus many unfinished implements were left in the
pits. But there was one celt which was finished at the thin end,
and was evidently of the Palaeolithic type ; and others \Yere

Sept. 9, 1875]

NATURE

419

plainly roughened at the broad end so as to be held in the hand.
He thought at any rate that these flints were of a very early Neo-
lithic period, and showed considerable traces of the Paleolithic,
though there might yet remain a gap between the periods. The
shafts had been kept open, and would still be open for another
fortnight, when, by agreement with the owner, they were to be
closed up. Many of the leading authorities in this department
had visited the place, but subsequently the only actual plan of
the workings would be the wooden model which he exhibited,
showing all the strata, shafts, and galleries.

Prof. Rolleston then proceeded to speak of the animal re-
mains. He said the snail and other shells found were of great
use, and supplied a cogent argument, without ambiguity, as
cogent as Euclid. Here was the sharp line of the shaft, and at a
depth of fourteen feet from the original surface were found an
immense number of Cydostoma elegans. Helix ntmoralis, and
other hybernating snail shells. They were not brought down to
be eaten by the excavators, as was supposed, but the opercula
were still found exactly in situ, giving evidence that they had gone
down for warmth and shelter while still alive. They had also
found plenty of food in the moist conditions of the shaft. They
had undoubtedly gone down the shaft at a time when it was still
open ; and further evidence was that no snail shells at all were
to be found in the rubble which had gradually dribbled down.
He thought that the abundance of the shells was to be explained
by the fact that these prehistoric Britons, like our own country-
men of the present day, were a little negligent in putting an end
to nuisances, whether they were open shafts or otherwise, and
thus the shaft had been open a good while, and a large series of
snails had lived here. And among other results of this negli-
gence was, he believed, the fall of a young British lady into the
shaft. At any rate her bones had been found in a position quite
compatible with this idea. With the skeleton were found a large
number of pig-bones ; there were at least four individuals, one
old and three younger. We have not the entire skeleton of any
one of them, and it was quite compatible with the evidence that
these bones might have been thrown in piecemeal. Other bones
were found, all of domestic animals, especially a small animal
which might be a sheep or a goat ; the critical pieces of the
skeleton were absent. As to the Bos primigenius there was not
the smallest doubt, and it was found in a position which showed
it to have occurred before the advent of the small domestic ani-
mals ; and wild animals of the same kinds must have then been
much larger, or they would speedily have been exterminated by
the wolves. As to the female skeleton, nearly all the bones
were preserved, scarcely three of the vertebrae being missing.
She was evidently between eighteen and twenty-five years of age,
by various indications of the bones. She had a large head, yet
it was an early type of skull, older than that of the people who
built the rampart. The lower jaw contained a large number of
teeth. The wisdom teeth were just through, and were scarcely
worn at all ; yet the two molar teeth in front of them on each
side, above and below, were ground down nearly to the stumps.
From this he inferred that the food had been of such a character
as to produce wearing of the teeth. The evidence of the bones
was conclusive as to her youth. The only parallel he could find
to this was in the Indians of Vancouver's Island, who fed on
fish dried in the sand-blowing winds, and their teeth were thus
worn down to the stumps. Similarly these people might have
fed on food dried in the wind, in which a large amount of fine
sand got embedded. The cubical capacity of the cranium was
very large ; as measured by rape-seed it was 10575 cubic inches;
and the largest cubical capacity he knew of was one of a great
Roman officer out ot their burial grounds, whose capacity was
108 cubic inches. The people who made the shafts were un-
doubtedly older than the Britons who made the great rampart,
and they were still in a stone using period.

Mr, John Evans, in the discussion which followed, said that
the main difiierence between Palasolithic and Neolithic was not
that in one the implements were merely chipped and in the other
polished, but in the manner of occurrence in the strata and the
animals associated with them. In the Neolithic he estimated
that ninety-five per cent, of all that was found was unpolished —
all the smaller tools, &c. He acknowledged that he was not
justified in saying that the pointed end of some of the imple-
ments from Cissbury was not intended to be used ; and there
were some cases in which it was impossible to tell which end was
to be used. Even granting this exceptional resemblance, there is
a great Neolithic facies in the things found at Cissbury. Still, he
was quite willing now to accept the particular implement found

at Cissbury as a new type of implement to be held in the hand
it might have been used in digging up roots.

SECTION E

Geography.

Address by Lieut. -General R, Strachey, R.E., C.S.I,,
F,R,S., President,

In accordance with the practice followed for some years past
by the Presidents of the Sections of the British Association, I
propose, before proceeding with our ordinary business, to offer
for your consideration some observations relative to the branch
of knowledge with which this Section is more specially con-
cerned.

My predecessors in this chair have, in their opening addresses,
viewed geography in many various lights. Some have drawn
attention to recent geographical discoveries of interest, or to the
gradual progress of geographical knowledge over the earth gene-
rally, or in purticular regions. Others have spoken of the value
of geographical knowledge in the ordinary affairs of men, or in
some of the special branches of those affairs, and of the means of
extending such knowledge. Other addresses again have dwelt
on the practical influence produced by the geographical features
and conditions of the various parts of the earth on the past his-
tory and present state of the several sections of the human race,
the formation of kingdoms, the growth of industry and commerce,
and the spread of civilisation.

The judicious character of that part of our organisation which
leads to yearly changes among those who preside over our meet-
ings, and does not attempt authoritatively to prescribe the direc-
tion of our discussions, will no doubt be generally recognised.
It has the obvious advantage, amongst others, of ensuring that
none of the multifarious claims to attention of the several
branches of science shall be made unduly prominent, and of
giving opportunity for viewing the subjects which from time to
time come before the Association in fresh aspects by various
minds.

Following, then, a somewhat different path from those who have
gone before me in treating of Geography, I propose to speak of
the physical causes which have impressed on our planet the pre-
sent outlines and forms of its surface, have brought about its
present conditions of climate, and have led to the development
and distribution of the living beings found upon it.

In selecting this subject for my opening remarks, I have been
not a little influenced by a consideration of the present state of
geographical knowledge, and of the probable future of geogra-
phical investigation. It is plain that the field for mere topo-
graphical exploration is already greatly limited, and that it is
continually becoming more restricted. Although no doubt much
remains to be done in obtaining detailed maps of large tracts of
the earth's surface, yet there is but comparatively a very small
area with the essential features of which we are not now fairly
well acquainted. Day by day our maps become more complete,
and with our greatly improved means of communication the
knowledge of distant countries is constantly enlarged and more
widely diffused. Somewhat in the same proportion the demands
for more exact information become more pressing. The neces-
sary consequence is an increased tendency to give to geographical
investigations a more strictly scientific direction. In proof of
this I may instance the fact that the two British naval expeditions
now being carried on, that of the Challenger and that of the
Arctic seas, have been organised almost entirely for general
scientific research, and comparatively little for topographical
discovery. Narratives of travels, which not many years ago
might have been accepted as valuable contributions to our then
less perfect knowleJge, would now perhaps be regarded as super-
ficial and insufficient. In short, the standard of knowledge of
travellers and writers on geography must be raised to meet the
increased requirements of the time.

Other influences are at work tending to the same result The
great advance made in all branches of natural science limits more
and more closely the facilities for original research, and draws
the observer of nature into more and more special studies, while
it renders the acquisition by any individual of the highest
standard of knowledge in more than one or two special subjects
comparatively difficult and rare. At the same time the mutual
inter-dependence of all natural phenomena daily becomes more
apparent ; and it is of ever-increasing importance that there shall
be some among the cultivators of natural knowledge who specially

420

NATURE

\Sept. 9, 1875

direct their attention to the general relations existing among all
the forces and phenomena of nature. In some important branches
of such subjects, it is only through study of the local physical
conditions of various parts of the earth's surface and the compli-
cated phenomena to which they pive lise, that sound conclusions
can be established ; and this study constitutes physical or scien-
lific geography. It is very necessary to bear in mind that a
large portion of the phenomena dealt with by the sciences of
observation relates to the earth as a whole in contradistinction to
the substances of which it is formed, and can only be correctly
appreciated in connection with the terrestrial or geographical
conditions of the place where they occur. On the one hand,
therefore, while the proper prosecution of the study of physical
geography requires a sound knowledge of the researches and
conclusions of students in the special branches of science, on the
other success is not attainable in the special branches without
suitable apprehension of geographical facts. For these reasons
it appears to me that the general progress of science will involve
the study of geography in a more scientific spirit, and with a
clearer conception of its true function, whicli is that of obtaining
accurate notions of the manner in which the forces of nature
have brought about the varied conditions characterising the sur-
face of the planet which we inhabit.

In its broadest sense science is organised knowledge, and its
methods consist of the observation and classification of the
phenomena of which we become conscious through our senses,
and the inves-tigation of the causes of which these are the effects.
The first step in geography, as in all other sciences, is the obser-
vation and description of the phenomena with which it is con-
cerned ; the next is to classify and compare this empirical collec-
tion of facts, and to investigate their antecedent causes. It is
in the first branch of the study that most progress has been
made, and to it indeed the notion of geography is still popularly
limited. The other branch is commonly spoken of as physical
geography, but it is more correctly the science of geography.

The progress of geography has thus advanced from first rough
ideas of relative distance between neighbouring places, to correct
views of the earth's form, precise determinations of position, and
accurate delineations of the surface. The first impressions of
the differences observed between distant countries were at length
corrected by the perception of similarities no less real. The
characteristics of the great regions of polar cold and equatorial
heat, of the sea and land, of the mountains and plains, were
appreciated ; and the local variations of season and climate, of
wind and rain, were more or less fully ascertained. Later, the
distribution of plants and animals, their occurrence in groups of
peculiar structure in various regions, and the circumstances under
which such groups vary from place to place, gave rise to fresh
conceptions. Along with these facts were observed the pecu-
liarities of the races of men— their physical form, languages,
customs, and history — exhibiting on the one hand striking differ-
ences in different countries, but on the other often connected by
a strong stamp of similarity over large areas.

By the gradual accumulation and classification of such know-
ledge the scientific conception of geographical unity and continuity
was at length formed, and the conclusion established that while
each different part of the earth's surface has its special charac-
teristics, all animate and inanimate nature constitutes one general
system, and that the particular features of each region are due to
the operation of universal laws acting under varying local condi-
tions. It is upon such a conception that is now brought to bear
the doctrine, very generally accepted by the naturalists of our
own country, that each successive phase of the earth's history,
for an indefinite period of time, has been derived from that which
preceded it, under the operation of the forces of nature as we
now find them ; and that, so far as observation justifies the
adoption of any conclusions on such subjects, no change has ever
taken place in those forces, or in the properties of matter. This
doctrine is commonly spoken of as the doctrine of evolution,
and it is to its application to geography that I wish to direct
your attention.

I desire here to remark that in what I am about to say, I
altogether leave on one side all questions relating to the origin
of matter, and of the so-called forces of nature which give rise
to the properties of matter. In the present state of knowledge
such subjects are, I conceive, beyond the legitimate field of phy-
sical science, which is limited to discussions directly arising on
facts within the reach of observation, or on reasonings based on
such facts. It is a necessary condition of the progress of know-
ledge that the line between what properly is or is not within the
reach of human intelligence is ill defined, and that opinions will

vary as to where it should be drawn ; for it is the avowed and
successful aim of science to keep this line constantly shifting by
pushing it forward ; many of the efforts made to do this are no
doubt founded in error, but all are deserving of respect that are
undertaken honestly.

The conception of evolution is essentially that of a passage to
the state of things which observation shows us to exist now, from
some preceding state of things. Applied to geography, that is
to say to the present condition of the earth as a whole, it leads
up to the conclusion that the existing outlines of sea and land
have been caused by modifications of pre-existing oceans and
continents, brought about by the operation of forces which are
still in action, and which have acted from the most remote past
of which we can conceive ; that all the successive forms of the
surface — the depressions occupied by the waters, and the eleva-
tions constituting mountain-chains — are due to these same forces ;
that these have been set up, first, by the secular loss of heat
which accompanied the original cooling of the globe ; and
second, by the annual or daily gain and loss of heat received
from the sun acting on the matter of which the earth and its
atmosphere are composed ; that all variations of climate are
dependent on differences in the condition of the surface ; that
the distribution of life on the earth, and the vast varieties of its
forms, are consequences of contemporaneous or antecedent
changes of the forms of the surface and climate ; and thus that
our planet as we now find it is the result of modifications gradu-
ally brought about in its successive stages, by the necessary
action of the matter out of which it has been formed, under the
influence of the matter which is external to it.

I shall state briefly the grounds on which these conclusions
are based.

So far as concerns the inorganic fabric of the earth, that view
of its past history which is based on the principle of the per-
sistence of all the forces of nature may be said to be now uni-
versally adopted. This teaches that the almost infinite variety
of natural phenomena arises from new combinations of old forms
of matter, under the action of new combinations of old forms of
force. Its recognition has, however, been comparatively recent,
and is in a great measure due to the teachings of that eminent
geologist, the late Sir Charles Lyell, whom we have lost during
the past year.

When we look back by the help of geological science to the
more remote past, through the epochs immediately preceding
our own, we find evidence of marine animals— which lived,
were reproduced, and died, — possessed of organs proving that
they were under the influence of the heat and light of the sun ;
of seas whose waves rose before the winds, breaking down cliffs,
and forming beaches of boulders and pebbles ; of tides and
currents spreading out banks of sand and mud, on which are left
the impress of the ripple of the water, of drops of rain, and of
the track of animals ; and all these appearances are precisely
similar to those we observe at the present day as the result of
forces which we see actually in operation. Every successive
stage, as we recede in the past history of the earth, teaches the
same lesson. The forces which are now at work, whether in de-
grading the surface by the action of seas, rivers, or frosts, and
in transporting its fragments into the sea, or in reconstituting the
land by raising beds laid out in the depth of the ocean, are
traced by similar effects as having continued in action from the
earliest times.

Thus pushing back our inquiries we at last reach the point
where the apparent cessation of terrestrial conditions such as now
exist requires us to consider the relation in which our planet
stands to other bodies in celestial space ; and vast though the
gulf be that separates us from these, science has been able to
bridge it. By means of spectroscopic analysis it has been
established that the constituent elements of the sun and other
heavenly bodies are substantially the same as those of the earth.
The examination of the meteorites which have fallen on the
earth from the interplanetary spaces, shows that they also con-
tain nothing foreign to the constituents of the earth. The in-
ference seems legitimate, corroborated as it is by the manifest
physical connection between the sun and the planetary bodies
circulating around it, that the whole solar system is formed of
the same descriptions of matter, and subject to the same general
physical laws. These conclusions further support the sup-
position that the earth and other planets have been formed by
the aggregation of matter once diffused in space around the sun ;
that the first consequence of this aggregation was to develop
intense heat in the consolidating masses ; that the heat thus
generated in the terrestrial sphere was subsequently, lost by

Sept. 9, 1875]

NATURE

421

radiation ; and that the surface cooled and became a solid crust,
leaving a central nucleus of much higher temperature within.
The earth's surface appears now to have reached a temperature
which is virtually fixed, and on which the gain of heat from the
sun is, on the whole, just compensated by the loss by radiation
into surrounding space.

Such a conception of the earliest stage of the earth's existence
is commonly accepted, as in accordance with observed facts. It
leads to the conclusion that the hollows on the surface of the
globe occupied by the ocean, and the great areas of dry land,
were original irregularities of form caused by unequal contrac-
tion ; and that the mountains were corrugations, often ac-
companied by ruptures, caused by the strains developed in the
external ci-ust by the force of central attraction exerted during
cooling, and were not due to forces directly acting upwards
generated in the interior by gases or otherwise. It has recently
been very ably argued by Mr. Mallet that the phenomena of
volcanic heat are likewise consequences of extreme pressures in
the external crust, set up in a similar manner, and are not
derived from the central heated nucleus.

There may be some difficulty in conceiving how forces can have
been thus developed sufficient to have produced the gigantic
changes which have occurred in the distribution of land and
water over immense areas, and in the elevation of the bottoms
of former seas so that they now form the summits of the highest
mountains, and to have effected such changes within the very
latest geological epoch. These difficulties in great measure
arise from not employing correct standards of space and time
in relation to the phenomena. Vast though the greatest heights
of our mountains and depths of our seas may be, and enormous
though the masses which have been put into motion, when
viewed according to a human standard, they are insignificant in
relation to the globe as a whole. Such heights and depths
(about six miles) on a sphere of ten feet in diameter would be
represented on a true scale by elevations and depressions of less
than the tenth part of an inch, and the average elevation of the
whole of the dry land (about 1,000 feet) above the mean level of
the surface would hardly amount to the thickness of an ordinary
sheet of paper. The forces developed by the changes of the
temperature of the earth as a whole must be proportionate to its
dimensions ; and the results of their action on the surface in
causing elevations, contortions, or disruptions of the strata,
cannot be commensurable with those produced by forces having
the intensities, or by strains in bodies of the dimensions, with
which oar ordinary experience is conversant.

The difficulty in respect to the vast extent of past time is
perhaps less great, the conception being one with which most
persons are now more or less familiar. But I would remind you,
that great though the changes in human affairs have been since
the most remote epochs of which we have records in monuments
or history, there is nothing to indicate that within this period
has occurred any appreciable modification of the main outlines
of land and sea, or of the condition of climate, or of the
general characters of living creatures ; and that the distance
that separates us from those days is as nothing when compared
with the remoteness of past geological ages. No useful approach
has yet been made to a numerical estimate of the duration even
of that portion of geological time which is nearest to us ; and
we can say little more than that the earth's past history extends
over hundreds of thousands or millions of years.

The solid nucleus of the earth with its atmosphere, as we now
find them, may thus be regarded as exhibiting the residual
phenomena which have resulted on its attaining a condition of
practical equilibrium, the more active process of aggregation
having ceased, and the combination of its elements into the
various solid, liquid, or gaseous matters found on or near the
surface having been completed. During its passage to its
present state many wonderful changes must have taken place, in-
cluding the condensation of the ocean, which must have long con-
tinued in a state of ebulhtion, or bordering on it, surrounded by
an atmosphere densely charged v/ith watery vapour. Apart
from the movements in its solid crust caused by the general
cooling and contraction of the earth, the higher temperature due
to its earlier condition hardly enters directly into any of the
considerations tlrat arise in connection with its present climate,
or with the changes during past time which are of most interest
to us ; for the conditions of climate and temperature at present,
as well as in the period during which the existence of life is
indicated by the presence of fossil remains, and which have
affected the production and distribution of organised beings, are

dependent on other causes, to a consideration of which I now
proceed.

The natural phenomena relating to the atmosphere are often
extreniely complicated and difficult of explanation ; and meteor-
ology is the least advanced of the branches of physical science.
But sufficient is known to indicate, without possible doubt, that
the primary causes of the great series of phenomena, included
under the general term climate, are the action and reaction of
the mechanical and chemical forces set in operation by the sun's
heat, varied from time to time and from place to place, by the
influence of the position of the earth in its orbit, of its revolu-
tion on its axis, of geographical position, elevation above the
sea-level, and condition of the surface, and by the great mobility
of the atmosphere and the ocean.

The intimate connection between cKmate and local geographi-
cal conditions is everywhere apparent ; nothing is more striking
than the great differences between neighbouring places where
the effective local conditions are not alike, which often far surpass
the contrasts attending the widest separation possible on the
globe. Three or four miles of vertical height produce effects
almost equal to those of transfer from the equator to the poles.
The distribution of the great seas and continents give rise to
periodical winds — the trades and monsoons — which maintain
their general characteristics over wide areas, but present almost
infinite local modifications, whether of season, direction, or force.
The direction of the coasts and their greater or less continuity
greatly influence the flow of the currents of the ocean ; and
these, with the periodical winds, tend on the one hand to
equalise the temperature of the whole surface of the earth, and
on the other to cause surprising variations within a limited area.
Ranges of mountains, and their position in relation to the
periodical or rain-bearing winds, are of primary importance in
controlling the movements of the lower strata of the atmosphere,
in which, owing to the laws of elastic gase?, the great mass of
the air and watery vapour are concentrated. By their presence
they may either constitute a barrier across which no rain can
pass, or determine the fall of torrents of rain around them.
Their absence or their unfavourable position, by removing the
causes of condensation, may lead to the neighbouring tracts
becoming rainless deserts.

The difficulties that arise in accounting for the phenomena ot
climate on the earth as it now is, are naturally increased when
the attempt is made to explain what is shown by geological
evidence to have happened in past ages. The disposition has
not been wanting to get over these last difficulties by invoking
supposed changes in the sources of terrestrial heat, or in the
conditions under which heat has been received by the eardi, for
which there is no justification in fact, in a manner similar to that
in which violent departures from the observed course of nature
have been assumed to account for some of the analogous
mechanical difficulties.

Among the most perplexing of such climatal problems are
those involved in the former extension of glacial action of
various sorts over areas which could hardly have been subject to
it under existing terrestrial and solar conditions ; and in the dis-
covery, conversely, of indications of far higher temperatures at
certain places than seems compatible with their high latitudes ;
and in the alternations of such extreme conditions. The true
solution of these questions has apparently been found in the
recognition of the disturbing effects of the varying eccentricity
of the earth's orbit, which, though inappreciable in the com-
paratively few years to which the affairs of men are limited,
become of great importance in the vastly increased period
brought into consideration when dealing with the history of the
earth. The changes of eccentricity of the orbit are not of a
nature to cause appreciable differences in the mean temperature
either of the earth generally or of the two hemispheres ; but
they may, when combined with changes of the direction of the
earth's axis caused by the precession of the equinoxes and nuta-
tion, lead to exaggeration of the extremes of heat and cold, or
to their diminution ; and this would appear to supply the means
of explaining the observed facts, though doubtless the detailed
application of the conception will long continue to give rise to
discussions. Mr. Croll, in his book entitled "Climate and
Time," has recently brought together with much research all
that can now be «aid on this subject ; and the general correct-
ness of that part of his conclusions which refers to the periodical
occurrence of epochs of greatly increased winter cold and
summer heat in one hemisphere, combined with a more equable
climate in the other, appears to me to be fully established.

422

NATURE

[Sept 9, 1875

These are the considerations which are held to prove that the
inorganic structure of the globe through all its successive stages
— the earth beneath our feet, with its varied surface of land and
sea, mountain and plain, and with its atmosphere which dis-
tributes heat and moisture over that surface — has been evolved
as the necessary result of the original aggregation of matter at
some extremely remote period, and of the subsequent modifica-
tion of that matter in condition and form under the exclusive
operation of invariable physical forces.

From these investigations we carry on the inquiry to the living
creatures found upon the earth ; what are their relations one to
another, and what to the inorganic world with which they are
associated ?

This inquiry first (directed to the present time, and thence
carried backwards as fur as possible into the past, proves that
there is one general system of life, vegetable and animal, which
is coextensive with the earth as it now is, and as it has been in
all the successive stages of which we obtain a knowledge by
geological research. The phenomena of life, as thus ascer-
tained, are included in the organisation of living creatures, and
their distribution in time and place. The common bond that
subsists between all vegetables and animals is testified by the
identity of the ultimate elements of which they are composed.
These elements are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen,
with a few others in comparatively small quantities ; the whole
ot the materials of all living things being found among those
that compose the inorganic portion of the earth.

The close relation existing between the least specialised
animals and plants, and between these and organic matter not
having life, and even with inorganic matter, is indicated by the
difficulty that arises in determining the aiature of the distinctions
between them . Among the more highly developed members of
the two great branches of living creatures, the well-known
similarities of structure observed in the various groups indicate
a connection between proximate forms which was long seen to
be akin to that derived through descent from a common ancestor
by ordinary generation.

The facts- of distribution show that certain forms are associ-
ated in certain areas, and that as we pass from one such area to
another the forms of life change also. The general assemblages
of living creatures in neighbouring countries easily accessible to
one another, and having similar climates, resemble one another ;
and much in the same way, as the distance between areas
increases, or their mutual accessibility diminishes, or the condi-
tions of climate differ, the likeness of the forms within them
becomes continually less apparent. The plants and animals
existing at any time in any locality tend constantly to diffuse
themselves around that local centre, this tendency being con-
trolled by the conditions of climate, &c., of the surrounding
area, so that under certain unfavourable conditions diffusion
ceases.

The possibilities of life are further seen to be everywhere
directly influenced by all external conditions, such as those of
climate, including temperature, humidity, and wind ; of the
length of the seasons and days and nights ; of the character of
the surface, whether it be land or water, and whether it be
covered by vegetation or otherwise ; of the nature of the soil ;
of the presence of other living creatures, and many more. The
abundance of forms of life in different areas (as distinguished
from number of individuals) is also found to vary greatly, and
to be related to the accessibility of such areas to immigration
from without ; to the existence, within or near the areas, of
localities offering considerable variations of the conditions that
chiefly affect life ; and to the local climate and conditions being
compatible with such immigration.

For the explanation of these and other phenomena of organi-
sation and distribution, the only direct evidence that observation
can supply is that derived from the mode of propagation of
creatures now living ; and no other mode is known than that
which takes place by ordinary generation, through descent from
parent to offspring.

It was left for the genius of Darwin to point out how the
course of nature, as it now acts in the reproduction of living crea-
tures, is sufficient for the interpretation of what had previously
been incomprehensible in these matters. He showed how
propagation by descent operates subject to the occurrence of
certain small variations in the offspring, and that the preservation
of some of these varieties to the exclusion of others follows as a
necessary consequence when the external conditions are more
suitable to the preserved forms than to those lost. The opera-
tion of these causes he called Natural Selection. Prolonged

over a great extent of time, it supplies the long-sought key to
the complex system of forms either now living on the earth, or
the remains of which are found in the fossil state, and explains
the relations among them, and the manner in which their
distribution has taken place in time and space.

Thus we are brought to the conclusion that the directing forces
which have been efficient in developing the existing forms of life
from those which went before them, are those same successive
external conditions including both the forms of land and sea,
and the character of the climate, which have already been
shown to arise from the gradual modification of the material
fabric of the globe as it slowly attained to its present state.
In each succeeding epoch, and in each separate locality, the
forms preserved and handed on to the future were determined by
the general conditions of surface at the time and place ; and the
aggregate of successive sets of conditions over the whole earth's
surface has determined the entire series of forms which have
existed in the past, and have survived till now.

As we recede from the present into the past, it necessarily
follows, as a consequence of the ultimate failure of all evidence
as to the conditions of the past, that positive testimony of the
conformity of the facts with the principle of evolution gradually
diminishes, and at length ceases. In the same way positive evi-
dence of the continuity of action of all the physical forces of
nature eventually fails. But inasmuch as the evidence, so far as
it can be procured, supports the belief in this continuity of action,
and as we have no experience of the contrary being possible, the
only justifiable conclusion is, that the production of life must
have been going on as we now know it, without any intermission,
from the time of its first appearance on the earth.

These considerations manifestly aftbrd no sort [of clue to the
origin of life. They only serve to take us back to a very rem ote
epoch, when the living creatures differed greatly in detail from those
of the present time, but had such resemblances to them as to justify
the conclusion that the essence of life then was the same as
now ; and through that epoch into an unknown anterior period,
during which the possibility of life, as we understand it, began,
and from which has emerged in a way that we cannot comprehend,
matter with its properties, bound together by what we call the
elementary physical forcts. There seems to be no foundation
in any observed fact for suggesting that the wonderful property
which we call life appertains to the combinations of elementary
substances in association with which it is exclusively found, other-
wise than as all other properties appertain to the particular
forms or combinations of matter with which they are associated.
It is no more possible to say how originated or operates the
tendency of some sorts of matter to take the form of vapours, or
fluids, or solid bodies, in all their various shapes, or for the
various sorts of matter to attract one another or combine, than
it is to explain the origin in certain forms of matter of the
property we call life, or the mode of its action. For the present,
at least, we must be content to accept such facts as the founda-
tion of positive knowledge, and from them to rise to the appre-
hension of the means by which nature has reached its present
state, and is advancing into an unknown future.

These conceptions of the relations ot animal and vegetable
forms to the earth in its successive stages lead to views of the
significance of type («>. the general system of structure running
through various groups of organised beings) very different from
those under which it was held to be an indication of some occult
power directing the successive appearance of living creatures on
the earth. In the light of evolution, type is nothing more than
the direction given to the actual development of life by the
surface conditions of the earth, which have supplied the forces
that controlled the course of the successive generations leading
from the past to the present. There is no indication of any
adherent or pre-arranged disposition towards the development of
life in any particular direction. It would rather appear that the
actual face of nature is the result of a succession of apparently
trivial incidents, which by some very slight alteration of local
circumstances might often, it would seem, have been turned in a
different direction. Some otherwise unimportant difference in
the constitution or sequence of the substrata at any locality
might have determined the elevation of mountains where a
hollow filled by the sea was actually formed, and thereby the
whole of the climatal and other conditions of a large area would
have been changed, and an entirely different impulse given to
the development of life locally, which might have impressed a
new character on the whole face of nature.

But further, all that we see or know to have existed upon the
earth has been controlled to its most minute details by the

Sept. 9, 1875]

NATURE

423

original constitution of the matter which was drawn together to
form our planet. The actual character of all inorganic sub-
stances, as of all living creatures, is only consistent with the
actual constitution and proportions of the various substances of
which the earth is composed. Other proportions than the actual
ones in the constituents of the atmosphere would have required
an entire)} different organisation in allair-breathint; animals, and
probably in all plants. With any considerable difference in the
quantity of water either in the sea or distributed as vapour, vast
changes in the constitution of living creatures must have been
involved. Without oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, or carbon,
what we term life would have been impossible. But such specu-
lations need not be extended.

The substances of which the earth \g now composed are
identical with those of which it has always been made up ; so
far as is known it has lost nothing and has gained nothing,
except what has been added in extremely minute quantities by
the fall of meteorites. All that is or ever has been upon the
earth is part of the earth, has sprung from the earth, is sustained
by the earth, and returns to the earth ; taking back thither what
it withdrew, making good the materials on which life depends,
without which it would cease, and which are destined again to
enter into new forms, and contribute to the ever onward flow of
the great current of existence.

The progress of knowledge has removed all doubt as to the
relation in which the human race stands to this great stream of
life. It is now established that man existed on the earth at a
period vastly anterior to any of which we have records in history
or otherwise. He was the contemporary of many extinct
mammalia at a time when the outlines of land and sea, and the
conditions of climate over large parts of the earth, were wholly
different from what they now are, and our race has been
advancing towards its present condition during a series of ages
for the extent of which ordinary conceptions of time afford no
suitable measure. These facts have, in recent years, given a
different direction to opinion as to the manner in which the great
groups of mankind have become distributed over the areas where
they are now found ; and difficulties once considered insuperable
become soluble when regarded in connection with those great
alterations of the outlines of land and sea which are shown to
have been going on up to the very latest geological periods. The
ancient monuments of Egypt, which take us back perhaps 7,000
years from the present time, indicate that when they were erected
the neighbouring countries were in a condition of civilisation not
very greatly diffeient from that which existed when they fell
under the dominion of the Romans or Mahometans hardly 1,500
years ago ; and the progress of the population towards that
condition can hardly be accounted for otherwise than by prolonged
gradual transformations going back to times so far distant as to
require a geological rather , than [an historical standard of
reckoning.

Man, in short, takes his place with the rest of the animate
world, in the advancing front of which he occupies so conspicuous
a position. Ytt for this position he is indebted not to any exclu-
sive powers of his own, but to the wonderful compellmg forces
of nature which have lifted him entirely without his knowledge,
and almost without his participation, so far above the animals'of
whom he is still one, though the only one able to see or consider
what he is.

For the social habits essential to his progress, which he
possessed even in his most primitive state, man is without ques-
tion dependent on his ancestors, as he is for his form and other
physical peculiarities. In his advance to civilisation he was
insensibly forced, by the pressure of external circumstances,
through the more savage condition, in which his life was that of
the hunter, first to pastoral and then to agricultural occupations.
The requirements of a population gradually increasmg in
numbers could only be met by a supply of food more regular
and more abundant than could be provided by the chase. But
the possibility of the change from the hunter to the shepherd or
herdsman rested on the antecedent existence of animals suited to
supply man with food, having gregarious habits, and htted for
domestication, such as sheep, goats, and horned cattle ; for their
support the social grasses were a necessary preliminary, and for
the growth of these in sufficient abundance land naturally suit-
able for pasture was required. A further evasion of man's
growing difficulty in obtaining sufficient food was secured by aid
of the cereal grasses, which supplied the means by which agri-
culture, the outcome of pastoral life, became the chief occupation
of more civilised generations. Lastly, when these increased
facilities for providing food were in turn overtaken by the

growth of the population, new power to cope with the recurring
difficulty was gained through the cultivation of mechanical arts
and of thought, for which the needful leisure was for the fh-t
time obtained when the earliest steps of civilisation had remov< d
the necessity for unremitting search after the means of supporti;.:.;
existence. Then was broken down the chief barrier in the way
of progress, and man was carried forward to the condition in
which he now is.

It is impossible not to recognise that the growth of civilisation,
by aid of its instruments, pastoral and agricultural industry, was
the result of the unconscious adoption of defences supplied 1 y
what was exterior to man, rather than of any truly intelligent
steps taken with forethought to attain it ; and in these respe .ts
man, in his struggle for existence, has not differed from the
humbler animals or from plants. Neither can the marvellous
ultimate growth of his knowledge, and his acquisition of the
power of applying to his use all that lies without him, be viewed
as differing in anything but form or degree from the earlier stos
in his advance. The needful protection against the foes of hii
constantly increasing race — the legions of hunger and diseas*-,
infinite in number, ever changing their mode of attack or spring-
ing up in new shapes — could only be attained by some fresh adap-
tation of his organisation to his wants, and this has taken t':ic
form of that development of intellect which has placed all other
creatutes at his feet and all the powers of nature in his hand.

The picture that I have thus attempted to draw presents to us our
earth carrying with it, or receiving from the sun or other external
bodies, as it travels through celestial space, all the materials and all
the forces by help of which are fashioned whatever we see upon i".
We may liken it to a great complex living organism, having au
inert substratum of inorganic matter on which are formed many
separate organised centres of life, but all bound up together by a
common law of existence, each individual part depending on
those around it, and on the past condition of the whole. Science
is the study of the relations of the several parts of this organism
one to another, and of the parts to the whole. It is the task of
the geographer to bring together from all places on the eartli's
surface the materials from which shall be deduced the scientific
conception of nature. Geography supplies the rough blocks
wherewith to build up that grand structure towards the comple-
tion of which science is striving. The traveller, who is the
journeyman of science, collects from all quarters of the earth
observations of fact, to be submitted to the research of the
student, and to provide the necessary means of verifying the ia-
ductions obtained by study or the hypotheses suggested by it.
If therefore travellers are to fulfil the duties put upon them by the
division of scientific labour, they must maintain their knowledge
of the several branches of science at such a standard as will
enable them thoroughly to apprehend what are the present
requirements of science, and the classes of fact on which fre.>-ii
observation must be brought to bear to secure its advance. Nor
does this involve any impracticable course of study. Such know-
ledge as will fit a traveller for usefully participating in the pro-
gress of science is now placed within the reach of ever) one.
The lustre of that energy and self-devotion which characterise
the better class of explorers will not be dimmed by joining to it
an amount of scientific training which will enable them lo bring
away from distant regions enlarged conceptions of other matters
besides mere distance and direction. How great is the value to
science of the observations of travellers endowed with a share ( f
scientific instruction is testified by the labours of many living
naturalists. In our days this is especially true ; and I appeal t >
all who desire to piomote the progress of geographical science
as explorers, to prepare themselves for doing so efficiently, whi:e
they yet possess the vigour and physical powers that so much
conduce to success in such pursuits.

FRENCH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCE-
MENT OF SCIENCE

THERE seems to have been few papers of striking impor!-
ance read at the Nantes meeting of this Association, though
the large number and the solid character of most of the papers
show that the scientific activity of France continues to be well
sustained. The following are some of the principal papers read
in the various sections : —

Zooloqy. — M, Bureau presented some very interesting obstrv.i-
tions on the Aqm/a fennala, Brchm and liri.ss, which lie lias lia I
the opportunity of closely observing. He is convinced that aU
the varieties belong to two types, which he has named the whi o

424

NATURE

[Sept. 9. 1875

and the black types. Pairs belonq; sometimes to one type, very
ofien to two different types ; generally the young are completely
black or completely white.

M. Giard gave an account of his researches on some contro-
verted points in the embryogeny of theJAscidians, more especially
Molgtda socialis, which he has studied in the zoological labora-
tory of Wimei^eux. He has been able to supplement and correct
in several respects the conclusions of previous observers. M.
Giard also, after long research into the embryogeny of animals
belonging to the various classes into which Cuvier divided the
Articulata and Mollusca, proposed another limitation of these
two groups. Another paper by the same was concerned with
the embryogeny of the pectinibranchiate Gasteropoda.

Prof. Sirodot described in detail the results of his researches
on Elephants. M. Sirodot remarked that, having had at his
disposal a very large number of teeth, he had been able not only
to correct the errors committed by Falconnet and De Blainville,
but, moreover, to feel confident that the different species of
Elephas hitherto described as closely allied to the Mammoth
have no value whatever. There are a multitude of inter-
mediate forms connecting the Elephas prirtiigeniiis with Elephas
indicus.

M. Lortet, while in Syria, made some investigations into the
organisation and reproduction of fibrous sponges. He has been
able to prove the presence and to follow the formation of the
male and the female egg. Apart from these genital products, he
did not meet, in the sponges which he examined, any other
cellular element. M. Lortet did not observe, moreover, any
canals running into the great canal of the ovule, canals referred
to by a large number of zoologists. M. Lortet also described
his observations on the very peculiar fauna of the Lake of
Tiberias. This fauna appears to indicate a former communica-
tion between the waters of the lake and those of the sea.

Physics. — M. Cornu indicated a very simple process for deter-
mining with accuracy the focal distance and the principal points
of lenses.

M. Merget explained the very interesting results of his
researches on the thermo-diffusion of porous and humid pulveru-
lent bodies. A ihermo-diffuser is generally a porous vessel,
filled with an inert powder, in the middle of which is a glass
tube or a metallic tube riddled with holes. On heating such an
apparatus, after having moistened it, steam is disengaged in
abundance through the porous substance, while dry air traverses
the apparatus in an inverse direction, and escapes by the tube.
If this escape be prevented, there is produced a pressure which
reached three atmospheres at a dull red heat. If the pulverulent
mass or the porous body ceases to be mo st, no gas escapes.
The author did not explain the fact, but he showed that the
explanation of it given by M. De la Rive cannot be accepted.
M. Merget is convinced that there is here a thermo-dynamic
phenomenon. Thermo-diffusion must play an important part
in the gaseous exchanges of vegetable life ; the author showed
this by taking a leaf of Neluinbium as a thermo-diffuser.

M. Gripou communicated to the Section and repeated various
experiments which he had performed with films of collodion.
In receiving upon a Savart polariscope light polarised by a
lamina of collodion, we have there systems of fringes, one normal,
the other due to phenomena of secondary interference. By
illuminating a film of collodion with the light reflected by a
second film, we easily obtain fringes of interference, as in the
experiment of Brewster. Collodion films are very diather-
manous for luminous heat ; they are less so for dark heat.

M. Mascart showed some very curious experiments on the
condensation resulting from the expansion of moist air. If a
little water is placed in the bottom of a perfectly clean flask,
closed by a glass tube terminated by an indiarubber syphon bag,
we have a closed space, which soon becomes saturated with mois-
ture. By pressing on the bag the temperature rises, and there
can be no condensation. But by allowing the bag to resume,
by its elasticity, its original form, the air expands, is con-
sequently cooled, and, contrary to what is usually observed,
no condensation takes place. To produce the condensation
ordinarily observed, it is sufficient to introduce into the flask
some unfiltered air, while filtered air produces no effect. In the
same way very beautiful clouds are obtained by introducing a
little tobacco smoke, or gases resulting from any kind of com-
bustion. These experiments may be of some use in explaining
the formation of clouds.

M. Deprez presented an ingenious electric chronograph,
intended to estimate by the graphic method intervals of time
extremely small, as ihe duratioji of a shock.

M. Cornu explained his experiments on the rate of light, by
the method of M. Fizeau. (See Nature, vol. xi. p. 274).

Dr. Moreau explained some points in his investigations on the
swim-bladder of fishes, and showed particularly that in pro-
portion as a fish sinks the effort which it must make diminishes.

M. Dufet read a paper on his researches into the electric con-
ductibility of pyrites.

In the Section of Geolo!>y xnA Mineralogy, most of the papers
referred to local topics. Of those of general interest we men-
tion the following : — M.Henry Dufet described his experiments
on the thermic conductibility of certain schistose rocks, from
which he drew some interesting conclusions regarding the deform-
ations of the fossils contained in such rocks. M. Charles Velain
read a paper on his exploration of the islands of St. Paul and
Amsterdam, while en the expedition for observing the Transit of
Venus. M. Lory presented some considerations on the dislo-
cation of rocks in mountainous countries.

Botany. — In this section M. Sirodot gave an account of his
researches on the classification and development of Batracho-
spermum, and M. de Lanessan spoke on the floral organogeny
of Zoster a.

M. J. Chatin described the results of his histological and
histogenic researches on the interior leaf glands and some
analogous productions. After having studied the mode of
formation of the structure of the^e various organs in many
families, he draws the fjllowing conclusions : — i. The interior
leaf glands originate always in the mesophyll. 2. These glands
are formed by differentiation from a cellule in which mul-
tip ication by division is rapidly produced, so that except in
some Lnuracex the gland is always formed, in its perfect state,
from a cellular mass, more or less considerable. 3. The products
of secretion are constantly forming in the cellules proper of the
gland. 4. The elements of the latter are re-absorbed from the
centre to the circumference, and thus form a reservoir where the
product of secretion is amassed. 5. In certain plants, and by an
analogous phenomenon, there may be formed in the leaf true
secreting cana's. 6. The leaf-glands are almost constantly
situated in the vicinity of the fibro-muscular bundles. 7. In
many plants there exist at different points of the stalk, of the
branches, and of the petioles, certain productions on the whole
comparable to the interior leaf-glands.

M. Merget gave the result of his researches on the interchange
of gases between plants and the atmosphere. He concluded with
the following statements : — I . The means by which the interchange
of gases is effected in plants are the stomataand accidental open-
ings ; it is by diffusion in the stomata, and not by dialysis through
the cuticle, that exterior gases penetrate into the interior of a
plant, and that internal gases escape. 2. The entry of atmo-
spheric gases is due to the action of the physical force produced
by the phenomena of gaseous thermo-diffusion. M. Merget
concluded by some interesting details on the function of chlo-
rophyll.

M. Baillon read a very interesting communication on the
Amentacere,

In the Section of Anthropology, we note the following
papers : — Dr. Lagneau read a careful and elaborate memoir on
the ethnogeny of the populations of the N. W. of France, in
which he reviewed the various peoples which have contributed to
the formation of the former and present population of the region
comprised between the sea, the Saone, and the Loire. — M.
Chauvet read a report relative to the excavations undertaken by
the Archaeological Society of Charente, in the tumuli on a woody
plateau near a Roman road, and entered into details of a nature
to clear up certain controverted points of prehistoric archaeology.
From the objects found in these explorations, M. Chauvet
develops a doctrine according to which there was no gap
between the various civilisations from an industrial point of
view.

As usual, a very large number of papers belong to the Section
of Medical Sciences ; some of these are of more than merely
technical interest, but our space prevents us from referring to
them in detail. A full report of the proceedings will be found
in the Revue Scientijique for August 28 and following weeks.

THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.— DETROIT
MEETING

THE American Association for the Advancement of
Science held its twenty-fourth annual meeting
at Detroit, Mass., from Aug. 11 to 17 inclusive. Some of

Sept. 9, 1875J

NATURE

425

its previous^meetings have surpassed this one in respect
to the number of members present, but none can be
regarded as superior to it in the general excellence of the
communications presented. The causes of the slight
falling off in attendance may be briefly mentioned. The
cities of the Atlantic sea-board where local scientific
societies have been longest in existence, and where a
large proportion of the membership of the Association is
resident, are 750 to i.ooo miles, chiefly eastward, from
Detroit. That city, on the boundary line between the
United States and Canada, is also considerably to the
northward of the larger centres of population in the
Western States. Thus, then, the assembling at Detroit
required, in the great majority of instances, a long,
tedious, and rather expensive journey. It need not be
concealed that, owing to the widespread effects of the
depression in all branches of business in the United
States — extending even to the learned professions — the
pecuniary means of members were in many cases more
restricted than usual ; and this fact in many cases
decided adversely the question of attendance at the
meeting.

A protracted series of discussions in that and previous
years resulted at the meeting of 1874 in the Association's
adopting a new constitution, which first displayed its
general effects at Detroit. The two prominent features
of change were modelled upon the system of the British
Association. A division was made between Fellows and
the ,rest of the members, prominence or usefulness in
science being required for election to the honours of
Fellowship. This elective process did not, however, apply
to the Fellows who became such between the meetings at
Hartford and Detroit, and consequently many have been
admitted to the dignity who have no claim to it by scien-
tific labours. To the Fellows rather than to the general
membership, the guidance and management of the Asso-
ciation is confided. The effect of this change was very
apparent at Detroit in the exclusion of a large number of
communications which would easily have passed the
ordeal of committees and been read at the meetings of
previous years. The chosen remainder reached a higher
average of excellence than has been hitherto attained, and
in the section of Physic?, Mathematics, and Chemistry,
the weeding process so reduced the number of communi-
cations that the supply gave out before the close of the
meetini? ; but this may also be accounted for by the fact
that the sub-section of Chemistry, for the first time orga-
nised and separately at work, much facilitated the dis-
patch of business in Section A. A variety of concurrent
causes presented a like result from being reached in
Secnon B, devoted to Geology and Biology. The geo-
logists are always largely in force when the Association
meets west of the Alleghanies, the development of the
mining resources of the newer States and Temtories
rendering their labours of immediate economic interest
and value. There was an extraordinary accession of
ethnological papers, prompted chiefly by numerous dis-
coveries recently made in new and very thorough explo-
rations of Indian mounds. The great injuries which the
food crops of the United States have suftered from insects
within a year or two, called forth several papers of merit
from the leading entomologists, as well as much debate
and some action on the part of the Association. Besides
all the foregoing subjects, there was an unusual number
of papers on specific investigations in natural his-
tory. These were largely the fruit of the seed sown
at the Anderson School on Penikese Island, by the
lamented Agassiz. The pupils there instructed, mostly
for the first time, in observing the habits of animals,
dissecting their forms and studying their differences, were
from all parts of the Union. Nearly all of them are
teachers in high schools and the smaller colleges. Having
been thus started on the path of original investigation,
they already find something new to relate, and their

papers had a charm of freshness, very different from
those of older members who have found their own easier
grooves of thought and lapsed into routine, j

Another important feature introduced at this year's
meeting by the new constitution, resulted from the elec-
tion of two vice-presidents, who were the presiding
officers respectively of Sections A and B. Following in
this respect the system of the British Association, each of
these officers opened his Section with an address, in
which a department of science was made the subject of a
broad survey. Hitherto the address of the retiring
President has been the only one at each meeting of this
character ; the change gives two such addresses in addi-
tion, and may in future years give a greater number. At
the Detroit meeting the address of Prof John L. Le
Conte, of Philadelphia, the retiring President, brought
forward in a general way the aid to a knowledge of past
conditions on the globe, which might be derived from a
study of existing forms. Prof Le Conte's own lines of
investigation have been more especially confined to the
study of insects, and from the facts thus derived he drew
most of his illustrations. He regards organic life as fur-
nishing everywhere evidences of design, and a principal
portion of the address was devoted to deprecating the
conflict between science and religion, and to urging
patience rather than controversy. Prof H. A. Newton,
the astronomer, of Yale College, delivered the opening
address of Section A, He urged the study of pure
mathematics as a basis for work in all the sciences ;
adducing, through a wide range of illustration, the evi-
dences ofits value in advancing knowledge. The want
of a thorough knowledge of the higher mathematics he
regarded as a frequent defect among American men of
science, while their dependence upon mathematical
methods in all branches of investigation was every day
becoming more absolute.

The address of Prof. J. W. Dawson, Principal of
McGill College, Montreal, before Section B, was one of the
most important given at the meeting. He is well known as
the most able and prominent anti- Darwinian in America.
His address took the form of a discussion of the question,
" What do we know of the origin and history of life on
our planet ? " Space will not permit an analysis of this
address, which reviewed the evidence furnished by the
Silurian fossils at great length, regarding it as incon-
clusive when applied to the support of evolution theories.
Prof Dawson vigorously opposed the hypothesis that
organic life is a product of mere physical forces.

Thus the weight of utterance in two of the ad-
dresses is adverse to Darwinian theories, but this is
no index to the general sentiment of the leading students
of biology in the Association. The officers chosen for
next year include names noted in connection with the
advocacy of the most advanced evolutionary doctrines.
The venerable President-elect, Prof Wm. B. Rogers, of
Boston, was, in yeais gone by, the most successful
antagonist, in discussions of the new theories, that Prof.
Agassiz encountered in America. Prof Edward S.
Morse, Vice-presidefit-elect, of Section *B, has attained
prominence in the expression of strong Darwinian views
before large popular audiences in almost every city of the
United States. Prof. Charles A. Young, of Dartmouth
College, well known by his spectroscopic researches on the
sun's chromosphere, was elected Vice-president to preside
over Section A. It is a somewhat remarkable circumstance
that six out of eightof the officers fornext year are residents
of the New England States, the three highest positions fall-
ing to their share. The citizens of Detroit did everything in
their power to make the visit of the Association pleasant.
Several social entertainments and excursions by boat and
rail were provided, and the Detroit Scientific Association
aided materially in these hospitalities. The next meeting
will be held August 23, 1876, at Buflalo.* W. C. W.

* Next week we shall referjto some of the principal papers in detail.

426

NATURE

[Sept. 9, 1875

NOTES
We have received from the Central Meteorological Institute
of Sweden the Daily Weather Charts published by the Office
for the months of January, February, March, and April last.
These charts, constructed from data supplied from nine stations
in Sweden, nine in the British Isles, four |in Norway, two in
Denmark, and four in Russia, including Arkangel, are valuable
additions to the daily weather literature of Europe, and supply
important data, showing more particularly the influence of the
Scandinavian mountains and of the Baltic at different seasons on
European storms, and the influence of the systems of high and
low pressures over the Baltic and neighbouring regions on the
weather of Great Britain at the time.

In the Bulletin Hebdomadaire of the Scientific Association o'
France for September 5, Prof. V. Raulin, after referring in
strong, but not too strong, terms to the practical neglect with
which the investigation of inundations has been treated in the
south-west of France, energetically urges the organising of
Hydrometric Commissions similar to that of Lyons, to collect
together observations of the rainfall and heights of the rivers,
and compare and discuss them with the view of deducing there-
from the laws which rule the commencement, development, and
progress down the several river basins, of ordinary floods, but
more particularly of those great inundations which prove so
disastrous to life and property. He recommends the formation
of Hydrometric Commissions at Bordeaux for the basin of the
Gironde ; at Libourne, for the basin of the Adour ; and at Car-
cassonne or Narbonne, for the basin of the Aude, When the
enormous saving to life and property which would have been
effected through such organisations, had they existed, is con-
sidered, during the late deplorable inundation, we cannot for a
moment doubt that Hydrometric Commissions similar to that of
Lyons will at once be organised in the basins of the Garonne and
its affluents.

The annual Provincial Congress of the Iron and Steel Insti-
tute was opened in the Owens College, Manchester, on Tuesday,
Mr. William Menelaus, the President of the Institute, in the
chair. The Mayors of Manchester and Salford and the Bishop
of Manchester were present by invitation, at the opening pro-
ceedings, and the more distinguished members of the Institute
present included Mr. Henry Bessemer, Sir Joseph Whitworth,
Mr. J. Lowthian Bell, and Mr. Crawshay. The Bishop of
Manchester gave a very happy address. Referring to the fact
that the Duke of Devonshire is an ordinary member of the Insti-
tute, one indication among others that the Duke is a man of
high scientific attainments in the department of science with
which the Institute is connected, the Bishop said that what struck
him was how the old order had changed, "giving place to the
new," and he was rather inclined to think the new order perhaps
somewhat better than the old. The local authorities and the
leading industrial firms in Manchester and the surrounding dis-
tricts have done their part towards rendering the meeting a suc-
cess. On Tuesday evening the Reception Committee received
the members of the Institute at a conversazione in the Town
Hall, and last evening the members dined at Hulme Town Hall.
A large part of the time of the meeting will be spent in visits to
places of industrial interest in Manchester and neighbourhood.

The proposed University College for Bristol received some
impulse from the members of the British Association at a meet-
ing held last week. Sir John Hawkshaw said foreign industrial
competition with England was a very real thing, and would soon
be much greater unless scientific education was fostered. Sir W.
Thomson begged the promoters not to starve the literary depart-
ment, and Prof. Balfour Stewart said that would not be any
departure from science, for there was n')w a science of culture
and literature. Prof. Jowett said that the appointment of the

first professors would be the most critical event in the history of
the College, for on their force of character depended the creatioi
of the College out of nothing. Although not more than abou
20,000/. has been already promised, it is intended to commence
operations soon, in the belief that practical successful working
will eventually bring in all the funds that are required.

Last Saturday evening the Brothers Henry, the great French
asteroid finders, visited the equatorial buildings of the Paris
Observatory, under the guidance of M. Leverrier. Along with
them was Mr. Watson, the celebrated. American astronomer,
who has himself discovered no fewer than nineteen small planets.
Mr. Watson was the head of the American Transit Expedition
to Pekin.

The death of M. de Remusat renders almost certain the elec-
tion of M. Dumas to fill the place vacated by the demise of
M. Guizot in the French Academy. It is not only that M.
Remusat voted for M. Jules Simon and that the votes were equal,
when the election was postponed for six months, but M. Jules
Simon has desisted from his candidature, and intends come
forward for the seat of his friend Remusat.

At the Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, on Sept. 3, gh. 55m.
Greenwich mean time, a meteor was observed about three times
the apparent magnitude of Jupiter, proceeding from Saturn
downwards about twelve degrees, in the direction of 5 Piscis
Australis. Colour, blue to green ; time visible, five seconds.
At disappearance it threw off a piece about the apparent size of
Saturn.

The Geological Society of France held a congress at Geneva
last week, and visited some of the places most interesting to
geologists in that part of Switzerland.

Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, "of Melbourne, has just
published a second supplement to his previous lists of " Select
Plants readily eligible for Victorian Industrial Culture." The^t-
lists of Baron Mueller's are useful to a certain extent, many
economic plants being thus brought together, arranged alpha-
betically under their scientific names, and short descriptions
given of their uses. Whether many of them are worth the
trouble of cultivation as industrial or economic plants, is a ques-
tion which the cultivator can only know by experience, but
which the botanist will be able to decide upon by a mere glance
at the list. Thus we find included Aloe dichotoma, the Tree-
Aloe of Damara and Namaqualand, referred to in Nature,
vol. xi. p. 89 ; scarcely an industrial plant, we should say. A
peculiar and interesting addition to this second supplement is a
geographic index, the plants being alphabetically arranged under
distinct heads, such as " Northern and Middle Europe," " Coun-
tries at or near the Mediterranean Sea," "Middle and Temperate
Eastern Asia," &c.

The coffee plant has been grown in Queensland for some
years, but it is only of late that its cultivation has been attempted
with a view to its exportation as a commercial article, and we
now learn that the plants have become attacked by blight, cr
fungus, which has given rise to some anxiety and inquiry as to
whether the disease is identical with the Hemileia vastatris,
which has proved so destructive to coffee plants in Ceylon. We
shall probably soon hear more about this, as tlie subject of the
extension of coffee culture in Queensland is about to be taken
up by Mr. L. A. Bernays, F.L.S., Clerk of the Legislative
Assembly of Queensland, and a vice-president of the Queens-
land Acclimatisation Society, and who moreover is known as
the author of a little work on the cultivation and propagation of
the olive in AustraUa.

The Literary and Natural History Society of Keswick has

t. 9. 1875]

NATURE

427

menced the formation, in a small room in the Town Hall, of

ection to illustrate the natural history of the district They

have already got together a considerable number of birds, birds'
eggs, fishes, and insects, as well as the commencement of a
herbarium ; also a collection of the rocks and ores and 01 the
scanty fossil fauna of the neighbourhood. A few very interest-
ing celts and other prehistoric remains have been found in the
district, some of them close to the celebrated " Druids' Circle "
in the immediate vicinity of Keswick. Theie is evidently here
a rich field for the zeal and energy of the local naturalists and
archaeologists.

The Quarterly Journal of the Meteorological Sccitty, No, 15,
has just been published, containing among other matters papers
on a Universal System of Meteorography, by Prof. F. Van
Rysselberghe ; Results of Meteorological Observations at Patras,
Greece, during 1873, by the Rev. II. A. Boys ; and Notes on
Sea Temperature Observations on the British coasts, by R. H.
Scott, F.R.S.

A ZOOLOGICAL collection of remarkable interest, the Tivtes
states, more particularly to Londoners, has been added during
llie present year to the British Museum. It consists of the
Thames Valley series of remains of British elephants, rhinoceri,
deer, ox, &c., which have been discovered in the Ilford Marshes,
near Stratford, during the last thirty years, and has hitherto
formed the unique private collection of Sir Antonio Brady, of
Stratford-le-Point. The nature and value of this collection, as
now exhibited at the British Museum, will appear from the foU
lowing facts : — It contains remains of no less than loo elephants,
all of which have been obtained from Ilford. These are referable
to two species, viz., Elephas primigenius, the mammoth,^and E.
antiquus, a more southern form. The skeletons of each species
are represented by many fine examples, and the collection of
teeth and jaws represents elephants of every age and size, from
the sucking calf, with milk molars, to the patriarch of the herd,
whose last molars are so worn that they must have become use-
less for grinding his food. One characteristic of the Ilford ele-
phants is the number of the plates in the last molar tooth, which
has never been found to exceed nineteen or twenty, as against
the twenty-four and sometimes twenty-eight in other species.
The largest tooth is ten inches in length. The rhinoceri of the
Thames Valley are represented by eighty-six remains, of three
species, distinguished by the character or the absence of the bony
nasal septum — viz.. Rhinoceros inegarhinus, R. leptorhinus, and
R. tichorhinus. The British lion, which recent geology shows to
have been no myth, is represented by a lower jaw and a phalanx of
the left forefoot. The Brady collection also includes the Thames
Valley hippopotamus, which is found at Grays, as well as at Ilford.
The ruminants, such as the stag, bison, and ox, constitute fully
one-half the collection, numbering more than 500 specimens.
They include seven specimens of the great Irish Elk {Megaccros
hibernicus) and fifty of the Red Deer.

We learn from the Lancet that the sanitary authorities of
Leicester have determined to institute an inquiry into the causes
and conditions of the high mortality in that town from diarrhoea,
and Dr. Beck and Dr. Frankland have been appointed to carry
out the inquiry. It was recently shown in Nature (vol. xii.
p. 281) that the average mortality in Leicester from diarrhoea,
and among infants, has far exceeded that of any other large town
in England, and that whereas the average highest mortality from
diarrhcca in any other large town during any week of the year
has not exceeded lO"5 on an annual mortality per 1,000 of the
population, in Leicester the average reaches 15-8. This large
mortality from diarrhoea has been a characteristic of Leicester each
jear since the Registrar-General began to publish the returns for
Leicester in his weekly reports, the distribution of the deaths
during the warm weeks and the number being plainly and directly

dependent on the temperature. During the six weeks ending 14th
August last the deaths from diarrhoea in Leicester have been 121 ;
during the same six weeks of 1874 when the temperature was
higher, the deaths were 156. The peculiarity of the mortality
of Leicester'lies in this : whilst the rate of its infant and diarrhoea
mortality is enormously high, its annual death-rate for the whole
population is moderately low, being only 26 per 1,000 of the
population ; whereas in Liverpool and Manchester it is fully
thirty, or one-fifth more. Hence, in commencing a scientific
inquiry into the causes and conditions of this great destroyer of
the infant life of our large towns, no better beginning could have
been made than with Leicester. For reasons stated by Mr.
Buchan and Dr. Mitchell in their recently published paper " On
the Influence of Weather on Mortality" (Jour. Scot. Met. Soc,
vol. iv. p. 232), a separation of the infants that die, or are
attacked, into three classes — viz. (i) those nursed at the breast,
(2) those fed on cows' milk, and (3) those fed on slops— is most
desirablein such inquiries, particularly since facts seem at pre-
sent to point to the intimate bearing, on this vitally important
question, of high summer temperatures on milk exposed to them,
especially on the small portion 01 milk which may be carelessly
left in the apparatus used in the case of those infants that are fed
on cows' milk.

We have before us three contributions to American Botany : —
I. Conspectus of the North American Hydrophyllacese, by Prof.
Asa Gray. The genus Eutoca, well known under that name to
flourish in this country, is here merged in Phacelia, which num-
bers about fifty species. 2. Revision of the genus Ceanothus,
and descriptions of new plants, by Sereno Watson. 3. Botani-
cal observations in Southern Utah in 1874, by Dr. C. C. Parry j
a series of papers reprinted from the Avierican Naturalist. The
south-western portion of the vast territory of the United States
has been for some years one of the most fertile portions of the
surface of the earth in yielding new species of plants ; very little
having been done, before Dr. Parry's visit, since the working up
by Torrey and Gray of the results of Col. Fremont's expedition
in 1844. A very interesting sketch of the botany 01 the district
is contained in these papers, together with notes of many new
species described by Prof. Gray and others.

Prof. Palmieri has discovered a new instrument which he
calls a "diagometer," and which is constructed for the rapid
examination of oils and textures by means of electricity. What
the apparatus will do. Prof. Palmieri details thus : — i. It will
show the quality of olive oil. 2. It will distinguish olive oil
from seed oil. 3. It will indicate whether olive oil, although of
the best appearance, has been mixed with seed oil. 4. It will
show the quality of seed oils. 5. Finally, it will indicate the
presence of cotton in silken or woollen textures. The professor
has been complimented for this invention by the Chamber of
Arts and Commerce at Naples, who have published a full
description of the apparatus, with instructions for use.

The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the
past week include an Indian Leopard {Felis pardus) from India,
presented by Mr. G. Jasper Nicholls ; an Arctic Fox {Cani
lagopus) from the Arctic Regions, presented by Mr. C. R.Woodj
a Montagu's Harrier {Circus cineraceus), European, presented
by Capt. Hadfield ; a Lesser Sulphur-crested CocVsXoo (Cacatua
sulphurea) from Moluccas, presented by Mrs. H. M. Smith ; a
Wrinkled Terrapin {Clemmys rugosa) and five American Box
lortoises {Terrapene carinata) from Nicaragua, presented by
Mr. Edmond Isaacson ; a West African Tantalus ( 7a«/a/Mj ibh)
from West Africa; two Braeilian Tortoises (Testudo tabulata)
from South America, an Abyssinian Pentonyx {Felotnedusa
gehafi) from Abyssinia, deposited ; an Indian Fruit Bat (Ftero-
pus medius) from India, purchased; a ^Wapiti Deer {Cervus
canadensis) bom in the Gardens.

428

mATURE

{Sept. 9, 1875

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

' The first fascicule of this year's Bttlletin de Id SociSte d' Anthro-
pologie de Paris gives the new president, M. Dallas' inaugural
address, in which he draws attention, amongst other points, to
the importance in reference to anthropology of the study of
"demography," or that branch of sociology which treats of the
influence of prosperity on populations in determining the max-
ima and minima of births and deaths. After speaking with
just pride of the merit due to the Paris Society of having inau-
gurated the systematic study of anthropology, and of having
served as the model for similar institutions in all the great cities
of the old and new Continent, the President announced that in
consequence of the appointment of two new secretaries, MM.
Astezat and Gerard de Rialle, and of a general-assistant secretary,
M. Magitot, as well as through the adoption of different rules for
the transmission of papers, the publication of the Bulletins would
no longer be subject to the delay which had of late years marked
their appearance. In the discussion which followed M. de
Mortillet's paper on the circles drawn on a fragment of a human
skull found in the dolmens of Lozere, M. de Leguay took occasion
to express his conviction that the men who constructed these
megalithic monuments must have been possessed of tools of
metal, and provided with textile fabrics such as strong ropes,
capable of being used to lift and pull heavy weights. He does
not venture to give an opinion as to the probable antiquity of
these remains, but he believes that no one acquainted with prac-
tical mechanics can attach faith to the commonly accepted
theory that these stones have been conveyed from distances and
elevated to their present positions by slides or rollers. The
speaker, moreover, pointed to the fact that a bronze bracelet of
indisputable Gallic fabricition was found below one of the Lozere
dolmens ; and he is of opinion that the men who erected the
latter used iron as well as bronze. — In discussing the human
remains belonging to upwards of aot^ individuals found l^v M.
de Baye in the Baye caverns on the Marne, among whicii were
skulls having circular lints and perforations similar to those
of the Lozere fragment, M. Broca drew attention to the two
distinct cranial types which they presented, the one being doli-
cephalic, while the other was sub-brachycephalic. — Those in-
terested in abnormal types of humanity wiil find much suggestive
matter in several papers referring to the so-called Aztecs intro-
duced into Europe twenty-five years ago, in whom micro-
cephalism— whatever its cause may be — is more strikingly
exhibited than in any other known case. — M. Hamy's learned
paper on artificially produced microcephalism among the sacer-
dotal classes of Central America, gave rise to an animated dis-
cussion in which Dr. Broca and Madame Royer took part. — Dr.
Mondieres has laid an interesting report before the society, in
which he supplies much hitherto unknown information in regard
to the prevalent diseases of the natives of Cochin China, the
remedies applied, and the practices resorted to by the bonzes
for working pretended miracles. The author describes the
physical characteristics of the two distinct races, the Ming-
huongs and true Cambodians. — M. Broca exhibited the skeleton
of a Peruvian mummy-foetus which had been taken from an
ancient cemetery near Callao, laid bare by an earthquake. It
was found in the portion of the ground appropriated to infants,
and where each little body was tied tightly into a cloth and had
enclosed with it a number of minute toy- like vessels, utensils,
and arms. The fcetal mummy was examined with special
reference to the existence of the supernumary cranial bone,
which some Spanish writers affirm to be a characteristic of the
Inca race. No such bone could, however, be detected in the
Peruvian mummy, whose skull was precisely similar to those of
Europeans at the sair.e period of foetal existence.

\, The Journal de Physique thSorique et appliquie for July
contains the following original papers : — On the acoustic theory
of beats, by Terguem and Boussinesq. — On the use of collodion
films in Physics, by E. Gripon. — On the interior double reflexion
of uniaxal crystals, by M. Abria. — A note by M. Henri
Becquerel, on the action of magnetism upon the induction spark.
— On a new method to produce sonorous vibrations and inter-
ferences on mercury, by C. Decharme. — On the channelled space
spectra of MM. Fizeau and Foucault, by M. Nodot.

Gazzetta Chiviica Italiana (fasc. vi. 1875.)— This number
contains the followmg papers : — Defence of the old theory of
electrostatic induction, by G. Pisati. — Chemical dissociation as
applied to the interpretation of some volcanic phenomena ;
analysis and synthesis of a new mineral from Mount Etna, which

is of common origin in volcanoes, by Prof. O. Silvestri —
Experimental researches by Dr. L. Pesci, on peroxide of iron
as generator of nitric acid, and on the origin of nitre in some
experiments of Cloez. — Chemical and toxicological researches
by Dr. C. Bettelli, on oleandrine and so-called pseudocurarine.
— On albumen assisting the solution of the tricalcic phosphate of
the blood, by M. Mercadante. — On the presence of leucine in
vetches, by A. Cossa.

The Notizblatt des Vereins fiir Erdkunde zu Darmstadt,
series iii. heft xiii. contains but one paper of scientific interest,
all the rest of the contents being devoted to statistical reports
from the central station for statistics of the Grand Duchy of
Hessen, and to tables relating to these reports. " The paper re-
ferred to records the meteorological observations of the Kataster
Office at Darmstadt during the whole of the year 1873, and is
accompanied by a very elaborate table.

The yourtial de Physique thSoriqiie et appliquee for August
contains the following original treatises : — On double spectra, by
M. G. Salet. — Exposition of some experiments relating to the
theory of induction, by M. Felici. — On a new method to deter-
mine quickly the refractive index of liquids, by MM. Terquem
and Trannin. — On a new form of electro-magnet, by M. A.
Camacho. — On elliptic polarisation, by L. Mouton. — The re-
mainder of the journal contains extracts and translations from
Poggendnrff's Annalen and from the American yournal of
Science and Arts.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

Paris
Academy of Sciences, August 30. — M. Fremy in the chair.
— The following papers were read : — A note by M. Leverrier on
Jupiter's mass and on some new researches on Saturn. — On the
formation of hail, by M. Faye. — Tenth note on the electric cor-
ductibility of bodies known to be bad conductors, by M. Th. du
Moncel. — Report by a commission appointed to examine a me-
moir by M. Haton de la Goupilliere, entitled. Direct and Inverse
" developpoids " of successive Orders. — A note by M. J.
Kiinckel, on Lepidoptera with perforating proboscis as destroy-
ers of oranges (Ophidera). — Remarks on the granitic diluvium of
plateaus ; lithological composition of the caolinic sand of Mon-
tainville (Seine et Oise), by M. Strai. Meunier. — On the ger-
mination of Chevalier barley, by M. A. Leclerc. — Researches
on the ferments contained in plants, by M. C. Kossmann. — A
number of communications of minor interest. — On the formation
of aniline black, obtained by the electrolysis of its salts, by J. J.
Coquillion. — On the development of unfertilised ova of frogs, by
M. G. Moquin Tandon.

CONTENTS Page

Thb Science Commission Report on the Advancement of

Science 389

The Irish Fisheries 392

Magnus's "Elementary Mechanics". ; 394

Our Book Shelf : —

Game Preservers and Bird Preservers 395

Books on Bee-keeping 395

Letters to the Editor : —

Personal Equation in the Tabulation of Thermograms, &c. — John

H Plummer 395

Source of Volcanic Energy.— W. S. Green {With 1 lliistration) . 396

Sanitary State of Bristol and Portsmouth— Dr. W. J. Black . . 396

A Lunar Rainbow.— John Allen Broun ; T. W. Backhouse . 397

The House-fly.— F. P 397

Our Astronomical Column : —

M. Leverrier's Theory of Saturn 397

Mr. De la Rue's Tables for Reduction of Solar Observations . . 397

Mira Ceti 398

Science in Germany {With I llnstraiioti) 398

Historical Note on the Observation of the Corona and Red

Prominences of the Sun. By Edward S. Holden 399

Solar Observation in India. By R. Meldola 400

The Laws of Storms (JFz'M ///?«/r«//(77«) 400

The British Association 403

Reports 404

Sectional Proceedings , 4''4

Section D. — Opening Address 407

Department of Anatomy a«d Physiology.— Opening Address (f^»Vy4

lUustratiom) 4' 3

Section E. — Opening Address 419

The French Association for the Advancement of Science . . 473
The American Association for the Advancement of Science. --

Detroit Meeting. By W. C. W 4^4

Notes 426

Scientific Serials 428

Societies and Academies 428

NATURE

429

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 16, 1875

THE SCIENCE COMMISSION REPORT ON
THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE*

WE pass now to the fourth and last head, which
deals with
T/ie Central Organisation which is best calculated to en-
able the Government to determine its action in all ques-
tions affecting Science.

The Commissioners discuss two questions separately
under this head, (i) The appointing of a Minister of
Science. (2) The establishing of a Council of Science.
Extracts from the Evidence relating to the Appointment
of a Minister of Science.
The Commissioners observe —

" We have received a large amount of evidence in
favour of the appointment of a Minister of Science.
There has been almost complete unanimity among the
witnesses on this point."

Indeed, the necessity for such a minister is the one
theme never lost sight of throughout the bulky volume of
evidence. Scarcely a proposal is made which does not.
either involve or imply this necessity. Expunge all the
recommendations that a Minister of Science should be
appointed, and there will scarcely remain a recommenda-
tion that can be practically carried out, or that is not, on
its face, almost a confessed absurdity.

The extracts which we append from evidence on this
question form but a very small portion of the representa-
tions submitted to the Royal Commission, of which they
must be considered only samples.

Prof. Owen : —

" I conceive that the recommendation by Bentham in
the last century of such a minister can hardly fail to be
practically adopted before the close of the present cen-
tury, and that the necessity of having a minister for such
a purpose will be recognised."

Sir W. Thomson : —

" Would you contemplate that a new department of the
State should be constituted for directing the scientific
work of the Government ? — It would be quite necessary
to have a Minister of Science ; it is indeed, I think, gene-
rally felt that a Minister of Science and scientific instruc-
tion is a necessity."

" Not a minister of other instruction ? — Specially of
scientific instruction, and not under any national educa-
tion board, but a minister of science and scientific in-
struction. The minister would necessarily be in Parlia-
ment and a political man, but it would be very rare
that he could also be a scientific man, and perhaps not
desirable that he should be a scientific man, but he must
have able scientific advisers always at hand."

" Could any such duties be well assigned to any existing
department of the State .? — I believe not."

" You spoke of the necessity for having a Minister of
Science ; do you conceive that it would be requisite to
have a cabinet minister for education and a second cabi-
net minister for science, or would you contemplate that
the minister for education should be the minister for
science ? — I do not wish absolutely to fix it beforehand ;
on the whole I think, however, that the title of Minister of
Education would not suffice. If there is to be a minister
it must be a minister of science and education. There
might be a minister of science and education, with a
chief secretary- or under minister for national and elemen-

* Ccmtimied from p. 392.

Vol. XII.— No. 307

tary education, and another for the advancement of
science and for the higher scientific instruction. But
naturally the minister of education must act for the
masses ; that must be his great duty, and however much
he might wish to act for science, he has still a great duty
to the masses. On the whole I think it would be prefer-
able to have a distinct minister of science and scientific
instruction. A minister of science and scientific instruc-
tion, as a subordinate to a chief minister of science and
education, might probably be a very good arrangement.

" The Minister of Science administers knowledge to the
whole country."

Col. Strange : —

" It seems to me that in the first place there should be
some means of bringing science fully before the nation
through Parliament. I know of no means of doing this
that is in accordance with our constitutional procedure,
except through a minister of State ; and therefore assum-
ing science to be a matter of enormous national impor-
tance, I think it is essential that it should be all brought
under one minister of State, who should be responsible
to Parliament for everything which is done in the name
of the nation to further science, and who should frame
his own estimates and keep them distinct from those of
departments which have little or nothing to do with

science I think that there should be an estimate

for science just as there is an estimate for the army and
for the navy

" What I should be glad to see would be a minister for
science ; but I dare say that if proper assistance were
given to such a minister, he might superintend other de-
partments as well ; for instance, as on the Continent, he
might superintend education and the fine arts. I think it
would be preferable that he should be for science only.
I think there is quite enough for him to do in England,
for it to be done thoroughly ; but rather than have no
minister I would assign to him also education and the
fine arts."

" There would be a difficulty, would there not, in defin-
ing the boundaries between the duties of the minister for
science and the minister for education ? — I think not. I
think one would relate to education, which is quite a dis-
tinct thing from national research, and I think that they
should be kept as distinct as possible. I think one great
evil now existing is the mixing up of those two things.
Throughout my evidence I have here and there expressed
the same opinion that they should be kept distinct, one
being the means, the other the end ; instruction I con-
ceive to be the mode of growing a certain number of
persons fit to investigate."

Mr. De la Rue :—

" I think that science ought to be recognised in the
Ministry by the appointment of a Science Minister, in
order that all matters relating to science might come pro-
perly under the cognisance of the Government, and that
whenever the Government sought the aid of scientific
men it should be through the intervention of the Science
Minister "

Mr. John Ball :—

" .... If science is to be aided effectually, and at the
same time controlled effectually, there should be some
permanent officer in the department of the Government
that has its relation with science, whose duty it should be
and who should be responsible for making himself gene-
rally aware of the state of science and the doings of its
cultivators, and who should be the proper person to advise
the Government, not as to the best mode of deciding a
strictly scientific question, but as to where the means for
solving it are to be had. I look upon it at present as
being a wholly haphazard matter how questions of science
or connected with science and affecting the progress of
science are decided in the public offices, and I speak from

430

NATURE

[Sept. 16, 1S75

some slight personal acquaintance with the matter during
the short time that I ^as in the public service in Par-
liament."

" You stated, did you not, that you thought it desirable
that there should be some permanent official to represent
and advise the Government in its relations to science ?—
Decidedly."

General Strachey : —

" The first conclusion that I arrive at is that all ques-
tions relating to scientific matters that arise in the opera-
tions of the Government should be dealt with by one of
the chief ministers of the Crown, and the officer at the
head of the Education Department seems to be the most
suitable of such officers. It has been, I know, suggested
by some persons that it would be better if there were a
separate department for science. That I venture to
doubt

" Under such an education and science department
there would be a natural division of the duties, which
would probably lead to the appointment of some perma-
nent officer in the position of an under secretary of State,
who would have specific charge of the scientific duties of
the department as distinguished from the educational
duties, which constitute a distinct branch of administra-
tive work

"The principal officers in the proposed scientific
branch of the department should be, by their scientific
qualifications, capable of disposing of the ordinary current
business under their charge "

Dr. Sclater :—

" Do you agree with [Col. Strange's] views as to the
creation of a Minister of Science and a Council of
Science ? — Yes, I agree generally with his views j I
think that it would be very desirable for the interest of
science."

" Do you think it would be desirable that the existing
State scientific institutions should be removed from the
control of the Admiralty, the Office of Works, and other
departments under which they are now placed ? — I think
it would be a very great advantage that they should be
removed from those departments and placed under one
minister."

" Have you any opinion as to whether the work could
be done by a Minister of Education, supposing such a
minister were appointed ? — I think it would hardly be
expected that a minister should be appointed only for
science ; and as I believe it is the case in continental
countries that that department is given to the Minister of
Education, I think that we could not follow a better
example here."

Prof. Balfour Stewart :—

" I think it [the Ministry of Science] might form a
division, perhaps, of the Ministry of Education."

Mr. Farrer : —

" I dislike very much the idea of establishing new de-
partments of the Government. If it were possible that
this business could be placed upon the Minister of Educa-
tion, who is becoming more and more important, I think
that would be much better than establishing a separate
department for the purpose."

Sir George Airy is perhaps the only witness of authority
who does not seem able to perceive that any advantages
would follow the creation of a Science Minister. The
following is his evidence on the question : —

" Do you see any inconvenience arising from the several
scientific institutions that are more or less connected with
the Government being under different departments ? — Not
that I am aware of."

" You are content that the Royal Observatory at Green-
wich should remain under the Board of Admiralty. You
do not require to have a Minister of Science, or a Minister

of Education ? — No ; we are naturally connected in these
respects with the Admiralty. . . ."

The Astronomer Royal appears to have confined his
attention to the wants of the great Observatory of which
he has so long been the distinguished director. It is to
be regretted that he abstained from enunciating his views
on the larger question of the administration which an
extension and systematisation of national science would
render necessary.

The Proposal to establish a Council of Science,
A proposal to establish a Council of Science was
brought before the Government by the Royal Society in
1857, upon a Report from the Government Grant Com-
mittee of that society.

The object of the Committee was (evidence of Sir E.
Sabine, qu. 11,117) to determine "whether any measure
could be adopted by the Government which would im-
prove the position of science or its cultivators in this
country."

This Report, after enumerating the various matters
connected with science which should properly come
under the supervision of the Government, concludes by
naming two bodies under whose advice that supervision
might be conducted. They say : —

"11. Assuming that the above proposal should meet
with the approval of her Majesty's Government, it will be
desirable to ascertain what mode of constituting such a
board would inspire them with most confidence in its
recommendations. Two modes may be suggested in
which such a board might be organised. First, the Go-
vernment might formally recognise the President and
Council of the Royal Society as its official adviser, im-
posing the whole responsibility on that body, and leav-
ing it to them to seek advice when necessary in such
quarters as it may best be found, according to the method
now pursued in the disposal of the Parliamentary grant
of 1,000/. The second method would be to create an
entirely new board, somewhat after the model of the old
Board of Longitude, but with improvements. The ques-
tion as to which alternative shall be adopted is properly
a subject for the consideration of the Government."

Upon this the Commissioners state as follows : —

"The proposal to establish a Council of Science has
recently been revived by Col. Strange.

"Amongst the witnesses who recommend the appoint-
ment of a Council, there is a great diversity of opinion as
to its constitution and limits of action. As regards its
constitution, it will be seen from the summary of evidence
which we shall give subsequently, that while some of the
witnesses are in favour of a Council very limited in num-
bers, others would desire to have it sufficiently numerous
to include representatives of nearly every branch of
science, as well as men of known administrative ability.

" In regard to its limits of action, the main difference
arises on the two questions, whether the Council should
or should not have the power of initiating inquiries, either
directly or by suggestion to the Minister, and whether or
not it should itself undertake the actual work of investi-
gation required for State purposes.

" As to the mode of remuneration, the opinions vary
between those which advocate annual payments to per-
manent officials, and those which are in favour of pay-
ments for attendance at meetings.

" The opinions of the witnesses who are opposed to any
such Council are based, in the main, upon one or more of
the following objections : —

" I. That Government can get the best advice with-
out it.

Sept. i6, 1875]

NATURE

43 i

" 2. That it would be liable to come into collision with
Ministers.

" 3. That it would not work harmoniously with our
general system of administration.

" The evidence of three eminent statesmen possessing
great administrative experience — Lord Derby, Lord Salis-
bury, and Sir Stafford Northcote — is in strong contrast
(so far as the proposal to establish a Council of Science
is concerned) with that which we have received from many
persons holding official positions in various branches of
the public service. The opinions of these latter, as to the
inefficiency of the organisation of their respective services
in regard to questions affecting science, we have already
quoted in the first part of this Report, and it will be seen
from the quotations we are now about to give, that they
in general consider the creation of a Council to be the
proper remedy."

The Commissioners preface their extracts from the
evidence laid before them on this subject by saying : —

" We fear that no mere extracts from the evidence of
Col. Strange would represent in an adequate manner the
views which have led him to recommend the formation of
a large and highly-paid Council of Science. It would
scarcely be fair to him, as the most prominent advocate
of the proposed measure, to do otherwise than refer to
his evidence at length, pp. 75 to 92, arid 125 to 135, "vol.
ii. of Evidence."

When we say that Col. Strange's evidence constitutes
a complete and carefully arranged scheme for the scien-
tific administration of the country, it will be readily under-
stood why the Commissioners refer to it as a whole, rather
than cite detached portions of it from which no concep-
tion of its systematic and comprehensive character could
be formed. With respect to the Council, Col. Strange
first points out its necessity and then defines its functions.
His next step is to so construct it as to fit it for perform-
ing these functions satisfactorily. And finally, he enters
fully into the mode of its election, its remuneration, and
its relation to the Minister of Science and to the various
departments and institutions concerned with scientific
questions.

Though, like the Commissioners, we find it impossible
to give a just idea of this scheme by means of extracts,
we think that as the composition, of the Council suggested
by Col. Strange was made by the' Commission the foun-
dation of their examination of almost every witness who
spoke on that subject, it is desirable that the sketch of
Col. Strange's Council should precede the short extracts
from evidence on the subject which we shall lay before
our readers. It stands thus : —

Sketch of Proposed Council.

Pure Mathematician (the Professor of Mathematics at Oxford
and Cambridge alternately. These should be " Regiui

Professorships ") I

Mixed ditto (Astronomer Royal for the time being) i

Chemists (one to be the Director of the proposed Chemical

Laboratory) 2

Meteorologist (Director of Meteorological Department) i

Physical Astronomer (Director of proposed Physical Obser-
vatory) I

Metallurgist (Director of proposed Metallurgical Laboratory) I

Geologist (Director of Geological Survey) I

Physicists (one to be an Electrician) 3

Naturalist (Head of Natural History Department of British

Museum) X

Physician (Medical Officer of the Privy Council) I

Surgeon I

Physiologist I

Naval Architect X

Civil Engineer i

Mechanical ditto x ,

Mining ditto .. i

Statist I

Royal Engineer Officers 2

Royal Artillery ditto (one for Field Artillery, the other for

heavy Ordnance) ... 2

Royal Navy ditto (one for Navigation, the other for Gunnery) 2

Infantry Officers 2

Merchants (one a shipowner) 2

Agriculturist i

30
Colonel Strange remarks on the above : —

" Of course I give that sketch of the Council as a
mere indication of the sort of Council that I think is
desirable. It is something that I put before the Com-
mission in order to be torn to pieces and put into shape ;
it is a mere sketch of a possible Council. I have given
it a great deal of thought, and it does not appear to me
that there are any superfluous members in it, nor do I
know of any that have been omitted. I may say gene-
rally that one of my great objects was to place in this
Council the heads of institutions, in order that they might
be concerned in the directions given to their various
institutions. I think it would hardly do (in a former part
of my evidence this matter was alluded to) to have a
separate body directing men of eminence as heads of
institutions ; it would be felt to be an interference, but if
those heads were part of the governing body, then the
interference would not be felt."

Though Colonel Strange's sketch was freely discussed
and criticised, no witness pointed out specifically its
omissions or redundancies, nor was any definite counter-
proposal submitted to the Commission.

Sir W. Thomson's evidence with reference to the esta-
blishment of a Council of Science contains the follow-
ing :—

" Do you think that a single body would be better than
a number of small committees for advising the Govern-
ment on the great variety of questions which from time
to time would be likely to arise ? Yes, certainly."

" The questions which might be referred to such a
Council would differ very much from one another, and
extend over a wide range, would they not.'' Yes, but
there would be an unity of design and action, with a
multiplicity of knowledge and skill at command, secured
by a single Council, and those conditions cannot, in my
opinion, be secured at all by occasional committees, or
committees working separately and independently of
each other. . . .

" A scientific Council would relieve the Government of
all responsibility in such matters, and would be respon-
sible itself in a general way for all its proceedings to a
political chief and to Parliament. . . ."

" Would you be so good as to inform us whether you
have formed any opinions as to the best system of
appointing such a Council ? — The Council ought to repre-
sent the different branches of science and the practical
applications of science. Pure mathematics ought to be
represented in the Council ; mixed or applied mathe-
matics, according to the old-fashioned nomenclature as
generally understood, ought also to be represented ; che-
mistry cannot be shut out ; physics must of course be
represented, and ought to be represented separately ;
astronomy, both what was formerly called physical
astronomy and of course the new science of astronomical
physics, ought to be represented. I do not believe that
astronomy could be properly represented under one head j
astronomical physics must, in my opinion, be separately
represented. Geology should be separately represented,
and also the various branches of natural history ; physio-
logy also, and medical practice in general, should be

432

NATURE

[Sept. i6, 1875

represented. I have spoken of applied mathematics, I
meant rather mathematical dynamics than applications
to art and mechanical operations. Then practical appli-
cations should be represented, mechanics and mechanical
engineering ; then again civil engineering and geodesy,
mining engineering, statistical inquiries, and the scientific
branches of her Majesty's service ought to be thoroughly
represented. Engineer and Artillery officers and the navy
should be represented both in its navigation department
and in the department of seamanship, and the depart-
ment of gunnery. The mercantile interests of the country
and the agriculture of the country ought certainly to be
represented. The universities ought to be represented
amply — the English universities, the Scotch universities,
and the Irish universities. Also practical telegraphyj
w^hich is a very distinct branch of engineering, civil
engineering or mechanical engineering would not suffi-
ciently represent it."

" Do you think that the functions which are proposed
to be assigned to the scientific Council would not interfere
in any way with the existing scientific departments of the
Government ; for example, the Medical Department of
the Privy Council, or some of the other Government
scientific departments? — I think it would relieve the
departments from pieces of scientific work at present
given to them, because there is no other body to whom
they can be given, and for which they are by their orga-
nisation and personnel almost necessarily ill fitted and
insufficiently competent."

"You would leave to these departments their adminis-
trative functions, but give them the advantage of con-
sulting with the Council upon higher questions of science
on which they desired information ? — Yes, certainly ; every
question of science that falls under the notice of any
department of the Government would naturally be referred
to the scientific Council."

Dr. Frankland ithus deals with Col. Strange's pro-
posal :—

" Are you acquainted with Col. Strange's proposal for
the establishment of a consultative council of science ? —
Yes, I have heard from him some of the chief ideas that
he entertains on that subject."

" Are you disposed to consider that such a Council
would be desirable .'' — I think so. I am not prepared to
say that it should be constituted exactly in the way that
Col. Strange mentioned, but a Council of that description
would be exceedingly desirable, on many grounds, for
furnishing the Government with trustworthy scientific
opinions in cases requiring them. . . ."

" Are you of opinion that the advice of such a Council,
even on matters to which the larger proportion of the
members of the Council had not paid special attention,
would be valuable ? — Yes, I think it would, because thoee
members of the Council who were thoroughly acquainted
with the subjects would be expressing their opinion to
men conversant with scientific methods, and they would
be able to convince their colleagues with respect to the
opinion that the Council generally ought to give upon the
matter. It would be a very different thing from that of
convincing a Parliamentary Committee, for instance, upon
a scientific point, because all the men upon the Council
would have received a scientific training and would under-
stand the bearing of scientific arguments."

" Have you considered at all how such a Council could
best be appointed, whether would you leave it to one of
the Ministers to appoint and select the proper persons to
serve on the Council ? — I should think that it must ulti-
mately fall upon the Minister, but he might be assisted by
the presidents of different learned societies or by the
Council of the Royal Society, in whom I think everyone
would have confidence."

{To be continued.')

THE IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE

EVERY friend of science and true patriot must heartily
welcome the sound and steady progress of the Iron
and Steel Institute. The proceedings at the Manchester
meeting last week, as also its Journal, just received, con-
taining the papers read at the last London meeting, show
that it is doing exactly the kind of work which is now
becoming quite necessary for the maintenance of the
dignity and prosperity of British industry. It also dis-
plays a very important feature of industrial progress.
One need not be grey-headed to be able to remember
when iron-workers and iron-masters, in common with
other artificers, were nearly unanimous in believing that
their trade interests were best served by each man hugging
up to himself every bit of newly acquired trade informa-
tion, and keeping his competitors as much as possible in
the dark respecting it. Indentures of apprenticeship
still describe our common trades as "mysteries," and
bind the pupil to abstain from revealing the secrets of the
craft which his master solemnly agrees to communicate
in return for the premium and seven years' servitude.
The ceremonials, secrets, and degrees of freemasonry are
based on the old practice of hoarding the arcana of a
" craft " and communicating them in various degrees of
profundity to certain privileged individuals, who were
bound under dreadful penalties to reveal these sacred
mysteries to none but the initiated.

Contrasted with these lingering shadows, these penum-
bral fringes of the old passing darkness, the meetings of
the Iron and Steel Institute are full of hopeful suggestion,
by displaying the magnitude of the revolution which
modern science is gradually effecting. In the still older
and still darker times all knowledge was made a mystery
and a craft, and was selfishly held by the initiated few
who used it for the oppression of their fellow-men.
Abstract or pure science was first thrown open ; learned
societies were formed for the discovery and diffusion of
natural truth by the open and world-wide co-operation of
philosophers ; their discoveries threw new light into the
dark mysteries of trade, and now. we see'^the craftsmen
themselves emulating the philosophers, and offering freely
to all the world the best results of their technical know-
ledge, their laborious investigations, and hard-earned
technical experience. This is the true chivalry of trade,
that only needs its full development in order to place
industry fairly upon the throne of its natural and proper
dignity.

The Manchester meeting, under the presidency of Mr. W.
Menelaus, has been as successful as could possibly have
been wished. Although the papers read were too purely
technical to be referred to at length in Nature, still they
are all evidences that the iron and steel industries are
being more and more rigidly conducted on scientific me-
thods. The papers read were few, but they were all of a
thoroughly practical kind, and along with the discussions
which generally followed, were well calculated to promote
the objects for which the Institute has been established.
The first paper read, and which gave rise to a warm dis-
cussion, was by Mr. Daniel Adamson on " The Appli-
cation of High-pressure Steam to Quadruple Engines."
Mr. I. Lowthian Bell's paper on " The use of Caustic Lime
in Blast Furnaces " is likely to prove of great value to

Sept. i6, 1875]

NATURE

433

those interested in the subject. The object of the paper
was to show that for high furnaces it was unnecessary to
calcine the limestone before using it.

Mr. W. Hackney read a paper on the designing of
ingot moulds for steel rail ingots. Mr. Hackney has
designed a mould in which the outside is rounded, the
thickness of the metal being so adjusted at different parts
of the circumference that the expansion under heat should
be equal all round. This form has given satisfactory
results, one proof of its correctness being that when it
becomes heated to redness by an ingot of steel cast in it,
the temperature of the outside is apparently equal all
round.

Mr, Charles Wood described some improvements made
by him in the hearths of blast furnaces. Another paper
by Mr. Lowthian Bell described Mr. W. Price's retort
furnace. In Mr. Price's furnace the temperature of the
air, as well as that of the gaseous and fixed constituents
of the coal, is raised by the waste heat before it enters
the chimney. Mr. Price cannot compete with the Siemens
furnace as regards intensity of temperature, but he avoids
the loss which occurs in the gas-producers of the regene-
rative furnaces.

A paper by Mr. C. J. Horner, on the North Staffordshire
Coalfields, had to be considerably curtailed, and two other
papers had to be taken as read, in order that the excursion
programme might be carried out. Indeed, one of the
chief objects of the autumn meeting of the Institute is to
visit places of interest from an industrial point of view,
and hence the number of papers read is generally limited.
This year the visits and excursions were very numerous
indeed to industrial establishments in and around Man-
chester, and all of them seem to have been completely
successful. Our space does not permit us to give a
detailed account of these excursions, although many
of the processes witnessed by the visitors were of con-
siderable scientific interest. The meeting was brought
to a successful termination on Friday by a visit, which
formed, indeed, a hard day's work, to the North Stafford-
shire iron and coal district. From first to last the
members of the Institute have good reason to be satisfied
with the Manchester meeting.

In conclusion, we must express a hope that ere long
our other great industries will follow the example of
the iron and steel trade in forming their own special
technological Institutes and holding meetings and pub-
lishing records of similar character and value to those •f
the Iron and Steel Institute.

RUTHERFORD'S ''PRACTICAL HISTOLOGY"
Outlines of Practical Histology. By William Ruther-
ford, M.D. (London : J. and A. Churchill, 1875.)
OF the different methods whereby the standard of
scientific education is capable of being elevated,
few will not place foremost the extension of theoretical
studies into first principles and collateral branches which
have a bearing, ever so little as it may appear to be, on
the main subject. How much, for instance, does physio-
logy suffer from a deficiency in mathematical and physical
knowledge on the part of many of its most enthusiastic
devotees. A wider general acquaintance with chemistry
would, also, not be out of place. Practical aptitude and

experience no doubt stand next in importance. A mas-
tery of the methods by which what is already known has
been arrived at cannot but be one of the best trainings
for original investigation. How many a valuable sugges-
tion has been allowed to drop undeveloped, simply
because of a want of manipulatory skill on the part of the
deviser, whose love for the conception of his own brain is
the only sufficient stimulus towards the realisation of its
importance, and the working out of its details. All
attempts to raise the standard and develop facilities for
practical education deserve special attention. The work
before us is one of the best of these.

The Notes on Practical Histology were published origi-
nally in the Quarterly Microscopical Journal for January
1 872. Several additions have been made, and various fresh
methods have been introduced. As it stands, the work
contains all the information on the subject necessary for
the student of medicine ; and we are certain that anyone
who has mastered its details will be in a fit position to
undertake high special investigation under favourable
auspices. It is evident in every page that Prof. Rutherford
is thoroughly master of every method he explains, as
much from the minuteness of the detail into which he
enters, as from the manner in which matter the least
irrelevant is omitted. This is nowhere better seen than
in the sections devoted to the "preparation of tissues
previous to their examination," which, within a {Q\i pages,
states exactly what is to be done in the way of prepara-
tion and preservation with the body of an animal, such as
a guinea-pig, in order that all its tissues and organs, ex-
tending to such minutiae as the structure of the cochlea,
shall be in a condition most favourable for detailed inves-
tigation.

The book is divided into two parts. The first of these
treats of the microscope itself, together with the method
of using it ; which account is followed by a series of his-
tological demonstrations, explaining the manner in which
each tissue and organ of the body must be manipulated
in order to show its minute anatomical features. The
following is an example under the head of Nerve Tissue.
"The fibrillar structure of the processes of nerve-cells
may be shown as follows. Cut the fresh spinal cord of a
calf into pieces about a quarter of an inch in length.
Place these for a month in a one per cent, potass, bichrom.
solution. Remove a thin slice of the grey matter of the
anterior horn with scissors, tease with needles, stain with
carmine, and mount in glycerine." Among other special
processes described, we find a novel one devised by Dr.
William Stirling for exhibiting the structure of skin,
which consists in partly digesting it, when stretched, in
an artificial peptic fluid, and then staining. By so doing
" the white fibrous-tissue swells up and becomes extremely
transparent, thus permitting of a clear view of the other
tissues." Dr. Urban Pritchard's method of exhibiting
the structure of the organ of Corti is also fully explained.

The second part of the book consists of general consi-
derations regarding histological methods. In it the rela-
tions of the tissues to surrounding media, the methods of
hardening tissues (including the employment of the excel-
lent freezing microtome introduced by the author) and of
softening them, are fully explained ; as well as are the
composition of the best staining fluids, and the most
efficient means of preserving microscopic preparations.

434

NA TURE

\_Sept. i6, 1875

One of the most important novel points of manipulatory
detail which we notice, is the value of mucilage as an
imbedding agent when the microtome is employed for
freezing, as suggested by Dr. Pritchard. It depends on
the fact that " frozen mucilage can be sliced as readily
as a piece of cheese," a most valuable property, as all
who have had any experience will acknowledge.

Prof. Rutherford has supplied a deficiency. He has
given us a manual which will meet the requirements of a
large class of students who will never find it necessary to
enter into the details of practical histology so minutely
as they are discussed in larger works, such as the " Hand-
book for the Physiological Laboratory," or the still deeper
manual of Strieker.

OUR BOOK SHELF

A Yachting Cmise in the South Seas. By C. F. Wood.
With six photographic illustrations. (London : King
and Co., 1875.)

Mr. Wood's narrative is so interesting that we wish it
had been very much longer. He has made several
voyages among the Pacific Islands during the last
eight years, and, judging from this and what he tells us
in the work before us, he must possess much valuable
information concerning these islands, and especially with
regard to their puzzling populations, which he would do
well to publish in detail, and which would be welcomed
especially by ethnologists. Mr. Wood is evidently a
careful observer, and has the power of describing what he
observes interestingly and clearly.

The present volume contains a narrative of a cruise
which the author made, starting from New Zealand,
from May to December 1873, among some of the most
interesting groups of the Pacific Islands. Among the
islands visited during this time were Rotumah, to the
N.E. of Fiji, Futuna, Savaii, and Upolu, in the Samoan
group ; Niuafu, some of the islands in the Fiji group, the
New Hebrides, the Solomon Islands, the Caroline Islands,
Oualan, the Mulgrave Islands, and the Ellice group. Con-
cerning every island which he visited, Mr. Wood has some
interesting and valuable information to give, either
about its physical condition, its products, its people, its
history, or its antiquities. One of the main objects of his
cruise was the collection of native implements and
weapons, and in this he seems to have succeeded to his
heart's content. His observations concerning the people
seem to us especially valuable ; he has gathered many
traditions as to their migrations, and gives some speci-
mens of folk-lore. In many of the islands the natives
seem restless and discontented, and Mr. Wood was fre-
quently petitioned to give them a passage from one
island to another. Like many other Pacific voyagers, he
has but a poor opinion of the results of the attempts
which have been made to Christianise the natives. Not
that he disapproves of attempting to civilise them
and to raise them in the scale of humanity, but he thinks
the methods which are generally adopted are quite
abortive. The unmodified European garment of civilisa-
tion evidently cramps and enervates the Pacific Islander.
The information which Mr. Wood gives concerning the
Rotumans, their traditions as to their predecessors in the
island, their migrations, customs, superstitions, folk-lore,
&c., is especially valuable. He refers briefly to the
remarkable mounds among the hills in Bonabi, or Ascen-
sion Island, in the Carohne group, about which them
have no tradition, but which would be likely to repay a
careful examination. Quite as interesting, and still more
wonderful, are the remains of large buildings of stone in
the same island, some of the blocks of which are of
immense size, and concerning which also the natives seem

to have no traditions. Mr. Wood believes these ruins to
be the work of a people that have passed away, and it is
very unlikely that the original buildings were the work of
passmg Spaniards, as has been supposed. We have cer-
tainly much yet to learn concerning the history and rela-
tionships of the Pacific Island populations, and it is a
subject well worth careful investigation. Mr. Wood's
modest volume is a valuable, though small, contribution
to our knowledge of the subject ; he must, we should
think, have a great deal more to tell as the result of his
long intercourse with these islands. The few autotype
illustrations are appropriate and well executed.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressea
by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return,
or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.'\

Living Birds of Paradise in Europe
We have just received at the Zoological Gardens of Dresden
two living Birds of Paradise, viz., Paradisca papuana, from New
Guinea, and Paradisea apoda, from the Aru Islands, both males,
in excellent health and fine condition. Mr. von Below, Assistant-
Resident of Makassar, in Celebes, brought them home in a three-
months' passage from Makassar, vid Java, Suez, Gibraltar,
London, and Hamburg to Dresden, where he intends to spend
the winter, and has deposited the birds in the Zoological
Gardens. They have already been about three years in captivity
with him at Makassar, where I saw them when passing through
that place to New Guinea in 1873. The birds, therefore, are
accustomed to cage-life, and as the conditions under which we
have placed them are most favourable — consisting chiefly in a
large space to allow free movement, and in an equal temperature
of about 20° Reaumur — there is some hope of our being able to
keep them alive. Mr. von Below got these birds through native
traders who have their home at Makassar and trade to New
Guinea and the Aru Islands. He fed the birds in India with
grasshoppers, bananas, and rice, and on board the steamers
with the same, cockroaches being sulistituted for grasshoppers.
In Dresden we try to feed them with bread, rice, and worms
{Mehlwiirmer). Both are very active, and cry their well-known
' ' wok, wok " with much force ; the specimen of Paradisea
apoda especially is not the least shy, and takes the worms out of
one's hands. Their fine plumage suffered, of course, on the
voyage, but I was astonished to see that it was not damaged
mote. As they probably will moult from about November till
April, the plumage will not be at its finest condition till the
month of May, and, supposing that the readers of Nature will
be interested in the further fate of these Birds of Paradise, I
shall report in time how they are getting on.

I believe I am not mistaken in saying that a living specimen
of Paradisea apoda has never before been alive in Europe. The
two Birds of Paradise which Mr. Wallace brought home, which
he had bought at Singapore, were Paradisea papuana (if I re-
member correctly, having no books at hand here) ; Mr. Cerrutti,
some years ago, brought over a specimen of Seleticides alba, but
I did not hear how long it hved in Europe. No other species of
Birds of Paradise have yet been brought alive to Europe, so far
as I know, and we may therefore felicitate Mr. von Below on
having increased the number of these at least to three.

The inhabitants of those parts of New Guinea which I visited
in 1873 ^^s "^ol^ accustomed to catch Paradisea papuana alive,
as Mr. Wallace states is the case with Paradisea apoda from the
Aru Islands ; they only know how to kill the bird with the
arrow, and I did not succeed in teaching them otherwise, but I
suppose that the Papooas of the south-west coast of New Guinea
know how to catch the Birds of Paradise alive, and that Mr.
von Below's specimen is from that part of New Guinea.
Wildbad Gastein, Sept. 1 1 A. B. Meyer

Source of Volcanic Energy

Mr. W. S. Green, like others of Mr. Mallet's supporters,

takes wider ground than he did himself in his original paper.

It is obvious that he regarded his experiments conclusive as to

the amount of heat that could be produced by rock crushing

Sept. 16, 1875]

NATURE

435

His advocates, however, and he himself in his later papers,
appeal to pressures within the earth enormously greater than
those obtained by the mechanical contrivances used, and consider
that proportionately greater heat may be evolved.

My " Remarks " at the Geological Society, now published in
The Journal, were primarily framed with reference to Mr.
Mallet's paper as it stjod, although I think they are a tolerably
satisfactory reply even to the theory as now extended. I have,
however, lately gone into the question on first principles, and
have satisfied myself that, accepting the conditions lately assumed
by Mr. Mallet as a basis, the theory can be shown to be unte-
nable. I hope that a paper containing the grounds of my con-
clusion will shortly appear.

I am unable to understand how Mr. Green proposes to account
for the development of forces as productive of heat through
means of "the gravitation of the whole mass" (of the earth)
•'to itself," otherwise than by "the gravitation of the surface
upon a retreating nucleus ; " because, unless room be given by
a retreating nucleus for the parts to descend, there can be no
motion, and consequently no heat. O. Fisher

P.S. — Upon further consideration of Mr. Green's letter, it
strikes me that he has misunderstood my meaning in a way that
I did not at first perceive. He says that I "object to the possi-
bility of assuming high local temperatures to be produced by
the transformation of tangential forces into heat within the earth's
crust ; " as if I objected to any localisation. What I did object
to was, not a localisation of work and heat, but a localisation
within a localisation, such that the heat of crushing a certain
localised volume should fuse a further localised portion of the
crushed volume.

Harlton, Cambridge, Sept. II

Important Discovery of Remains oi Cervus megactros in
Ireland

During 1847, when draining a bog at Kellegar among the
Dublin mountains, as many as thirty heads of C. tne^aceros,
together with a perfect head and antlers of a Reindeer, were dis-
covered in a cutting of about 100 yards, by 3 yards in breadth.
They were found as usual in the marl and clay under the bog.
I visited this locality in March last, and from the aspect of the
ground and evidence of a farmer who remembered the spot where
the above were dug up, it seemed probable that by running a series
of trenches parallel with the original ditch made in 1847, fresh
exuviae might be discovered. The subject was accordingly
brought to the notice of the Royal Irish Acidemy, and a grant
of 25/. obtained. The result has been the finding of about thirty
additional heads of Cervus megaceros, besides numerous detached
bones not yet luUy determined.

Mr. R. J. Moss, Keeper of Mimerals in the museum of the
Royal Dublin Society, who volunteered to conduct the explora-
tions, writes to me that he found the remains embedded in about
two to three feet of clay, and often either lying on or impacted
between blocks of granite as if they had been drifted into the
above situation. A log of oak three feet in length was dis-
covered among the bones in the same stratum of clay. In this
instance, as generally obtains in Ireland, the cervine exuviae are
met with around the maigins of the bogs, and n«t in the middle,
as if the animals were mired in shallow water, or else their carcases
had drifted with the winds or currents to the sides and outlets of
the lake. Mr. Moss had to stop excavations in consequence of
the grant having become expended, so that doubtless many more
remains await further explorations.

This is not the only case known to me of the accumulation of
carcases in a small space. I just lately examined a large assort-
ment of skulls and bones of C. megaceros dug out of a bog
on the property of Mr. R. Usher, of Cappagh, near Dungarvan.
These were collected in a space of about ICX3 yards in length and
70 yards in breadth. They include heads and cast antlers of no
less than fifteen individuals of the great horned deer {i.e. thirteen
male and two female skulls), besides the cast antler of a Red
Deer. The above were likewise found more towards the side
than the centre of the marsh.

It seems difficult to account for these accumulations of deers'
carcases, unless we suppose that a herd was mired on attempting
to cross the lake. The fully developed burr of the antler so
generally observed on this deer's horns discovered in the mud of
ancient lake^ might indicate that their owners perished in aututiin
during the rutting season, when doubtless many far grander
scenes than those depicted in the "Challenge" and Wolf's "Race

for Life " occurred along Irish lakes. The Bear and Wolf being
the only large carnivores in Ireland during the Pleistocene period
may account for the abundance of C. megaceros ; moreover, we
have it on historical evidence that the Wolf was extremely
common during the seventeenth century, and it is probable,
having neither the Hyaena nor the large Felidie to compete with,
that it might have hunted ihs great horned Deer into the lakes,
where many would have got mired in the deepening mud along
their margins. A. Lkith Adams

Magnus's "Elementary Mechanics"
With reference to the favourable notice of my " Elementary
Mechanics " which appeared in last week's Nature, I shall be
glad if you will permit me to state that the second edition of my
book is already in the printers' hands, and that the few errors,
chiefly clerical, in the answers to the examples, which you were
good enough to point out, are therein corrected.
London Philip Magnus

Sanitary State of Bristol and Portsmouth

Your correspondent. Dr. Black, in accounting for the uni-
formly low death-rate of Portsmouth, has, I venture to suggest,
omitted two somewhat important coefficients. The one is a
thorough and well-planned system of drainage and outfall, com-
pleted some few years since at a cost of about 150,000/. ; the
other is the presence of a floating population of several thousand
healthy adult males in the shape of the garrison and the sailors.

E. J. E.

Lancaster Gate, W., Sept. 11

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN

Binary Stars. — Mr, J. M. Wilson has communicated
measures of 2 2107, 44Bootis, and f Aquarii, made at the
Temple Observatory, Rugby, in 1871-75, from vi^hich the
following are selected : —

2 2107 i872'49 Pos. 2io°o Dist. o"77

1873-48 ,, 207 -5 ,, 07 est.

1874-65 „ 208 -4 „ o 7 est.

1875-58 „ 215 -5 „ o -5 est.

44 Bootis 1873-25 „ 240 -6 „ 5 '3

CAquarii 1873-79 „ 335 -I „ 3 -58

The binary character of the first of these stars is well
supported by Mr. Wilson's measures ; the angular velocity
appears to have regularly increased since about the year
1850, due allowance being made for the difficulty of the
object. Struve's first epoch (a correction being made to
the time as printed in " Mensuras Micr.") is

1829-01 Pos. i48°-6 Dist. i"-i27

A discussion of the elements of the orbits of o- Coronae,
T Ophiuchi, y Leonis, ( Aquarii, and 36 Andromedae, by
Dr. Doberck, of Col. Cooper's Observatory, Markree,
forms Part 19 of volume xxv. of the Trajisactioris of
the Royal Irish Academy. Dr. Doberck employs the
graphical method proposed by Sir John Herschcl, which
has been so generally applied, at least in the earlier part
of the work. Correction of the approximate elements
thus obtained by equations of condition will lead to satis-
factory results where there are reliable single epochs, or a
sufficient number of contiguous ones, to enable us to form
normals. It may be questioned whether the additional
labour of calculation which some of the methods of calcu-
lating double-star orbits that have been proposed neces-
sarily involve, is rewarded by more satisfactory results
than can be obtained by the application of Herschel's
graphical process in the first instance, following up by
equations of condition.

The Zodiacal Light. — During the past week has
appeared Z0diacallicht-Beobachiun^en in der letzten 29
Jahten 1847- 1875, by Prof. Heis, forming the first special
publication of the Royal Observatory of Miinster. It
contains in considerable detail, but on a systematic plan,
the particulars of the numerous observations made by

436

NA TURE

{Sept. 1 6, 1875

Heis himself, with a large number by Eylert, Weber, and
others, and is a most valuable addition to the observa-
tional results bearing upon this, as yet, little-understood
phenomenon. We may remind the reader who is desirous
of fully acquainting himself with the literature of the
subject, that Dr. Julius Schmidt, now Director of the
Observatory at Athens, published in similar detail his
observations of the zodiacal light in the years 1843-55
{Das Zodiacallicht, Braunschweig, 1856).

The next Return of Encke's Comet. — The ap-
pearances of this comet at nearly ten-year intervals in
1 819, 1829, 1838, 1848, 1858, and 1868 took place under
circumstances which were more or less favourable for
observation in this hemisphere ; these conditions, how-
ever, will not attend the ensuing return to perihelion,
which, with the mean motion found by Dr. von Asten for
1875, neglecting the small effect of perturbation, would
occur about the 27th of July, 1878 ; and if the path in the
heavens be calculated on this assumption, it will appear
that observations will hardly be practicable except in the
southern hemisphere in August. The nearest approach to
this track is that which the comet followed in 1845, when
a few observations only were obtained with difficulty at
Rome, Washington, and Philadelphia. With regard to
the effect of perturbation upon the length of this comet's
period since the year 18 19, when its periodicity was first
detected, it may be remarked that the longest revolution
was that from 1842-45, which extended to I2i5"6 days,
and the shortest, that from 1868-71, i20O'2 days; differ-
ence of extremes, 15^ days.

Comet 1874 (III.), Coggia. — A third computation of
the orbit of this fine comet, founded upon observations
between April 20 and July 16, by Herr Geelmuyden, of
Lund, has resulted in an ellipse with a period of 10,445
years, confirming the great length of the revolution which
resulted from the calculations of Prof. Tietjen and Herr
Schulhof. There appears to be no probability of the
comet having previously visited these parts of space
within historical times.

The Late Prof. Argelander. — The last part of
the Vierteljahrsschrift der Astronomischen Gesellscha/i,
x. Jahrgang, Drittes Heft, contains an interesting memoir
of this distinguished astronomer by his successor. Prof.
Schonfeld. As an authoritative summary of his long and
laborious services to sidereal astronomy in particular,
this memoir will be found a useful reminder. Argelander
was born at Memel on March 22, 1799, ^-nd died at Bonn
on February 17, 1875. His first astronomical observation
is stated to have been one of the occultation of the
Pleiades on August 29, 1820.

NOTES ON A SUPPOSED MARRIAGE EM-
BLEM OF AMERICAN INDIAN ORIGIN

A REMARKABLE form of " Indian relic," varying
somewhat in details, but having much in common,
and never approaching any other stone implement or
ornament, is occasionally met with in the " finds " of the
Atlantic coast States and westward to the Mississippi.
In New Jersey they are less abundant, I believe, than
in the States west and south, but a surticient number of
them have been gathered by myself and others to indi-
cate their having been, at one time, a marked feature in
the dress of our aborigines.

This "relic," however varied in its outline, always
suggests a brooding bird, especially when in the position
in which it is placed in Fig. i. So far as I have
made examination of these specimens, and met with
notices of them in various publications, they are all
manufactured from comparatively soft stone, are accu-
rately outhned, highly polished, and drilled diagonally at
the lower comers.

Of the many suggestions made as to their significance,

as knife-handles, com-huskers, idols, &c., I have met
with but one that seemed at all probable ; and this, I
think, is rendered the more probable from circumstances
connected with the discovery of various specimens, and
certain peculiarities of the fragment of one here figured
(Fig. 2).

Writing of one of these relics, Mr. Henry Gillman, in
the Smithsonian Annual Report for 1873, p. 371, states :
" I have learned, through an aged Indian, that in olden

time these ornaments were worn on the heads of Indian
women, but only after marriage. I have thought that
these peculiar objects, which are always made of some
choice material, resemble the figure of a brooding bird ;
a familiar sight to the ' children of the forest ;' that thus
they are emblematic of maternity, and as such were
designed and worn."

Fig. 2 represents the " tail end " of one of these '* brood-
ing birds." Probably broken by accident, whether the
head was lost or both halves preserved, it will be seen
that the specimen has been considered of considerable
value, inasmuch as this half has been carefully squared
and polished at the point of fracture, and a hole drilled
through it, to enable its owner to suspend her rude bracelet
or her necklace. Surely, had the unbroken implement (?)
been a knife-handle or corn-husker, the fragment such as
is here figured would not subsequently have been utilised
as an ornament. If put to so commonplace a use in its
entirety, a half of one would have no beauty in it, even in

Fig. 2. Natural size.)

the eyes of a Stone-Age savage. A second noticeable
feature of this broken specimen is the series of eight
deeply cut notches along the " back," or upper margin.
These are cut entirely across the narrow ridge forming
the back, and extend equally down either side, as seen
in the illustration. If an entire specimen, such as
is represented on the woman's head (Fig. i), is or was
worn on the head of an Indian woman, but only after
marriage, and so emblematic of maternity, then is it not

Sept. i6, 1875]

NATURE

437

reasonable to presume that these marks are records, not
merely ornamental lines, and if records, of children born ?
Such a carved stone, once proudly worn by an Indian
of high rank, if broken, as this has been, would naturally
be preserved ; and that it is but the half of such an one,
as seen in Fig i, is proved by the fact of a hole being
drilled in the lower corners, as shown by the dotted lines ;
a hole that became of no use when the specimen was
broken, or at least was less well placed than that sub-
sequently drilled in order to suspend the rehc as an
ornament, as an ear-ring, or addition to a necklace, as
previously suggested.

The traces, as they really are now, of the graves of our
aborigines occasionally contain a single specimen of the
above- figured relic. So far as I have been able to
examine these graves, such relics are never associated
with the stone axes and spear-heads characterising the
graves of adult males, but simply with other forms of
stone ornaments, and a single small mortar and pestle,
or earthenware vase. In one instance the "brooding
bird " was so placed with reference to the narrow strip of
discoloured earth that marked where the body had been
laid, as to show conclusively that the relic was attached to
the hair, as shown in Fig. i.

If we examine a series of these relics, it will be at once
seen that every one has holes drilled at the lower corners.
Such specimens could only be worn upon the top ot the
head, without being upside down, as would necessarily be
the case had they been suspended. It must, too, be borne
in mind that these relics are nowhere very abundant, but
on the other hand, nowhere unknown north of Mexico.
Had they been knife-handles, as suggested by School-
craft, or corn-huskers, as suggested by various writers,
certainly they would be much more abundant than they
really are. Indeed, in considering them as ornaments for
married women, I am forced, in consideration of the
scanty number that have been collected, to restrict them
to women prominent in their tribes, the wives of kings,
chiefs, and eminent warriors. If this be true, then the
eight birth-records on Fig. 2 are those of " Indian
princes," it may be. I must admit, however, that this
broken specimen is the only one that I have seen having
like marks cut upon it ; but such record marks, as I
believe them to be, are quite common upon other forms
of stone ornaments, particularly those stone tablets and
crescents that I have elsewhere (Smithson. Ann. Rep. for
1874) called " breast-plates."

These facts considered, I think that the suggestion of
Mr. Gillman, based upon information received from an
aged Indian, truly explains what this much-discussed rehc
truly is — an ornament for married women, an emblem of
maternity. Charles C. Abbott

Trenton, New Jersey, U.S.A.

THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION
REPORTS.
Report of the Committee on Luminous Meteors, by Mr. James
Glaisher. — The report related, as usual, to meteors doubly
observed, and to aerolites, the portion having reference to the
latter being the more interesting, as the falls of aerolites which
have been placed on record since the last report were more tlian
ordinarily numerous and interesting. A mass of meteoric iron fell
on Aug. 24, 1873, at Maysville, California, and is one of the veiy
few metallic irons the actual descent of which has been wit-
nessed. In the following month a number of meteorites fell near
Khairpur, in the Punjaub ; and it is also related that in the
month of December, when the British army halted on the banks
of the Prah, an aerolite fell in the market-place of Coomassie,
and was regarded by the native population as a portent of evil.
On the 14th and 20th of May, 1874, aerolites fell at Castalia, in
North Carolina. The last stone-fall of the past year took place
near Iowa city on the 12th of February, 1875, and of this
meteorite also special analyses were made in the United States,
of which some unforeseen results were lately announced by their

author, Mr. A. W. Wright. In England no detonating meteor
has been observed this year ; and the brightest meteor recorded
since the last report occurred on the ist of September last, taking
its course over the north of England, or Scotland, where clouded
skies must have prevailed, as hs flash was like that of lightning.
Other bright meteors occurred on the 2nd and l6th of September,
nth of October, 17th of December, 9th of March, I2th of April,
and and and 4th of May in this year. A meteor burst wi'h a
loud detonation over Paris and its neighbourhood nn the lOth of
February ; it was of great size and brilliancy, and left a cloud-
like streak of light on its track for more than half an hour. No
duplicate observation of it was obtained in England. Another
fireball fell at Orleans on the 9th of March, and of this two
good observations appeared to have been obtained in England,
which may assist to determine its real height. During the
annual meteor showers of the past year very unfavourable
weather generally prevailed for recording meteor tracks, and few
meteors were seen on those nights when the usual expectations
of their appearance were entertained. A thorough examination
of all the observations collected by the committee since the pub-
lication of the Meteor Adas in 1867, with the view of extending
and correcting the list of general and occasional meteoric showers
which it embraced, has been continued with satisfactory results
under the direction of Mr. Greg. The report also contained a
rhumi of the contents of the recent publications on the subject
of meteoric astronomy. Mr. Glaisher remarked that the report
was the result of considerable labour performed by Prof. A. S.
Herschel, but he pointed out that the work of properly treating
meteor observations had now become so great as to be beyond
the power of the Association to grapple with, and alluded with
satisfaction to the arrangements being carried out by M. Le-
verrier. A discussion took place on the connection of comets
and meteors, in the course of which Sir William Thomson said
that there was nothing to justify the assertion that the mass of
comets was so small as was sometimes supposed, and he con-
sidered there was good evidence for beheving that the comet's
tail was really a train of meteors.

The Report of the Committee on Britiih Rainfall, by Mr. G. J.
Symons, began by giving an epitome of the rainfall work done
in connection with the British Association during the last fourteen
years. It then referred to the steps taken after the meeting at
Belfast to obtain additional stations in Ireland, which were so
successful that the committee received 190 offers of assistance.
The acceptance of all these offers would have involved an ex-
penditure far beyond the funds at the disposal of the committee,
and they were therefore reluctantly compelled to make a careful
selection, resulting, however, in the establishment of sixty-six
stations, many of them in localities of extreme importance. In
the past fifteen years the number of stations had been raised from
241 to nearly 2,000. The influence of size and shape on the
indications of rain gauges had been experimentally examined,
and also the effect of height above ground. The laws which
regulate the seasonal distribution of rainfall had been to a certain
extent .ascertained. The secular variation of annual fall had
been approximately determined. A code of rules had been
drawn up for observers. Nearly 250 stations have been started
at the cost of the Association, and 629 stations have been visited,
and the gauges examined by the secretary. They had obtained
and supported observations on mountain tops, and places difficult
of access where no observations had been made, in Cumber-
land, Westmoreland, Wales, and Scotland, and also an extensive
series in Ireland. When the works actually in hand are com-
pleted, they will furnish an index to all the observations hitherto
made.

The committee appointed to examine and report upon the
reflective powers of silver, gold, platinum, and speculum metal
did not present any report, but was reappointed at its own
request, with the addition of Prof. Ball.

Owing to the absence of Col. Babbage in India, the committee
for estimating the cost of Mr. Babbage's analytical engine had
not met, but it requested to be reappointed. No report was re-
ceived from the committee for the determination of the mechani-
cal equivalent of heat, but it was stated that Prof. Joule's experi-
ments were making good progress. The committee on teaching
physics in schools was reappointed. Also the committee for
considering the possibility of improving the methods of instruc-
tion in elementary geometry was reappointed, with the addidon
of Prof. Henrici and Mr, J. W. L. Glaisher, and requested to
consider the syllabus of the Association for the improvement of
geometrical teaching, and to report thereon.

Mr. W. C. Roberts read a note from the committee which had

438

NATURE

\Sept. 1 6, 1875

been appointed to investigate the methods of making gold assays
and stating the results. It stated that the standard gold plate
had now been finished, and that portions of it had been forwarded
to different mints for the purpose of being assayed. The reports
read were very satisfactory, as was shown by the fact of M. Stas,
of Brussels obtaining 999 "95 parts of pure gold out of 1,000 as
the result of an analysis. The same plate had also been exa-
min 3d by Mr. Lockyer by means of the spectroscope, and the
lines having been compared with the solar lines, it had been
shown that silver, copper, and iron were absent, and that there-
fore the purification of the metal had been very great.

Mr" A. H. Allen read the Report of the committee appointed
for the urpose of examining and reporting upon the methods
employed pin the estimation of potash and phosphoric acid in
commercvj t products, and on the mode of stating the results, in
which he stated the object of this committee was to examine all
the known methods of analysis of manures and potassium salts.
They had hoped to be able now to present to the Section some
practical and easy process as a neutral standard of reference by
which the present discrepancies might be avoided. The plan
adopted by the committee was to draw up a printed list of
queries which were sent round to all the members of the
Chemical Society, with the request that they would send back
answers ; this plan had been found to work well with very few
exceptions, who declined to give up the processes which they
alone employed. The report ended by the committee desiring
to be re-appointed, and expressing a confident expectation that
by the end of another year some really good results would be
obtained. — The President remarked, at the conclusion, that the
estimation of potash seemed to present much less difficulty than
that of phosphoric acid.

Second Report of a Committee, '-consisting of Prof. A. S.
Herschel and G. A. Lebour, on Experiments to determine
the Thermal Conductivities of certain Rocks, showing especially
the Geological Aspects of the Investigation.— 1)^^ experiments
during the past year were directed chiefly to a re-examina-
tion, with improved apparatus (fully described in the report), of
the rocks observed last. year. With the exception of Kenton
sandstone, which was m^* placed in the last table, all the rocks
have, under the new mode of treatment, kept the same relative
positions, and the absolute conductivities given in the present
report are believed to leave little or nothing to be desired on the
score of accuracy. Quartz has been added to the list, and proves
to have less resistance to the passage of heat than any of the
other substances examined. Slate has been tried both in the line
of cleavage and across it, showing fcj- resistance in the latter posi-
tion than in the former. Some rocks have been experimented
on wet as well as dry, the addition of the water giving an
increased conductivity of a tolerably constant value. It is
intended to continue the experiments in the direction fore-
shadowed by these results. A full table of absolute conduc-
tivities and resistances, with the results of both series of experi-
ments compared, forms part of the report. Coal still maintains
its position with the greatest resistance yet found.

SECTIONAL PROCEEDINGS
SECTION A— Mathematics and Physics

Captain Abney read a paper On the Increase of Actinism dt.'
to difference of Motive Power in the Electric Light, in which he
stated that having been called upon by the War Office to under-
take the photometric measurements of certain magneto-electric
lights, he had determined to carry out actinic measurements of
their value at the same time, believing that the eye observations
would be closely checked by such an independent method. In the
first comparison of the results obtained by both kinds of mea-
surement, a considerable discrepancy was found to occur in the
values given to the different lights. The photographic records
could not err except through gross carelessness in the chemical
preparations, and against this every precaution had been taken.
At first it seemed likely that the eye observations were in fault,
but a more critical examination convinced Captain Abney that
both were correct ; and that though the curves obtained for the
values of the lights did not coincide, yet that they did act as a
check, the one on the other. In all there were six different
machines to examme, each of which was driven by a ten-horse
power engine. Several were driven at varying speeds that the
difference in the light caused by the variation might be tested.

The eye observations were made by a little instrument called
by Captain Abney the Diaphanometer, and described in the
Monthly Notices of the Astronomical Society for last June. The

method adopted for registering the actinic power of the light was
by exposing uniformly sensitive chloride of silver paper to the
action of its rays. Two registrations were carried out with each
light : first, paper was exposed to the naked light at a fixed
distance from the carbon points for three minutes ; and secondly,
a strip of the same paper was exposed beneath black wedges of
slight taper for sixteen minutes. The eye observations were
carried on simultaneously with the latter exposure of the sensitive
paper, in both cases obtaining an integration, as it were, of the
light during that period. Between ten and twenty observations
were taken for each light at the beginning, middle, and end of
each trial. Diagrams of the steam pressure were taken in the
usual manner, and diagrams were also taken of the steam
pressure when driving the machine without exciting a current,
at the same speed as that at which the light was produced. They
were also taken in many cases when the machines were what may
be called short circuited. The data were thus obtained for calcu-
lating the power necessary to produce a light of a certain value.

Diagrams were exhibited showing the mean of the results of
a series of experiments with one instrument ; one curve, deduced
from eighty readings, giving what may be called the optical
value ; another, deduced from 450 readings, giving the actinic
value ; whilst a third showed the ratio of the actinic to the optic
value — the abscissa; being in all these cases measures of the
horse power. The curves are interesting as showing the rapid
decrease of the optical value, and still more of the actinic value,
of the light when worked with a low motive power. They also
show that each machine has a point beyond which the increase
in motive power is not compensated for by increase in light, the
curves apparently becoming asymptotic.

Captain Abney stated that he was not at all prepared for the
great diminution of the value of actinic power in the lights,
though he expected it in a smaller degree. The early experi-
ments of Draper and others had shown that with increase of
temperature the more refrangible portions of the spectrum appear
after the least refrangible, but there seemed to be no measure-
ments which would have been applicable to the present set of
experiments. The curves must evidently be some function of the
wave-lengths, and the author hoped to carry out other experi-
ments in fixed portions of the spectrum in order to ascertain if
the formula whichjhe thought should hold good could be em-
ployed.

SECTION B.

Chemical Science.

Opening Address by A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.C.S., President.

To the privilege of presiding over this Section custom has
added the duty of offering some preliminary remarks upon the
branch of science for whose advancement we are met.

In discharge of this duty some of my predecessors have re-
viewed the progress of chemistry during the previous year ; and
until a fcvf years ago there was no more needful service that your
President could render, though the task of selection and abstr-.c-
tion was one of ever-increasing difficulty. But a few years ago
the wisdom and energy of Dr. Williamson transformed the
Journal of the Chemical Society into a complete record of che-
mical research, and this Association materially promoted the
advancement of science when it helped the Chemical Society in
an undertaking which seemed at one time hopelessly beyond its
means. The excellent abstracts contributed to the Journal err,
if at all, on the side of brevity, and yet the yearly volume seems
to defy the bookbinder's press. I shall not venture to attempt
further abstraction, nor to put before you in any way so vast and
miscellaneous an aggregate of facts as the yearly increment of
chemistry has become. The advancement of our science — to
borrow again the well-chosen language of the founders of this
Association — is of two kinds. The first consists in the discovery
and co-ordination of new facts ; the second in the diffusion of
existing knowledge and the creation of an interest in the objects
and methods and results of scientific research. For the advance
of science is not to be measured only by the annual growth of
a scientific library, but by the living interest it excites and the
number and ardour of its votaries. The remarks I have to offer
you relate to the advancement of chemistry in both aspects.

One fact has been brought into unpleasant prominence by the
Journal of the Chemical Society in its present form, namely, the
small proportion of original work in chemistry which is done in

S^pt. i6, 1875J

NATURE

439

Great Britain. All who are ambitious that our country should
bear a prominent part in contributing to the common stock of
knowledge, and all who know the effect upon individual character
and happiness of the habit and occupation of scientific inquiry,
must regret our backwardness in this respect. The immediate
cause is easily found. It is not that English workers are less
inventive or industrious than their fellows across the Channel,
but that their number is exceedingly small. How comes it that
in a country which abounds in rich and leisurely men and women
— for neither the reason of the case, nor the jealousy of the
dominant sex, nor partial legislation excludes women from
sharing this pursuit with men — there are so few who seek the
excitement and delights of chemical inquiry ? Moralists tell us
that the reason why some men are content with the pleasures of
eating and drinking and the like is, that they have never had
experience of the greater pleasure which the exercise of the
intelligence affords. I am not about to represent it as the moral
duty of those who have means and leisure to cultivate chemistry
or any branch of science ; but no taste for a pursuit can be deve-
loped in the absence of any knowledge of its nature. A taste
for chemistry is often spoken of as a peculiar bias with which
certain men are born. No doubt there are differences in natural
aptitudes and tastes, but the chief reason why it is so rare for
men of leisure to addict themselves to scientific pursuits is, that
so few boys and young men have had experience of the pleasure
which they bring. Much has been done during the last twenty
years, both at the Universities and at the Public Schools, to
provide for the teaching of science. To speak of v/hat I know
best, the University of Oxford has made liberal provision for the
teaching of science, and for its recognition among the studies
requisite for a degree ; nor have the several colleges been back-
ward in allotting scholarships and fellowships as soon as and
whenever they had reason to believe that those elected for pro-
ficiency in science would be men equal in intellectual calibre to
those elected for proficiency in classics or mathematics. But the
result is somewhat disappointing, and under a free-trade system
science has failed to attract more than a small percentage of
University students. Excellent lectures are delivered by the
professors to scanty audiences, and the great bulk of those edu-
cated at the University receive no more tincture of science than
their predecessors did twenty years ago.

The recognition of science among the subjects of University
examinations is by no means an unmixed advantage to those
concerned. Examinations have played and will continue to play
a useful part in directing and stimiilating study, and in securing
the distribution of rewards according to merit ; but they produce
in the student, as has often been pointed out, a habit of looking
to success in examination as the end of his studies. This habit
of mind is peculiarly alien to the true spirit of scientific work.
Only such knowledge is valued as is likely to be producible at
the appointed time. Whether a theory is consistent or true is
immaterial, provided it is probable, that is to say, advanced by
some author whose authority an examiner would recognise. All
incidental observations and experimental inquiry lying outside
the regular laboratory course, which are the natural beginnings
of original work, must be eschewed as trespassing on the time
needed for preparation. The examination comes; the University
career is at an end ; and the student departs, perhaps with
a considerable knowledge of scientific facts and thecnries,
but without having experienced the pleasure, still so easily
gained in our young science of chemistry, of adding one new fact
to the pile of knowledge, and, it may he, with little more inclina-
tion to engage in such pursuit than have most of his contempo-
raries to continue the study of Aristotle or Livy.

However, examinations have their strong side, to which I
have referred, as well as their weak side ; and although it is the
natural desire of a teacher to see his more promising pupils con-
tributing to the science with whose principles and methods they
have laboured to become acquainted, the younger, like the elder
branches of knowledge, must be content to serve as instruments
for developing men's minds. Chemistry can only claim a place
m i;eneral education if its study serves, not to make men che-
)insts, but to help in making them intelligent and well-informed,
ll it is found to serve this purpose well, the number of chemical
students at the Universities ought to increase ; and if the number
increases, no rigour of the examination system will prevent one
or two, perhaps, in every year adopting chemistry as the pursuit
of their lives. But the Universities have little power to deter-
mine what number of students shall follow any particular line of
study. "With certain reserves in favour of classics and mathe-

matics, their system is that of free- trade. Young men of eighteen
or nineteen have tastes already formed, some for the studies
which were put before them at school, in which, perhaps, they
are already proficient and have been already successful, some for
games and good fellowship. It is, from the nature of the case,
with the masters of schools that the resnonsibility rests of fixing
the position of science in education. During the last ten years
provision has been made at most of the larger schools for the
teaching of some branches of science ; and those who recall the
conservatism of schoolboys, and their consequent prejudice in
favour of the older studies, will understand a part of the diffi-
culties which have had to be encountered. The main and insur-
mountable difficulty is what I may call the impenetrability of
studies. A new subject cannot be brought in without displacing
in part those to which the school-hours have been allotted. It
is the same difficulty which occurs again and again in human
life. There are so many things which it would be well to know
and well to follow ; but life, like school-time, is too short for all.
From the educational phase of this diflSculty the natural difference
of tastes and aptitudes provides in some degree a way of escape.
I think that wherever a school can afford appliances for the
teaching, of chemistry, all the boys should pass through the
hands of the teacher of this subject. Two or three hours a week
during one school-year would be sufficient to enable the teacher
to judge what pupils were most promising. There may be
instances to the contrary, but I no not think it likely that any
boy who attended chemical lectures for a year without becoming
interested in the subject would ever pursue it afterwards with
success. Suppose that out of one hundred boys who have gone
through this course, five are selected as having shown more intel-
ligence or interest than the rest ; they should be permitted to
give a considerable part of their time, while still at school, to
studying science without suffering loss of position in the school,
or forfeiting the chance of scholarships or prizes. If any such
system is possible and were generally adopted, each school send-
ing annually to the Universities, or other institutions for the
education of young men, its small contribution of scientific
students, the professor's lecture-rooms and laboratories would be
filled with young men who had already learnt the rudiments of
science. Laboratories of research as well as of elementary in-
struction would find a place at the English Universities, and the
reproach of barrenness would be rolled away.

Some of the defects or difficulties to which I have adverted
are perhaps peculiar to our older schools and universities. The
introduction of the study of natural science has borne earlier fruit
in schools whose celebrity is of more recent date, such as the
excellent college in this neighbourhood. Oxford and Cambridge
ought to possess, but are far from possessing, such laboratories
as have lately been built at the Owens College, Manchester. It
is proposed to constitute in this city a College of Science and
Literature, similar to Owens College and in connection with two
of the Oxford colleges. The scheme set forth by its promoters
appears thoroughly wise and well-considered, and all who are
interested in scientific education must wish it success.

I have placed first among the modes in which science, and in
particular chemical science, may be advanced, the assignment to
it of a more prominent and honoured place in education ; but
owing, as I do, my own scientific calling and opportunities of
work to a bequest made to Christ Church by Dr. Matthew Lee
more than a hundred years ago, I cannot forget or disbelieve in
the influence of endowments.

I have spoken of the leisurely class in this country as that to
which scientific chemistry must look for its votaries. In our
social conditions and in the absence of endowments it is hard to
see where else they can be found. Men who have their liveli-
hood to make cannot afford to spend money, and still less to
bestow their time and energy, on the luxury of scientific inquiry.
Even if they have the opportunity of earning their livelihood by
scientific teaching, and with it the command of laboratory and
apparatus, no leisure may remain to them for original work, and
the impulse to such work (often, it must be admitted, of a feeble
constitution) is starved in the midst of plenty. The application
of endowments to the promotion of original research is a difficult
question. I am inclined to think that posts, constituted chiefly
with this object, should be attached in every case to some educa-
tional body, and should have light educational duties assigned to
them. The multiplication of such posts in connection with the
many colleges and schools in this country, where there is some
small demand for chemical teaching, with the provision in each
case of a sufficient laboratory and means of work, would probably

440

NATURE

{{Sept. 16, 1875

do more than any centralised scheme for the promotion of che-
mical research.

To the advancement of chemistry by the formation of public
opinion on the questions of scientific education and the endow-
ment of original research, the Chemical Section of the British
Association may reasonably hope to contribute. But doubts
have been expressed as to the serviceableness of this or any such
organisation ior the direct advancement of our science itself. No
doubt we cannot accomplish much. Chemical inquirers at the
present time may be compared to a party of children picking
wild flowers in a large field : at first all were near together, but
as they advanced they separated, till now they are widely scat-
tered, singly, or in groups, each busy upon some little spot,
while for every flower that is gathered ten thousand others remain
untouched.

That the science of chemistry would advance more rapidly if
it were possible to organise chemists into working parties,
having each a definite region to explore, cannot, I think, be
doubted. Is such organisation in any degree possible ?

The experiments of which Bacon has left a record, though
curious historically, have no scientific value. But in one respect
his ' ' Physiological Remains " furnish an example which we
might follow with profit. "Furthermore," he writes, "we pro-
pose wishes of such things as are hitherto only desired and not
had, together with those things which border on them, for the
exciting the industry of man's mind. " I will quote further, as
an example, a part of one of his "wishes," which has very
recently been fulfilled. " Upon glass four things would be put
in proof. The first, means to make the glass more crystalline.
The second, to make it more strong for falls and for fire, though
it come not to the degree to be malleable."

I do not know that the industry of M. de la Bastie's mind
was excited by Bacon's mention of glass more strong for falls and
for fire among things hitherto only desired and not had ; but the
conception ot such an enumeration seems to me worthy of its
author. Much fruitless and discouraging labour might be saved,
a stimulus might be given to experimental inquiry, and chemical
research might become more systematic and thus more produc-
tive, if Bacon's example were followed by the leaders of chemistry
at the present day.

The Council of the Pharmaceutical Conference, whose meeting
has just preceded our own, has published a list of subjects for
research which they commend to the attention of chemists.
Where one of these subjects has been undertaken by any chemist
his name is appended to it. Might not the representatives of
scientific chemistry issue a similar list?

Perhaps two or three of the distinguished English chemists
who are members of this Association might be willing to serve
on a committee which should put itself into communication with
the leaders of chemical inquiry abroad, and should make and
obtain and publish suggestions of subjects for research. Such a
list so got together would, I think, find a welcome place in all
scientific journals, and would thus be widely known and easily
accessible to every student.

That which chiefly makes the organisation of chemical inquiry
desirable is the boundless extent of the field upon which we have
entered. Not tvery fact, however laboriously attained and
rigorously proved, is an important fact, in chemistry any more
than in other branches of knowledge. Our aim is to discover
the laws which govern the transformations of matter ; and we
are occupied in amassing a vast collection of receipts for the pre-
paration of different substances, and facts as to their composition
and properties, which may be of no more service to the general-
isations of the science, whenever our Newton arises, than were,
I conceive, the bulk of the stars to the conception of gravitation.

It may, however, be urged that the growth of chemical theory
keeps pace with the accumulation of chemical facts. It is so, if
the elaboration of constitutional formulse is leading us up to such
a theory. But at present, however useful and ingenious this
mode of summarising chemical facts may be, it does not amount
to a theory of chemistry.

Two objections to regarding $uch formulse 'as anything more
than a chemical short-hand, as it has been termed, seem worth
recalling. The first is mentioned at the outset in most text-
books in which these formulEe are employed, but sometimes, I
venture to think, lost sight of afterwards. The arrangement of
the atoms of a molecule in one plane is equally convenient in
diagrams, and improbable as a natural fact. But is not this
arrangement used as though it were a natural fact when the pos-
sible number of isomeric bodies is inferred from the number of
different groupings of the atoms which can be effected on a plane

surface ? The conceptions of plane geometry are much simpler
than those of solid geometry (which is another recommendation
of the present system of formulae) ; but so far as I am able to
follow the similar theories which have recently been propounded
independently by MM. Le Bel and van't Hoff, the consideration
of tlie possible isomerisms of solid molecules leads to new con-
clusions.* Wislicenus has found that paralactic acid undergoes
the same transformations as ordinary lactic acid when heated and
when oxidised. The two acids differ in their action on polar-
ised light. His conclusion is that paralactic acid does not differ
in its atomic structure from the lactic acid of fermentation, and
that the kind of isomerism which exists between the two acids
is not connected with the difference in the reciprocal arrangement
of the atoms, but rather with a difference in the geometric
structure of the molecule. To this difference he gives the name
of "geometric isomerism. "t The authors named above agree
in supposing that the action of substances in solution on polarised
light results from an unsymmetrical arrangement of atoms and
radicles in three dimensions around a nucleus-atom of carbon.

The second objection relates to the statical character of the
account which "developed" formula; give of the differences
between different kinds of matter. The modern theory of heat
supposes, not only that the molecules which constitute any por-
tion of matter are in constant rapid motion, but that the atoms
which constitute each molecule are similarly moving to and
fro. Such movement might be an oscillation about the position
assigned to the several atoms in the constitutional formula of
the molecule. Since, however, the modes of formation and de-
composition of substances are the principal facts upon which the
formulae are based, it is to be considered whether these facts may
not depend altogether upon the nature or average nature of the
motion impressed upon the atoms — that is, upon dynamical and
not upon statical differences.

Many substances are known whose existence is contrary to
the theory of valency and saturation, such as nitric oxide and
carbonic oxide ; others, which transgress the theory of isomerism,
such as chloride of dichlordibromethane (C^ CP Br^, CI*) and
bromide of tetrachlorethane (C^ Cl^, Br^), which should be
identical, but are isomeric •.% yet these theories are simply an
expression of the statement that certain substances can exist or
can differ, while others cannot. It is true that in the vast ma-
jority of cases the theoretical limitation seems to hold good. But
just as the absence of any fossil remains of the connecting links
between species is only significant if the geologic search has been
sufficiently thorough, so it is with chemical theories depending
upon the non-existence of certain classes of bodies. Indeed, in
our case, where investigation is guided by theory, and, as a rule,
only those things which are looked for are found, the limitation
may be partly of our own making. A chemist who should de-
part from the general course, and set himself to prepare substan-
ces whose existence is not indicated by theory, would perhaps
obtain results of more than the usual interest.

Among chemical inquiries, if ever such a list as I have ven-
tured to suggest should be drawn out, I hope that many would
be included relating to the most familiar substances and the
simplest cases of chemical change. The thorough study of a few
reactions might perhaps bring in more knowledge of the laws of
chemistry than the preparation of many new substances.

I believe that if any chemist not content with a process giving
a good yield of some product examines minutely the nature ot
the reaction, observing its course as well as its final result, he
will find much more for study than the chemical equation repre-
sents. He will probably also find that the reaction and its con-
duions are of a formidable complexity, and will be driven back
towards the beginnings of chemistry lor cases sufficiently simple
for profitable study.

In concluding my remarks, I desire briefly to refer to another
branch of chemical science, to the advancement of which this
Association seeks to contribute, I mean applied or technical
chemistry. One of the principal differences between the papers
read before this Section, as a class, and those which the Chemical
Society receives, is the larger proportion in our list of papers on
technical subjects. Whatever chemists may hold, there can be
no doubt that the estimation of our science by the outside world
rests largely on the well-founded belief that chemistry is useful.
Indeed, though scientific chemists are justly eager to vindicate
the value of investigations remote from any application to the
arts, they cannot feel a livelier sense of triumph when the suc-

* Bull, de la Soc. Chem. de Paris, t. xxii. p. 337, and t. xxiii. p. 295.
t Ann. Chim. et Phys., s™'^ s6rie, t. 1. p. 122.
I Bull, de la Soc. Chim. de Paris, t. xxiv. p. 197-

Sept. 1 6, 1 875 J

NATURE

441

cessful synthesis of a vegetable principle yields at the same time
a product of great technical value, as in the case of the production
of artificial alizarin.

By visiting in turn the principal centres of British industry,
this Association brings together men engaged on pure and on
applied chemistry. We who come as visitors may hope that
our papers and discussions here may bring fresh interest in the
science, if not actual hints for practice, to those whose art or
manufacture is based on chemistry. In return, the most interest-
ing communications the Section has received have not unfre-
quently been the descriptions of local industries ; and there is
no part of our hospitable reception more welcome and more in-
structive to us than the opportunities which are provided of
seeing chemical transformations on a large scale, effected by
processes which observation and inventiveness have gradually
brought to perfection and with the surprising familiarity and
skill which are engendered by daily use.

SECTION D.— Biology.
Depa7 tment of Zoology and Botany.
Dr. Hector, chief of the New Zealand Survey, gave a most
interesting account of the modes of occurrence of the Moa bones
in New Zealand. He used the term Moa in preference to that
of Dinomis, because the bones of the New Zealand birds were
now divided among so many genera. He cemonsi rated most
conclusively that the knowledge of their former existence was
not communicated to the Maoris by the Europeans, who deduced
their structure from their remains, but, on the contrary, was
imparted to the latter by the former. Up to recent times there
had been a constant fulfilment of the statements made by the
Maoris concerning the localities in which the bones would
be, found. He believed there was no hope of ever finding
the birds alive, for he himself had been over the whole of the
islands very thoroughly without seeing them. Dr. Hector exhi-
bited a map of New Zealand on which were denoted all the
areas in which Moa bones had been found, and all the localities
in which considerable finds of bones had been made, with indica-
tions of their condition or surroundings. He found that the
country occupied by primeval fore.-ts before the advent of Euro-
peans was that in which Moa bones did not occur. His deduc-
tion was that they lived in the open and low scrub, in which
they could walk. In all this region, within his own memory,
the Moa bones were extremely abundant in the South Island, all
over the ground ; but these bones were very rarely found in col-
lections, for they were usually decomposed and split and warped.
In the enormous extent of Sub-Alpine country in the South
Island, which was covered by only a light vegetation, large
quantities of well-preseived Moa remains had been recently
found, associated with remains or reliques of natives. It appeared
to him that the natives had pressed up the country for the pur-
pose of capturing, killing, and eating the Moas ; and as the
natives could not follow them through the sharp bayonet-grass
and other underscrub, they seemed to have got at them by setting
portions of it on fire, which collected the animals together, often
killed them, and accounted for so many of their bones being
accumulated in particular spots. And in some of these localities
where the Moas were destroyed by fire, little heaps of chalcedonic
quartz pebbles, which were their crop-stones, were found, each
heap associated with the remains of one bird. And this fact, of
their being the crop-stones, had been conclusively proved by the
discovery of a carcase crushed and decayed so as to be unfit for
anatomical purposes, but containing within the thorax just such
a little heap of pebbles as had been described. The second
chief mode of occurrence of Moa bones was in the turbary
deposits and desiccated swamps, occurring in almost all the
valleys leading to the east coast. One notable deposit was at
Glenmark, where the remains of a terrace at a higher level had
been cut through by the stream, leaving a large turbary deposit
on the shoulders of the hill on both sides. Here were found a
great number of Moa bones, without any associated Maori imple-
ments. Out of this place had been got bones sufficient to cover
twice the area of the Section Room. They occurred mixed
together, and above, below, and among great accumulations of
drilt-wood, which were ten or twelve feet deep over many acres.
The bones got out of that deposit indicated at least 1,700 indivi-
duals, which had either been carried down and smothered in floods
or which had died naturally and been carried down by the water.
Similar deposits occurred in caves, and in turbary deposits on
the coast, which were exposed below high-water mark, showing

that there had been comparatively modem submersion ; but there
were no marine deposits above, and they rested on a denuded
surface of the latest Tertiary beds. There seemed to have been
an uninterrupted submergence of New Zealand since the time
when the Moas were first developed in such large numbers ; and
there had been no considerable re-emergence of the lanl since
then. Another mode of occurrence of Moa bones was wherever
the country was favourable for Maori camps, on the sheltered
grassy plots and links, or among the sand-hills near. They were
associated with their cooking-hollows, and with stone imple-
ments, which, however Neolithic in aspect, were similar to those
used now by Maoris. It had been said that the oldest Moa
remains were those associated with the ancient moraines of the
upper valleys, but these were the great natural roads up which it
was very hkely that some Moas would travel and leave their
remains there. In caves the Moa bones were found resting on
the stalactitic shelves, perhaps cemented by a little carbonate of
lime. They were hardly ever found on the lower surfaces of the
caves ; and he believed they had mostly gained access to the
caves by falling through the upper chasms. He had evidence
that sheep in modem days fell through in the same way, and
their bones were found similarly situated in the caves. The
earliest traces of the Moas that had been found were footprints
at Poverty Bay, occurring in a soft pumice sandstone, within six
or eight inches of the upper surface. Many blocks had been
procured with these undoubted footprints. The lower surface
of each depression was formed of very fine micaceous sand, but
it was filled up with much coarser green quartzose sand. After
the birds had passed, the impress'ion had been filled up by blown
sand. Undoubtedly a true bird-bone had been found in Tertiary
deposits in New Zealand, but he was inclined to think it
belonged to a gigantic extinct Penguin. — The President testified
to the value or Dr. Hector's address by saying that he had never
till that time really understood the modes of occurrence of Moa
bones. — Prof. W. C. Williamson said that scientific workers who
had advice and sympathy readily accessible to them could knovr
little of the energy and enthusiasm required to sustain the solitary
individual who had to labour without meeting a scientific or even
an educated man for weeks and months. Dr. Hector was a
conspicuous example in this respect, and deserved all the honour
his fellow-workers in England could give him.

Dr. Carpenter gave a summary of the results of his investiga-
tions into the nervous and generative systems of comatula. He
described as a nervous cord the cord existing in the axial hole I'f
the skeletal segments, which Miiller had described as a vessel.
No cavity was to be found in it, and in a favourable plane of
section branches from it to the tentacular muscles were detected.
Although this cord was destitute of the ordinary structure and
insulating material of nerves, that was explicable by the fact that
only one kind of muscle had to be affected, and that all the
maiscles acted s multaneously, in flexion of the arm. The cord
to each arm came off from the curious five-lobed organ in the calyx
below the perivisceral cavity. This was determined to be the
central nervous mass by the following experimeat. A living
comatula was taken, and the visceral mass was turned out. A
needle was thrust into the supposed nervous organ, and in-
stantly all the arms were coiled up to their full extent, and were
gradually relaxed. This was repeated several times. A curious
generative axis had also been discovered in the shape of a cord
passiniT through the middle of the nei-vous centre, and through
the visceral mass to spread into a plexus around the mouth.
Thence branches wert given off to the arms and pinnules, and
the ovaries and testes were directly connected with these cords
as axes. Dr. Carpenter said that these facts were such as to
necessitate the separation of the crinoids much further from the
rest of the echinoderms than hitherto. In fact, he considered
they had little in common beyond the calcareous network of the
skeleton. In conclusion he said nat he had learnt from a trust-
worthy observer that after a recent hurricane in the West Indies
a vast number of Pentacrini had strewed the shore of Barbados ,
in all stages of growth, from one inch to eighteen inches in
length ; but unfortunately no naturalist was at hand to reap the
rich harvest.

Dr. I. Bay ley Balfour read a papc On the Flora and Geological
Structure of the Maicarene Islands. He said that in Bourbon
there was a great contrast between the flora of the older north-
western portion and that of the south-eastem district within the
area formed by the volcano now acting. Here the soil was very
barren, with only a few composites and other plants that flourished
in a dry soil. The flora was not most closely allied to that of
Africa, but rather to that of India and the Indian Archipelago.

442

NATURE

{Sept. 1 6, 1875

Ther« was a'great profusion of fems, mosses, and lower'crypto-
gams ; and evergreens were abundant. The species were
few in proportion to the ^genera, and the genera in propor-
tion to the orders. The proportion of indigenous plants and
of species to any area was generally small ; but in Bourbon there
was the great number of 1,700 species. The most remarkable
genus in the group, perhaps, was Pandanus, the screw-pine,
which had species peculiar to each island, though the commonest,
P. utilis, occurred on all three islands. Certain genera were
found to be endemic to the group, especially in the Rubiacese
and Compositse. In addition, in each island there were certain
genera endemic to that island alone. In North-western Bourbon,
although, as in Mauritius, settlers had produced much alteration
by cutting down trees, &c., there was still an abundance of
plants which flourished in a moist climate. The flora of Mauri-
tius exhibited affinities with that of N. W. Bourbon, although
possessing endemic genera. Perhaps no place in the world had
had its flora so much altered by settlers, especially by means of
fires through carelessness. The original flora had been almost
exterminated. The few plants now remaining included one new
genus ; and there were certain peculiar Pandani, but the general
type was allied to that of Mauritius. In many of the small
volcanic and coral islands which surround Mauritius and
Rodriguez, very often little more than rocks, there were genera
which were peculiar to those islands, or else species that were
representatives of other species existing on the main islands.
Round Island, a mere cone near Mauritius, had three genera of
palms represented by different species, which were found no-
where else ; and exhibited many other peculiarities in its flora.
Dr. Balfour reserved his opinion on the vexed question of the
origin of these islands by independent volcanic action or by the
submergence of an ancient continent connected with Africa ; but
stated that soundings taken between Mauritius and Rodriguez,
about fifty miles west from the latter, gave a depth of 2,000
fathoms ; while 100 miles S. W. of Mauritius the depth was 2, 700
fathoms. — Prof. Williamson remarked on the parallel between
these facts and those first brought to light by Mr. Darwin relative
to Galapagos. It appeared that these modifications of species
and genera were such as must necessarily have, resulted from
modifications in a long course of time ; and they compelled
naturalists to accept Mr. Darwin's views whether they liked them
or not. Coupled with the facts derived by Mr. Wallace from
the Indian Archipelago, he thought considerable probability was
given to the submergence theory. — Prof. Dickson could not see
that the occurrence of representative forms on different oceanic
islands was any stronger proof of evolution than the facts relating
to the grouping of plants about geographical centres ; but Prof.
Williamson maintained that the occurrence of distinct yet analo-
gous species on contiguous islands of very recent geological age
was a striking evidence of modification produced by new physical
conditions, unless indeed distinct new creative acts were admitted
within a comparatively modern period.

Prof. Williamson gave an account of his recent discoveries
among the fossil seeds of the coal measures, and partly con-
firmed and partly controverted Brogniart's views on some of the
same seeds. He (Prof. Williamson) gave the name Lagenostoma
to a form of seed larger and more bulky than a grain of rice,
which had a flask-shaped cavity above the nucleus, between
it and the micropyle. This cavity was surrounded by a mem-
brane quite distinct from that investing the nucleus. Prof
Williamson believed that he had found pollen grains in this
cavity, and that the only difference between this and an ordinary
coniferous seed consisted in the presence of this chamber, which
protected the pollen and brought it into contact with the nucleus.
Another seed of the same general type had the upper part of the
nucleus contracted, forming a sort of mammilla : thus the cavity
above became of a different shape. He named it Physostoma.
Another type he called yEthiotesta. All these were from the
Lancashire coal-field. A specimen from Burntisland showed a
transition from the extremely small and narrow micropyle of ordi-
nary angiospermous seeds, and the large chamber of Lage-
nostoma. Prof. Williamson also referred to Cardiocarpum,
which he found to have the nucleus thickened, and to have a
prolonged spur containing the micropyle. Antholithes and
Cardiocarpum were but portions of the same flowering plant.
He found that Trigonocarpum had really a long projection
at the end, of a similar nature, but from some Newcastle
specimens he inferred that it had a large investing sarcocarp.
The type was not at all dissimilar to Cardiocarpum.

Prof, Balfour, va. 9. Notice 0/ Rare Plants from Scotland, drew
attention to tl:e dA'.covery o{ A^ahuJ^cx/h's in Perthshire, hitherto

only found in Ireland. He exhibited the original specimen of
Sah'x sadleri and Carex frigida, discovered in Scotland last year
by Mr. Sadler. — Dr. I. Bayley Balfour contributed some notes
on Tunieriacerc from Rodriguez, especially referring to one new
form. — Prof. A. Dickson exhibited a Pritmila vulgaris with inter-
petaline lobes, and pointed out its relations to Soldenella and
other Primulacese ; he also described a monstrosity in Saxifraga
itellaris, in which there occurred a calyx, no corolla, many
stamens, and many carpels. Two specimens were found, each
with a single terminal monstrous flower.

It is to be regretted that there was a paucity in the attendance
of distinguished zoologists and botanists, and that the number and
importance of the papers read was not so great as to furnish any
idea of a vi^idespread existence or encouragement of research in
natural history. It might be well for naturalists to put them-
selves in evidence a little more strongly, and to show the value
of their results more prominently, if they desire to be aided in
their researches by public funds, or to win general sympathy,
especially when geologists and anthropologists make such vigorous
displays of their conquests.

Department of Anatomy and Physiology.

Prof Rolleston, in moving a vote of thanks to Prof. Cleland
for his presidential address to the department, said he had rarely
spent an hour with more pleasure than in listening to that
address. He would show the value he set upon it by saying that
Prof Cleland's old master, the great John Goodsir, would
have been glad to hear it. He believed much of what the
President had said would take its date from that meeting as of
permanent authority and value.

Dr. McKendrick read the important rep«rt On the Physiglogi-
cal Action of Light, by him.self and Prof Dewar. We hope to
publish it in full in an early number.

Mr. W. J. Cooper, in a paper On the Physiological Effects of
various Drinking Waters, referred to the experiments of M.
Papillon on various animals, described before the French Aca-
demy of Science in 1870-73, by which it was shown that not
only the ash of the food eaten affects the composition of the
bones, but also that mineral matter in dilute solution is capable
of being assimilated. Consequently, alterations in the compo-
sition of the water supply of a community might be of very great
importance to the organic structure of the human body, if the
very composition of the bones is affected by the quality of the
water. The inorganic impurities of water had been too much
overlooked, notwithstanding the serious consequences which
sometimes follow. Mr. Cooper insisted that one of the first con-
ditions in the inauguration of a water-supply should be to ensure
perfect freedom from excess of any mineral except those com-
paratively harmless ingredients, chloride of sodium and carbonate
of lime.

Mr. T. G. P. Hallett read a paper On the Conservation of
Forces, devoted to a long argument against this principle being
extended to vital phenomena. He endeavoured to prove that
life, whether tested by its origin or its effects, was a force, and
that the laws of that force were not such as the conservation
principle required and declared. Dr. Allen Thomson, at the
close of the discussion which followed, thought it best to suspend
judgment on the points that had been mooted, and to continue
the quiet investigation of physical phenomena ; his impression,
derived from long observation, being that the more the phe-
nomena of life were attended to, the more fully they were ex-
plained by known laws.

Among other papers may be mentioned Messrs. L. C. Miall
and F. Greenwood's, On Vascular Plexuses in the Elephant and
some other Animals, and Mr. Greenwood's On the Preservation 0/
the Larger Animals for Anatomical Examination.

If the papers read before the Department of Anatomy and
Physiology had to be taken as an index of the activity of re-
search and thought concerning these subjects in Great Britain,
we should have to confess ourselves to be at a low ebb. The
department only sat on three days out of five, and those three
days were certainly not crowded with valuable papers. The
physiological investigations of Drs. McKendrick, Lauder Brun-
ton, and Pye-Smith, and Prof Dewar, -wgxq of high interest and
great value ; but the subjects they referred to cover only a very
small part of the wide domain of Physiology. Morphology was
represented most worthily by the President's address, but there
was a plentiful lack of memoirs on descriptive anatomy, mor-
phology, embryology, and histology. It is of course difficult to
make the details of morphological investigation interesting in a
spoken narration, but expositions of new or improved principles,

Sept. i6, 1875]

NATURE

443

and results of research in all departments, could be usefully
brought forward at these meetings and receive illumination from
discussion by those in authority. Are our anatomists and phy-
siologists less willing to make such efforts than other scientific
men, or have they a greater fondness for remaining in their own
special haunts without emerging on any common ground ?

Department of Anthropology.

Miss A. W. Buckland, of Bath, read a paper On Rhabdo-
mancy and Belomancy, in which she endeavoured to show that
rhabdomancy, or divination by means of a rod, still practised in
England in some localities, was a survival of a very ancient
superstition, originating in the use of rods as symbols of power.

Mr. John Evans described fully the proposed code of symbols
for archaeological maps which has been drawn up by a committee
oi leading archjeologists on the continent of Europe, and will
probably be extensively used. Suggestive crude symbols are
adopted for the leading varieties of ancient remains, and a series
of modifications of each chief form is to be used, to denote as far
as possible the exact nature of the remains.

Mr. Hyde Clarke furnished a notice of the prehistoric names
of weapons, in continuation of a note laid before the British
Association in 1873, which showed that there was a community
of aboriginal names of weapons in the prehistoric epoch. He
now added that further research had confirmed these views.

Mr. Hyde Clarke also read a paper On Prehistoric Culture in
India and Africa. After referring to his investigations as to the
evidence of the successive migration and distribution of languages
in Asia, Africa, North, Central, and South America, and in
some cases in Australia, he proceeded to give the result of later
special investigations as to the community of culture in India
and Africa. The philology of the aboriginal languages of India
could only be effectually studied from those of Africa, and Mr.
Hyde Clarke suggested that it would be a great advantage if
some of the missionaries of the two regions could interchange
stations. — Prof. Rolleston remarked upon the desirableness of a
complete work being prepared on the present ethnology of India,
under the superintendence and at the cost of the Indian Govern-
ment.

Dr. Phene, in his paper On the Works, Manners, and Customs
of the Prehistoric Inhabitants of the Mendip Hills, adopted the
theory of a similarity of race in the people who formerly occupied
the caves on the Atlantic seaboard of Europe and of Britain ;
and identified the inhabitants of the Mendips with them.

Mr. D. Mackintosh read a paper On Anthropology, Sociology,
and Nationality, which referred especially to distinctions of race
in the British Isles, and defended his previously expressed views.
He believed that the various colonising tribes had either con-
tinued in certain localities with little interblending, or that the
process of amalgamation had not been sufficient to prevent the
persistence of the more hardened characteristics. He tried to
show that between the north-east and south-west the difference
in the character of the people, irrespectively of circumstances, is
so great as to give a semi-nationality to each division — restless
activity, ambition, and commercial speculation predominating in
the north-east, and contentment and leisurely reflection in the
south-west.

THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.— DETROIT
MEETING.

LAST week we gave a general account of the meeting of
the American Association, from an American correspon-
dent. The following are brief notices of some of the principal
papers read.

We have already referred to the piresidential address of Prof.
Le Conte, and to the address of Prof. Dawson, both of which
were anti-evolutionary, the latter more distinctly so than the
former. Prof. Dawson's views are so well known that we need
not refer at length to his Association address.

Prof. Augustus R. Grote, Director of the Museum of the
Buffalo Academy of Sciences, undertook the task of throwing
light upon past geological eras by showing the present distribu-
tion of certain North American insects. He described the
glacial epoch as occurring at the close of the Tertiary by a con-
tinuous loss of heat. The winters gradually lengthened, the
summers shortened. The tops of mountains that now bear
foliage were then covered with snow, which, in lime consolida-

ting, formed glacial ice that flowed into the valleys. Gradually
an icy sea extending from the north spread southward, even over
the Southern States and dovni the Valley of the Mississippi.
Existing insects of the Pliocene, no matter how gradually they
were affected by the change, must have eventually left their
haunts, and doubtless many species were exterminated. At the
present day there are found in the tops of the White Mountains,
and in the lofty ranges of Colorado, certain species of butterflies
and moths which are completely isolated. To find others of the
same kinds we must explore the Plains of Labrador and the
northern portions of our continent ; there and there only do we
find similar or analogous species. A White Mountain butterfly,
Oeneis Semidea, was cited as an instance in point, and other
butterflies and moths were mentioned, whose isolated habitats
served to prove the general proposition. The retirement of the
glacial seas at the close of the epoch was then considered. Then
the summers were lengthening, while the winters were short-
ened. Then ice-loving insects, such as the White Mountain
butterfly, hung on the edge of the ice sheet which supplied their
food, and followed its retreat — not all, but some of their forms
surviving. Straying upon the local glaciers of the mountain
ranges, they were left behind in some instances, while the main
body followed the retiring ice sheet to the far north. Those
that were left behind still find the conditions of their existence
in the snow-covered summits of the present day. As the valleys
became warmer and glaciers fewer, the chances of their escape
from their isolated positions gradually diminished till their re-
moval became impossible.

Prof. E. S. Morse, of Salem, Mass., has for a long time made
a study of the bones of embryo birds. At this meeting he re-
called briefly the evidence he had shown last year regarding the
existence of the intermedium in birds by citing the embryo tern,
in which he had distinctly found it. This year he made a visit
to Grand Menan expressly to study the embryology of the lower
birds, and was fortunate in finding the occurrence of this bone in
the petrel, sea-pigeon, and eider duck. This additional evidence
showed beyond question the existence of four tarsal bones in
birds, as well as four carpal ones. In these investigations he had
also discovered embryo claws on two of the fingers of the wing
— the index and middle finger. Heretofore in the adult bird a
single claw only had occurred in a few species, such as the
Syrian blackbird, spur-winged goose, knob-winged dove, jacana,
mound bird, and a few others, and in these cases it occurred
either on the index or middle finger or on the radial side of the
metacarpus. All these facts lent additional proof of the reptilian
affinities of birds.

Prof. S. P. Langley, of Alleghany Observatory, detailed some of
the conclusions at which he had arrived after years of study of the
solar surface. Prof. Langley first showed by comparative experi-
ments that an absorptive atmosphere surrounds the sun. Little
attention has in recent years been paid to the study of this atmo-
sphere. The earlier efforts to tabulate its absorptive power, pro-
duced with different observers, though men of eminence, strangely
discordant results. Their methods and deductions were given in
detail. Secchi's results, making the neighbourhood of the edge
of the sun about half the brightness of the centre, are probably
near the fact. Prof. Langley applied well-known photometric
methods to the problem. By attaching a circle of cardboard to
the equatorial telescope, a solar image is received on the board,
plainly showing spots, penumbrre, &c., if the image be one foot
in diameter. From holes in this cardboard, pencils of rays
issue, which being caught on a screen give a second series of
images. If these images are caught upon separate mirrors, in-
stead of a screen, their relative light can be made the subject of
comparison with that of a disc of flame from Bunsen's apparatus,
and thereby their relative intensity determined. Between each
aperture and its respective mirror a lens was interposed which
concentrated the pencil of rays. By suitable additions this
apparatus can be converted to a Rumford photometer, and
in this form it proved most available in Prof Langley's hands.
He found a value,;for the brilliancy of the umbra in sun-spots,
considerably higher than that hitherto computed. The blackest
umbra, he finds, is betweeen 5,000 and io,ooo times as bright
as the full moon. The light of the sun is absorbed by its atmo-
sphere not in the same, bu in a greater proportion than its heat.
A long series of experiments shows that not much more or less
than one-half of the radiant heat of the sun is absorbed or suffers
internal reflection by the atmosphere of the sun itself. Observa-
tions indicate that this atmosphere is (speaking comparatively)
extremely thin ; Prof. Langley is inclined to regard it as
identical with the "reversing layer " observed by Dr. Young,

444

NATURE

{Sept. 1 6, 1875

of Dartmouth, at the base of the chromosphere, though the
chromospheric shadow should perhaps be taken into^the account.
The importance of a .-ui.y of this absorbent atmosphere be-
comes evident if we admit that the greater part of the 500°
which separate the temperature of t'le temperate zone from abso-
lute zero is principally due to the sun's radiation. To this
atmosphere new matter is constantly being added and taken
away by the continual changes of the interior surface. Any
alteration in the capacity for absorption— say a difference of 25
per cent., which could hardly be recognised by observation —
would alter the temperature of our globe by 100°. The e xist-
ence of life on the earth is clearly dependent on the constancy
of the depth and absorption of this solar envelope. Hitherto
we have chiefly confined calculations to the diminution of solar
heat by contraction of the sun's mass — an operation likely to go
on with great uniformity. But here is an element of far more
rapid variation. If changes in the depth of this solar envelope
are cyclical, they would be accompanied by cyclical alterations
of earth's temperature. This may serve alike to explain the
characteristics of variable stars and the vast secular changes on
earth indicated by geology. If the law of alterations in that en-
velope can be ascertained, new light may be shed on the history
of the globe and the near future of life upon it.

Prof. Thomas Meehan, of Germantown, Penn., made an attack
on Darwinian theories in a paper which disputed the assumption
that insects are a material aid in the fertilisation of plants. He
drew the following conclusions: (i) That the great bulk of
coloured flowering plants are self-fertilisers. (2) That only to a
limited extent do insects aid fertilisation. (3) Self-fertilisers are
in every way as healthy and vigorous, and are immensely more
productive, than those dependent on insect aid. (4) That when
plants are so dependent they are the worse fitted to engage
in the struggle for life — the great underlying principle in natural
selection.

Prof. Morse described the evident characteristics of insects
which seemed not only fitted for fertilisation, but were found
actually engaged in the process. He was not prepared to aban-
don the vast mass of facts already obtained on account of the
few and doubtful experiments detailed by Prof. Meehan. Prof.
Riley thought that the fact that insects were absolutely essential
to the existence and perpetuation of many plants, had been proved
by experiments and observations so numerous and convincing
that it could no longer be denied. He mentioned his own ex-
periments with the Yucca ; and he met and combated the theory
that self-fertilisation, like interbreeding, did not tend to deterio-
ration. Prof. Meehan, in explanation of his views, stated that
he regarded the present dependence of plants upon insects as an
evidence of weakness and accident, or of deformation in the
plant. Prof. Riley said that it was a mistake to suppose that
insect life was scarce in the Rocky Mountains.

A paper was presented On some New Fossil Fishes and their
Zoological Relations, by Prof. J. S. Newberry, of Columbia
College, giving brief descriptions of interesting fish remains
found during the past year in the Devonian and Carboniferous
rocks of Ohio. Of these, the most important "find" was that
of nearly the entire bony structure of a single individual of
Dmichthys Terrellii, the hugest of all the old armour-plated
Ganoids, Life-size drawings of most of these bones were exhibi-
ted to the Association, and copies of them will appear in the
second volume of the "Geology of Ohio," now going through
the press. Drawings of another species of Dmichthys was
shown {D. Hertzeri) in which the maxillaries and mandibles
are set with teeth instead of being sharp-edged. The remains
of both these monsters have been found only in the upper
Devonian rocks of Ohio. Prof. Newberry also exhibited to the
Association teeth of Dipterus Glenodus, and those of a new
genus belonging to the same family.

Prof. E. D. Cope, of Philadelphia, made a communication
On the indications of Descent exhibited by North American
Tertiary Mammalia. The gradual development from one
form to another| by changes in the foot bones was traced
through a long series from extinct Tertiary animals to those of
the present day. A similar process of change was traced in the
teeth of animals, the simpler forms of te-ith in the Eocene
being a crown with four tubercles. The human skeleton. Prof.
Cope declared, Iretaiaed many more ancient types than other
Mammalia.

A paper from Prof. Daniel Kirk wood, of Bloomington, Ind.,

On the Distribution of the Asteroids, was read by Prof. Langley.

Prof. Kirkwood stated that twenty years ago, when the number

. of known asteroids did not exceed fifty, it was inferred from

purely physical considerations that there must be great irregu-
larity in their distribution, and that gaps would be found in their
zone where their periods were commensurable with those of the
planet Jupiter. In 1866, when the number of asteroids amounted
to eighty-eight, the agreement of theory and observation in this
matter was the subject of a paper from Prof. Kirkwood, read at
the Buffalo meeting of the Association, and the evidence was
again summed up in a paper at Indianopolis in 1871. Since
then thirty-one asteroids have been added to the group. It is
now proposed to show that the truth of the theory advanced in
1866 is now more than ever determined. The Professor pro-
ceeds to divide the space between the asteroids into six zones by
orbits whose periods would be commensurate with those of
Jupiter. Then taking the members of the group in the order of
their mean distances, it is found that the widest intervals between
them are at these gaps where orbits would coincide with certain
multiples of Jupiter's revolution. He remarks that it is a notable
fact in the development of the solar system that the largest
planet, Jupiter, should be succeeded by a space so nearly desti-
tute of matter as the zone of the asteroids, the ratio of masses
being as i to 5180. An explanation of the disproportion
was given in a paper read in 1870 ; but it may be asked
what might have been the result if the density of the asteroidal
group had been equal to that of the other planetary rings. For
reasons which he assigns, Prof. Kirkwood believes that if the
asteroidal group had possessed a total density half that of Jupiter,
they would when nebulous have been brought so closely into
contact by the great planet's attraction as to fuse into one,
instead of remaining as separate bodies. A similar result he
regards as having taken place in the case of Uranus. A forma-
tion of the same kind would result where the period of a planet
was one-third that of Jupiter ; corresponding to the ratio
between the periods of Jupiter and Saturn. The rare instances
of great inclination among asteroids' orbits he is inclined to
believe may have been occasioned by comets, when the minor
planets were themselves in a cometary or nebulous condition.

The Hon. L. H. Morgan, of Rochester, read papers On
Ethnical Periods and the Arts of Subsistence. The discussion of
ethnology would be much facilitated by the use of a certain
number of ethnical periods representing conditions in the advance
of man from his earliest to his higher conditions. Mr. Morgan
proposes the following : —

1. A period of savagery.

2. The opening period or lower status of barbarism.

3. The middle period of barbarism.

4. The closing or upper period of barbarism,

5. The period of civilisation.

The ages of stone, bronze, and iron have served a useful pur-
pose in archaeology, but the progress of knowledge has rendered
more definite subdivisions necessary. The use of stone imple-
ments began far back in savagery, which extended even to the
introduction of tools of iron. The successive arts of subsistence
offer distinctions of more value. The period of savagery begins
with the human race. The invention or practice of the art of
pottery may enable us to draw the line between savagery and
barbarism.

The transition from the lower to the middle stages of bar-
barism is marked in the eastern hemisphere by the domestication
of animals ; in the western by the cultivation of maize and suc-
culent plants by irrigation, together with the use of adobe and
stone in house architecture. The upper status of barbarism is
cut off from civilisation by the invention and use in the latter ot
a phonetic alphabet and the art of writing.

In respect to the effect of arts of subsistence in modifying the
improvement of mankind, Mr. Morgan takes very broad views.
He is of the opinion that success in multiplying the sources and
amount of food decided the question of man's supremacy on
earth. His advance has been identified with improvement in
this particular.

Prof, Burt G. Wilder, of Cornell University, read papers on
the following natural history subjects : — Notes on the American
Ganoids {Amia, Lepidosteus, Acipenser, and Polyodon) ; The
Use and Morphological Significance of the Caudal Filament of
the young Lepidosteus ; The Embryology of Bats ; The Affinities
and Ancestry of the existing Sirenia. This paper was based
upon three specimens which were exhibited. First, a foetal
Dugong, 24 feet long, obtained from Australia through Prof. H.
A. Ward. Second, a fretal Manatee, between three and four
inches long (as if extended), obtained from South America
through Prof. James Orton. Third, a foetal Cetacean (probably

Sept. 1 6, 1S75]

NATURE

445

Porpoise), three inches long (as if extended), lent to Prof.
Wilder by Mr. Alex. Agassiz, Curator of the Museum of Comp.
Zoology at Cambridge. The last two specimens are believed to
be the smallest of their kind hitherto recorded.

Prof. Wm. S. Barnard, of Canton, 111., read a paper On the
Detiflopmmt of the Opossum, Didelphys virginiana. — Prof. Bar-
nard read another paper, in which he compared the muscles of
man with those of the higher apes, showing the points of simi-
larity as well as of difference. An interesting point made in
this paper was the statement that one of the buttock muscles
supposed to be peculiar to the higher apes, distinguishing them
from man, really existed in the human body and in a similar
position. It was shown that the muscle thus described by Traill,
and afterwards by Wilder as in the chimpanzee, and by Owen and
Bischoff as in the orang, and by Coues as in the opossum, is also
found in man, and offers no distinction in this respect. Three
new muscles about the hip-joint, found in the orang and some
other apes, were also made the subject of description ; these
muscles have no homologues in man. Two of these act to rotate
the leg and draw it inward ; the other seems too small to have
any functional value and is probably a rudiment, but is interest-
ing as occurring also in some of the lower apes and the opossum.
The other muscles in this region of the body w^ere like those of
man, but in the case of an orang the short head of the biceps of the
thigh was found entirely separated. This is only occasionally the
case with the orang, and this peculiarity is not known to exist in
any other animal. The two large external muscles of the calf
do not unite with each other to form a single tendon Achillis,
consequently in the orang this tendon is double, which sometimes
occurs with marsupials. These investigations, which were ex-
plained in much technical detail, tend to prove that all the
muscles possessed by man can be traced backward in the lower
forms of animals, through the apes to the lemuroids.

Prof. Barnard gave a detailed account of his observations on
the Protozoa, made in the anatomical laboratory of Cornell Uni-
versity, Ithaca, N. Y., where the specimens described were also
seen by Prof. Wilder and others than the investigator himself.

Prof. George F. Barker, of Philadelphia, read a paper
On the Cause of the Relative Intensity of the Broken Lines
of Metallic Spectra. The purpose of this paper is to give the
general result of a series of measurements made to ascertain, by
Vierordt's method, the relative intcHsity of these various lines,
and to compare these whh their lengths measured micrometri-
cally. Vierordt's method consists in measuring the intensity of
a coloured light by the amount of white hght necessary to extin-
guish it. By means of a third telescope attached to the spectro-
scope, a bright sht of light may be thrown upon any portion of
the spectrum, and by varying the distance of the source of this
light, until it extinguished the various spectrum lines in the order
of their brightness, a series of numbers was obtained which, by the
law of the inverse squares, gave the relative intensity of the
different spectrum lines. The metals experimented upon were
copper, gold, silver, antimony, bismuth, and magnesium. The
general result is, that in no case does the length oi the spectrum
line follow the law of brightness. Hence some other hypothesis
must be suggested to account for the phenomena. The author
suggested one which seemed to him to be at least possible, and
to be sustained by the prevalent views on molecular and atomic
physics. The constitution of a gas is simple ; the molecules com-
posing it move in straight lines, and encounter each other and the
walls of the containing vessel in so complex a way that Prof. Max-
well doubts if mathematics can follow their paths. The oscillations
of the atoms within the molecule, arc, however, less complex ;
they either are simple harmonic motions themselves, or they may
be resolved into such. It is these harmonic vibrations which,
communicated to the ether, cause the spectrum lines ; the
number of the different forms of oscillation constituting the
number of lines in the spectrum, the period of any one oscilla-
tion determining the wave length of the corresponding line, and
the amplitude fixing the brilliancy of that line. These things
being granted, we have only to suppose what is perfectly con-
ceivable, that the amplitude of the vibration, the only point we
are now concerned with, varies with the temperature differently
for each of the different kinds of vibration in the molecule, or,
what is the same thing, with the wave length. If, for example,
the peculiar harmonic vibration of the atoms of a copper mole-
cule which gave the longest line in the green, diminished the
amplitude of its oscillation less rapidly than the one in the blue,
then this is a sufficient reason why it should be the longest.
We may, therefore, by inspection of a broken spectrum, conclude
at once on the rapidity with which the amplitude of the different

harmonic vibrations of the atoms within the molecule decreases
with decreasing temperatures, this being simply in the order in
which the lines are arranged as to their length. This is offered
as a working hypothesis to be proved or disproved by special
investigation. From the facts already known it may be regarded
as antecedently probable. It seems to be a step taken into the
great field lying between chemistry and physics, at present a
great and unexplored gulf. Work done here cannot be thrown
away even if done to test an untenable hypothesis. It must bear
fruit, though it may be very different in kind from that antici-
pated.

REPORT ON THE PROGRESS AND CONDI-
TION OF THE ROYAL GARDENS AT KEW
DURING THE YEAR 1874

■pROM Dr. Hooker's recently issued report on the pro-
•^ gress and condition of the Royal Gardens, Kew, for
1874, we learn that a series of lectures, or, as they are
called in the report, "practical lessons," have been given
to the gardeners during the evenings, after working hours.
These "lessons" embrace the elements of structural, syste-
matic, and physiological botany ; of chemistry, physical
geography, and meteorology, in their application to horti-
culture ; of economic botany, forestry, &c. They are given,
some in the young men's Library, others in the Garden or
Museum. Notes of these lessons have to be taken by those
attending them, which, after being fairly written out in note-
books, are examined periodically by the teacher and corrected,
or more explicit instruction given if necessary. The attendance
at these lessons is voluntary, but the fact of " good attendance "
is recorded in every gardener's certificate of conduct and pro-
ficiency on his leaving the service of the establishment.

These lessons have been instituted with the viiew of the better
education of the gardeners in subjects bearing upon their profes-
sion, so as to qualify them for " Government and other situations
in the Colonies and India, where a scientific knowledge of
gardening, arboriculture, &c-, is required." Most ot the
colonial gardens and Government plantations are at the present
time under the superintendence ot able men, who received at
some time or another instruction at Kew,

The liability of Coffca arabica to the attack of both insects and
fungi have been abundantly proved of late by the visitation of
the so-called blights in Dominica, Southern India, and more
recently in Ceylon, In consequence of this a good deal of
interest is attached to the prosperity of the Liberian Coffee,
which has been distributed from Kew. On this subject Dr.
Hooker says : " A large stock of true Liberian Coffee has been
obtained through the kind efforts of Messrs. Irvine and Wood-
ward, of Liverpool. This is a larger and perhaps differen t variety
from that received from Cape Coast. . . . Large quantities of both
have been sent to the coffee-growing British possessions, and
have arrived in excellent condition. Dr. Thwaites states that
the Cape Coast Coffee, the safe arrival of which in Ceylon I
mentioned in the report of last year, is, notwithstanding that it
was immediately attacked by the leaf disease, doing well. He
also remarks that 'the Cape Coast and Liberian Coffees, although
they would seem to differ much as regards size of their respective
seeds, yet in the matter of foliage there is great resemblance
between them. In this latter respect they differ considerably
from the ordinary coffee plant of Ceylon, their leaves being a
good deal larger, more firm in texture, and tapering more gra-
dually to the base.'"

The increased cultivation of coffee, and the introduction of
varieties better suited to resist the attacks of disease, has, it
appears, attracted the attention not only of the British Govern-
ment, but also of the Colonial Governments, so that a good deal
of correspondence has arisen with Kew on the subject. Dr.
Hooker says : " My attention has in consequence been directed
(i) to obtaining accurate reports as to the nature of the disease,
of which several are confounded under one common epithet ;
(2) to recommending measures for the cultivation of coffee in
colonies once famous for its production where it has been almost
abandoned, as well as in others where the cultivation has been
scarcely attempted ; and (3) to the cultivation of new and im-
proved varieties."

The Blue Gum Tree (Eucalyptus globulus), which has now
become so popular that plants some twelve or fourteen feet high
may be seen growing in the open air in some of our London
parks, is recommended for planting by Dr. Hooker, simply on

446

NATURE

[Sept. 1 6, 1875

account of its quick growth and its value as a timber tree, the
wood being exceedingly hard and durable. With regard to its
supposed beneficial effects in malarious districts, Dr. Hooker
says he is "still unable to endorse the views of those who regard
the tree as capable of cultivation in tropical swamps and as a
prophylactic against ague and fever."

The prospects of the Ipecacuanha cultivation in India is, we
are told, not very encouraging, owing rather to the slow growth
and small yield of the underground root stock from which the
drug is obtained, than to the want of success in growing and
propagating the plants. "Nevertheless the cultivation must be
persevered in. The causes that retard the progress of this valu-
able herb under cultivation are those that raise the price of it in
its native country. Were it a plant that increased rapidly, it
would be with difficulty eradicated from the forests which it
inhabits."

One very important matter mentioned in the report is that
referring to the new Herbarium, the site for which is not yet,
however, determined upon. It is, moreover, satisfactory to learn
that when erected it will, through the liberality of Thomas
Philip Jodrell, Esq., M.A., the founder of the Jodrell Profes-
sorship (of Physiology) in University College, London, be asso-
ciated with a laboratory for physiological botany. The contri-
butions to the Gardens of living plants and seeds, to the
Herbarium of dried plants, and to the museums of economic
specimens, have been exceedingly numerous and interesting.

NOTES
M. Janssen's appointment as the head of a new French
Physical Observatory, which we intimated some time ago, has
been gazetted. The French Government, we believe, wishes
to give M. Janssen the choice of having the Observatory built
at Fontenay, as was originally decided upon, or at Vincennes,
which is at a less distance from Paris.

Mr. Watson, at Monday's sitting of the French Academy,
read a long and interesting paper on the observations of the
Transit of Venus made at Peking station, of which he was
the chief. The question of the atmosphere of Venus and
the difficulty of determining the exact time of real contact
were examined at full length. M. Leverrier expressed his
decided opinion that the determination of the parallax of the
sun by this method was useless unless some unexpected service
should be rendered by photography for solving the difficulty raised
by Mr. Watson. Mr. Watson tried to discover to what height
the atmosphere of Venus was liable to cause optical disturbances
by its illumination by the sun, and he found it to be fifty-five
miles, about i-7oth the diameter of the planet.

The Kirtland Summer School of Natural History (named in
honour of Dr. Jared P. Kirtland) was inaugurated July 6, 1875,
in Cleveland, Ohio (U.S.) The session this year extended
through five weeks, closing August 9, with appropriate exercises.
The school was founded on behalf of the Kirtland Society of
Natural Sciences, by Prof. Theo. B. Comstock and Dr. Wm, K.
Brooks. Instruction was given in botany and entomology by
Prof. Theo. B. Comstock, of Cleveland ; in general invertebrate
zoology by Dr. Wm. K. Brooks, of Cambridge, Mass. ; in
microscopy and protozoa by Prof. Albert H. Tattle, of the Ohio
Agricultural and Mechanical College, Columbus, Ohio ; and a
short course of lectures on geology was given by Dr. J. S. New-
berry, of Columbia College, New York City, Director of the
Ohio Geological Survey. The work was all done in the labora-
tory and in the field, text-books being wholly discarded. Twenty-
five enthusiastic pupils, many of them lady teachers, availed
themselves of the advantages afforded for the small fee of ten
dollars. The expenses were paid by a subscription.fund, the
instructors receiving but slight compensation by a division of the
small balance in hand. The session was very profitable, and it
is hoped that the school will be continued year after year.

The French Department of the International Maritime
Exhibition^contains a large number of apparatus intended for

the raising of wrecks from the bottom of the sea. Working
models of these have been sent in by M. Bazin, an engineer.
This inventor has organised an immense submarine observatory
which enables the bottom of the sea to be inspected with perfect
security. M. Roselli, an ItaUan engineer, exhibited a self-
moving gigantic grapnel, which being worked by steam could
render great 'service to raise even such heavy weights as the
Vanguard. M. Bazin has also invented a ship for dredging at
small depths when it is necessary to open a channel for a port.
Several ships of this kind have been constructed for the Russian
Government, and are now at work in Russian waters. The
principle involves the use of syphons, which are let down to the
bottom and are so worked as to send mud, sand, and water into
the main hold of the vessel, from which they are taken out by
powerful steam-engines.

A UNIVERSITY is to be founded at Tomsk, one of the chief
towns of Siberia. The new establishment will have only two
faculties, one of Law and the other of Medicine. The want of
doctors in Siberia may be inferred from the fact that there are
only fifty-five of them in a country which is as large as the whole
of Europe, and whose population amounts to more than
6,ooo,cxx) inhabitants. The Russian Minister of Finance has
granted a credit of 40,000/. on the revenue of the State for the
new establishment, which will raise the number of Russian
Universities to eight, seven others being already in existence,
viz., St. ^Petersburg, Moscow, Kiew, Kazan, Kharkow, Odessa,
Varsovie, besides two foreign Universities — a German one in
Dorpat, and a Swedish one in Helsingfors. A new University
is also to be established in Vilna.

Captain Waterhouse writes that he has verified Dr.
Vogel's discovery of the influence of certain dyes in increasing
the sensitiveness of bromide of silver to the less refrangible rays
of the spectrum.

An examination will begin at Merton College on Tuesday,
October 12, for the purpose of electing to one Mathematical and
one Physical Science Postmastership. The postmasterships are
of the annual value of 80/., and are tenable for five years Irom
election, or so long as the holder does not accept any appoint-
ment incompatible'with the pursuance of the full course of Uni-
versity studies. After two years of residence the College will
raise by a sum not exceeding 20/. per annum the postmasterships
of such postmasters as shall be recommended by the tutors for
their character, industry, and ability. Further information may
be obtained from the Mathematical and Physical Science Tutors.

Mr. E. J. Mills, D.Sc, F.R.S., has been appointed Young
Professor of Technical Chemistry in Anderson's College, Glasgow,
on the resignation of Prof. Gustav Bischof.

We would direct the attention of zoologists to a sketch and
description by Prof. Wilder, of Cornell University, in the
American Journal of Science and Art for last month, of a fcetal
Manatee whose total length is 37 inches. "The head (which
is somewhat pig-like) is strongly flexed upon the chest, and the
tail forms a right angle with the trunk ;" a contour very different
from the adult animal being the result. The specimen was
obtained at Pebos, Peru, upon the Maraiion, a tributary of the
Amazons, by Prof. James Orton,

In a letter to yesterday's limes, Mr. W. L. Watts gives a long
description of a volcanic eruption which he witnessed last month
on the Myvatns Orcefi,^in Iceland.

The Berlin Geographical Society has received.'a telegram from
Lisbon, dated the llth inst., announcing that Dr. Pogge and
Lieut. Lux, with their African Exploring Expedition, were on
their way from Cassandje to Lunda. Major von Homeyer was
still on the coast.

Sept. 16, 1875J

Nature

447

Some of our readers may be glad to learn that the Philo-
sophical Magazine lor the present month contains, in full, Mr
CroU's paper on " The Challenger CmdaX Test of the Wind and
Gravitation Theories of Oceanic Circulation," read before the
British Association.

The second number of Mr. Flemming's Veterinary Journal
maintains its promised standard of excellence. The original
articles are instructive, and the manner in which the most
recent home and foreign investigations are placed before the
reader will add greatly to the facilities for acquiring advanced
information. "We would direct special attention to the trans-
lation, from the German, of Prof. Siedamgrotzky's observations
on the Thermometry of the Domesticated Animals.

A NEW American fossil Crustacean from the Water Lime
Group, named by its discoverers, Mr. A. R. Grote and Mr. W.
H. Pitt, Eusarcus scorpionis, is described and illustrated by an
excellent photograph in the last number of the Bulletin of the
Buffalo Society of Natural Science. It is allied to Eurypterus
and Pterogotus, but is peculiar ,in the narrowness of the
cephalo-thoracic portion, and the] suddenjconstriction of the ter-
minal segments.

Mr. W'illiam Longman has reprinted [in a separate form
his interesting article'inthe August number of Eraser's Magazine,
" Impretsions of Madeira," containing some interesting notes on
the natural history, scenery, climate, and life of the island.
A good map accompanies the paper.

The Report of the Council of the Leicester Literary and
Philosophical Society speaks hopefully of its position and pro-
spects. The Society is now in its fortieth year, has more than
250 members, and is regarded as " the leading institution for
the cultivation of literary and scientific tastes " in the town and
county. The Society has resolved to commence the publica-
tion of Transactions by bringing out ' gradually a brief but com-
plete history of the proceedings of the Society from the date of
its formation. In speaking of the decreasing attendance on the
lectures by eminent outsiders, the Report gives a hint to scien-
tific lecturers which we reproduce here for the sake of those
whom it may concern: — "It must be ^acknowledged that the
professors have sometimes relied too much upon their reputation,
and given to a critical audience mere badly arranged notes, or
information which any handbook would supply. And it is not
too much to say that the quality of the lectures delivered gra-
tuitously by the Society's own members and friends is of such a
character that the advantage on the side of the professors is not
always very striking." We hope the Society will go on with
increased vigour when it enters upen its new premises, and espe-
cially that the various sections will set themselves to organise
really valuable practical work.

From the Third Report of the Leicester Town Museum, we
notice that several important additions have been made during
the year, and that the Committee are in earnest to make the
collection serve a really educational purpose. We hope that
when the new premises are ready and the Museum transferred,
that it, like the Leicester Society, will take a decided step for-
ward. We are glad to see 'that the gratuitous lectures in con-
nection with the Museum have been fairly well attended.

We have received the Fifty-fourth Annual Report of the
Board of Direction of the Mercantile Library Association of
New York. This library is the fourth largest in the United
States, and contains upwards of 155,000 volumes, with a
membership of upwards of 8,000. The library leems to be well
administered and to serve a very useful purpose, and, to judge
from the report of books added during the past year, contains a
lair amount of scientific literature.

From the Forty-first Annual Report of the York School

Natural History, Literary, and Polytechnic Society, we are
glad to see that the first-named branch obtains a fair amount of
attention.

The night of July 7-8,' 1875, will be long remembered in
Switzerland for the thunderstorms, several of them of almost
unexampled severity, which occurred in Val de Travers, Liestal,
Lucerne, Argovie, Zurich, and St. Gall (Rapperswyl), Langen-
thal, Grisons, Valais, Fribourg, and Geneva. Of these, the
thunderstorm which broke over Geneva was unprecedentcdly
severe and disastrous. A detailed account of the phenomenon
has been sent us under the title " L'Orage du 7 au 8 Juillet,
1875. Extrait du Journal de Geneve, du 9 au 12 Juillet." It
appears to have originated to westward in the department of
Ain, and took an easterly course up the valley of the Rhone to
Geneva, on reaching which it spread over a wider area, and
thence directed its course over Savoy. As midnight came on,
though the heat was suffocating and not a breath of wind stirred
below on the streets, light objects on the roofs of the houses
began to be whirled about and carried 'off as by a tempest of
wind. At the same time a dull rumbling sound, resembling neither
that of wind nor that of thunder, announced the approach of the
thunderstorm, and at 12 midnight exactly it burst over Geneva
in all its fury. An avalanche of enormous hailstones with no
trace of rain was precipitated from the sky, and shot against
opposing objects by a tempest of wind from the south-west. In
a moment the street lamps were extinguished, and in a brief
interval incredible damage was inflicted, the glass and tiles of
houses smashed to powder, trees stripped of their bark on the
side facing the west, and crops of every sort were in many
places all but totally destroyed. The smallest of the hailstones
were the size of hazel-nuts, many were as large as walnuts and
chestnuts, and some even as large as a hen's egg. Some of the
hailstones measured four inches in diameter, and six hours after
they fell weighed upwards of 300 grammes. For the most part
the hailstones were of a flattish or lenticular form, with a central
nucleus of o*i6 to 0*40 inch diameter, enveloped in several con-
centric layers of ice, generally from 6 to 8, alternately trans-
parent and opaque. An interesting map accompanies the
description, showing the districts where the storm was felt as
well as the degree of its intensity in each locality. The electrical
phenomena were very remarkable ; the flashes of lightning suc-
ceeded each with so great rapidity from midnight till a few
minutes after I o'clock in the morning, that a mean of froi* 2 to
3 were counted each second, or from 8,000 to 10,000 per hour.
Electrical phosphorescence was remarkably intense before and
during the hail. The ground, animals, prominent objects, as well
as the hailstones, were strongly phosphorescent. Immediately
after the hail, ozone was greatly developed, the smell being so
pronounced as to be compared by nearly all observers to garlic.
The incessant electrical discharges passed from cloud to cloud
over a central point from which the hail fell, but thunder was
very rarely^heard.

The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the
past week include a Syrian Fennec Fox i^Canis famelicus) from
Persia, presented by Mr. Edwyn Sandy Dawes ; two Glaucous
Gulls [Larus glaucus) from Greenland, presented by Capt Loftua
F.Jones ; two Fork-tailed Jungle Fowl {Gallus tarius) from
Java, presented by Mr. W. Eraser ; a Royal Python {Python
regius) from West Africa, presented by CapL II. T. M. Cooper ;
a Dotterell {Charadrius motinellus), European, presented by
Dr. C. R. Bree ; a Weeper Capuchin (Celnts cafucinus), a
Golden-crowned Conure (Conurus aureus) from South- East
Brazil, eleven Blackish Sternotheres (Sternotharus subniger)
from Madagascar, deposited ; a Malabar Parrakeet {Pahcornis
columboides) from South India, a Blue-crowned Conure (Conurus
ha:tnotrhous) from Brazil, two Burrowing Owls {Pholtoptynx
cuniculata) from America, pur«has«d.

448

NATURE

{Sept. i6, 1875

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

The American Journal of Science and Arts, August. — The
article on the observation of the corona and red prominences of
the sun, by E. S. Holden, we have already reprinted. The
other original articles are : — A note on Walker's Statistical Atlas
of the United States, prepared by order of Congress. This is
based on the census of 1870. Form£rly the results of a census
have been given in numerical form only ; now much information
is set forth in ingeniously contrived maps, of which there are
sixty-five. Ten of the maps are prepared from data not derived
from census returns, but which are of especial interest in such a
work. The work is divided into three parts, the first relating to
physical features of the United States. The relations of some of
these maps 10 each other are very instructive. For instance, the
relation between woodlands and rainfall and other climatic con-
ditions has of late been the subject of much dogmatic theorising.
A comparison of these maps shows that the forests of Washing-
ton Territory are in regions having an annual rainfall of sixty
inches and upward. The magnificent forests found from Minne-
sota to Maine are in regions of twenty-eight to forty inches, a
rainfall precisely identical with that of the nearly treeless prairies
which extend westward from Chicago. The northern part of the
Michigan peninsula with its heavy timber is marked with precisely
the same rainfall as large portions of Southern Minnesota lying
in the same latitude and nearly treeless. In the second section the
interesting question of the "centre of population " is discussed.
In 1790 it was about twenty- three miles east of Baltimore. It
has travelled westward, keeping curiously to the 39th degree
of latitude, never getting more than twenty miles north nor two
miles south of it. In the eighty years it has travelled only 400 miles,
and is still found nearly fifty miles eastward of Cincinnati. — On
the chondrodite from the TiUy-Foster Iron Mine, by E. G. Dana.
The chondrodite forms the gangue of the magnetite, being every-
where disi-eminated through it in varying proportions ; it is
identical with humite in chemical composition, and alike in cry-
stalline form. The humite crystals are of three types, but until
now the correspondence of the minerals has been known only
for the second type. The Tilly- Foster mine affords crystals of
all three types, and the comparisons between humite and chon-
drodite form the subject of this long article. —On an easy method
of producing di- and tri-nitrophenetol, by P. T. Austen. — On a
foetal Manatee and Cetacean, with remarks on the affinities and
ancestry of the Sirenia, by Prof. B. G. Wdder. There is added
a list of writers on the subject. — On tidal waves and currents
along portions of the Atlantic coast of the United States, by
J. E. Hilgard. — On ancient glaciers of the Sierra Nevada, by
Prof. Joseph Le Conte. The paper consists of a description of
Fallen Leaf Lake Glacier, Cascade Lake Glacier, and Emerald Bay
Glacier, a map of which district is given. Among the questions
of a general nature discussed are : — Evidences of the existence of
the great Lake Valley Glacier ; Origin ol Lake Tahoe ; Passage
of Slate into Granite ; Glacial Deltas ; Parallel Moraines j and
Glacial Erosion. — Certain methyl and benzyl compounds con-
taining selenium, by C. Loring Jackson. — Description of the
Ps'ash County meteorite which icU in May 1874, by J. Lawrance
Smith.

Reale Istituto Lomlardo, Rendiconti (vol. 8, fasc. xv.) — From
this pait we note the following papers : — On a supposed reform
ot the 'heory of electrostatic induction (second paper), by G.
Cantoni. — On preventative measures against Phylloxera, by V.
Trevisan. — On the intersections of a cone by a plane curve of
the fourth order, by G. Jung. — On the central nucleus, and on
the curves of resistance to rotation, through the flexion of
transversal sections of prisms, by Antonio Sayno.

The Archives da Sciences Physiques et Naiurelles (No. 210,
June 15) contains an elaborate review of M. Becquerel's work
just published, '* Des Furcts physico-chimiques et de leur inter-
pretation dans la production des phenomenes naturels." — A
note by M. Hermann Fol, on the first origin of sexual products.
— On the viscosity of saline solutions, by M. Ad. Sprung; the
author first considers the influence of temperature, and then
describes the relation existing between the velocity of effluence of
a salt and its chemical composition. — A letter from M. E. Liais,
dated Rio Janeiro, May ist, 1875, and relating to the next
oppositions of Mars with regard to the determination of the
sun's parallax ; and on the remarkable coincidence of the parallax
obtained in i860, with the new measurement of the velocity of

light by M. Comu.— On the determination of the sun's parallax
by observations of the planet Flora, by M. Galle.

Po^gendorff'' s Annalender Physik und Chemie, No. 7 (1875).
— This part contains the following papers : — On friction and
conducting of heat in rarefied gases, by A. Kundt and E. War-
burg.— Spectral analytical researches, by R. Bunsen (second
paper.) This paper treats of spark spectra, flame spectra, and
absorption spectra of elements, and is accompanied by several
tables.— O n the diathermancy of moist air, by J. L. Hoorweg.
—On the experimental determination of the dielectricity constant
of some gases, by L. Boltzmann. — On crystallisation products in
ordinary glass, by Dr. Otto Schott. — On the penetration of gases
through thin layers of liquids, by Dr. Franz Exner. — On a simple
method to compare two sounding columns of air by means of
sensitive flames, by Dr. Bresina.— An experiment on the electro-
dynamical effect of the current of polarisation, by N. Schiller
and R. Colley, of Moscow.— On a peculiar case of magnetisation,
by J. Jannin (translated from the Com/>/es J?endus).— On the mag-
netic properties of iron prepared by electrolysis, by W, Beetz.
— Spectro-electric tube or fulgurator, an apparatus serving for
the observation of spectra of metallic solutions, by MM. B.
Delachanal and A. Memet.— A reply by Dr. K. Heumann to
Herr R. Schneider's remarks on the decomposition of cuprous
sulphide by nitrate of silver. — On the sudden breaking of glasses,
by Ed. Hagenbach.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
Paris
Academy of ScienceE, Sept. 6. — M. Fremy in the chair. —
The following papers were read : — On the application of a new
theorem of the calculus of probability, by M. Bienayme. — Re-
searches on the cold bands in dark spectra, by MM. P. Desains
and Aymonet.— Eleventh note on the electric conductibility of
bodies which are known to be only indifferent conductors, by
M. Th. du Moncel. — Results from palseontological researches
at Durfort (Gard), by M. P. Cazalis de Fondouce, made for the
Museum of Natural History, by M. P. Gervais. — New nautical
charts of meteorology, giving both direction and intensity of
probable winds, by M. Brault. — On the superficial radiations of
the sun, by Mr. S. P. Langley— Observations of the August
meteors in 1875 by M. C. Wolf. — A note on Bernouilli's num-
bers, by M, E. Catalan. — On the larva forms of Bryozoa, by
M. J. Barrois. — On two thunderstorms with hail observed on
July 7 and 8, in some parts of Switzerland and the South of
France, by M. CoUadon.

CONTENTS Pagb

The Science Commission Report on the Advancement of

Science 4^9

The Iron and Steel Institute 432

Rutherford's " Practical Histology" 433

<JUR Book Shhlf : —

A Yachting Cruise in tlie South Seas 434.

Letters to the Epitor : —

LivinR Birds of Pitradise in Europe. — Dr. A. B. Meyer . . . . 434

Source of Volcanic Energy.— Rev. O. Kisher 434

Important Discovery of Remains of Cervus megaceros in Ireland.

— Prof A. Leith Adams 435

Magnus's "Elementary Mechanics."— Philii> Magnus .... 435

Sanitary State of Bristol and Portsmouth.— E. J. E 435

Our Astronomical Column : —

Binary Stars 43s

The Zodiacal Light 43s

The next Return of Encke's Comet 436

Comet 1874(111.), Coggia 436

The late Prof Argelander 436

Notes on a Supposed 'Carriage Emblem of American Indian

Origin. By Dr. Charles C Abbott (W'zM ///«.r/'?-rt^w«j) ... 436

The British Association 437

Reports 437

Sectional Proceedings , 438

Section B —Opening Address 438

Section D.— Biology 441

The American A.ssociation for the Advancement of Science.—

Detroit Meeting 443

Report on the Progress and Condition of the Royal Gardens

at Kew during the Year 1874 445

Notes 44t>

Scientific Serials 448

Societies and Academies 44?

Erratum— P. 404, Col. 2, delete line 55.

NATURE

449

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 23, 1875

HELMHOLTZ ON TONE

On the Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for
the Theory of Music. By Hermann F. Helmholtz,
M.D. Translated with the author's sanction by Alex.
J. Ellis, F.R.S., «S:c. (London : Longmans and Co.,
1875.)

IN the general advance of scientific knowledge which
has taken place during the last half-century, the
science of acoustics has hardly received its fair share of
attention. Founded on principles originated by the
ancients, and afterwards extended by Galileo, Newton,
Taylor, Sauveur, Bernouilli, Euler, Smith, Young, and
others, the first great and complete work on it was
"Die Akustik," of Chladni, published in Germany in
i8o2, but which is chiefly known by its French trans-
lation.

It acquired a high and wide reputation, and it has ever
since been a standard authority on the subject. Sir John
Herschel's celebrated treatise on Sound in the " Encyclo-
paedia Metropolitana," carried the theoretical views of the
science much farther, and so supplied what was deficient
in Chladni's more practical work ; but nothing of im-
portance has been added to our knowledge of the science
from Chladni's time till about fifteen years ago.

It was then known that one of the most eminent physi-
cists and physiologists of Germany, Herr Helmholtz,
Professor of Physiology at Heidelberg, had been devoting
considerable attention to the science of acoustics, and, if
we recollect aright, some of his discoveries were brought
forward by himself in lectures at our Royal Institution.
In 1863 appeared a work by him, entitled " Die Lehre von
den Tonempfindungen als physiologische Grundlage fur
die Theorie der Musik," the result of eight years' investi-
gations in acoustical science. This work not only gave
much new information on acoustical subjects generally,
derived almost entirely from the author's own long-con-
tinued investigations ; but it published new and most
important discoveries as to the nature of musical sounds,
and valuable reflections on the bearing of these discoveries
on the theory of music generally. The work met with
high and universal appreciation among those who could
understand it ; it went through three editions in Ger-
many, and was translated into French, which gave it a
much wider circulation. Helmholtz's book has been fol-
lowed by two popular works in English, namely, " Lec-
tures on Sound,' by Prof. Tyndall (1867), and "Sound
and Music," by Mr. Scdley Taylor (1873), the chief object
of both being to expound Helmholtz's discoveries and
doctrines to English readers. We have now, however, a
translation into English of^the entirework, as mentioned
at the head of our article.

In attempting to give some idea of the book, it is neces-
sary to premise that it treats of two distinct kinds of
subjects, physical and musical. In addition to being a
profound and practised physicist, the author has clearly
devoted much attention to the study of music, both theo-
retically and practically, and he has endeavoured to apply
his physical discoveries and theories to the elucidation of
many points connected with the art which he has found
Vol. XII.— No. 308

obscure. We may therefore divide our notice into these
two heads.

In regard to the physical part of the subject, Helm-
holtz's work owes its greatest interest and its greatest
fame to the entirely new light he has thrown on the nature
of musical sounds, and the complete way in which he has
explained and accounted for phenomena in regard to
them which were previously very obscure.

A little attention will lead anyone possessing an ordi-
narily susceptible ear to the perception that a musical
sound has three properties, each of which may be subject
to a wide range of variation. These are : (i) its pitchy
or its degree of acuteness or gravity in the musical scale ;
(2) its strength^ or degree of loudness or softness j (3) the
quality, or character of tone.

The question then naturally arises to what physical
circumstances these three peculiarities are due. In regard
to the two first there has been no great difficulty. It has
been long known that the pitch of a musical sound de-
pends on the rapidity of the vibrations which cause it, for
according as the vibrations succeed each other more or
less rapidly, the note produces sounds to us more acute
or more grave, or, in other words, its pitch is higher or
lower.

The strength, or degree of loudness or softness of a
musical sound, has been also known to depend on the
amplitude or extent of the vibrations, a larger amplitude
giving a louder sound, and vice versd.

The third property of musical sounds is their quality
or peculiar character of tone. A violin, for example,
gives a tone of a different quality from that of a clarionet,
an oboe, a flute, or a trumpet, which all again differ from
each other. The varieties of quality of tone that may be
obtained are almost infinite ; we not only possess an im-
mense variety of musical instruments and means of pro-
ducing musical sounds, all which have their individual
qualities of tone, but even on the same instrument the
same note may often be given several different varieties
of character, independent of the mere loudness or soft-
ness. And that these infinite varieties are really objective
physical differences, and not merely subjective or ideal,
is proved by the facility with which educated ears can
identify and distinguish between them, even sometimes to
the minutest shades of difference. The stringed tribe of
instruments, and still more the human voice, furnish
ample examples of this.

The tone of a particular violin,' or~of a 'particular]" violin
player, can be identified by a connoisseur among a
hundred, and we all know that the varieties of quality of
the human voice, even in the same register, are as easily
recognised by the ear as the varieties of physiognomy are
by the eye. And even in the same voice, the numerous
varieties of vowel sounds producible are, when examined
carefully, only varieties in quality of tone.

The nature of this property of sounds has hitherto been
very obscure. Chladni, the great expounder of acoustical
science in the early part of this century, says :— " Every
real musical sound is capable of different modifications,
whose nature is as yet entirely unknown, but which
probably consist of some mixture of what is simply
noise." He then explains at some length that this may
arise either from peculiarities in the structure of the
sounding body as regards material, &c., or from the

V

45°

NATURE

\Sept. 23, 1875

nature of the body with which it is struck or rubbed, to
produce the sound. He further adds the suggestion that
such irregularities may be due to irregular tremblings of
the smaller parts of elastic bodies.

Sir John Herschel (" Encyclopaedia Metropolitana "),
speaking of musical sounds, says • " Of their quality and
the molecular agitation on which they depend, we know
too little to subject them to any distinct theoretical dis-
cussion."

To put the problem clearly, suppose we have two
musical sounds of the same pitch and the same degree of
loudness, but of different qualities. To what physical
cause is the difference in quality due ? We know that
the rapidity and the amplitude of the vibrations is the
same in both cases ; what other element of variation can
enter into the phenomenon ? Helmholtz is .the first who
has given a complete answer to the question.

It very seldom happens that a musical sound consists
of one simple note ; it is generally a compound of many
notes combined together. To illustrate this by a simple
example, suppose a stretched string, as a vioUn string or
pianoforte wire, sounds any particular note. This note,
which is called the fundamental one, will be due to the
vibrations of the string as a whole, and if we could pre-
vent any other kind of vibration this sound would be a
simple one. But the string has a natural tendency (for
reasons too recondite to enter upon here) to take upon
itself other partial vibrations, and thereby to complicate
the effect produced. It will divide itself spontaneously
into two, three, four, five, six, or more aliquot parts, and
each of these parts will set up an independent vibration
of its own, giving a new note corresponding to its length.
All these will sound together, and thus by the vibration
of the string we get not only the fundamental note (which
is usually the loudest and most prominent), but its octave,
its twelfth, its double octave, its seventeenth, nineteenth,
and so on, all heard in addition, and giving a sound which
is a compound of them all. All the additional notes above
the fundamental have been usually called in England
harmonics J Helmholtz calls them overtoftes (obertone).

We have given a string as a simple example of the
mode of generation of a compound sound, ^ but such
sounds are produced in many different ways. A com-
pound sound, so far as its effect on the ear is concerned,
is due to a particular form of air-wave, produced in the
instance given by the superposition of different sets of
vibrations of the sounding body ; and such a form of
wave may be equally well produced by other means, such
as a reed ; or it may originate in the air itself, as in a flute.
In every case where a given fundamental note is found,
there is the same tendency for it to be accompanied by
subsidiary fractional vibrations, producing corresponding
overtones.

The phenomenon of compound sounds, as found by har-
monics or overtones accompanying fundamental sounds,
has been long known. It was mentioned by Mersenne
as early as 1636, and has since been noticed by Bernouilli,
Young, Rameau, Chladni, Sir John Herschel, Woolhouse,
and others ; but there is great difficulty in getting prac-
tical musicians, who have not been accustomed to consi-
derations of this nature, to admit that what, judging by
the practical impression on the ear, seems only a simple

and single note, can really be one compounded of a gr«at
many sounds differing much in p tch, and some abso-
lutely discordant. Helmholtz endeavours to combat this
prejudice. He shows by several analogous physical and
physiological examples that the senses are apt, in the pre-
sence of prominent facts, to ignore others which may be
less prominent but equally real ; and he reasons that as
the fundamental note is almost always stronger than any
of the others, the ear is inclined to refer the whole com-
bination to that one note, and refuses to take the trouble
of separating and identifying the various elements of the
sound.

An example Oi artificial compound sounds, purposely
made, is furnished by a large organ. The pipes from
which its sounds arise are in themselves but weak, and
no multiplication of them would give tones of great power.
Hence the long experience of organ builders has led them
to form compound sounds by adding to each note pipes
speaking its octave, twelfth, fifteenth,- and other " over-
tones," the effect of which is, as is well known, to produce
sounds of a_ most powerful and penetrating quality. Yet,
if these overtones are well proportioned, they give, to an
ordinary hearer, only the impression of one single loud
sound.

By a little practice the ear may be educated to dis-
tinguish and separate the various notes which make up a
compound sound, and when the habit of doing this is
acquired, the illusion disappears. But that no proof may
be wanting of this important principle, Helmholtz has
contrived mechanical means by which any sound may be
analysed, like a ray of light or a chemical compound, and
its component parts exhibited separately. He has con-
trived certain instruments called resonators, each of which
will, like a chemical reagent, test the presence of a particu-
lar overtone, and by submitting these in succession to the
vibrating influence of the compound tone, they at once
show whether the sounds they are tuned to are present or
absent therein.

We have dwelt at some length on this phenomenon of
the compound nature of musical sounds, because it is in
reality the great fact which underlies the whole of Helm-
holtz's researches in this volume, and he himself has
accordingly taken great pains to demonstrate and explain
it, knowing that, although not a new discovery, it was yet
far from being generally acknowledged. Indeed, we con-
sider the establishment of this fact, so difficult of accepta-
tion by practical musicians, and yet so simple and obvious
when explained, is one of the most useful and important
features of that portion of the complete work now under
review. This establishment and explanation he afterwards
uses as the basis for most of his researches, namely, the
compound nature of musical sounds.

Such sounds, we have shown, consist, in almost
all cases, not of a simple vibration, but of a number
of vibrations of different velocities, superposed upon
a fundamental one. The whole thus form a com-
pound vibration which, though it produces on the inex-
perienced ear the effect of a single note, is really, when
analysed, a compound of this note with a number of
" overtones " harmonically related to it.

Among the many novel uses Helmholtz makes of this
fact, the most important, physically, is the way in which

Sept 23, 1 875 J

NATURE

451

he deduces from it the explanation of the third property
we have mentioned of musical sounds, namely, their
quality or character of tone.

Chladni was perfectly aware of the complex and varied
nature of the vibrations producing musical sounds, but he
does not seem to have attached any importance to them
in this respect ; for he says (p. 48, ed, 1 830) : " Die Verschie-
denheit der Schwingungsarten tragt meistens nur wenig
zu einer verschiedenen Wirkung des Klanges bei."

Sir John Herschel (Encycl. Metrop.) appears to have
doubted Chladni's assertion, for he hints clearly at the
probable influence on the quality of the sound, of the
form of the air-wave (which is only the result of the
complex vibration) ; and we may probably consider this
to be the first hint on record pointing to Helmholtz's
discovery.

Mr. Woolhouse, in an admirable Httle " Essay on
Musical Intervals, Harmonics, &c.," 1835, goes further.
He says (p. 'j'j^, speaking of the complex vibrations of a
string: "The various combinations of these different
modes of vibration must have a considerable influence on
the musical quality and expression of the musical sound,"
which is a still nearer anticipation of the later doctrine.

Still, however, these anticipations were only guesses ; it
was reserved for Helmholtz to put the matter in the
shape of a scientifically demonstrated fact. He has
shown, by the most elaborate and conclusive investiga-
tions, that the quality of a musical tone depends chiefly on
the number and on the comparative strength of the various
harmonical notes of which the tone is compotmded.

The overtones accompanying a fundamental note may
be present in greater or less number, and they may vary
considerably in comparative loudness or softness, and it
is on the combination of these sources of variation that
the quality of the tone will depend — or, to put the expla-
nation in another and more scientific shape ; as Xht pitch
of a sound depends on the length or the frequency of
recurrence of the air-wave, and the loudness on the degree
of disturbance of the particles of the air therein ; the
quality of tone depends on what is called its internal
fonn, or on the varieties of arrangement of expansion and
compression of the air contained within one complete
periodic cycle of oscillation.

Some modification in effect is often produced by a
sound being accompanied by unmusical noises, such as
the escaping of imperfectly used wind in a pipe, the un-
skilful scratching of the bow on a violin, the beating of
reeds, and so on ; but these are rather impurities than
varieties of tone, and may be excluded from considera-
tion.

There are very few natural sounds which are entirely
simple, consisting of the fundamental note only. They
are best produced artificially by means of the " reson-
ators." The nearest approach to them may be found in
the larger stopped wood pipes of an organ, an old-fashioned
(not a modern) flute, and a tuning-fork after the sharp
ring has subsided. The vocal sound of the Italian U
(our 00) is also nearly a simple one. These examples will
give the idea that simple tones are soft, dull, and entirely
devoid of what is called brilliancy.

The addition of overtones gives this brilliancy and at
the same time adds life, richness, and variety. It is to
them that we owe entirely the agreeableness and pleasur-

able effect of musical tones. In proportion as the higher
overtones predominate, so will the sound be bright and
sparkling, or if in great predominance it will become
metallic, thin, and wiry. If, on the other hand, the upper
tones are weakened and the lower strengthened, the tone
becomes more full, rich, and mellow. All the quahties
of tone most esteemed and most useful in music are rich
in overtones.

Helmholtz gives many examples of musical sounds 01
different character, which have been analysed according
to his method. The tones produced from strings are
peculiarly adapted to this purpose, because the vibrations
so produced admit not only of mathematical calculation,
but of ocular observation, and so give direct means of
comparing the new theory with the facts, the result in all
cases being most satisfactory and conclusive. The over-
tones in strings depend largely on the kind of impulse
and the place where it is applied. In an ordinary piano
the first six overtones are all audible, the three first
strong, the fifth and sixth weaker, but still clear. The
seventh and ninth, which are inharmonious, are excluded
by striking the string in a peculiar place which does not
admit of their generation. To prove the dependence of
the quality on the strength of the overtones, Helmholtz
has calculated mathematically what the strength of the
first six overtones ought to be when produced with
hammers of different degrees of hardness, and finds they
should be as follows : —

With a very hard hammer
With a medium hammer .
With a very soft hammer .

'

2.

3-

4-

S-

100

325

500 1 500

325

100

249

243

119

26

100

lOO

9

2

^

100

I

O

Now, as everybody who knows anything about pianofortes
is aware that the tone is full and rich with a soft hammer,
and hard and jangling with a hard one, it will be seen
how admirably the mathematical results correspond with
the actual ones, and how both confirm the theory.

Again, it is easily shown, both mathematically and
practically, that thin wires will vibrate in short lengths
much more easily than thicker and stiffer ones, and will
therefore be more liable to produce the higher overtones,
and hence the well-known metallic jangling of thin wires.
This is the scientific explanation of the improved tone
from the use of thicker wires in modern pianos, inasmuch
as they admit of a more powerful blow without the pro-
duction of the high and unfavourable overtones that
would result from such a powerful impulse on a thin
string.

The peculiar tones of the violin Jribe, wind instruments,
wood and brass, organ-pipes of various kinds, and so on,
are all satisfactorily investigated in this way.

Helmholtz devotes much attention to the phenomena
of vowel sounds, which had been already investigated by
Willis and Wheatstone. He has completed their inves.
tigations by bringing the vowel sounds within his theory,
and his elegant discussion of the subject, and the im-
portant results he obtains, are_among the best features of
his book.

All the above results we have mentioned have depended
on the analysts of musical sounds. But the author
«

452

NATURE

ISept 23, 1875

has not stopped here. In chemistry, when a discovery
has been made of the constitution of a compound body, by
analysing it into its constituent elements, the efforts of the
chemist are naturally turned to the converse process of
proving the same proposition by synthesis, or by combi-
ning the single elements and showing that they will produce
the compound. This proof has not been wanting in the
present case, for Helmholtz has succeeded in combining
simple sounds together in such a way as to produce imi-
tations not only of vocal sounds, but of many other pecu-
liar qualities of tone ; not perfectly, from the extreme
difficulty of imitating exactly all the minute shades of
difference that enter into the combination, but still with
enough success to demonstrate the general argument.

We have given especial prominence to Helmholtz's
discoveries on the nature of musical sounds, because this
is in reality the great feature of his work, by which it
first acquired its fame, and by which his name will here-
after be honoured. But the physical part of the book
contains much beside this that is important and interest-
ing. His explanations on the general phenomena of
acoustics are most lucid, and often very original ; and
his descriptions of the mechanism and action of the
organs of hearing, coming from one of the highest autho-
rities in physiology, are exceedingly instructive and
valuable.

In Part II. the author enters into an investigation of
what are called beats— z. subject which has been hereto-
fore very obscure— and also of other acoustical pheno-
mena called " combination tones," which, though known
since the time of Tartini, have not been thoroughly
understood till Helmholtz gave their explanation. Into
these matters we have not, however, space to follow the
author : those who are interested in them can refer to the
book for themselves.

Before we leave the physical part of the work it will be
only just to testify to the excellence of the translation.
Mr. Ellis is so well known as a philologist and a man of
science, that his competence to deal with the work in a
literary and scientific point of view requires no comment,
and English readers may be satisfied that in this transla-
tion they have the original faithfully put before them.
His work has evidently been a labour of love, and he
deserves the highest credit for the trouble he has taken
over it.

At the same time all men are fallible, and when a great
authority condescends to do a work that could hardly be
expected from him, we must not be unprepared for some
little waywardness on his part, and there are a few things
which we would rather have seen otherwise done. The
title of the book is unfortunate ; for, although no doubt
"The Sensations of Tone" is a correct translation of
" Tonempfindungen," yet to many English ears it will, we
fear, sound strange and unintelligible from the fact that
we are hardly accustomed in our language to understand
the word " tone " in the sense here intended. The English
title certainly does not give to the English reader anything
like the same idea as the original title, " Die Lehre von
den Tonempfindungen," does to an educated German.
The strict rendering of a German phrase does not always
correctly represent the original ; for example, in speaking
of the clever little tract of Hauslick, "Ueber das Musicka-
lisch Schone," Mr. EUis translates it, " On the musically

beautiful," whereas, as every reader of the tract well knows,
the more appropriate expression in English would be " On
the beautiful in music."

But the chief fault we' have to find in the translation is
the rendering of a term which of all others is the most
important in the whole work, and in which the translator
has, we conceive, taken a liberty not altogether justifiable.
Helmholtz, in describing the compound nature of musical
sounds, has called all the sounds above the fundamental
one by the name of " obertone,'.' a word exceedingly
appropriate, useful, and expressive, 'inasmuch as it at once
defines and includes all these sounds in one appellation.
Prof. Tyndall, in his resume of Helmholtz's discoveries,
has most naturally and with great propriety translated
this term by the word "overtones." It exactly expresses
the German in the simplest way, and it is as perfectly
admissible into English as " overcoat " or " overseer."

Unluckily, Mr. Ellis is either too proud to adopt this
word or has taken otherwise a dislike to it ; for, on the
ground that he does not consider it good English, he sub-
stitutes for it the expression " upper partial tones." This
is not only clumsy and roundabout, but it is imperfect and
wrong, inasmuch as it does not include, as the original
expression does, the ivhole of the sounds above the funda-
mental, and gives no means of distinguishing higher
overtones from the lower ones. As these overtones play
such an exceedingly important part in Helmholtz's work,
we cannot but consider, with all respect to Mr. Ellis, this
rendering a blot on the translation which we very much
regret.

We must reserve our ^notice of the musical portion of
Helmholtz's work till a future opportunity.

OUR BOOK SHELF

Guide to the Geology of London and the Neis^hbour-
hood (Geological Survey of England and Wales). By
William Whitaker, B.A., F.G.S. (London : Messrs.
Longmans and Co., 1875.)

It is a matter of great satisfaction to geologists that the
Geological Survey are again giving to the public some of
the accumulated stores of information of which they are
necessarily possessed, by resuming the series of large
and complete memoirs which had been in abeyance for
many years before the publication of " Whitaker's Geo-
logy of the London Basin," Part I., in 1872— a series now
so well continued by the works of Judd and Topley.
These, however, are comparatively expensive, and enter
into minute details, so that although the whole of the
information contained in the small book under notice has
already been given at greater length in Mr. Whitaker's
work mentioned above, or will be in a similar promised
pubUcation on the " Drifts of the London Basin," it will
be of great use to a large number of persons who would
not care for a more detailed description. A special Geo-
logical Map of London and its Environs, with all the
Drift beds indicated, has lately been published, and for
the last two years the Geological Model of London on a
six-inch scale has been the admiration of all visitors to
the Jermyn Street Museum : the pamphlet now before us
is designed as a handbook to these. It commences with
a description of the construction of the model, a matter of
no small difficulty, considering the accuracy of the repre-
sentation. The description of the various formations which
enter into the London area, with their resulting features
and scenery, though necessarily short, contains the cream
of all the known facts, and what is better still, the reasons
for all the not self-obvious determinations of the age and

Sept. 23, 1875]

NATURE

453

relations of the beds. Another most valuable portion is the
series of tables of localities where the different formations
may now be studied, showing no less than 154 places
worthy of a geological visit within twenty miles of
London. With regard to the general structure of the
district, Mr. Whitaker is careful to refute the idea that
the Tertiary beds were deposited in an eroded hollow of
the chalk, as is often supposed ; unfortunately, however,
his section gives them rather the appearance of being so.
We should also notice that although, on the evidence of
fragments of Ammonites and Belemnites, he prefers to
refer the red beds of the Kentish Town section to the
Lower Greensand, none of this formation is represented
in the section as lying beneath this part of London.

This convenient little publication, so full of valuable
and condensed information, for so small a sum, will be of
such great use to the members of the numerous field
clubs,; that we fear it will soon be out of print. What
are 500 copies among so many who would wish to
have it ?

Sniola'id; or, Iceland, its Jokulls and FJalls. By William

Lord Watts. (London : Longmans and Co., 1875.)
In a recent number (vol. xii. p. 333) we published a letter
from Mr. Watts announcing the important fact that he
had succeeded in crossing the Vatna JokuU. So far as is
known, this is the first time that this jokuU (which means
" glacier," and is probably cognate with the latter part of
our word \c-icle) has been crossed, and the fact is credit-
able to Mr. Watts's determination and perseverance. The
little book before us contains a narrative of an unsuc-
cessful attempt to accomplish the same object, made by
Mr. Watts in the summer of 1874. We regret to have
to say that the narrative is a disappointing one. It is
in the form of a rough diary, which seems to have been
sent to the press in its crude form and published with
little or no revision. A large portion of the book is
occupied with a statement of the many difficulties, petty
and serious, which Mr. Watts and his party encountered
in the journey from Reykjavik, by the Geysers, Hekla,
and the Myrdals JokuU to the Vatna Jokull, and there is
really very little information about the region through
which he passed. The entire narrative is extremely vague
and unsatisfactory, and if Mr. Watts has any literary
faculty, he certainly does not show it here ; the reading
of his narrative is a heavy task. Mr. Watts ought to
know a great deal about the region with which this narra-
tive is concerned, and especially about the jokulls in the
south of Iceland, and we would advise him to put this
information into a systematic form, make but little refer-
ence to the difficulties he encountered, obtain a few pho-
tographs on a much larger scale than the insignificant
things which appear in the present work, and we have no
doubt he would make a substantial contribution to our
knowledge of Iceland. The party succeeded in getting
only about half across the Vatna Jokull, when, from want
of the necessary means to go farther, they were compelled
to turn back, after Mr. Watts had rather unnecessarily
and sensationally planted the union jack at his furthest
point. Mr. Watts's carelessness, to put it mildly, extends
even to his use of language. The use of " laid " for " lay"
might possibly be justified by eminent precedents ;
"peninsular of rock" maybe a misprint, but ''pulverent"
is unjustifiable, and "molusc" is shocking.

Perhaps the most tangible piece of information con-
veyed by Mr. Walts is contained in the following para-
graph :—

" To sum up, this hitherto untrodden Vatna Jokull is a
mountainous tract, surmounted by a rolling plateau, con-
taining numerous volcanoes, one or more of which, upon
the north, appear to be in a state of pretty constant
activity, while r.umcrous others in all probability are
paroxysmal, most likely exhibiting all the phenomena
characteristic of (if I may be allowed the term; bottled up
volcanoes. This tract, together with the Odatha-hraun,

and the centre of Iceland with its numerous mountains,
is a new volume of Nature, the first leaf of which has only
just been cut, but whose secluded fastnesses will amply
repay investigation."

In an appendix Mr. Watts gives some information as
to equipment, which intending travellers in Iceland will
find useful. The map at the end is on too small a scale
to be of much use.

The main object of Mr. Watts's [narrative is to attract
attention to Iceland and induce travellers to co-operate
in its exploration. We hope the work will serve this
laudable object, as there is no doubt Iceland presents a
handy and fertile field for explorers. Mr. Watts himself
deserves great credit for what he has already achieved ;
we hope he will continue his work, and in a future publi-
cation add something of permanentvalue to our know-
ledge of the interesting island.

Report on the Neilgherry Loratithaccous Parasitical
Plants destructive to Exotic Forest and Fruit Trees.
By George Bidie, M.B., Madras. (Printed by E. Keys,
at the Government Press, 1874.)
Surgeon-Major Bidie has in this volume presented to
the Indian Government a report on the parasitical plants
which prove destructive to forest and garden trees on the
Neilgherries, and on the best mode of remedying the
evil. The whole of these destructive parasites belong to
one natural order, LoranthaceiE, represented in this
country by a single species, the Mistletoe, and to two
genera, Loranthus and Viscum. The fruit of the Loran-
thaceas is characterised by the envelopment of the seed
in a layer of a viscid substance, described by Dr. Bidie as
intermediate in character between resin and india-rubber.
Outside this viscid layer is a pulpy body which serves
as food for birds and squirrels. After devouring this the
seed is rejected, or, in the case of squirrels, passes unin-
jured through the body, and then adheres to the bark of
any tree on which it may be cast. If the immediate con-
ditions are unfavourable, the seed will be preserved in a
state capable of germination for a very considerable time
beneath its viscid covering. With regard to the mode of
germination. Dr. Bidie has nothing to add to the infor-
mation already furnished by Mr. Griffith and Dr. Hooker.
With reference to the mode of attachment between the
parasite and the host, the author states that although very
firmly attached, there is no actual interlacing of the
tissues ; and that in some instances, after maceration in
water for a few days, the parasite could be separated from
the host without much difficulty. It is noteworthy that
native Indian trees and shrubs do not appear to suffer
nearly so much from the attacks of the Loranthaceai
as introduced, especially Australian, species. One
foreigner, however, which appeared quite exempt from
their ravages, was the " blue gum," the Eucalyptus i^lo-
bulus, which has already so many other useful qualities
placed to its credit. Dr. Bidie asserts that the Loran-
thacea; derive their nutriment not from the descending
elaborated, but from the crude ascending sap of the host ;
hence their need for green foliage containing chlorophyll
and possessing stomata, in which other parasites are
deficient. The volume is embellished by fifteen large
lithographs representing the different species, and illus-
trating the structure of the fruit and the mode of parasitism
of the order.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
\Thi Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expessea
by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return,
or to correspond with the -writers of, rejected manuscripts.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications. ^
Personal Equation in the Tabulation of Thermo-
grams, &c.
Mr. Plummer, in his letter (Nature, vol. xii. p. 395), has
missed the point of the review of the work of the Meteorological

454

NATURE

[Sept. 23, 1875

Office referring to the tabulation of temperatures (vol. xii. p. loi).
From 1,283 estimations of tenths of seconds, as tabulated by the
highly-trained and experienced observers at Greenwich, he shows
that the whole seconds estimated were 1 5 per cent, of the whole
number, and thereupon remarks that this is precisely the excess
of whole seconds that is taken in the review of the work of the
Meteorological Office as indisputably proving the carelessness of
the tabulations at the Kew Observatory. This is a mistake.
Kew was not singled out for criticism because the whole degrees
tabulated there amounted to 15 per cent, of the whole number,
but because of " the irregularity of the tabulations, more espe-
cially as regards the tabulations from day to day." An exami-
nation of the tabulations at Kew from day to day shows that
there are first-class tabulators in that Observatory, but it also
shows there are others whose work is inferior. Thus, in the first
published sheet for Kew, viz., January 1874, on seventeen of the
days the whole degrees tabulated amounted on each of these
days to at least 25 per cent., and the average of the whole seven-
teen days reached 31 per cent., or nearly a third of the whole.
On the remaining fourteen days of the month the average was
14 per cent. Hence the variations of the numbers of whele
degrees from month to month, which, as stated in the review,
were 172 for January, 87 for February, 127 for March, and 94
for April. It is this irregularity in the work of tabulation
which has lowered the character of the work done at Kew.

The averages calculated from 6,696 tabulations showed that
the number of whole degrees read off at the seven observatories
were 8 4 per cent, of the whole at Stony hurst, I5'0 at Kew,
I9"5 at Aberdeen, 21 "2 at Armagh, 237 at Falmouth, 247 at
Valencia, and 24*8 at Glasgow. So far as the mere average
numbers are concerned, the tabulations at Stonyhurst and Kew
are satisfactory ; not so, however, is the work done at the other
five observatories, especially the last three, where, on an average
of 6,696 tabulations, a fourth part of all the numbers tabulated
were whole degrees. For particular months the percentages: are
sometimes very large. Thus, at Aberdeen during January 1875,
the following are the percentages of the different decimal places
of the dry-bulb readings as printed by the Office : —

Decimal places.

•^

■^

■3

■4

•s

•6

*7

•8

•9

•0

Percentages.

II

6

5

7

6

6

6

5

9

39

From this examination it is seen that 50 per cent, of the whole
readings are assigned to two of the decimal places, viz. 'O and "i,
of which 39 per cent, are whole degrees. The largest percentages
are not, as in the cases adduced by Mr. Plummer, distributed in
different parts of the decimal scale, but stand together, viz.,
•9, 'o, and "I. As regards the column for each particular hour,
out of the thirty-one'readings, nineteen whole degrees occur in
the 5 A.M. column, eighteen in the 8 p.m. column, sixteen in the
5 P.M., fifteen in the 6 a.m., fourteen in the 4 p.m., thirteen in
four of the columns, twelve in six, and so on, down to eight
whole degrees in one column, and seven in another, than which
no fewer whole degrees occur in any column. It is unnecessary
to make any remark on these figures.

The Meteorological Office has published in their Quarterly
Weather Reports the monthly extremes of temperature in two
forms, viz. in figures, and in curves of temperature. These were
compared and the results stated in the review, from which it was
shown that as regards the first month's extremes, fourteen in
number, there were twelve errors in the numbers as published
by the Office ; and as regards the first year's extremes, 168 in
all, there occurred forty-one errors of temperature varying from
0°'4 to 9° '6, and twenty-two errors as regards the day and nine
errors as regards the hour of occurrence. Altogether twenty-
nine months have been examined with the general result of an
average of fully four errors in stating each month's fourteen
extreme temperatures. Now it is on the large proportion of
errors made in stating tlie extreme temperatures (for the pre-
vention of which one of the twenty-seven regulations for the
Director of the Central Observatory was specially designed),
taken in connection with such results as those given above foi
one of the observatories for January last, that the charge of inac-
curacy in this very costly but vitally important part of the work
of the Meteorological Office is based. This charge, Mr. Plummer's
letter in no way meets. The simple course is to see that this
department of the Meteorological Committee's work, including
that of the outlying observatories, be brought under some sort of
satisfactory control. The Reviewer

Ocean^Circulation

As the strength of Mr. CroU's conviction that he has com-
pletely demolished the * ' gravitation theory " of oceanic circula-
tion by the " crucial test " to which he subjected it before the
Geographical Section of the British Association, is not unlikely
to influence the minds of some, I shall be glad to be allowed to
point out (i) that I have never denied the existence of a horizontal
"wind-circulation," and (2) that the doctrine to which he ap-
plied his test was not mine, but a creation of his own. For his
whole argument was based on the assumption that the ocean
is in a state of static equilibrium ; whereas the theory I ad-
vocate, which was originally advanced by Lenz, and which Sir
William Thomson (in commenting upon Mr. CroU's paper and
my reply to it) pronounced to be a matter " not of argument,
but of irrefragable demonstration," is, that the ocean never is and
never can be in a state of equilibrium, so long as one part of it
is subjected to polar cold, and another to equatorial heat ; but
that it is in a state of constant endeavour to recover the equili-
brium which is as constantly being disturbed.

If the boiler and water-pipes 01 a heating apparatus be filled
with water whose temperature is that of the budding in which ic
is placed, the whole mass of fluid is in a state of equilibrium ;
but the lighting of the fire beneath the boiler disturbs that equi-
librium, and produces a circulation, which will be maintained
as long as the water is being alternately heated in the boiler and
cooled by the atmosphere of the budding.

Suppose that the elongated basin of the Mediterranean, instead
of lying E. and W., were to be turned N. and S., so that its
water, instead of being exposed (as at present) to a practical
identity of thermal influences, should be subjected at one end to
arctic cold and at the other to almost tropical heat : instead of
remaining in its present state of nearly perfect equilibrium, it
would have a circulation like that which I have exhibited in the
trough-experiment.

The only objection raised by Mr. CroU which has even a show
of validity, is based on the supposed " viscosity " of water, which
he asserts to be sufficient to prevent the disturbance of thermal
equihbrium from exerting the effect which the "gravitation
theory" attributes to it. This assertion has now been com-
pletely disproved by the masterly investigations of Mr. Froude ;
who has demonstrated experimentally — what the "wave-line
theory" of Stokes, Rankine, and Sir William Thomson had
rendered probable — that in the resistance to the motion of a ship
through the water, the viscosity of the water itselt is so small an
element that it may be practically thrown out, water behaving as
a nearly "perfect fluid," except where it moves over solid sur-
faces. Mr. Froude (in conversation with me) not only sanctioned
my conclusion that a constantly renewed disturbance of thermal
equilibrium must produce an oceanic circulation, but mentioned
as an instance of the very small difference of downward pressure
necessary to sustain such a circulation, that he had ascertained
by repeated observation at the mouths of harbours, lochs, and
fiords, that wherever the water within has its salinity at all
reduced by a mixture with fresh water, there is an underflow of
sea-water setting inwards, precisely as in the Baltic and^ Black
Sea Straits.

Mr. CroU attempted to draw a further disproof of the ' ' gravi-
tation theory " from the Challenger observations on the tempera-
ture of the upper strata of the Antarctic Sea, at and near the
ice-border. These observations show that a stratum of water of
from 32° to 29° overlies a stratum of Jrom 34° to 32° ; which is
considered by Mr. CroU as a death-blow to my assumption that
the coldest water smks to the bottom. Now, »ince 1 have re-
peatedly pointed out that the water of melting field-ice, and
d. fortiori that of melting icebergs, wUl float on ordinary sea-
water colder than itself, in virtue of its inferior salinity, and since
Capt. Nares distinctly speaks of the cold surface-stratum as
having this origin, it does seem to me not a little strange that
Mr. CroU should have overlooked this consideration. It is
obvious that, for the reason just stated, the descent of the cooled
surface-stratum cannot take place in the polar summer at or near
the margin of the ice: but that it takes place wherever and when-
ever the surface-cold is sufficient to check surface-liquefaction,
and to cool down wAter of ordinary salinity to a temperature
below that of the subjacent stratum, it wiU be hard for Mr. CroU
to disprove.

I cannot but greatly regret that Mr. CroU abstains from
subjecting his conclusions on this subject to the test of
personal discussion. For if he would bring them (as I have
brought my own) under the criticism of the Mathematicians and
Physicists of Section A, he would find that, notwithstanding the

Sept. 23, 1875]

NATURE

455

acceptance which his endeavour to solva the climatal problems
of past epochs by astronomical computation has very deservedly
met with on the part of Geologists, his denial of the possibility
of a thermal circulation in the ocean is utterly repudiated alike
on mathematical and on experiential grounds, by those whose
authority as physicists ought to make him feel less confident in
his own conception of the question. W. B. Carpenter

Source of VoIcanic^Energy

A FEW words of explanation are necessary "concerning my
letter which appeared in Nature, vol. xii. p. 396. Mr. Mallet's
prime source of energy for producing tangential pressures is the
force of cohesion developed in a cooling globe, gravitation giving
only partial assistance ; and when I spoke of "gravitation of the
whole mass to itself," I wished to convey that, setting aside alto-
gether the force of cohesion and its accompanying motions, there
still remains the force of gravitation, which, acting in a globe of
such size as the earth, and composed of heterogeneous materials,
must of itself produce enormous local pressures.

Mr. Fisher objects to my supposing the possibility of the de-
velopment of heat without room being left for motion, but so far
as I understand the doctrine of energy, it is only necessary to
Xr&y^ force for the production of heat when motion is impossible.

In Mr. Fisher's interesting paper his objection appears to be
to the localisation oi fusing, and not to the localisation of heat,
fusing in some cases being prevented by the accompanying pres-
sure. But in my little diagram I attempted to explain that the
forces producing the high temperature might act in one set of
strata, the neighbouring strata above and below at the same time
being under much lower pressure, the pressure upon them being
equal to the pressure of the rocks doing the work, minus the
cohesion of said rocks ; this difference of pressure being sufficient
to allow one set of rocks to melt while others are crushed.

Kenmare, Co. Kerry Wm. S. Green

Gyrostat Problem : Spinning-top Problem
In vol. xi. p. 424 is given the solution, by Sir W. Thomson, of
his gyrostat problem at p. 385. I venture to send a slightly dif-
ferent method * of obtaining the retult (far inferior to Sir W.
Thomson's in elegance and simplicity), in which Euler's equa-
tions for the motion of a rigid body about a fixed point are
employed.

I . Take point of suspension for origin ; the string for axis of
s. The axis of the wheel oxf revolves in horizontal plane xoy
with uniform angular velocity n, and the wheel revolves round
its axis Ojt' with angular velocity w-^. The weight of wheel and
axis will have moments round an axis oy in horizontal plane

perpendicular to Ox'. Let w' = weight of wheel and axis ;
A, B, B, moments of inertia round oz, ox', oy' ; w'2 angular
velocity round oy' at time t ; a "= the distance of c. g. from oz,
xox! = <p = angle described by ox' in time /. Taking moments
about oy, we have

B d a',

Yt + A-Bw^Cl^v/ag ... (I)

(Pratt, " Mech. Phil." 446). Also since there is no velocity

* A comparison of this method with Sir W. Thomson's (which is virtually
the same as that adopted by Airy in his tract on Precession and Nutation)
is instructive as illustrating' the dynamiod meaning of Euler's equationi.—
Ed. Nature.

about an axis in horizontal'plane perpendicular to resultant axis

of Wi Wo,

where

Wi sm. f - Wj cos. 0 =■ o
<p = at.

(2)

.•. -^j = '^^i fl sec. V = 7(/i n for ^ = o in (i), since w^, n are
independent'of the time ; whence (1) becomes

A w^ n. = TV a g,
where A = wk^,'n = i . . . . q.e.d.

2. A similar question (concerning a spinning top) was proposed
in the Senate House, Cambridge, in 1859, of which indeed th«
preceding is a particular case.

A uniform top spins upon a perfectly rough horizontal plane,
its axis being inclined to the vertical at a constant angle a, and
revolving about it with constant angular velocity n. Prove that
the velocity of rotation of the top about its axis must bs
(a^ + -*')n- cos. a + p-fl , •,,,.,.
'~r'» « > '^^^^^ a is the distance of the centr*

of gravity from the extremity of the peg, k' k the radii of gyration
about the axis of figure, and about an axis through c. o. perpen-
dicular to it respectively. Take o, the extremity of the peg,
which remains fixed, as origin, and let o z' be position of axis at
any time / ; o G = a ; z o z' = o. Let M - mass of the top ;
A, C, C, moments of inertia about ox', oy, o z' (rectangular
axes moving with the top) ; iv^ w^ w^, angular velocities about
o x, oy', o z' at time t.

The intersection of planes xoy, .jr'oy will move round o z
with angular velocity fl. Let <p = angle which o x' makes with
this line.

If we take moments about o x', we have by Euler's equations
(Pratt, art. 446) —

A dw, —

•— TT- -)- C — Azu^w^ — Mgaco%.zy^ . . (i)

Also 7^1

d<b
n sin. <(> sm. a, Wj = n cos. <p sm. a, w, = — - + n cos. a

d t
cos. zy^ — cos. <p sin. a (ibid. 447) ;

.". -^ = n cos. <p sin. o -/ = n Cos. * sin. o [w. - n cos. o).
dt dt T \ » I

Substituting in''(i) and reducing, we get —

C n W3 = Mg a + A a- cos. o. . . . (2)
But A = Af(P + a% C =:^V;

• w -.g^ + (^' + ^'') Q' cos, g

If a = . 90" in equation (2), we'get^the solution of the preceding
question as a particular case. F. M. S.

Arnesby

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN

The Mass of Jupiter.— M. Leverrier has made a
special communication to the Paris Academy of Sciences
with reference to the bearing of his researches on the
motion of Saturn, in a period of 120 years, on the value
of Jupiter's mass. Laplace, in the Mdcanique Celeste^

had fixed — ^ making use of the elongation of the

1067-09
fourth satellite as determined by the observations of
Pound, the contemporary of Newton, observations of
which it appears we have no knowledge, except from
the reference to them in the " Principia ; " subsequently
Bouvard, comparing Laplace's formulae with a great
number of observations, discussed with particular care,
constructed new Tables of Jupiter, Saturn, and Ura-
nus, in which important work he formed equations
of condition, wherein the masses of the planets entered
as indetcrminates, and by the solution of which their
values adopted in the Tables were obtained. The
denominator for Jupiter's mass, expressed as a fraction of
the sun's taken as unity, is 10700, and Laplace stated that
on applying his theory of probabilities to Bouvard's
equations it appeared to be nearly a million to one
against the error of the mass thus deduced, amounting to
one- hundredth part of the whole. M. Leverrier then

456

NATURE

\SepL 23, 1875

refers generally to the discussion of the observations
of several of the minor planets with the view to correcting
the mass of Jupiter, and to the observations of elon-
gations of the fourth satellite by the present Astronomer
Royal at Cambridge, which last assigned for the denomi-
nator of the fraction 104677. He then remarks upon the
circumstance of Bouvard having deduced from his com-
parison of the theory of Saturn with seventy-four years'
observations a mass so nearly identical with that of the
Micanique Cilestej Bouvard left no details of his work
behind him ; it is only known that he adopted at the out-
set the value of Jupiter's mass admitted at the time, that
of Laplace, and M. Leverrier explains that on the method
of procedure adopted, Bouvard could not do other-
wise than reproduce at the termination of his calcu-
lations the value he had assumed at starting. This
is illustrated by the result of Leverrier's solution of
his own equations of condition, founded upon the
much longer period of 120 years, which proved wholly
insufficient for the correction of Jupiter's mass. He
remarks, with respect to Bouvard's work, that any
value of the mass taken arbitrarily within certain limits
will allow of a tolerable representation of the observations
of Saturn, on the condition that this same arbitrary value
is introduced throughout in.the functions representing the
mean longitude, mean motion, excentricity and longitude
of perihelion ; the elements obtained by Bouvard are
therefore found represented by these functions of his
arbitrary quantity, and he reverts to the mass assumed at
the commencement of his work.

In conclusion, M. Leverrier insists that the use of the
elongations of the fourth satellite for the determination of
the mass of the Jovian system, has at present an incon-
testable superiority over the employment of the theory of
Saturn, on account of the too short period over which the
observations as yet extend, but 'in the lapse of time this
superiority of the former method will diminish and the
use of the perturbations will become the more advan-
tageous. It is really, he adds, the same question as that
which presents itself with regard to the solar parallax,
which is determinable on two methods : the one, geo-
metrical, the method by transits of Venus ; the other,
mechanical, depending for instance on the large in-
equalities in the motion of Mars. The method by transits,
so important in 1760, but limited in its means of apphca-
tion, must eventually give way to the method of perturba-
tions, the accuracy of which will increase unlimitedly
with the course of time.

The first evaluation of the mass of Jupiter is that of
Newton in the Cambridge edition of the "Principia"
(1713), inferred from Halley's observation of an emersion
of Jupiter and his satellite from the moon's limb, giving
for the denominator of the fraction (whereby it is usual to
express the mass) 1033. In the later editions of the
" Principia " the mean distance of the fourth satellite
resulting from Pound's observations, to which allusion is
made [above, was substituted in the calculation of the
mass, which was found to be 1067. (It may here be men-
tioned that from later observations by Pound with a
micrometer on a telescope of 123 feet focus, on the mean
distance of the third satellite, Bessel found for the mass
1066). The next attempt in this direction appears to
have been made by Triesnecker, Director of the Obser-
vatory at Vienna. In 1794 and 1795, making use of a
Dollond object-glass micrometer, he obtained a series of
measures of distances of all four sateUites, the notice of
which appears in the Vienna Ephemeris for 1797. Bessel
deduced from them, by a mean of the four values, io55'68.
Then follow Bouvard's investigations already mentioned.
It is understood that Gauss was the first to bring the per-
turbations of the minor planets to bear upon the deter-
mination of the mass of Jupiter, and that from the
perturbations of Pallas he perceived the necessity of an
increase to the mass] adopted by Laplace. The circum-

stance, so far' as we know, rests upon the authority of
Nicolai, who, following in the same steps, discussed
observations of Juno at fifteen oppositions, between the
year 1804 and 1823, and (in the Berliner Astronomisches
Jahrbuchiox 1826) deduced for Jupiter's mass 1053-92.
Encke, from fourteen oppositions of Vesta, between 1807
and 1825, made its value 1050-36, in a paper published by
the Berlin Academy of Sciences in 1826.

Sir George Airy's observations at the Cambridge
Observatory, alluded to by M. Leverrier in his recent
notice, are next in order of time. They were commenced
in 1832 and continued till 1836. The final result appears
in vol. X. of the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical
Society ; it is 1046-77, and depends upon observations on
thirty-three nights. Details of the earlier Cambridge
observations will be found in vols. vi. and viii. of the same
memoirs. Sir George Airy considered it very improbable
that there could be an error of a single unit in the deno-
minator of the fraction expressing the mass, being led to
this opinion by the close agreement of the separate
results.

In the year '1835 Prof. Santini, the present venerable
director of the Observatory of Padua, by sixteen nights'
measures of the distance of the fourth satellite from both
limbs of Jupiter, obtained for the 'mass 1049-2 {Ricerche
intorno alia Massa di Ciove, Modena, 1836).

Bessel's elaborate series of measures of distances of
the four satellites commenced in October 1832 and were
completed in the middle of 1839. They are fully discussed
in his very valuable memoir, BestimniU7ig der Masse des
Jupiter, in vol. ii. of his Astronomische Untersuchungen :
the definitive value of the mass (p. 64) is 1047-879.
Bessel's mass, which has been generally adopted in the
calculation of the perturbations of minor planets and
comets, and which is so close a confirmation of that
deduced by the Astronomer Royal, has receivied much
additional support from recent and, as regards method,
essentially different investigations. Thus Krueger, of
Helsingfors, from the perturbations of Themis, one of the
minor planets which approaches nearest to Jupiter, assigns
1047-16 ; Axel MoUer, by his masterly researches on the
motion of Faye's Comet, 1047-79 '■> while Von Asten, from
his last investigations relating to Encke's Comet, finds
1047-61.

THE HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, U.S.

THE munificent bequests made by wealthy Americans
for the promotion of education in the United States
frequently excite our astonishment, for they are un-
paralleled in Europe at the present time. One of the
most unique and well-devised of these bequests has lately
occurred. Last year there died a Mr. Jonas Hopkins, a
rich citizen of Baltimore, who, after providing for his
relatives and leaving various minor benefactions, bestowed
the chief part of his estate to found a university with an
affiliated medical school and hospital. Both the uni-
versity and the hospital receive separate landed and
other property of such a substantial character that the
value of the total amount is over three millions of
dollars. Each institution is to be controlled by a aboard
of nine trustees, and the same persons are to be on both
boards. The university will have no ecclesiastical or
political character or supervision, and will be modelled as
far as possible after all that is best in similar American
and European institutions. It is intended to give the
highest instruction that can be obtained, and the trustees
are to act in accordance with the most enlightened ex-
perience of the day. The scientific and literary depart-
ments will first be organised, and then will follow the de-
partments of Medicine and Law,

No permanent buildings will be erected till all the
Faculties are in working order and the wishes of each
professor can be carried out ; meanwhile a building has

Sept. 23, 1875]

NATURE

457

temporarily been secured in Baltimore, on the outskirts of
which city are the grounds Mr. Hopkins has left for the
hospital and university which in future will bear his name.
The trustees have already selected the President of the
University, and an admirable head they have found in
Mr. Henry Gillman, formerly the Principal of the San
Francisco University. Mr. Gillman is now in England,
maturing his plans and gaining information from various
universities in Europe. The dominant wish of the new
president is to gather round him a body of professors and
lecturers devoted to original research in their different
spheres. Only one chair has yet been filled, namely, that
of Mathematical Physics, and to this Mr. H. A. Rowland
has been appointed. Though still quite a young man,
the good work Mr. Rowland has already done in mag-
netism has made his name well known among English
physicists, and in his new position a brilliant career lies
before him. It is hoped that students will be received in
1876, and we heartily wish Mr. Gillman every success in
his noble work.

SCIENCE IN GERMANY
{From a Germaii Correspondent^

MUCH as may have been written about bone-forma-
tion, yet this theme seems still to be inexhaustible,
as in the current series of the " Archiv fiir mikroskopische
Anatomie " (of which we gave the contents in a former
report) no less than three papers are published on this
subject. Two of these, those by Strelzow and by Stieda,
speak of the ossification of cartilage and of bone-
growth, and arrive at quite contradictory results. The
older view on bone-growth starts from the supposition
that the bones once formed undergo no further plastic
change, that their single parts cannot displace each other,
that therefore an insterstitial growth cannot be imagined.
If the growing bone, as usual, does not merely show a
uniform increase in size, but little by little changes its
shape too (the bent bones for instance, the bends of which
change during growth), this naturally leads to the suppo-
sition that besides the deposit of fresh material, a solution
or absorption of those older materials took place, which
did not fit the new shape. In opposition to this view,
which Stieda also defends, Strelzow tries to prove that
the bone grows interstitially, that therefore it can change
its shape in an outward direction without reabsorption of
any of its parts, that it is useless therefore to suppose
the latter to take place, and that there is no reason for
such a supposition. Now, with regard to the change
from cartilage to bone, it has certainly been proved, for
most cases, that the cartilage is first destroyed before
in its place a bone grows from fresh materials. But
while Stieda thinks this the case everywhere, Strelzow
observes that the lower jaw and the shoulder-blade form
exceptions to the general rule, the cartilage there passing
immediately from its softer state to bone. Her twig's
observations, which he makes with regard to his investi-
gations of the teeth of Reptilia, have a much more exten-
sive range. In Hemibatrachia the teeth form earlier
than any other bones of the head, and starting from this
basis those bones in the oral cavity are destroyed, which
only cover the exterior of the original cartilage skeleton,
and are therefore called covering bones. In frogs these
bones certainly form without the help of the teeth,
which only appear at a later stage ; but as frogs (Batrachia)
and salamanders (Hemibatrachia) are of the same order,
and particularly as the former are the more recent
family, Hertwig thinks that in their ancestors the forma-
tion of teeth took place in the same way as in the
salamanders now, but that in course of time they lost
the primitive bone-forming teeth and retained only the
bones resulting from them. The formation of teeth now
observed in frogs is therefore a secondary phenomenon.
Just as the bones of the oral cavity have their origin in

the teeth, Hertwig supposes the covering bones on the
exterior of the head to result from scales, and states that
this is still very evident with certain fishes. What is a
rule for lower vertebrata may also be applied to the
higher orders, so that all covering bones may be derived
from scales or teeth, which in sharks and rays are
still equivalent 'and homologous formations. There-
fore sharks and rays must be looked upon as the
oldest forms of Vertebrata provided with bones ; they are
succeeded first by salamanders, then by frogs, and finally
by the remaining reptiles, birds, and Mammalia.

It is a well-known fact that the gland-cells only absorb
certain materials from the blood in order to convey them,
more or less changed, into the hollow interior of the gland
organ, and thus to furnish useful substances to the organism
(secretions), or to remove useless ones from the same
(excretions). Wittich demonstrates these relations in a
particularly clear manner ("Archiv fiir mikroskopische
Anatomie," 1875). After the injection of differently coloured
solutions (carmine ammonia, indigo-sulphate of soda) into
the blood of living rabbits, these colours are again ex-
creted by the kidneys. If the animals arc killed during
this excretion, and the glands are examined, the carmine
is only found in the gland vessels, not in their cells ;
the indigo, however, in the cells also. Such experiments
evidently show that the gland-cells have a sort of selec-
tive affinity for the two colouring materials, letting the one
pass entirely, and partly retaining the other in their
interior.

In the same journal Neumann acquaints us with
an interesting property of the cells which coat the
abdominal cavity of a frog. It is known that some of
these cells in female frogs are furnished with cilia, by the
motion of which the ova ejected from the ovary into the
abdominal cavity are introduced into the openings of the
oviduct. Waldeyer, in his book, " Ovary and Ovum," had
maintained that as the essential parts of the female
genital organs result from the coating of the em-
bryonal abdominal cavity, those ciliated cells physio-
logically connected with them result irom the same
basis, viz., the germ-epithelium ; while the whole re-
maining coating of the later developed abdominal cavity,
with its entirely different physiological signification, must
be a formation genetically different from the former.
Goette had already proved (" Entwickelungsgeschichte
der Unke ") that all those formations, together with seve-
ral others, result from the uniform cell-coating of the
abdominal cavity of the embryo. Neumann now specially
proves their genetic identity by the observation that these
ciliated cells only occur at the time of sexual maturity in
the uniform epithelium of the abdominal cavity, and that
therefore they represent local transformations of the
same. This again confirms the theory, which Goette {l.c)
defends for the whole organism, that each embryonal
part is not unconditionally intended for certain for-
mations (which has been an accepted behef since
Remak), but that from one single and uniform part in the
embryo quite different tissues and organs can and may
result, solely depending on the locally changing con-
ditions of development. For instance, the coating of the
embryonal abdominal cavity, besides the parts already
mentioned, also furnishes the fibrous tissue of the intes-
tines, the kidneys, and the heart.

THE LAWS OF STORMS^

Recent Criticism and Contrary Theories. — The rules
referred to in last article are only empirical and are
derived from no theory. Mechanics ought to take them
in hand and explain them ; but it has not been able to
do so, for the circulatory movements of both liquids and
gases are as yet a closed letter to that science. They are
to-day in the same position as were Keplei-'s laws before

* Continued from p. 403.

458

NATURE

[Sept. 23, 1875

the theory of attraction. Why ellipses ? said theorists at
the beginning of the seventeenth century. And why put
the sun in the common focus of all these ellipses ? Are
there not also other curves followed by these planets in
their course around the sun ? But once connected with
the principle of universal gravitation, these laws, so
neglected by contemporaries, became "the immortal laws
of Kepler."

Such at present is the position of the Laws of Storms.
Despite the adhesion of practical men, meteorologists do
not recognise the essential features which ought, according
to them, to characterise storms. On this account, the
practical rules themselves which sailors have followed for
thirty years must be rejected ; for they are entirely
founded, as we have seen/on the circular movement of
the air in storms.

These criticisms,' more or] less direct, based on the
theory of centripetal hurricanes or of aspiration, have
at the present time all the greater force that mariners
themselves have an innate belief in the mere idea of this
theory. We even find this belief in the writings of
authors who have shown themselves best acquainted
with the laws of storms and with the corresponding
practical rules. Two examples may be referred to.

The well-known hydrographic engineer, Keller, in his
"Treatise on Hurricanes," says that in intertropical
regions where cyclones originate, the atmospheric strata
underneath the sun dilate and draw up the inferior air of
the dilated zone ; that if ordinary aspiration, due to the
calorific action of the sun, is further promoted by an
electric attraction, the affluent air will rush with more
force into the interior vacuum, &c. Within this space or
vacuum he conceives that the water of the sea raised by
the central aspiration of a typhoon or a waterspout
ascends. When the gyratory column passes from the sea
on to the land, it hurls against the shore the water raised
by aspiration, and the sea suddenly inundates the low
coast to a considerable distance inland. Finally, on land,
the force of aspiration of these phenomena exercises its
ravages not only by throwing down, but by tearing up
trees, and overturning even solid buildings.

M. Bridet, again, asserts that there is formed under the
action of the sun, a sort of vacuum resulting from the
rapid ascension of masses of heated air. This vacuum is
rapidly filled up by the lower currents of air which flow
towards it from all directions. These currents, flowing
along the surface of the earth, acquire a gyratory motion
from the daily rotation. On reaching the base of the
ascending column, near the centre of rarefaction, the air
carried by these currents gets heated, and expands in its
turn ; it follows the ascensional movement of the mole-
cules that it replaces, and rises, preserving its rotatory
motion.

Persuaded of the reality of this immense draught which
the aspiration of ascending columns of heated air must
exercise on the lower stratum, in the manner of a
chimney, sailors themselves must say that the circular
diagram which Reid and Piddington have used for cy-
clones is scarcely admissible from the theoretic point of
view ; that already the centripetal movement has been
recognised in waterspouts and tornadoes, which, after all,
are only cyclones in miniature ; that the convergent dia-
grams proposed recently by Mr. Meldrum, of Mauritius,
have perhaps a better foundation, more especially if,
as Mr. Meldrum affirms in the cases of two storms which
he has recently discussed, these convergent diagrams better
represent the true features of the hurricane than concentric
circles. Mr. Meldrum's " Note on the form of Cyclones
in the Indian Ocean " has been published by the Meteoro-
logical Committee of the Royal Society, and is thus well
known. We reproduce one of the figures (Fig. 4), and
ask the reader to compare it with the circular diagrams
of the hurricane in Cuba (Fig. i) ; the difference of the
two systems will be seen at once.

According to the first the centre is situated perpendi-
cularly to the direction of the wind ; according to the
second, it will be situated (neglecting for the moment the
curvature of the spirals) in that very direction. There is
here a difference of nearly 90°.

What will hereafter be the position of sailors in the face
of an imminent danger ? This is in substance what they
are told : — You feel, you see, that a danger menaces you ;
the aspect of the sky, the state of the sea and of the winds,
the steady fall of the barometer, already tell you that
there is not a moment to lose if you wish to take the step
which may save all. Hitherto you have believed, in the
faith of certain empirical rules, that the danger is on your
left ; not at all— by my theory it is before you.

The captain has no time to search /the works of Reid,
of Redfield, of Piddington, or to examine the theory of
centripetal hurricanes. This is a question which must be
quickly answered. Is it necessary, in order to this, to
make one's self familiar with all that has been done during
the last thirty years in order to try, in this repetition of
the first investigation, if the centripetal diagrams repre-
sent the direction of the wind better than the circular
diagrams t This is a labour which would require at least
many years.

Happily there is another method of solving the question,
which is to examine that theory of hurricanes of centri-

petal aspiration which has given rise to all these doubts
with regard to the laws of storms. If this theory is found
to be true, the authors of the " Laws of Storms " will cer-
tainly have been wrong in neglecting its indications. Let
us therefore put aside their pretended circulatory move-
ments. The air moves towards^ a centre of aspiration
instead of turning round a point ; all will thus be changed,
and especially will it be necessary to promulgate practi-
cal rules altogether different. But if the' theory of aspi-
ration is proved to be false — and, to know what to believe
on the subject, long years are not necessary — a rapid
examination will be sufficient ; if it is false, we say, sailors
may continue to place confidence in the rules which have
been so serviceable to them for thirty years.

By investigating the whirling movements of which the
sun is the theatre, M. Faye was led some time ago to
examine this theory without any reference to nautical
matters. He has found it completely illusory. On the
contrary, that theory which fits into the solar phenomena
is found to agree thoroughly with the Laws of Storms ;
and we need not be astonished at this agreement, for the
laws of mechanics are the same everywhere, and the
gyratory movements of fluid masses will not vary more
in the case of one heavenly body as compared with
another than the laws ot gravitation. Putting aside solar
questions, which interest only astronomers, we shall treat

Sept. 23, 1875J

NATURE

459

of the purely meteorological question, and in the mean-
time place before the reader the conclusions of this
essay : —

1. The idea of centripetal hurricanes of aspiration
originates in an illusion of the sense of sight ; it is an old
prejudice whose history it is easy to follow from the most
remote times to the present day.

2. The theory of centripetal hurricanes, suggested by
this prejudice and the hypotheses which it implies, cannot
be accepted. The adoption of similar id -'as by enlightened
minds is only to be explained by the venerable authority
of this prejudice.

3. Bases of the mechanical theory of gyratory move-
ments ; agreement of that theory with the Laws of
Storms. These ought to be considered as a first but
excellent approximation ; a means of making further
advances.

I. History of a Nautical Prejudice. — In the midst of
the profound calm which often precedes thunderstorms,
the lower strata of the atmosphere are not agitated by the
least breath ; heavy clouds approach at a great speed and
cover the sky — a clear proof that powerful currents pre-
vail above, the influence of which does not extend to the
ground. From one of these clouds a sort of bag or end
of a tube or funnel is seen to issue, and which gradually
descends, lengthening at the same time. It seems to be
formed of the same material as the cloud ; and in fact
is a true fog which envelops the cloud, thus rendering it
visible to our eyes.

Fig. s.

Meantime the centre of this funnel is agitated by a
violent whirling movement of which the small whirlwinds
of dust that are sometimes seen on our roads give a very
accurate idea. When the waterspout reaches the ground
and encounters obstacles in its way, it sets to work upon
these after the manner of a turning machine of great
speed at the end of a vertical axis. It raises around its
lower extremity a cloud of dust, overturns trees, batters
down walls, and unroofs houses. If, instead of land,
the waterspout meets with a water surface, it acts upon it
like a square -bladed scoop at the end of a vertical axis,
and the churned water is thrown to a distance in foam ; if
it advances on a pool, is empties it in an instant ; if on a
lake or a sea, the water spurts out all round the foot of
the waterspout in clouds of spray.

Look particularly at this long vaporous tube (Fig. 5),
which extends from the surface of the earth to the clouds,
to a height of from 1,600 to 2,000 feet and upwards ; it
appears flexible, and has an undulatory movement through
its entire length : the least breath of air alters and distorts
its form ; and its whirling movements are felt down even
to its base, which sweeps over the earth, carrying devas-
tation in its train. If it assumes greater dimensions, it is
no longer a waterspout, but a tornado. We have here in
two words the history of the tornado of Jan. 20, 1854,
which occurred in the county of Knox, Ohio, and which

in half an hour levelled 50,000 trees with the ground,
hewing forjtself a pathway through the forest a quarter of
a mile broad, which could not have been made in some
weeks by a whole army of backwoodsmen.

The tube, which takes the form of a pillar, a funnel,
the trunk of an elephant, &c., usually disappears after
being as it were broken across, by the violence of its
own gyratory movements. Further, the misty vapours
which compose it slowly ascend, and the combination of
the ascending and whirling motions gives the appearance,
when seen at some distance, of a spirally ascending move-
ment, which, however, bears no relation to the internal
gyrations of the waterspout. Movements, not real but
illusory, are all that are perceived. The spectator sup-
poses he sees objects ascending in the interior of the
waterspout. Thus a bit of cloudy vapour looks like a
bird caught by the waterspout and rapidly whirled aloft.
If the vermicular motion is continuous and along the
whole length of the waterspout, the question is asked,
what can in this manner ascend in a long tube whose
base is plunged into the sea and which violently agitates
its surface. At once and without any inquiry the logic of
the imagination comes into play, and the conclusion is
come to that it is the water of the sea which the water-
spout is in quest of ; this it pumps up and distributes
among the clouds, and its ascent up the tube is plainly
seen. No question is put as to how a tube composed of
aqueous vapour can hold and sustain deluges of solid
water. Moreover, are the clouds not seen rapidly to grow
portentously heavier and bigger by the water so abundantly
supplied by the waterspout ?

It were idle to listen even to observations made under
such impressions. For thousands of years sailors have
transmitted from age to age tales of waterspouts which
have lifted ships into the air, sucked up the water of the
sea, and poured it down again on some hapless ship which
was unfortunate enough to pass under and break the tube
of the spout. Tales like these, unceasingly reproduced
with ever-fresh details, powerfully aid the illusion in deter-
mining the event before it is seen.

{To be continued.)

NOTES

An interesting service to astronomy has been rendered by Mr.
Davidson, the head of the American Transit Expedition to
Nagasaki, Japan ; Jie has determined the exact site of Abbe
Chappe d'Auteroche's Observatory in 1769, when he observed
the transit by order of the French Academy of Science, at St.
Joseph, California. As Abbe Ciiappe died soon afterwards from
a fever caught while fulfilling his mission, his narration was
completed by people who had never been on the spot ; a blank
has been left'in thejecords of his observations, which has now
been filled up 108 years after the event. The Abbe Chappe was
an uncle of the celebrated Chappe who invented telegraphs
during the wars of the Revolution.

M. Lecocq de BoiSBAUDRAN,'who is well known in connec-
tion with spectroscopic analysis, has just announced the dis-
covery, by means of the spectroscope, of a new cliemical element
which he calls gallium and affirms to be closely allied to zinc.
The spectroscopic character of gallium is two violet lines, one
corresponding to wave-length 417, and the other to 404, but
fainter. The communication was made by M. Wurtz, at
Monday's sitting of the French Academy. A commission has
been appointed to report on the discovery. Gallium is said to
be found in a special blende from Pierrefite mining works, in tlie
Argeles Valley.

It appears that M. Janssen's observatory is to be built at
Fontenay at the expense of 80,000 francs. A sum of 50,000 francs
is to be spent on instruments, exclusive ot the apparatus used
in the transit of Venus, lie is to have two assistants, each of

46o

NA rURE

{Sept. 23, 1875

them receiving 4,000 francs yearly. The instruments are to be
under the direct supervision of the Minister of PubUc Instruc-
tion.

Meteors of unusual brilliancy have been seen from several
points of late. We recently noticed one seen from the Radcliffe
Observatory, Oxford, on Sept. 3, and from the same place we
learn that a large meteor was observed on Sept. 7, iih. 21m.
Greenwich mean time, about twice the apparent magnitude of
Jupiter, increasing to about four times that of Jupiter, with an
accompanying tail of about 5° in length, from near 4 Arietis to a
point near/Tauri, where it burst into five or six pieces. Colour,
blue to green, with red at bursting. Time^visible, about seven
seconds. It was seen by Mr. Lucas and Mr. Bellamy. Another
very peculiar one was seen from Edinburgh and neighbourhood
on the nth inst. A Burntisland correspondent, Mr. G. J. P.
Grieve, writes that about II P. M. that evening, while pacing a
gravel walk in moonlight and partly gaslight, a sudden vivid
gleam from behind threw his shadow clear cut on a bright
ground. Turning sharp to see the origin of the blaze, after a
second or so he noticed a serpentine meteor : the glow or trace
left in the path of a shooting star, whose maximum intensity, if
not explosion, lay at the west end of the trace. The trace
appeared in Auriga, and so close to the three leading stars next
south of Capella, that he had not the least difficulty in sketching
the position. The particulars are these :— Station in lat. N.
56° 3' 57" ; long. W. 3° 13' 10". Position of meteor, in constel-
lation Auriga. Duration from first blaze to disappearance of
trace, three to four minutes. Timed at disappearance of trace,
1 1. 2| p. M. by Edinburgh gun time. Several letters on this serpen-
tine meteor — "the sky snake " they call it in the north — appear
in the Scotsman, all agreeing as to its peculiar form^and great
briUiancy. One observer near Mid Calder "was attracted by
the appearance of a magnificent meteor, which was visible for
about two seconds, and which, being apparently interrupted in
its flight, assumed a zigzag course ; and, flashing brightly at
each angle thus formed, it disappeared, leaving the snake-shaped
track behind it, which was visible for several minutes afterwards,
finally disappearing in the form of a ring." On the night of the
14th inst. another magnificent one was visible, apparently over
all England, It is noticed in the Bradford Observer of the 15th,
and Mr. T. W. Shore writes us that he-'saw it while in the
Southampton Water. The time of its appearance, both, in the
north and south of England, was 8.30 P.M. Mr. Shore, while
looking towards the land on the north, observed the meteor com-
mence its luminous course at an apparent altitude of about 30°,
and travel to the hoiizon in a direction from S.E. to N.W. The
meteor appeared to him to be about three or four times the
brightness of Jupiter, and the time of its course rather more than
two seconds. The Bradford Observer states that "all accounts
agree in saying that it presented, the appearance of a flying body
of light of considerable size, and that during the period of its
passage it lighted the whole sky. It would seem that it first
made its appearance from the south-west, its course being over
Bowhng Park and in a north-westerly direction over Bowling,
Hoiton, and Manningham, and a spectator describes it as an
oblong body of light, several feet in length, and bearing the
appearance of some solid body in a state of combustion, the
sparks flying out on all sides, and a track of flame being left
after its passage. Its passage was accompanied by a noise as of
a loud explosion, which was plainly heard, not only by those
who were outside, but by persons inside the houses who did not
see the aerolite itself. All parties concur in saying that so strong
a light was cast around that a newspaper could easily be read for
the space of half a minute." The same meteor was seen from
Manchester and London, and no doubt from various other
places. In the report of the meteor of Sept. 3, 5 should be
\ Piscis Australis.

iN'order to stimulate research, experiment, and invention, and
to promote the advancement of mining enterprise in Cornwall
and Devon, Mr. G. L. Basset, of Tehidy, offers prizes under the
following conditions : — l. For the discovery of a new mineral,
in Cornwall or Devon, which is deemed likely to become com-
mercially; valuable, a prize of 50/. An accurate analysis and a
description of the leading physical properties and distinguishing
characteristics of the mineral to be given, specimens to be handed
to the Committee, and the locality and mode of occurrence to be
distinctly described. 2. For the invention of a method — me-
chanical or chemical — of making marketable with commercial
advantage, ores or minerals produced in Cornwall or Devon, and
hitherto regarded as worthless or of little value. The method
to be clearly described, and specimens of the product in its
several stages to be jhanded to the Committee ; or, for the dis-
covery of some new application of a mineral substance already
known to occur in Cornwall or Devon, either by itself or in com-
bination, tojsome useful purpose, so as to render it of marketable
value, or materially to enhance its value if already marketable to
some extent — a prize of 100/. The prizes to be awarded at the
discretion and according to the judgment of a Committee, con-
sisting of the President and Hon. Sec. of the Miners' Association,
and some other gentlemen to be nominated by Mr. Basset.! |A11
communications on this subject must be addressed, in the first
instance, to Mr. J. H. Collins, F.G.S., hon. sec. of the Miners'
Association of Cornwall and Devon, 57, Lemon Street, Truro.

According to information communicated to Aftonbladet from
Christiania, the Norwegian vessel, which in the end of August
met Nordenskjold west of Novaya Zemlya, was the yacht Elvire
Dorothea, belonging to J. Berger, in Hammerfest. The yacht
has returned from the Arctic Sea to Hammerfest. Its master,
Johan Alexandersen, states that the Sea of Kara was nearly free
of ice, and that it cannot be doubted that Nordenskjold will
reach the goal of his journey, the River Obi.

M. Leverrier has announced to the French Academy that
Mr. Hind, the superintendent of the Nautical Almanack, intends
to employ his new Tables of Saturn as soon as they are printed.
He reminded the Academy '^that this will be the sixth table con-
structed by him that the British Admiralty has introduced into
the almanack, and ,he expressed his sense of the honour thus
done him by the Admiralty.

An interesting and very useful publication comes to us
from Germany, under the title of " Die Fortschritte des Darwi-
nismus," by J. W. Spengel (Cologne and Leipzig, E. W.
Mayer). This is the second number of the publication, and
originally appeared as a paper in Klein's Revue der Natur-
wissenschaften. The purpose of the brochure of eighty pages is
to give a brief review of all the works and articles of importance
bearing onjDarwinism, either /w or ^^«, published during 1873-4.
A very large number of such works, in various languages, is
noticed, and their bearing on the Darwinian hypothesis pointed
out. The work will be found of great use to those who have
not access or have not time to consult all the various publica-
tions bearing on the important theory, and will also serve as
an excellent bibliography to those who wish to make a thorough
study of the subject.

The German Scientific and Medical Association was opened
at Graz on the 17th inst. Lieut. Weyprecht, of the recent
Austrian Arctic Expedition, made a speech deprecating all past
Arctic expeditions as adventurous and valueless because they con-
stituted an international rivalry that resulted only in giving
names to some ice-bound islands. The speaker, amid general
applause, expounded a new programme for making Arctic expe-
ditions more fruitful for natural science, and to enable poorer
countries to undertake such expeditions.

In the American Boston Medical and Surgical Journal for
July there is a paper by Dr. H. P. Bowditch, on the course of

Sept. 23, 1875]

NATURE

461

the nerve-fibres in the spinal cord. From his experiments the
author demonstrates, in opposuion to the results of many other
investigators, that the channels of motor and sensitive impres-
sions lie in the' lateral, and not in the anterior and posterior
columns of the cord.

The International Congress of Physicians was opened at
Brussels on Sunday by the King of the Belgians with great
ceremony.

In connection with the'/Science and Art Department, South
Kensington, the following candidates have been successful in
obtaining Royal Exhibitions of 50/. per annum each for three
years, and free admission to the course of instruction at the fol-
lowing institutions : — i. The Royal School of Mines, Jermyn
Street, London : John Gray, engineer ; Frederick G. Mills,
student ; Thomas E. Holgate, farmer. 2. The Royal College
of Science, Dublin : C. C. Hutchinson, engineer ; Henry Hat-
field, student ; Thomas Whittaker, clerk.

Prof. Flower's important monograph on the structure and
affinities of the Musk-deer {Moschus moschifenis) has just ap-
peared in the new 3rd part of the Proceedings of the Zoological
Society for this year.

We commend to our readers a paper in Tuesday's Daily
News on the scientific work of the Valorous, by a member"of the
expedition. Under somewhat trying circumstances much good
work was done. Many new and valuable facts bearing upon the
very important question of the geographical distribution of parti-
cular forms have been added to those abready obtained by the
Porcupine and Challenger.

In a letter in the Moriiing Post, signed "W. S. M.," atten-
tion is drawn to the provision in the New Code of the Privy
Council Committee of Education for instruction in cooking,
house management, &c., in elementary schools, and a very
happy suggestion is made. The writer can see no reason why
some portions at least of the subject should not at once be intro-
duced into all schools which are in connection with the Science
and Art Department. He then shows how very large a number of
students attend the classes for Animal Physiology, Organic and
Inorganic Chemistry, and Heat, and says : " There is thus already
given, though scattered over four subjects, much of the instruction
which would belong properly to the special subject of ' Food
and its Preparation.' To make the subject an efficient one, all
that is needed is to select certain portions from the subjects
already taught, 'Physiology,' 'Acoustics, Light, Heat, '{'In-
organic Chemistry,' ' Organic Chemistry ; ' to group these por-
tions as one subject, and to add to it some additional instruction
that is not at all more difficult than much that is already given.''
We commend "W. S. M.'s " suggestion, indeed the whole of
his letter, to the notice of the South Kensington authorities.

The Cryptogamic Society of Scotland will hold its first
Annual Conference at Perth on September 29 and 30, and
October i, the president being Sir T. Moncreiffe, of Mon-
creiffe, Bart,, President of the Perthshire Society of Natural
Science, and the secretary, F. Buchanan White, M.D,, F.L.S.,
editor of the Scottish Naturalist. The following is the pro-
gramme of the meeting : — Wednesday, September 29, field-
excursions to Moncreiffe, Dupplin, and Scone. Thursday,
September 30, { i ) Arrangement and examination of specimens .
(2) Business meeting (reading of papers and communications,
&c.) ; (3) Fungus dinner. Friday, October i, show of fungi
and oiher cryptogamic plants in the City Hall, Perth. All fungi,
&c., intended for exhibition must be delivered (addressed to the
care of the " Keeper of the City Hall, Perth") not later than
10 A.M. on Thursday, September 30. Ferns in pots must be

delivered between 8 and 10 a.m. on Friday, October i. Botanists
(especially in distant localities) who purpose attending the con-
ference are requested to give early intimation of their intention,
in order to facilitate arrangements. Further information may be
obtained on application to the general secretary. Dr. Buchanan
White, Rannoch, Perthshire ; or the local secretary, Mr, J.
Young, C.E., Tay Street, Perth.

A French blacksmith has devised a perforated plate, put in
rotation by clockwork, and intended to place behind the lock of
a safe. The consequence is that the safe cannot be opened
except at certain times during business hours, when there is no
danger of any robber intruding into the offices.

The patrons of the Lille Catholic University are trying to get
an hospital placed at their disposal in order to start a school of
medicine, and they have offered a sum of 1 50,000 francs to the
administration of public hospitals in order to have a clinique of
their own. The answer has not yet' been given,^but it is doubtful
whether the requisition will^be complied with.

The death of M. Duchesne de Boulogne, one of the most cele-
brated practitioners who engaged themselves in studying medical
electricity, took place on Saturday, Sept. 18. M. Duchesne
de Boulogne was the author of several cleverly written books on
the subject. His death will be felt as a lo3s by those who are
organising the International Exhibition of Electricity, which is
to take place only in 1877, having been postponed owing to tlie
amount of work required to collect all the objects relating to
that immense science.

The admirable " Report Jon the Progress of the Iron and
Steel Industries in ^Foreign Countries, " by Mr. David Forbes,
F.R.S., has been reprinted in a separate form in the Journal of
the Iron and Steel Institute.

The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the
past week include a Macaque Monkey (Alacaens eynomolgus)
from India, presented by Mrs. Kent; a Common Raccoon
[Procyon lotor) from North America, presented by Mr. W.
Binder ; a Coffin's Cockatoo ( Cacatua gofflni) from Queensland,
presented by Mrs. Barton ; an Egyptian Gazelle {Gazella dorcas)
from Egypt, a Green Monkey {Cercopithecus callitrichus) from
West Africa, a Brazilian Hangnest {Icterus famaicat) from Brazil,
a Sulphury Tyrant Bird {Pitangus sulphuratus), two Red-rumped
Hangnests (Cassicus hcemorrhous), three Blue-bearded Jay.
{Cyanocorax cyanopogon) from South America, deposited; a
Getulian Ground Squirrel {Xerus getulus) from Morocco, six
Houbara Bustards {Houbara nndulata) from" North Africa, pur-
chased; a Wapiti Deer {Census canadensis), and a Reeves's
Muntjac {Cervulus reevesi) bom in' the Gardens.

THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION

REPORTS.

Third Report on the Sub-Wealden Exploration.— M.T. W.
Toplcy made a statement on this subject, embodying the chief
points of the report drawn up by Mr. II. Willett and himself.
Up to the year 1872 nothing was known as to the beds which
lie below the Wealden strata in the south-east of f^ngland. The
lowest beds exposed were those on the north and north-west of
Battle, long worked for limestone. The age of these beds was
doubtful, some geologists correlating them with the Purbecks of
Dorsetshire, others regarding them as Wealden but of somewhat
exceptional character. In 1872, when the Association met at
Brighton, Mr. H. Willett proposed to commence a bore hole in
these doubtful strata, with a twofold object: (i) to determine
the order, thickness, and character of the Secondary rocks below
the Weald ; (2) to prove the Palreozoic rocks which were sup-
posed to lie beneath at a depth which could be reached. Judg-

462

NATURE

ISept. 23, 1875

ing from what is known of the Secondary strata near Boulogne,
and comparing them with those exposed in the middle of Eng-
land, it was hoped that the Palaeozoic rocks would be reached at
a depth not greater than 1,700 feet from the surface. In August
1874 the boring had reached a depth of 1,030 feet, and was then
delayed in consequence of an accident to the rods. This hole
was ultimately abandoned, and a new boring was commenced in
February 1875, which has been carried to a depth of 1,812 feet.
At this point the work has been stopped, in consequence of great
difficulties in keeping the hole clear, and it is not proposed to
continue the boring further. From the surface down to 175 feet
the strata are shales and impure limestones, with gypsum in the
lower part. These beds are referred to Purbecks, and with them
are now classed the lowest rocks exposed at the surface, formerly
called the " Ashbumham Beds." From 175 to 257 feet the
strata are^chiefly sand and sandstones ; these are held to represent
the Portland Beds. Below 257 feet there is a great series of
bituminous shales and clays, with occasional bands of cement
stone and sandstone. Kimmeridge Clay fossils extend down to
1,656 feet at least, possibly lower ; so that this formation is here
at least 1,400 feet thick. The bottom beds of the boring, just
reached, are oolitic in structure, and contain bands of hard lime-
stone. To this extent, then, the Secondary rocks have been
traversed, and their order and structure ascertained. A disco-
very of some commercial value has been made, for two com-
panies are in existence to work the gypsum. One of these has
been for some time in operation ; a shaft has been sunk and the
mineral is now being raised. Scarcely less important is the
knowledge now attained that no supply of water can be got by
deep wells or borings into the Sub-Wealden strata. As regards
the Palaeozoic rocks, the boring has not had the success that was
anticipated. The Secondary strata have proved too thick, and
there is little or no hope of reaching the older rocks here. A
boring is now in progress at Cross Ness by the Metropolitan
Board of Works ; this will be carried through the gault, and
may possibly throw some light on this question.

Report of the Committee on Erratic Blocks, by the Rev.
H. W. Crosskey. — The Committee continue their record,
without attempting the more ambitious task of connecting
the facts they report with theories of the history of the Glacial
epoch. It will be observed, however, (i) that the facts reported
increase our knowledge of the area over which erratic blocks
are distributed ; {2) that the boulders are connected together in
more definite groups, distinctly pointing to special centres of
distribution ; {3) that the possibilities are increasing of obtaining
a more exact history of the periods into which the great Glacial
epoch must be divided from the grouping and distribution of
erratic blocks. Boulders and scratched stones are reported in
South Devonshire. New Red Sandstone boulders occur on the
left bank of the River Dart, at Waddeton, the largest measuring
6X3 feet, at elevations extending from 15 to 200 feet. Are
they travelled masses ? If so, whence did they come ? When
were they lodged where they now lie ? What was the agent of
transportation ? The boulders may have been remnants of New
Red beds which once covered the older formations now
exclusively overlying the district ; but the different levels at
which they are found, the present configuration of the surface of
the country, and the great weight of some of them, indicate the
possibility of their having been transported by ice from some
part of the district lying between Berry Head and Galmpton
Common. At Englebourne scratched blocks occur of fine
grained trap over an area having slate as its subsoil. Although
the size of these boulders renders their mobility under the action
of waves possible, yet the grooves upon them appear to indicate
ice action with considerable distinctness. A group of small
boulders of mountain limestone have been found in the north-
east of Hertfordshire, 100 miles from their source in Derbyshire.
In Nottinghamshire remarkable boulders have been exposed by
a new railway cutting, many of them finely striated, which have
been described for the Committee by the Rev. A. Irving. The
boulders are of lias, millstone grit, and carboniferous limestone.
The boulders of lias limestone are derived from the liassic strata
of the immediate neighbourhood upon which they chiefly lie.
The nearest millstone grit is formed at Castle Donnington and
Stanton-by-Dale in Derbyshire, on opposite sides of the Trent
Valley ; the former place twelve miles south of west, the latter
twelve miles north of west from the deposits in which they occur.
The nearest carboniferous limestone corresponding to that of the
boulders is found at Ticknall in Derbyshire, about eighteen miles
distant south of west. The height of the group above the sea
is about 200 feet. The extent of the boulder clay and deposit is

at least several square miles. In the cutting between Plumtree
and Stanton the boulders are largest and most numerous, and
are mingled with an immense number of quartzite pebbles, the
whole being compactly bound together. In Leicestershire, there
is no doubt, Charnwood Forest was a centre of distribution by ice,
of blocks of all sizes. The position of various boulders is reported
seven miles from their source, together with a block of peculiar
millstone grit, at Hoby, near Melton, which must have come
from Durham or Northumberland. In Worcestershire (Broms-
grove district) ninety-three boulders have been examined, many
of them of considerable size, consisting chiefly of varieties of
felspathic rock. It is impossible as yet to generalise on their
distribution, but it is noticeable that no specimens of granite
have been observed in this district, although they occur so
abundantly around Wolverhampton. A list is given of the size
and position of the principal erratic blocks, which are rapidly
being destroyed. The group of felspathic boulders extends
through Northfield and King's Norton to Birmingham. Isolated,
and in many cases striated, boulders are reported in the neighbour-
hood of Liverpool, including blocks of greenstone, syenite,
felspathic ash, &c. On the north-west of Bradford a few
boulders are reported, similar to the rocks at Scaw Fell, Cumber-
land, and containing small garnets. The destruction of erratic
rocks is going on so rapidly through the country that the Com-
mittee earnestly request that reports may be forwarded to them
of their occurrence. Some are being buried to get them out of
the way of the farmers ; others are built into walls, made the
foundations of houses, or blasted into fragments. In some cases
they constitute the foundations of church towers. A timely
record will preserve many facts of large import and assistance in
the discussion of problems connected with the centres of ice
action, the range of the land ice, the courses of icebergs, and the
existence of interglacial epochs.

SECTIONAL PROCEEDINGS.
SECTION A — Mathematics and Physics

On the Measurement of Wave Motion, by Prof. Frederick
Guthrie. — The rate of progression of a wave in a liquid of
infinite depth and extent depends upon the wave length ;
scarcely at all upon its height, and not at all upon either its
breadth or the density of the liquid. The measurement of
rate of wave-progression in open water is difficult and at
best inaccurate. Natural waves generated and supported
or restrained by wind have abnormal rates of travelling.
Artificial waves in ponds degenerate rapidly in height
and increase in wave length, and so in wave progress-
rate. The time required by a wave generated in the
middle of a pond in reaching the edge, is dependent on its mean
wave length. Perhaps after reflexion from the edge the con-
ditions are sequentially reversed, and the time occupied in return-
ing is equal to that of departure. Perhaps not. I think not,
because the increase of wave length (and therefore of wave
progress) is a function of the height. Be this as it may, many
sources of error are got rid of by using troughs of limited sur-
face and indefinitely great depth, by causing the original and
reflected wave so to interfere as to produce one or more nodes ;
and instead of measuring the time required for the crest of a
wave to travel in a straight line over a given distance, by mea-
suring the number of times the crest of the wave system reap-
pears in the same place in a given time ; in other words, by
transferring to liquid waves the method used to measure the
rate of sound in solid bodies. As far as the method is trust-
worthy we get by means of a trough whose diameter is one
or two feet, a more accurate method of measuring the rate of
wave progress than by an experiment in an ideal pond a mile
across.

Experiment shows that if a concentric binodal wave system be
generated in a cylindrical trough of water of more than a certain
depth (say half its diameter), the following conditions hold good.
A nodal ring is formed at one-sixth of the diameter from the cir-
cumference. The amplitude at the centre is double that at the
circumference unless the disturbance is very great. The rate of
undulation — that is, the number of times in a given time that the
crest appears in the centre — does not depend sensibly upon the
amplitude, nor upon the temperature, nor upon the density of the
liquid. It depends almost wholly upon the wave length of the
waves formed — that is, upon the diameter of the trough — and is
identical with the number of beats of a pendulum whose length
is equal to the radius of the trough. Hence the rate of undu-
lation varies inversely as the square root of the trough radius or

Sept. 23, 1875]

NATURE

463

diameter. This confirms the assertion that the rate of wave-pro-
gress varies direcUy as the square root of the wave length ; be-
cause the rate of recurrence must vary as the rate of progression
divided by the path .

Experiment shows that a wave of I meter wave length would
travel 83 -07 meters in one minute if it did not alter its wave
length, and moved automatically. A cylindrical trough of water
more than, say, 5cxj millimeters deep and I'gSS meters in
diameter, will, in the latitude of London, undulate in seconds,
and will remain isochronous with the London seconds* pendulum
wherever tliey travel together.

In rectangular troughs, the wave progress is hindered. The
rates of recurrence of phase in rectangular troughs are slower
than in circular troughs when the wave lengths are the same ;
and this difference is greater when the wave length is greater.
Both circular and rectangular troughs accept mononodal undula-
tion. The rate of progress between parallel walls of a wave
I meter long is found to be 747, and this is independent of the
distance of the walls apart. The mononodal undulations in
circular and rectangular troughs have also been examined.

The comparative empirical mean constants in minute-milli-
meters are —

Circular. Kectangiilar.

Mononodal. Binodal. Mononodal. Binodal.

_ (a) (*) _ (r) (rf)

«\/<J'= 1 762-56 2613-24; «v'^ = 1594-16 2360-04.

where d is the diameter of the circular trough and e the length
of the rectangular one.

The water in a circular trough can also undulate with two per-
pendicular rectilinear nodes.

Taking the same trough, it is found that the number of undu-
lations per minute, when (a) the circular binodal, {b) the mono-
nodal, and (c) the binodal rectangular systems were established,
were —

a = 106-9 i5 = 7i"6 c = 94.

These numbers a and c agree well in ratio with those of a
circular elastic plate in similar vibration. The details of this
communication were laid before the Physical Society in June
last. They will, I hope, appear in [part in the Philosophical
Magazine for October.

SECTION B— Chemical Science

Prof. Cayley read a paper On the Analytical Forms called
Trees, with application to the theory of chemical combinations,
before a good audience composed to a considerable extent of
mathematicians.

The author in commencing stated that the subject he was
about to consider was more mathematical than chemical, but as
the results bore considerably upon the latter subject he had intro-
duced it in this Section. The problem to be solved was to find
the theoretic number of the hydrocarbons CnHj^ + g.

The only assumptions are that an atom of hydrogen can link
itself to one other atom, and an atom of carbon to four other
atoms. A combination of n carbon atoms can then link itself on
to 2„ + J hydrogen'atoms at most, but this number is only attained
when the carbon atoms are linked together without cycles, or so
as to forma "tree": given the tree, the hydrogen atoms can
be linked on in one way only, and the question thus is to find
the number of trees which can be formed with « carbon atoms.
The atoms, or dots representing them, are termed " knots," the
lines joining two knots are termed "branches" — the trees in
question are such that from each knot there proceed at most four
branches ; but this limitation is in the first instance disregarded.
A tree may be considered as springing from any one of its knots
as its root, and trees which are chemically the same thus present
themselves under different forms. For the treatment of the
chemically distinct forms it is necessary to introduce the notions
of a "centre " and a "bicentre" (due to Prof. Sylvester) ; and
the question is reduced to that of finding the number of the
central trees with « knots : this is solved by the method of gene-
rating functions, viz., the number of the central trees of altitude
iVis given by a series of the form —

/**+' -f{/,/«}^*+» +{/,/»,/3]x^+» +, &c.

where the numerical coefficient of any term /«^^ + ^ shows the
number of trees of a main branches and N + fi knots. The final

result as regards the carbon-trees, or say the hydrocarbons
C^Hgn + 2 is given by the following table : —

n =

I, 2, 3, 4, S, 6, 7, 8, 9. 10, II, 12,

13

Central

Bi-central

I, 0, I, I, 2, 2, 6, 9, 20, 37, 86,. 183,
0, I, 0, I, I, 3, 3. 9, 15, 38, 73, 174,

419

380

Total

I, h I. 2. 3. S. 9, 18, 35, 75, 159, 357,

799

so that theoretically for the body whose formula is CjgHjg there
exist 799 isomeric bodies.

It is worthy of remark that the mathematical theory agrees
with experiments for the first five bodies, thus affording strong
confirmation of the truth of the remainder.

The Professor also drew attention to the fact that any number
is sometimes rather more and sometimes rather less than double
the preceding number.

Prof. Armstrot»g suggested that probably a" large number of
these isomers would be unstable, illustrating his meaning by the
two isomeric di-nitro-phenols, one whose melting-point was
76" C. readily passing into the other whose melting-point was
116° C, which was objected to on the ground that it was not
fair to compare the action of bodies as complicated as the
phenols with the simple hydrocarbons.

Prof. Clifford also made some remarks on the bodies repre-
sented by C„H2n + A - 2x. ^^^ stated that it would be found
that X represented the number of cycles that would occur in the
trees.

Mr. P. Braham made some remarks on some further experi-
ments on Crystallisation of Metals by Electricity, in which he
stated that he had placed the positive and negative electrodes of
a battery in a vessel containing a mixed solution of copper and
zinc, and that with terminals of copper he obtained a dull
crystallisation proceeding from the negative pole of mixed
crystals of copper and zinc, and beyond this, crystals of
copper alone. With terminals of zinc he got a mixture of
crystals as before, and in front of these, crystals of zinc alone.
But if terminals of brass (a compound of zinc and copper) are
used, there is a dull crystallisation of zinc across the field.
He also observed that with zinc terminals, by increasing the
battery power, the crystallisation is broken up ; but not so when
the terminals are copper or brass, but then the crystallisation
extends above and beyond the positive pole.

Mr. Gatehouse read a paper On Stiver Nitrtte, giving the
results of some investigations into the causes of what is termed
by photographers " woolliness " in their negative baths.

The five methods given of preparing the nitrite were as
follows : —

1. By mixing solutions of potassium nitrite and silver nitrate.

2. By sensitising a collodion film and evaporating to dryness
a mixture of nitrite and nitrate is obtained.

3. By fusing silver nitrate with organic matter.

4. By electrolysis of silver nitrate with platinum electrode.

5. By means of metals placed in neutral solution of silver
nitrate.

By this last method he found that metals which produced
reduction, viz., K, Na, Bi, Hg, As, Th, did not produce nitrite,
but those which did not produce reduction, viz., Fe, Ni, Co,
Mg, Zn, Cu, Pb, Sn, Sb, did produce nitrite. The former, it
was observed, hare an uneven equivalency, and the latter an
even equivalency, with the exception of Ilg and Sb, the latter of
which may, like Fe, be tetratomic. The physical forms of the
crystals were observed to vary from modular masses to filiform
crystals.

Mr. A. H. Allen, in making some remarks On a Method of
effecting the Solution of difficultly-soluble Substances, stated that he
had found that many so-called insoluble substances could, when
heated with fuming hydrochloric acid in sealed combustion tubes,
be either completely dissolved or decomposed with separation of
silica. In some cases where hydrochloric acid failed, sulphuric
acid succeeded. The heating of the tubes was generally done
by means of a water bath, but for some substances a cliloride of
calcium bath must be used.

Mr. J. C. Melliss read an account of the method of purifica-
tion of a river by precipitation, at present adopted at Coventry.
He stated that 2,000,000 gallons of sewage liquor, contaminated
by dye, refuse, &c., were daily passed through these works and
completely purified. The process employed is briefly the follow-

464

NATURE

{Sept. 23, 1875

ing : — The water of the river, after being mechanically strained
from solid impurities, is passed into tanks, where it is mixed with
sulphate of alumina ; it is then passed to a second set of tanks where
it is mixed with milk of lime, and thence on to a field or filter
bed i,\ acres in extent, which ejects 80,000 gallons of water per
hour, pure enough for fish to live in. The greatest difficulty to
be contended with was the freeing of the precipitated matter
from the water, of which it contained 80 per cent. ; this quantity,
however, was considerably reduced by means of mechanical
appliances, which reduced the water to such a percentage that it
could either be dried (and so rendered portable) by |heat, or by
mixing it with some substance which increased its manurial value.
In conclusion, the author stated that the primary object was to
secure sanitary rather than commercial success, and that this cer-
tainly had been achieved at a cost of about sixpence per head per
annum for a population of 40,000. — Some discussion ensued as
to the relative merits of the method of irrigation and the method
just described. — In reply, Mr, Melliss said that he was not pre-
pared to say that the Coventry method was the best in all
localities ; the physical characteristics of the land in neighbour-
hood must always be taken into account, as of course it would
make a great difference whether the soil consisted of clay or of
sand.

Prof. Debus read a paper On the chemical theory oj Gunpowder,
in which he stated that nothing illustrated in so striking a manner
the molecular changes produced by chemical aclion as the ex-
plosion of gunpowder. He said that some years ago the
eminent French chemist Berthelot showed that if COg be passed
into a mixture of BaO and CaO in insufficient quantity to preci-
pitate the whole of the barium and calcium as carbonate, then
neither is the whole of the barium precipitated nor the whole
of the calcium, but they are precipitated in a certain definite
proportion, which is a multiple of their molecular weights.
Hence, in general, if a mixture of the salts A and B be decom-
posed by some other substance, C, in insufficient quantity to
decompose the whole of both, then the bodies formed will be
ACj + BC2 where Cj + Cg = C ; and moreover, if the quantity
of B is doubled or trel)led, &c., the quantity Cg will be increased
in a definite proportion. After makmg some further remarks of
a like nature on the decomposition of a mixture of BaClj and
CaClg by CO2, and also of the explosion of mixture of H and CO
with an insufficient supply of oxygen (as investigated by Bunsen),
the Professor went on to show that the same arguments might
be appUed to the explosion of gunpowder which was a mixture
of carbon, sulphur, and nitrate of potash.

He then placed upon the. black board the result of one of a
large number of analyses of one grain of powder.

Compound. Grain.

(1) K2CO3 -3098 -00224

(2) K2S2O3 -0338 -000177

(3) K2SO4 -0658 -000378

(4) KgS -1055 -00096

(5) CO -0473 -00170

(6) CO2 -2770 -0629*

In addition to these were also formed in small quantities the
following : potassium sulphocyanide, potassium nitrate, am-
monium carbonate, sulphur, sulphuretted hydrogen, marsh gas,
hydrogen, and nitrogen, most ot which appear to have been the
result of gaseous impurities in the carbon.

Referring to the table it will be seen that by adding up the
total molecular value of the sulphur salts we gee -00151, which
bears to the molecular weight of potassium carbonate ('00224)
the ratio 2 : 3 nearly. Plence it is inferred that at the first
moment of combustion the potassium in the saltpetre divides
itself into five parts, two of which go to unite with the sulphur,
and three to', form the carbonate. Again, it will be seen that the
carbonic oxide bears to the potassium very nearly the simple
ratio 3 : 4. The CO2 must have been formed in more than one
reaction, because it does not give any simple molecular ratio.
The conclusions thus arrived at are, that in the first moment of
explosion the sulphur existed either as sulphite or as sulphate,
and that the .carbonic oxide must have been formed simul-
taneously with the potassium carbonate. The equations of the
decomposition of gunpowder would then be the following : —

(1) 24KN03 + C35 + 0=I2K2C03 + 9C03+I4C02+I2N2

(2) I6KN03 + C8 + S8 = 8K2SO,-^8C02 + 8N2

(3) 6K2S04 + Cll-^S-^0 = 5K2S + K2S203 + IIC02.
The first two reactions taking place simultaneously.

* The third column is the number found by dividing each quantity by the
corresponding molecular weight.

Prof. Thorpe, in giving some account of a New Compound of
Fluorine and Phosphorus, said that having had some occasion
recently to make a considerable quantity of the terfluoride of
arsenic, by heating calcium fluoride with arsenious acid in the
presence of Nordhausen sulphuric acid, he was induced to study
the behaviour of this body with various other substances. When
this terfluoride of arsenic is dropped into a solution of the penta-
chloride of phosphorus, such an immense amount of heat is evolved
that it is necessary to keep the vessel surrounded with a freezing
mixture, and dense white fumes are given off, while only chloride
of arsenic remains in the solution. This gas is decomposed by
water, but may easily be collected over dry mercury, in which
condition it may be kept, but after some time the glass is observed
to become dim. The specific gravity of the gas answers to the
formula PF5, and its molecular weight is 63. It acts readily
upon alcohol, but the substance formed quickly corrodes glass.
It is believed that it will be found to be a condensable gas under
a pressure of six or seven atmospheres. It is not impossible that
when decomposed by the electric spark it may ^wt fluorine. It
is remarkable as the only known pcntatomic compound of phos-
phorus.

Mr. B.J. Fairley, F.R.S.E., read a paper On New Solvents
for Gold, Silver, Plati^ium, ^'c, with explanation of so-called
Catalytic Action of these Metals and their Salts on Hydrogen
Dioxide, in which he stated that it was perfectly easy to dissolve
silver in dilute acids, as acetic, sulphuric, or hydrochloric, pro-
vided hydrogen dioxide were present in the solution, and that if
under the same circumstances the silver were dissolved in nitric
acid no lower oxides were evolved. Repeating the experiments
with gold, it was found that acetic and nitric acids scarcely dis-
solved it at all, but hydrochloric acid readily, and without the
evolution of free chlorine. Some remarks were also made on
the great liberation of heat observed when two unstable com-
pounds of oxygen react upon one another so as to produce more
stable compounds, especially with reference to the heat evolved
during the decomposition of ozone and hydrogen dioxide, the
author stating that this great heat must correspond to a great
force of union.

The same gentleman also made some remarks On the Use of
Potassium Dichromate in Groves and Punsen's Batteries to
ensure constancy, in which he stated that he had used a small
quantity of that substance dissolved in the nitric acid, and had
found that the battery remained constant so long as any chromic
acid remained to be reduced, and that no red fumes appeared.

Two other papers were also communicated by the same author :
(i) On a Nr^v Process for the separation of Lead, Silver, and
Mercury {Mercurous) Salts ; (2) On a Process for the Preparation
of Periodates, with their application as a Test for Iodine and
Sodium.

Dr. J. H. Gladstone read a paper On the relation of the
Acids and Bases in a mixture of Salts to the original manner of
combination. In a former set of experiments the author had
shown that if a molecule of copper nitrate and a molecule of
potassium sulphate be dissolved in any quantity of water, and
two molecules of potassium nitrate with one molecule of copper
sulphate be dissolved in an equal quantity of water, then the
colour produced is the same : and similarly for other sets of salts.
The author, however, thought that the colours of these mixtures
being comparatively faint, it would be better to try mixtures
of colourless salts, and add to these mixtures some substance
such as ferric sulpho-cyanide, ferric mreconate, or bromide
of gold, whose colour is easily reduced. Accordingly, he mixed
together potassium sulphate and magnesium nitrate, and the
corresponding salts potassium nitrate and magnesium sulphate ;
also acetate of potassium and nitrate of lead, and the correspond-
ing salts, &c. ; in every case these were found to reduce the
colour of ferric sulpho-cyanide equally. All the experiments
united to confirm the supposition that the effect of a mixture
does not depend upon the position of the acids and bases in it, so
long as the proportions of each remain the same.

Dr. Russell asked if the amount of colour would indicate a
small change in the nitrate, and also if the element time had been
taken into the experiments.

Dr. Tilden preferred the old method, on the ground that by
adding a reagent new conditions are introduced.

In reply. Dr. Gladstone said that the ferric sulpho-cyanide
was much more delicate than the solutions of copper salts.

Dr. J. H. Gladstone read two notes, On the Copper-Zinc
Couple, by himself and Mr. Alfred Tribe. In the first he showed
that whereas a piece of zinc in dilute sulphuric acid (3^ in 1,000
parts of water) gave off seven volumes of hydrogen in one hour,

Sept. 23, 1875J

NATURE

465

the same piece of zinc, when covered with spongy copper, gave
off eighty volumes in one hour, which showed fan elevenfold
increase for an addition of the negative element of only o"ii per
cent. In the second note he showed that if a quantity of arseni-
cal zinc foil was " coupled," washed and heated with water, and
two litres of hydrogen evolved therefrom were passed through a
tube heated to redness, not a trace of arsenic was observed ; but
when a portion of the same arsenical zinc was treated with dilute
sulphuric acid, and two litres of hydrogen evolved by the action
were passed through a heated tube as before, -0019 gramme of
arsenic was deposited in the cool part of the tube. Arsenical
zinc, when covered with spongy copper and acted upon with
dilute sulphuric acid, also gave arseniuretted hydrogen. This
appears to show that it is not the copper, but the inability of the
arsenic to get into solution when hydrogen is .made from water
and the "couple," which is confirmed by adding an aqueous
solution of arsenic to the same couple, when the mirror imme-
diately appears.

The same gentleman also read a paper by the same authors,
in which it was shown that if aluminium be "coupled" with
more negative metals, such as copper or platinum, then at the
ordinary temperature of the air in the latter case, 4 c. c. of
hydrogen are evolved in twenty-two hours, and if the tempera-
ture be raised to 100° C, in the first six hours 484c, c. are
evolved. Aluminium alone, according to Deville, only decom-
poses water at a white heat.

The President read a paper On an apparatus for estimating
Carbon Bisulphide in Coal Gas. The principle upon which the
success of the method depends is the following : — When carbon
bisulphide is heated, in the presence of hydrogen, sulphuretted
hydrogen is formed.

The apparatus consists of a flask filled with pebbles and
asbestos (to expose a large surface to the action of heat), and
surrounded by fire-clay cylinders, in which gas is kept burning.
This flask is connected through a solution of lead with an aspi-
rator. There are other connections also by means of which gas
from the source requiring to be tested circulates through the
ilask and is burnt. When the flask has been heated for about
twenty-four hours continuously (to expel all moisture), a mea-
sured quantity of water is drawn off from the aspirator, which
causes the same volume of gas to bubble through the lead solu-
tion, and on account of the presence of sulphuretted hydrogen to
produce a decolorisation of the ler.d solution. A similar vessel
containing the same quantity of lead solution and a known quan-
tity of sulphuretted hydrogen is placed beside it, the gas being
allowed to bubble through the first until the colour is judged to
be equally intense ; the amount of sulphuretted hydrogen in a
known volume of the gas is thus found, and hence the amount of
carbon bisulphide. Having once got the apparatus started,
gases from several different sources may be tested.

Prof. A. Oppenheim made some remarks on oxyuvilic acid,
which he stated belonged to the aromatic series, and said he
was able to show that it could be prepared from its elements,
thus making the fifth of that series which could be prepared
by synthesis. The formula of the acid he showed to be

I CII3
Cs^Ia \ rnOH *^^"^ making it a derivative of benzole. It gives

( COOH
a reddish brown colour with ferric chloride in the presence of
alcohol. If it is slightly heated it changes its composition to

(CH3
C„H, < OH. which gives a violet colour under the same

( COOH
circumstance: if it is still further heated it is converted Jnto

CeHi j oS' or cresole.

The Professor also made some remarks on the derivatives of
mercaptan, which were founded on some researches of Ur.
Williamson on the action of chloroform.

Mr. Chas. T. Kingzett read a paper On the Oxidation of
Essential Oils, which he observed was a continuation of papers
which had previously been communicated to the Chemical
Society. The object of the paper was to give some results on
the limited oxidation (by air) of terpenes of the general formula
CioHjfi, certain terpenes of the formula CJ5H54, and cymene,
CioH]4. The terpenes experimented upon were hesperidine,
myristicene (obtained in three different wayS from oil of nutmeg),
wormwood, all of which gave on atmospheric oxidation, per-
oxide of hydrogen and I acetic acid, i Citronella and Ylang
yiJVtig, clove-terpene (C15H24), were found to develop no peroxide

of hydrogen. Cymene obtained from three sources and exposed
to atmospheric oxidation was also found to develop peroxide of
hydrogen. These researches prove that in terpenes of the
formula C15H24 the carbon exists in an allotropic form.

SECTION D— Biology
Department of Anthropology.

One day was chiefly occupied by a valuable series of papers on
the population of the Indian region. A combined discussion on
the three papers now to be noticed followed their reading. The
first paper was by Sir Walter Elliot, On the original localities of
races forming the present population of India. After some pre-
liminary remarks, he said that the circumstance of colour was one
of the most observable signs of difference of race, and the very
word for the Aryan institution of caste was varanum, or colour,
they having doubtless introduced it to distinguish themselves
from the Dasyns or alien peoples with whom they came in con-
tact on crossing the Indus. The author detailed the different
colours or races now inhabiting India, and went on to remark
that it is now generally admitted that the centre of dispersion
from which all the peoples of the earth had migrated was Central
Asia. The first great wave that surmounted the Himalayan
barrier, at a time when the earth's surface was in a different con-
dition from what it is now, could no longer be traced as a sepa-
rate and distinct people. Remnants of the primeval movement
were now only to be found amongst the most degraded denizens
of the hills and forests, and probably in the despised slave popula-
tion. The great Dravidian migration must have been made
much later in time. It was probably not a simultaneous move-
ment, but consisted of successive swarms, which would account
for the existence of well-defined groups am.ong them, which bad
preserved their characteristics unchanged to the present day.

But the normal representatives of the race were to be found
in the mountaineers of Central India, where, protected by
regions of deadly malaria encirclmg their highland territory,
they have for ages bid defiance to hostile aggression, and
preserved their habits and independence unchanged. The
ground on which so many at first sight heterogeneous races
were united under the title of Dravidian was mainly com-
munity of language, but that test was not infallible. A better
link was furnished by similarity of form, features, colour,
and structural coincidence. He maintained that the characters
of Prof. Huxley's Australioid type could be traced among the
classes of Dravidians, modified as was to be expected, among
those most exposed to external influences, but still always
apparent to a practised eye. There was nothing to show by
what routes the first settlers arrived. Their advance was pro-
bably a slow and gradual percolation from different parts of the
north through the mountain barrier that cuts off India from the rest
of Asia. The migratory instincts or necessities of the people of
Central Asia exerted themselves in all directions. Of the exact
seat of the brown-skinned, Iwavy -haired Australioids, they had no
definite knowledge. But the Mongols and Mandchurians sent off
successive hordes to the south-east, whence in time the teeming
population of China sougin an eastern direction. Those people
were thus brought into contact with tribes already settled there
from a more westerly quarter. Thus the inhabitants of Siam,
Burmah, and the Malayan Peninsula, spoke a monosyllabic lan-
guage, but wrote it in a Dravidian character, and Mr. Hodgson
found the scattered tribes around Nepaul partaking of the same
mixed characters, both with regard to race and language.

Mr. Hyde Clarke's paper On the Himalayan Origin of the
Magyar and Fin Languages, attempted to prove his theory by
facts of analogy in the languages themselves, and by inferences
from facts of history. He found that the aflinities of Magyar
and Fin were strongest for the languages of East Nepaul.

Mr. Bertram Hartshorne, of the Ceylon Civil Service, read a
paper on the interesting IVcddas of Ceylon, who still depend for
their means of subsistence upon their bows and arrows, and pass
their lives in the vast forests of Ceylon without any dwelling-
houses or system of cultivation. There is an entire absence of any
flint or stone implements among them, and their state of barba-
rism is indicated by the practice of producing fire by means of
rubbing two sticks together, as well as by their habitual disre-
gard of any sort of ablution. Their intellectual capacity is very
slight ; they are quite unable to count, or to discriminate between
the colours ; but while their moral notions lead them to regard
theft or lying as an inconceivable wrong, they are devoid of any
sentiment of religion except in so far as that may be inferred
from their practice of offering a sacrifice to the spirit of one of

466

NATURE

\Sept. 23, 1875

their fellows immediately after his decease, their idea of a future
state being that they become devils after death. They never
laugh, and they' are very noteworthy as being the only savage
race in existence speaking an Aryan language . Their vocabulary
consists largely of words derived directly from the Singhalese ;
others indicated an affinity with Pali or Sanskrit, whilst there
remained a considerable residue of doubtful origin. There was
an absence of any distinctly Dravidian element.

In the discussion on these papers, Prof. Rolleston said that
the ethnology and languages of Hindostan were now in pretty
much the same state of fusion as those of Great Britain. Since
the writings of Sir George Campbell and others, and the excel-
lent publications of the Indian Government, he had arrived at
the conclusion that the Australioid and not the Mongolian type
was that which formed the substratum all through the outcast
tribes of India : this accorded also with the probabilities of evo-
lution. He believed that the earliest races of mankind were
eminently Australioid, with long and narrow heads. With re-
gard to the Weddas, it was a most interesting question whether
they were really a degraded outcast Sanskrit population. Max
Miiller was of that opinion ; and their possession of the bow and
arrow, which no Australioid ever had, tended in that direction.
Their skulls were not Australioid. — Sir George Campbell did not
know that there was any authentic case of degradation of a race.
In this instance the primd facie inference seemed to him to be
that the Weddas were an aboriginal race. Very small tribes
which had been reduced in numbers easily changed their language
under the influence of a more powerful surrounding people.
From the photographs of the Weddas he pronounced their ab-
solute identity in feature with many of the barbarous aboriginal
tribes of India which he had seen, and which were distinctly non-
Aryan. The use of the bow was universally known among the abo-
riginal races of India, which had the same notions about witchcraft,
&c. as the Weddas. He asked for information as to their strength
in the left arm, which Mr. Hartshorne had mentioned, for he had
always supposed that the use of the bow called forth strength in
the right arm. — Mr. Hartshorne said that in his experience of
shooting with the bow, he had found that the great tension in
pulling the bow was on the muscles of the left fore-arm. He was
therefore prepared to find that the Weddas were stronger in the
left arm, and it was so. — Sir Walter Elliot agreed with Sir G.
Campbell as to the aboriginal character of the Weddas, but be-
lieved in the possibility of great degradation. — Mr. Hyde Clarke
said they had all the appearance of being an aboriginal people.
Their speaking an Aryan language was no decisive reason for
calling them Aryans.

Dr. Leitner gave a graphic summary of the results of his
travels and researches in the Central Asian region to which
he has given the name Dardistan. He gave the following as
the chief results of his investigations: — "First, we have ascer-
tained the existence of a number of languages — one of which,
Chilasi, the object of my mission, is a mere rude dialect — which
were spoken at or before the time that Sanskrit became the ' per-
fect ' language, for no one who can speak any of the derivative
languages of India can class the bulk of the Dard languages
among them. Secondly, the legends and traditions of the Dards
show a more European tone and form than anything we find in
India. Thirdly, by the adoption of the term Dardistan for the
countries between Kabul, Kashmir, and Badakshan, we are driven
to compare a number of races which offer certain analogies, and
which may have a certain history in common since the time of
Alexander the Great's invasion of India. Fourthly, our Govern-
ment now know accurately what they certainly did not know
before 1866, the modern history of the countries bordering
on Kashmir." He found that the dialects in this district,
which were in a highly inflexional state, had been preserved
from deterioration by isolation and other causes. He had very
little doubt that Dardistan was the first halting-place of the
Aryan migration to India ; the second being Kashmir. There
was as great a diiference among some of their dialects as between
French and Italian. They had songs, legends, and fables of
superior character, which he had carefully taken down and
would publish. Among the evidences of their high state of
civilisation were the respect shown to the female sex, and the
liberty and responsibility accorded to them ; their love and
charity to animals ; and the charm and beauty of their legends.
They called themselves the brethren of the Europeans. Asso-
ciated with them was a race of predatory kidnappers, very
similar to them, but speaking a somewhat different language.
He had found a great quantity of art products, especially sculp-
tures, which clearly indicated a great influence of Greece upon

them in very early times, probably through the existence of the
Bactrian kingdom. There was no trace of the later and more
extravagant influences of Buddhism, but scenes essentially Budd-
histic and Asian were treated after the Greek manner, and very
much with the Greek success. Expression attained a high level
in these works.

Prof, Rolleston read a paper On the Applicability of Historical
Evidence to Ethnological Inquiries, in which he showed the
danger of drawing conclusions from isolated expressions of his-
torians unless they were of the first class, such as Caesar and
Tacitus, He quoted modern examples of carelessness and inac-
curacy in this respect. He referred especially to the Cimbri,
who were dealt with in the next paper, and expressed his ina-
bility, from any historical investigation, to come to a satisfactory
conclusion as to who they were.

Prof. Rawlinson's paper On the Ethnography of the Cimbri
was in favour of the Celtic theory of their ethnological character.
He said that in favour of the theory that they were Germans the
following considerations were urged : — The supposed etymology
of their names; their geographic position before they began their
wanderings in Jutland and between the Rhine and the Elbe ;
their close alliance with the Teutons, whom all allowed to be
Germans ; their physical characteristics, blue eyes and flaxen
hair ; some points of their manners and customs, especially the
fact that their armies were accompanied to battle and directed
by priestesses rather than priests ; and, lastly, the statements of
Julius Caesar, Strabo, Pliny the elder, and Tacitus, who include
the Cimbri in their lists of German nations. The advocates of
the Celtic theory relied chiefly on five arguments : (i) the name
Cimbri, which they identified with the term Cymry or Cymraeg,
which was still the native name of the Welsh ; (2) the almost
imanimous authority of the Greek and Roman writers, excepting
Julius Cjesar ; (3) the individual names of Cimbri, which were
Celtic ; (4) the fact that the Romans employed Celts as spies to
bring them intelligence of the designs of the enemy during the
Cimbric war ; (5) the manners and customs of the people, which
were held to be far more Celtic than German. They also jomed
issue on the argument from the physical characteristics of the
race, which they held to be, according to the description given,
at least as near the Celtic as the German type. Prof. Kawlinson
then -proceeded to examine the various arguments, holding that
the balance was in favour of the Celtic origin, though it was a
point open to dispute, and unless fresh data should be obtained,
which seemed very unlikely, would always remain among the
vexed questions which would divide ethnologists. — Dr. E, A,
Freeman dissented from Prof. Rawlinson's conclusions, holding
strongly to the opposite theory. He especially censured his
rejection of the evidence of Julius Cresar and Tacitus,

The ethnology of New Zealand and Polynesia received much
attention owing to the presence of two distinguished authorities,
the Rev. Wyatt Gill, from the Hervey Islands, and Dr. Hector,
of the New Zealand Geological Survey. The connection be-
tween the origin of the Maories and the Polynesians was brought
out in a series of papers followed by a valuable discussion, Mr,
W, S. Vaux, in a paper On the probable origin of the Maori race,
concluded that the Maories were the descendants of the great colo-
nising race of yellow men who originally migrated from Central
Asia. The Rev, W. Gill then read a paper On the origin
of the South Sea Islanders, i Mr. Gill said that Mr, A. R.
Wallace, in his " Malay Archipelago," has advanced the
theory that the Polynesians are descended from a race which
once overspread a vast submerged southern continent. As
the land gradually sank, a few of the aborigines may have
escaped to the tops of the loftiest mountains, around which subse-
quently coral reefs were found. Admitting that Polynesia is
pre-eminently an area of subsidence, and its great widespread
groups of coral reefs may mark out the positions of former conti-
nents, Mr, Gill believed that Mr, Wallace's reference was un-
warranted. (I) Supposing that human beings inhabited this
great southern continent at the period of the subsidence, and that
a remnant escaped, it is not probable human life could have been
sustained on the tops of these mountains for any considerable
time, owing to the want of food and water. (2; The theory is
utterly opposed to the native accounts of their own origin, which
all point to the north-west. (3) The spread of the race can
easily be accounted for on the basis of historical facts. In 1862
he saw on Manua, the easternmost island of the Samoan group, a
small boat which had accidentally drifted from Moorea, a dis-
tance of 1,250 miles, and no life was lost. A few months later
on in the same year Elikana and his friends drifted in a canoe
from Manihiki to Nukurakae, in the Ellice group, .lying N.W. of

Sept. 23, 1875]

NATURE

467

Samoa, a distance of 1,360 miles. Half of the party on board
perished from want of food and water. In both these instances
the drifting was from east to west, before the trade winds. A
far more remarkable event occurred in Jan. 1 858, during the
prevalence of the violent easterly winds, when a numerous family
of adult natives drifted from Fakaofo, in the U nion group, north of
Samoa, to an uninhabited spot known as Nassau Island ; thence
to Palmerston's Island ; and finally to Maugaia, where Mr, Gill
lived ; altogether a distance of more than 1, 200 miles in a south-
easterly direction. (4) The colour, hair, general physiognomy,
habits, character, and especially the language, of the Polynesians
clearly indicate a Malay origin. This could not be accidental.
Mr. Gill's impression was that long ages ago the progenitors of the
present race entered the Pacific from the S.E. fork of New Guinea,
but were driven eastward by the fierce Negrito race. The greatest
distance from land to land, as they pressed eastward, would be
from Samoa to the Hervey group, about 700 miles, which had
been successfully performed by natives in their fragile barks
under Mr. Gill's own observation.

In the subsequent discussion Prof. RoUeston expressed his
opinion that there was little difference between Papuans and
Australoids ; the superficial differences were outweighed by
great radical points of resemblance. He referred to the Rev.
S. J. Whitmee's paper in the Contemporary Review for February
1873 as of the highest value on this question of the origin of the
races of the Polynesian islands. This opinion was diametrically
opposed to Mr. Wallace's. — Dr. Hector described the three
chief race-types among the Maories. The first was rarely met
with except in the extreme south ; it was of the same type as the
aborigines of the Chatham Islands, with a distinct dialect, only
comprehensible by old Maories. They had a sloping forehead
and strong muscular ridges on their skulls, which were very
distinct from the great majority of Maori skulls. The other
two types were now pretty well intermixed. One was more
common in the northern extremity of the Northern Island,
having yellow shock hair and high cheek-bones. The third
was the ordinary Maori. He mentioned the fact that the
Maories had a much better knowledge of the natural history
of their country than any people he had ever heard of. The
older Maories had noticed and had distinct names for nearly
all their plants, not merely those that were of use ; and the same
names, with slight modifications, were universally in use
throughout a country a thousand miles in length. They had
generic names by which they grouped plants according to their
affinities in a way impossible to most people who were not
educated botanists. The Veronicas of New Zealand appeared
under a very great variety of external forms, yet they were all
identified by one name. — The Rev. W. Gill, in closing the dis-
cussion, said that difference in shade of colour was not to be
relied upon as a test of difference of race ; for he had seen the
most intense blackness produced in Polynesia in those of the
poorer classes who habitually spent much time in salt water,
while the wealthier classes remained of a much lighter hue.

General H. B. Carrington, of the United States army, read a
very interesting paper On the Indians of the North- Western
States.

The Anthropological Department has been one of the best
sustained this year, a result attained by its inclusiveness of a wide
range of subjects relating to the history of mankind, and by
reason of the high authority of many who addressed the depart-
ment on their respective studies. The President showed him-
self a worthy leader, illuminating most of the subjects discussed
and fostering discussions which were interesting alike to students
and to the general public.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

American Journal of 'Science and Art, September. — The
original articles are : On the formation of hail in the spray of the
Yosemite Fall, by \V. H. Brewer. The paper describes a visit
paid to the fall in April last. The amount of water passuig over
the fall was estimated at 250 or 350 cubic feet a second, and the
height is 1550 feet. In the spray, which stung the hands and
faces of the visitors, hail or ice-pellets were found. " It will be
noticed that at the time when this hail was observed, the sheet
was in the full blaze of the sun from top to bottom. . . . The
air near was of a temperature of 70°. Prof. Le Conte has sug-
gested that perhaps the cooled air wiihin the sheet is somewhat
compressed and condensed in the base of the fall, and when
liberated just outside by its expansion, freezes a part of the spray. "

— On Southern New England during the melting of the great
glacier, by J. D. Dana : Part I. (we reserve our notice till the
completion of the article). — On the mechanical work done by a
muscle before exhaustion, and on the "law of fatigue," by the
Rev. S. Haughton, M.D. Dr. Haughton announces his aim is
be to show (i) That both series of experiments made by Profl
Nipher (given in the February number) are a valuable contribu-
tion to the facts of animal mechanics ; (2) That they are not only
consistent with " the law of fatigue " proposed by Dr. Haughton,
but illustrate both that law and his " Coefficient of Refreshment ; "

(3) That Prof. Nipher's discussion of his own valuable experi-
ments is worthless, as it is based on an empirical formula,
which has no meaning and leads to no further consequences :

(4) That the law of fatigue, which explains not only Prof.
Nipher's experiments, but so many other experiments also, is
entitled to be received provisionally as a law of animal mechanics,
and followed up by deduction to its legitimate conclusions.—
Earthquake of December 1874, by Prof. D. S. Martin. " The
general phenomena presented nothing peculiar." — On some
interesting equine calculi, by R. H. Chittenden. — Results of
dredging experiments off New England coast, by A. E. Verrill.
Four pages of tables are given, and a note is added on methods
of preserving specimens. Picric acid was found to be valuable.
— On the passage of two bolides in 1872 and 1874 over Middle
Kentucky, by J. Lawrence Smith. — Notes on the gases accom-
panying meteorites, by Prof. J. W. Mallett. The purpose is to
question whether Prof. Wright has sufficient evidence for his
conclusion, "the stony meteorites are distinguished from the
iron ones by having the oxides of carbon, chiefly the dioxide, as
their characteristic gases.instead of hydrogen." — On a new vertical
lantern galvanometer, by Prof. G. F. Barker. The arrangement
is for demonstration to a large audience, deflections obtained by
induction currents, thermo-currents, voltaic currents, &c. — On
another gigantic Cephalopod [Architeuthis) on the coast of New-
foundland, December 1874, by A. E. Verrill. The total length
is estimated at forty feet.

The Journal of the Chejnical Society (June 1875) contains in
detail Prof. Clerk-Maxwell's paper On the dynamical evidence of
the molecular constitution of matter, which was duly published
in Nature. The other papers in this part are : — Researches on
the action of the copper-zinc couple on organic bodies, by Dr. J.
H. Gladstone and A. Tribe. The authors in this (eighth) paper
treat of chloroform, bromoform, and iodoform. — On the action
of nitrosyl chloride on organic bodies (second paper), by W. A.
Tilden ; the action on turpentine oil is considered. — A note by
Prof. Story Maskelyne on the crystallographic characters of
nitrosoterpene is given as appendix to the last paper. — Dr. H.
Armstrong contributes a note on isomeric change in the phenol,
series, which gives new proof of the energy and unceasing atten-
tion this gentleman bestows upon his interesting researches. —
The last paper is a note on the effect of passing the mixed
vapours of carbon disulphide and alcohol over red-hot copper,
by Th. Carnelley. It was found that the following bodies were
formed :CH3.COH, COS (carbon oxysulphide !) C2H4, C2H2,
CH4, and H, and neither HjS nor SOj. The copper is super-
ficially converted into sulphide, and amorphous carbonj is
deposited.

Zeitschrift der Oesterreichischen Gesellschaft fiir Meteorologie,
Aug. I. — This number contains the concluding part of Herr
Wilczek's paper on the calculation of the arithmetical mean of
constant quantities. Also an account, by Plerr von Jedina, of a
cyclone encountered by the corvette Heligoland in the North
Atlantic, remarkable for the steadmess with which the wind blew
from east at its commencement, the great expansion of the front
in comparison with the rear, and the slow rise of the barometer
after passing the centre. — Among the Kleinere Mittheilungen is
a notice of the late Dr. Theorell, and a paper by Herr C. Braun,
on the theory of storms.

Rendiconto delle Sessioni dell' accademia delle scienze deW istituto
di Bologna. — The longer papers read at the Academy during the
academical year 1874-5 were twenty-nine in number, besides
numerous notes and memoirs of smaller interest. We note the
following, as of special interest to our readers :— On some
phenomena consequent upon contusions of the abdomen and of
the spine, by Dr. P. Loreta. — On some argillaceous slate
of Miocene origin, by G. A. Bianconi. — Several papers Ly
Prof. F. Sclmi, on researches made on poisonous alkaloids,
their differences m properties, their determination when mixed
with others in organic matter^ and with innocuous alkaloids,

468

NATURE

\_Sept 23, 1 875

&c.— Helminthological observations by Dr. Ercolani, on di-
morphisms, on FUaria immitis, and on a new species of
dog Distoma. — Anatomical , description of the eye of the
European mole, by Dr. Ciaccio. — On the organisation of the
brain of Eolidida, by Dr. Trinchese. — On the changes of form of
Amoeba Umax, by the same. — On a non-microscopic new and
rare pai-asitic fungus, which is developed on the larva of a living
cricket, by G. Bertoloni. — Analytical remarks on some theorems
of Feuerbach and Steiner, by Prof. E. Beltrami, — On the
continuity of feeling, by Dr. D. C. Biagi. — On the reasons of
the low statures which were generally observed amongst the
conscripts of the last decennium in some communities in the
neighbourhood of Bologna and other districts of Italy, by Dr.
P. C. Predieri. — New observations on the minute structure of
muscular fibre, by Dr. Ercolani. — Proofs for the contemporariness
of the glacial epoch with the Pliocene period at Balerna and at
Monte Mario, on the Rhine, by G. A. Bianconi. — On the effects
of electric sparks on phosphorus in hydrogen, in nitrogen, in
ammonia, and in muriatic acid ; and on the effects of electric
currents on water, on sulphuric acid, on alcohol, and on bi-
sulphide of carbon, by Dr. Santagata. — Researches on capillary
tubes, by Prof. Villari.

Sitzungsberichte der naturwissenschaftlichen Geiellschaft Isis
in Dresden, October to December, 1874. — The meetings of this
society are divided into five classes, besides general meetings, viz. ,
one for mineralogy and geology, one for prehistoric archaeology,
one for chemistry, physics, and mathematics, and one each for
botany and zoology. — The more important papers read in the
different sections during the last three months of 1874 were : — In
the mineralogy and geology class : On a peat-like formation
occurring at Lindenau, near Leipzig, containing a great number
of beetles, one or two species ot -which are now extmct, by Von
Kiesenwetter. On a number of minerals collected during a tour
in Saxony, by E. Zschau. On the occurrence of calc-sinter near
Quedlinburg, by Herr Ackermann. — In the botany class : On
hedge plantation in Australia, by W. Ferguson. On the culture
of plants in rooms, particularly of Palm^, by Adolph Petzold.
Report of the results of botanical excursions made during 1874,
by A. Voigt. — In the zoology class : Remarks by Th, Kirsch, on
" Darwinism and the Researches of Cuvier and Newton," a work
lately published by Herr Wiegand.— On Haeckel's calcareous
sponges and his Gastreea theory, by Herr Ebert. — In the arche-
ology class : Report on the Archeeological Congress at Stock-
holm, by Dr. Mehwald. On some flint implements from the
cave near Rochefort, by Dr. Geinitz. On a piece of reindeer
horn upon which rough drawings of horses are visible, and which
was found near Thayingen, in Switzerland, by the same. — In the
physico-chemical class : — On ozone, by Dr. Schiirmann, a highly
interesting and elaborate paper ; the author gives a detailed
account of the history of ozone, and then speaks of its properties,
preparation, reactions, presence in the atmosphere, action on the
animal organism, and thoroughly exhausts the subject. On
tables for barometrical measurements of heights, by Prof. Neu-
bert. Meteorological phenomena observed at Dresden during
1874, by Herr Fischer.— At the general meetings, a paper on
the earthquakes of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was
read j the others being all of minor interest.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

Paris
Academy of Sciences, Sept. 13.— M. Fremyin the chair.
—The following papers were read :— A note by M. Faye
relating to the approaching eclipse of the sun.— M. Bertrand
then made some remarks on the paper read at the last meeting
by M. Bienayme.— Report on a memoir by M. Lefort, entitled
" Critical examination of the basis of calculation usually adopted
to appreciate the stability of metal bridges with straight pris-
matic beams, and propositions for the adoption of a new basis."—
Report on M. Boussinesq's paper on the theory of flowing waters.
—Memoir on the observations made at Peking of the I'ransit of
Venus, by Mr. J. C. Watson, chief of the American expedition.
—A note on the greasy matter in the grain of the oil-tree of
China, by M. S. Cloez.— On the development of Heteropoda,
by M. H. Fol.— On the migrations and metamorphoses of
marme enaoparasitic Trematoda, by M. A. Villot.— On some
reactions of hremoglobine and its derivatives, by M. C.Husson.—
un the probable origin of the two hailstorms observed on July
7 anu S, m some parts of Switzerland and the South of France,

by M. D. Colladon. — On the non-regeneration of the crystalline
lens in man and in rabbits, by M. J. Gay at.

Vienna

K.K. Geologische Reichsanstalt, April 6.— On Miocene
chestnut trees, by O. Heer. — Diallogite after manganese blende
and barytes ; pseudomorphs after fahl-ores of Przibram, by Ed.
Doll. — On the occurrence of native gold in the mineral shells of
Verespatak, by F. Posepny. — On the Culm flora of the Moravian-
Silesian roofing slates, by D. Stur.

April 20. — On remains of Ursus spelteus from the cave of
Igritz, by F. von Hochstetter. — On the meteorite of Lance,
by R. von Drasche.— On a geological detailed map of the
surroundings of the Seisser Alp and of St. Cassian, by E. vort
Mojsisovics. — On a map of the upper Vilnoss and the lower
Enneberg valleys, by R. Homes. — Geological report from the
investigation district of the Oetz-valley group, by G. A.
Koch.

May 4. — Presentation of a new special map of the Austro-
Ilungarian Monarchy, F. v. Hauer. — Characteristics of some
mi nerals occurring on the Przibram ore deposits, by F. Babanek.
— Report by Dr. E. Tietze from his travels in Persia.— On a
new fossil resin from the Bukowina, by J. von SchriJckinger.—
On Cervus megaceros from Nussdorf, by Dr. F. von Hochstetter.
— On a human cranium found in the diluvial Loess of Manners-
Forf, by Dr. J. Woldrich. — On Noric formations in Transylvania,
by E. von Mojsisovics. — On the phosphorites of the Lavant valley,
by H. Wolf.

GOTTINGEN

Royal Society of Sciences, July 10. — At this meeting of
the Society the following papers were read : — On the electric
elementary laws, by Herr Riecke. — A note on the toxicological
action of phenols, in particular of thymol, by Th. Husemann. —
On Rotteken's eye of Actinia, by Dr. Hub. Ludwig. — A note by
Herr Fromme on the maximum of temporary magnetism in soft
iron. — On the potential function in space extended in several
directions, by M. Jouelli.

BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

British.— The Royal Tiger of Bengal: Dr. J. Fayrer, M.D., F.Z.S.
(Churchill).— Jummoo ^and Kashmir Territories. A Geographical Account,
by Frederic Drew, F.R.G.S., F.G.S. (E. btatiford).— ProcSedings of the
Berwickshire Naturalists' Club. — Brande and Cox's Dictionary o: Science,
Literature, and Art. 3 vols., new edit. (Longmans).— Further Researches in
the Mathematical Science, by the author of '" The Two Discoveries " (Bridge-
water, Pine).— Bristol and its Environs (Bristol : Wright and Co.)— The
Geology of British Guiana: C. S. Brown, F.G.S., and J. G. Sawkins,
F.G.S, (Longmans).— A Manual of Mollusca : S. P. Woodward, A.L.S ,
F.G.S. (Lockwood).— The Native Races. VoLiii. : Hubert Howe Bancroft
(Longmans). — Tapeworms : T. Spencer Cobbold, M.D., F.R.S , F.L.S.
(Longmans).— An Introduction to Animal Physiology : E. Tully Newton,
F.G.S. (Murby).— The Abode of Snow: Andrew Wilson (Blackwood).—
Quarteriy Journal of the Geographical Society (Longmans).— Journal of the
Scottish Meteorological Society (Blackwcod).

Colonial.— Centrifugal Force and Gravitation. Six parts : John Harris
(Montreal).— The Immortality of the Univeise : J A. Wilson (Melbourne,
G. Robertson).— Report of the Meteorological Reporter of Bengal.— Report
of the Nidnapore and Burdwan Cyclone. — Magnetical and Meteorological
Observations at the Magnetic Observatory, Toronto, Canada, 1841 to 1871
(Toronto : Copp, Clark, and Co.)

CONTENTS Pagb

Helmholtz on Tone 4.^9

Our Book Shelf:—

Guide to the Geology of London and the Neighbourhood . . . 45:^

Snioland ; or, Iceland, its Jokulls and Fjalls 453

Report on the Neilgherry Loranthaceous Parasitical Plants destruc-
tive to Exotic Forest and Fruit Trees 451

Letters to the Editor:—

Personal Equation in the Tabulation of Thcnnogranis, &c.— The

Reviewer ._,

Ocean Circulation. -Dr. W. B. Carpkntek, FR.S' .' .' .* .' ." 45.1

Source of Volcanic Energy.— Wm. S. Green 455

Gryostat Problem : Spinning-top Problem.— F. M. S. . .' . .' .' 45^
Our Astronomical Column :^

The Mass of Jupiter 41;-

TiiE Hopkins University, U.S. ..... ' ' ' ' 1^6

Science in Germany ' Zfy

The. Laws OF Storms (H^t/A li/usiraiiaus). . . ..".*.'.*"' I=,

Notes ..:.....'.'. 4 5^

The British Association :— -

Reports .f5r

Sectional Proceedings , ^fa

Section A.— Mathematics and Physics ...'.'. 463

Section B.— Chemical Science ... 463

Section D.— Biology 46^

Scientific Serials . . . 467

SoCIKTIHS.AfID ACADBMIBS . . . . . , a^^

Books and Pamp«let§ Rbcbived , 468

NATURE

469

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 30, 1875

THE SCIENCE COMMISSION REPORT ON
THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE*

IN our last article under the above head we commenced
our analysis of that part of the Commissioners' Re-
port which deals with the Administration of Science. In
our present article we shall conclude our notice of the
Report by stating the chief arguments and opinions of the
witnesses regarding the formation of a Council of Science.
Thus, following the evidence of Sir Wm. Thomson and
Dr. Frankland, to which we have before referred, we
find Dr. Hooker, Admiral Richards, General Strachey,
Dr. Roscoe, Dr. Balfour Stewart, Dr. Sclater, Mr. De la
Rue, Sir H. Rawlinson, and others in favour of a Council,
.while the Astronomer Royal, Prof. Owen, Lord Salisbury,
and Lord Derby are opposed to its formation.

Admiral Richards, late Hydrographer to the Navy, is
of opinion that the appointment of a Minister of Science
and of a Council stand and fall together ; and thinks
"that the one would^not be of very much value without
the other."

Dr. Sclater's idea of the Council is as follows : —

" The heads of the different scientific institutions that
are put under the control of the department of science
and the minister of education might form a consultative
body and be called a council of science, and that there
might be certain other members added to assist them in
deliberation, if it were thought necessary, such as repre-
sentatives of the College of Physicians, the College of Sur-
geons, and of the scientific branches of the army and navy.

" Most men of science, I think, see that something of
the sort is imperatively required. All lament the piece-
meal way in which scientific subjects are dealt with by
Government, in consequence of their being subdivided
amongst all these different offices, and of there being
nobody to appeal to upon a question of science, and
therefore I think the proposal to establish such a Council
would meet with universal acceptation amongst scientific
men."

Dr. Hooker, the President of the Royal Society, gives
it as his opinion " that the general proposition, that the
Government should be aided by scientific persons, is an
excellent one, both with respect to the administration of
the existing Government scientific institutions and with
respect to the occasional grants, which the Government
may be called upon to make for scientific objects." Like
Dr. Roscoe, he thinks^that the Council should not consist
exclusively of scientific men.

Mr. De la Rue considers that the usual permanent staff
of a secretary and assistant secretaries, as suggested
by Prof. Owen, even if they were men of science,
would not be sufficient ; [urging as a reason that science
is really now so extensive that one could hardly imagine
any secretary to be so intimately acquainted with every
branch of science as to be able, even with the aid of his
assistant secretaries, to advise, or to point out where to
obtain specific information on every question which
might be brought under consideration. Nor does he
think the Government Grant Committee, a body regarded
with favour by many witnesses, could be so modified as to
render a special Council unnecessary.

Sir Henry Rawlinson regards the nomination ol a

* Concluded from p. 433,

Vol. XII.— No, 309

Permanent Council of Science as the natural remedy for
the " spasmodic " action on the part of the Government ;
and another Indian officer, General Strachey, gives the
following important evidence : —

" The persons who are employed in the public adminis-
tration are certainly as a class not amongst those who
have anything deserving the name of scientific education ;
therefore, for a long time to come, it is not to be expected
that the members of the Government, or their chief subor-
dinates, will have any such general knowledge of science
as would enable them at all satisfactorily to deal with the
scientific questions which come before them. Therefore
I conclude that it is absolutely essential for the Govern-
ment, under any circumstances, to get advice from out-
side ; and then comes the quescion as to how this advice
is to be got. ■ If there is no recognised and regularly
organised body whose business it is to give advice to the
Government on such subjects, then the only thing that a
minister can do is to get his information from unre-
cognised and irresponsible authorities, persons whose
opinions, perhaps, may be very valuable, but still persons
of whom the public never can have any cognisance ; and
private advice given in that way seems to me given in the
worst possible form. If, then, that form of advice is bad,
how can you obtain advice of proper intrinsic value on
the multifarious subjects on which it is certain to be
needed by an administration really striving to advance
science to the utmost, and how can you secure its being
given under a sufficient sense of responsibility, and in
such a way as to carry the greatest weight possible to the
mind of the minister who is expected to act upon it ?
And here I would repeat that any specific proposal to
give effect to such an idea must be made to fit into the
general form of the administration ; and I therefore
consider that the best course would be to adopt the pro-
posal that has been made by many persons, that there
shall be some sort' of council constituted to advise the
responsible Government department as to its proceedings
in connection with science."

He then proceeds : —

" I would take the opportunity of saying that it is a ques-
tion that is open, and which I believe has been discussed,
whether the Council, for instance, of the Royal Society,
with or without any addition, might not be made to per-
form satisfactorily some or all of the functions which it
has been suggested should devolve upon this Commis-
sion. But 1 think not. And the principal reason that I
have for thinking that such a body as the Council of the
Royal Society is not suitable for the purpose is, that it
cannot have that specific responsibility put upon it which
should be put upon a body such as I have spoken of, and
that it is got together for totally different purposes and
objects. The Council of the Royal Society has to manage
the business of the Royal Society, and is not at all selected
to advise the Government on matters connected with the
advancement of science, or the application of science in
the operations of the public departments."

He further points out that the Minister would have a
perfect right to repudiate any scheme which the Royai
Society might put forward, or any advice they gave— that
he would be justified in doing so on the ground that he
was not responsible for their selection.

Capt. Galton points out that " the institutions which
are maintained by the State for scientific purposes
are maintained upon no principle whatever with re-
gard to their administration. You have got the British
Museum under trustees, you have got South Kensing-
ton under the President of the Council, you have Kew
under the Office of Works, you have the Botanic
Gardens at Edinburgh, I think, under the Queen's Re-

470

NATURE

[Sept. 30, 1875

membrancer. You have the Observatory at Edinburgh
as part of the University of Edinburgh, and you have
the Observatory at Greenwich under the Admiralty, be-
sides several others. You have every possible variety
of jurisdiction, and, consequently, it seems to me that
you have a great waste of power ; there is the School of
Chemistry, and the School of Mines, and the Museum at
Edinburgh, all under South Kensington Museum, and
the Meteorological Department, which is partly under the
Royal Society and partly under the Board of Trade.
There is no possibility of getting any correlation between
those different scientific bodies, and if you are to get
proper unity of administration you must bring them all
under one head, or to one focus. I should recommend
placing thexn all under a scientific commission or council,
and I should place that council probably under the Privy
Council ; but I should make it a body for administering
all questions connected with all the scientific institutions, or
all grants made by the Government for scientific purposes
in the country, and I should give to this council the same
status, with regard to its administration, or very much the

same, that the Indian Council have The

parliamentary head of the department, if he differed from
them in opinion as to their recommendations upon the
scientific questions connected with those institutions, or
any other that might be founded, should record his differ-
ences of opinion in a minute."

Dr. Siemens would " assemble the heads of depart-
ments at frequent intervals for the discussion of general
questions, and would propose to add to their number such
men as the president of the Royal Society, the president
of the Institution of Civil Engineers, and at least one
representative of the two great Universities. This Board
would decide general questions appertaining to the ad-
vancement of science."

We could fill many more columns with evidence
analogous to the above samples. Making due allowance
for the different ways in which a new and complex ques-
tion like this, compounded of scientific, political, and
administrative elements, must present itself to a variety
of minds trained to dissimilar pursuits and habits of
thought, the almost general consensus as to the necessity
of some such advising body as that proposed is most
striking.

Still those who object to the creation of a Council on
various grounds are not wanting, and we now glance
briefly at the evidence of these witnesses.

Sir G. Airy thinks a paid Consultative Council ^could
not do very much to assist the Government, and that the
Council of the Royal Society would be the best body to
which the Government could have recourse in any
matters of that kind.

Prof Owen prefers a Minister of Science, with a per-
manent Under-Secretary and administrative staff, as in
his opinion the representative of any particular branch of
science on the Board would have too great an influence.

The Earl of Derby is very sceptical either as to the
iiecessity, or as to the utility, or as to the successful
working of such a Council. One objection he urges is
that if matters for which the head of a department is
responsible are to be referred to the Council, and if
upon those matters the Council is to pronounce an

authoritative opinion, the responsibility of Ministers to
Parliament will be considerably lessened.

In reply to the suggestion that one function of the
Council would probably be to advise the State as to the
application of money for the higher teaching of science
and for scientific research, and also to advise the Govern-
ment with respect to any applications that may come
before it for grants of money connected with science,
whilst objecting to a Council, Lord Derby thinks that it is
a matter which falls strictly within the province of the
Minister of Education.

Lord Salisbury is opposed to a Council because he has
never seen anything to lead him to believe that such a
Council of Science would have anything to do ; and he
considers that the Government would always get better
opinions on any scientific point that arises, by applying
to the most distinguished scientific man in that particular
branch at the time, than it would by having a set of per-,
manent officers to give advice on such subjects.

There appears to have been before the Commission
practically three solutions of the question. First, that no
change should be made in the present condition of things.
The Astronomer Royal is apparently the sole witness of
eminence in science who seems to desire no reform in the
scientific administration of the country. Secondly, that
the Council of the Royal Society should be constituted the
official advisers of the State — a view held generally by
those who are adverse to the creation of a new Council ;
and third, that a Council!-' be provided to assist the
Minister charged with science and the;Departments con*
cerned with science.

The Commission arrive at the conclusion that the
balance of argument and authority is in favour of the last-
named arrangement, which accordingly they recommend
in terms which, though general, leave no doubt that they
contemplate the creation of a new official body so consti-
tuted as fairly to represent the various branches of
science. We think that no unprejudiced and competent
person can read the whole evidence without accepting
this conclusion as undeniably sound, if not indeed abso-
lutely unavoidable.

THE GOVERNMENT RESEARCHES IN
PATHOLOGY AND MEDICINE

THE third volume of the " New Series of Reports
of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council and
Local Government Board," brings before us another
instalment of the work paid for by the annual grant
of 2,000/. "in aid of scientific investigations related
to pathology and medicine." This grant has been
actively opposed by a small minority in the House of
Commons mainly upon the narrow and invidious ground
that the medical profession was thereby obtaining know-
ledge and instruction which the medical profession ought
to obtain at its own expense. " The medical profession
lives upon the public ; the medical profession makes
use of its knowledge to extract money from the public ;
the grant will add to the knowledge which the medical
profession uses with such object — therefore the grant is
money drawn from the pockets of the public to aid in
the further depletion of the pockets of the public."

Such appears to be the main inspiration of the

Sept. 30, 1875]

NATURE

471

opposition. "Whoever will be careful to read the
last public report, and the short but most weighty
statement with which Mr. Simon introduces it to
his chiefs, will see plainly that this kind of opposi-
tion is founded in misapprehension or ignorance.
The information sought is such as may help to inform
the State how to offer most effectual resistance to
the introduction of disease from without, and to the exten-
sion of disease within. It concerns resistance to typhoid
fever, small pox, and many other diseases of well recog-
nised contagious nature, and the possibiUty of controlling
the extension of diseases less recognised as having like
nature, as for instance what Mr. Simon calls " the tuber-
cular infection." " It aims to be a systematic study of the
intimate pathology of the morbid infections, acute and
chronic."

Mr. Simon in his remarks points out that much of
the study involved is most elaborate and purely scientific,
never immediately convertible to pecuniary profit, but
perhaps, on the contrary, involving heavy cost ; not pre-
tending to immediate popular application, but addressing
itself primarily to the deeper scientific requirements of
the medical profession, and therefore in an extreme
degree technical. Studies of this sort cannot be culti-
vated to any adequate extent by private medical investi-
gators, and the scientific investigations set going by the
2,000/. grant have a distinctive intention to supplement
the ordinary resources of private medical observation in
the direction already indicated. The work connects
itself with the objects of preventive rather than with the
objects of curative medicine, and in addition to inves-
tigations into the aetiology of infective diseases, it in-
cludes some very elaborate research concerning normal
standards, histological and chemical, of the tissues in-
volved in the morbid infective processes.

The latest published volume, entitled " Report made
to the Lords of the Council on Scientific Investigations
made under their direction, in aid of Pathology and
Medicine," contains the result of five researches : — (i
Dr. Sanderson's Further Report on the Intimate Path-
ology of Contagion ; (2) Dr. Klein's Research into the
Contagium of Variola Ovina ; (3) Dr. Klein's Research
into the Lymphatic System and its relation to Tubercle ;
(4) Dr. Creighton's Anatomical Research towards the
y^tiology of Cancer ; (5) Dr. Thudichum's Research into
the Chemical Constitution of the Brain.

Dr. Sanderson's paper is a sequel to a former Re-
port on the nature of infecting agents or contagia, in
which Chauveau's opinion, expressed in the sentence " All
contagia are probably particulate," was supported. The
present paper treats of the infecting agents and morbid
processes in diphtheria, erysipelas, splenic fever, and
relapsing fever. In relation to all of these a mass of
evidence collected from many observers is adduced to
show that vegetable forms are connected with the con-
tagions or with the morbid process. In splenic fever and
relapsing fever organisms of a distinctive and specific
form are declared to be present in the blood ; bacterium-
like rods accompanying splenic fever, minute organisms
to which the name of spirilla has been given accompany-
ing relapsing fever. In an "addendum" some observations
of Dr. Letzerich, of Bramfels, Nassau, and of Dr. Oertel,
of Munich, on the inoculation of animals with diphtheric

poison are reported. From these it appears that in
animals receiving the poison (derived from the throat of
a child) by subcutaneous injection, the characteristic
affection of the throat was developed after a few hours,
and that the infiltration of tissues with the same sort of
micrococci as are found infiltrating them in diphtheria
always occurred.

Dr. Klein's first communication relates to the con-
tagium of Variola Ovina, and describes certain small
organised forms — bacteria, micrococci,, and microsphaera
gathered into colonies by long filaments— as found in the
lymph from vesicles. The same forms are found in cavi-
ties formed in the rete Malpighii and subjacent corium,
where the pock is developed after inoculation, extending
afterwards into and occupying in vast numbers the lym-
phatics of the corium.

Dr. Klein's second communication treats of the Lym-
phatic System in relation to Tubercle. It commences
with a minute and original description of the micro-
scopical anatomy of the serous membranes, and their
relation to the lymphatics, and compares with this the
conditions in acute and chronic inflammation, noting in
particular the processes leading to the formation of new
blood-vessels and lymphatics both in healthy and diseased
membranes. The second part of this communication relates
to the lymphatics of the lungs in health, in certain chronic
inflammations, and in tubercular infection. The appear-
ances in the lungs of guinea-pigs after the production of
artificial tuberculosis and in human lungs in tuberculosis
are compared. Dr. Klein comes to the conclusion that
the two processes are only to a limited extent similar (a
conclusion opposed to the opinions of Sanderson and
Wilson Fox). According to Dr. Klein, " in artificial
tuberculosis of the lung of the guinea-pig the parts first
attacked are the small branches of the pulmonary artery
or pulmonary vein, whereas in acute miliary tuberculosis
of man the capillary blood-vessels of the alveoli seem to
be the tissue from which the action of the morbid agent
starts.

Dr. Creighton's paper is a very thoughtful contribution
to the present knowledge of cancer. It relates some
unsuccessful attempts to propagate cancer by inoculation,
and a number of careful observations as to the process of
formation of secondary cancerous tumours. The atten-
tion is chiefly fixed upon the epithelium in relation to
hyperplastic and heteroplastic (endoplastic) growth. Dr.
Creighton infers from his observations that the efficient
cause of secondary tumours in the liver is the substitution
of the endoplastic for the normal (or excessive but still
homo- though hyper-) plastic activity of the liver cells.
The operation of deeper or extraneous causes is dis-
cussed, but left undecided. Hope is expressed that aids
to a decision may be obtained from the results of a syste-
matic examination of mammary tumour now proceeding.

Dr. Thudichum's research is a study of the normal
chemical constitution of the brain, undertaken to pre-
pare the way for a study of the brain in fevers, and
other morbid states and processes. The paper is very
long, occupying more than half of the 247 pages of the
Report, and most elaborate. Dr. Thudichum believes
that he has both added to and corrected former know-
ledge of the chemistry of Jhe brain. In particular he
describes with careful detail a number of newly observed

472

NATURE

ySept. 30, 1875

principles, both phosphorised and nitrogenised. Among
the phosphorised, [kephalin and myehn (both of which
contain nitrogen, as well as phosphorus) are new, and are
associated with lecithin. They are described as typical
colloids, of no true solubility, of almost indefinite power
of soaking up water so as'to form an imperfect solution^
of feeble chemical activity, of a remarkable readiness to
combine with acids salts and alkalies, and to part with
them on the addition of excess of water. Kephalin and
myelin are stable, lecithin so unstable as to elude proper
analysis. Similarly the nitrogenised bodies, cerebrine
(Miiller's), kerasine, and phrenosine, are colloids, but of
less perfectly marked type, and less interesting natural
history.

In his summary Dr. Thudichum, speaking of the phos-
phorised bodies, remarks that " we have therefore here a
diversity of affinities such as is not possessed by any
other class of chemical compounds- in nature at present
known ; and the exercise of these affinities being greatly
influenced by the mass of reagent and the mass of water
which may be present, the interchange of affinities may
produce a perfectly incalculable number of states of the
phosphorised and consequently of brain matter. This
power of answering to any qualitative and quantitative
influence by reciprocal quality or quantity we may term
the state of labile equilibrium j it foreshadows on the
chemical side the remarkable properties which nerve
matter exhibits in regard of its vital functions."

The volume now under consideration has been pre-
ceded by two volumes, containing a first and second
report by Dr. Klein, on the Lymphatic System and its
relation to Tubercle, a report by Dr. Sanderson on the
Infective Products of Inflammation, and by Dr. Thu-
dichum on Chemical Changes in cases of Typhus. Re-
ports are now in course of preparation by Dr. Baxter on
Disinfectants, by Dr. Sanderson on the Febrile Process
and on Infective Inflammations, by Dr. Thudichum on
the Chemical.Constitution of the Brain, by Dr. Creighton
on Anatomical Studies with reference to Cancer, by Dr.
Klein on the Contagium of Enteric Fever. The whole
represents four years' work, for which 8,000/. has been
voted. The value' and importance of all this work in
relation to the welfare of the community, as a contri-
bution in aid of preventive medicine, cannot be doubted
by any careful reader of the record. Nor, after even a
superficial reading of the record can there be doubt but
that the work is of a kind which can only be set going by
such means as public grants, since it involves a special
training and a special devotion inconsistent with the
earning of livelihood by other direct or incidental means.
The grant is on the evidence justified.

But there are other aspects of the work which claim
a serious regard. The department of the Government
concerned in protecting the country from the invasions of
contagious disease, whether represented by Minister of
.Health or principal medical officer, needs'in all things to
be fully informed of the latest discoveries in pathology,
hygiene, and therapeutics. Of such minister or officer
the body of scientific [men whose work is here recorded,
together with others who are engaged in sanitary inves-
tigations and inspections under the central authority —
men hke Drs. Seaton and Buchanan and Mr. J. N. Radcliffe
— constitute a body of advisers or council representing the

most advanced knowledge bearing upon the public health.
They constitute a council to which the minister or officer
may refer for latest knowledge when legislation is con-
cerned, or for practical advice when action has to be
taken. They are, in fact, at this moment practically
such a council. In the Science Commission Report on
the Advancement of Science, the formation of a similar
council as adviser of a Minister of Science is advocated.
We would suggest that we have in what we have stated
an excellent illustration of the| principle proposed, with a
wider application, in the Science Commission Report.

THE INFLUENCE OF THE PRESSURE OF

THE ATMOSPHERE ON HUMAN LIFE

Injluence de la pression de I'air sur la vie de Vhomiiie.

Par D. Jourdanet. 2 vols. (Paris : Masson, 1874.)

AFTER having practised medicine Tor six years on
the borders of the Gulf of Mexico, and rendered
himself familiar with the diseases and conditions of life of
the inhabitants of low levels, M. Jourdanet removed to
the elevated plateau of Anahuac — more than 2,000 metres
above the sea level. Here, as might have been antici-
pated, he found the pathological conditions different, but
to his surprise he discovered that the differences were not
simply such as result from temperature, or are paralleled
in places of lower level and higher latitude, but presented
pecuharities which he conceived to be dependent on the
elevation of the situation alone. A residence of twenty
years in the locality enabled him to confirm this idea
and to prove that, while the blood of the inhabitants pre-
sented no poverty of corpuscles, the corpuscles themselves
were deficient in oxygen, on account, as he believed, of
the too feeble pressure of the atmosphere in these high
regions. This led him to undertake the study of the
whole question of the influence of the atmospheric pres-
sure on health, and to call to his aid M. Paul Bert,
Pi-ofessor of Physiology at the Sorbonne, by means of
whose experiments he believes himself to have arrived at
some definite results. These, with every other possible
point of interest connected with the subject, he now
presents us with, in two large and beautifully illustrated
volumes ; leaving, however, the details of the physio-
logical experiments to be pubHshed in a forthcoming work
by M. Bert himself.

The question so fully discussed by M. Jourdanet is
certainly of very great interest, and, in spite of previous
observations and opinions on the therapeutic action of com-
pressed air and on the possible limits of life in regard to
height and other similar points, it is also of some novelty
as treated by him.

According to M. Jourdanet the pressure of the atmo-
sphere has not always been as small as it is now ; and
assuming, what is probably true, that a greater pressure
would involve greater heat, he would account in this way
for the warm periods known to have existed in Tertiary
times. This leads him to make an hypothesis as regards
the cause of the glacial epoch, the occurrence of which
would be contrary to the above theory ; but it is not an
hypothesis that could recommend itself to geologists.
The glacial epoch arose, he imagines, in this way ; by
some sudden convulsions the crust of the earth was torn
open, and prodigious quantities of gas and vapour driven

Sept. 30, 1875]

NATURE

473

up, which forced up the atmosphere to a prodigious
height, where it was chilled and its vapour condensed,
which fell in diluvial torrents, leaving the air so free from
vapour that radiation took place at an enormous rate,
chilling the earth and causing the glacial epoch ! He also
concludes that on account of the too great density of air in
the plain, man must have made his first appearance on ele-
vated plateaux, and he accounts in this way for the vene-
ration of high places among the early races. These and
similar speculations, though they may sometimes amuse,
do not detract from the real merit of the work in more
determinable matters.

We reach the substantial part when we come to the
experiments of M. Bert, of which the results are here
given. Small animals were placed in chambers of various
capacities, which were then filled by the same absolute
quantity of air, necessarily at various pressures ; when
the animals were dead, the remaining air was analysed,
and it was found that in the larger vessels the proportion
of oxygen was greater, and this proportion was such that
the total amount of oxygen left was proportional to the
capacity of the chamber. The animals died as soon as
the oxygen by itself was reduced to a density of 4 per
cent, of what it would-be if the whole chamber were filled
with it at the normal pressure— the amount being thus
independent of the quantities of the other gases present.
This being true for any sized chamber, it follows we may
suppose the chamber indefinitely large ; and an animal
would die in the open air if the oxygen should have less
pressure by itself than 4 per cent, of 76 millimetres.
Taking the air to have its ordinary 21 per cent, of oxygen,
these experiments would appear to prove that life is im-
possible in air of less pressure than I4'5 mm. The pro-
portion of oxygen, however, seems to be much less than
that which is ordinarily supposed to be small enough to
produce asphyxia. Further experiments were performed,
pointing to the same result. Dogs were so fastened that
they could breathe only from a bag of limited size, and
from time to time the air in the bag and the blood of the
dog were analysed, and it was found that the oxygen in
both decreased sitnultaneously, though not at the same
rate. These and similar experiments, together with the
fact ascertained by M. Jourdanet, that the blood of
Mexican dogs contains a less proportion than usual of
oxygen, are the proofs offered that the blood cannot be
sufficiently oxygenised for health without a certain amount
of atmospheric pressure.

In all these experiments, however, no allowance is made
for the possibility of the human lungs accommodating
themselves in time to the smaller pressure, so as to
enable the blood to take up a sufiiciency of oxygen ; and
this objection is seen by M. Jourdanet, who, after
giving an interesting account of the various evils that
have befallen noted climbers, discusses the question
whether an increased nirmber of respirations, or an
enlargement of the thorax, could counteract the effect
of the rarity of the air. As to the first, numerous
experiments on himself during his residence in Mexico
have enabled him to verify the law given by Leh-
mann, that the carbonic acid expired is in part con-
stant and in part only variable with the number and mag-
nitude of the respirations ; and he calculates from hence
that, in order to counteract the loss of pressure and dimi-

nution of oxygen by increased respiration, it would require
twenty-four ordinary respirations per minute, which of
course the Mexicans do not make. As to the size of the
thorax, which has been stated by Forbes to be larger in
the inhabitants of these high regions, he objects that this
statement was made on too restricted data, and that
Coindet has found that it does not generally hold true.
Whatever may be the truth on this point, the explanation
which M. Jourdanet offers of the result of the low pres-
sure on the temperature of the body cannot be considered
satisfactory. He considers that, as a general rule, the
temperature of Mexicans is not below the average,
although their surface temperature often is,'and that the
loss of heat which would arise from the more easy radia-
tion and the lower oxygenisation of their blood is pre-
vented by "the repose of their functions," while their
respiratory organs are specially modified so as to be
capable of " exceptional exercise." The latter would
require proof, and as to the former, although the body
must lose temperature by the exact amount of work done
on external objects, " a care to avoid every effort " would
prevent the body doing work upon iiself, and less heat
would therefore be produced. The "apathy" of the
Mexicans and other inhabitants of high levels must have
another cause than this.

M. Jourdanet's work ranges over a wide field, dis-
cussing, without much plan, various points in connection
with the climate of plateaux. Thus, in one chapter he
attempts to prove, by statistics of population, that the low
pestilential area round the Gulf of Mexico is more healthy
than the elevated table-land, the former having increased
six per thousand and the latter three per thousand in
forty-seven years ; that the decadence of the Peruvian
race is due to the influence of the atmosphere, without
apparently seeing the obvious objection that they must
have risen under the same influence, since they are a very
ancient race ; that the mental and physical work of the
Mexicans is below that of the inhabitants of the plains ;
and then he discusses the extreme height at which it is
possible to live permanently, which he places between
4,000 and 5,000 metres. This variety makes the book
very readable, but, in spite of its large size, the argu-
ments on many points are too brief to be convincing.

The second volume is engaged in discussing the influence
of atmospheric pressure on disease, M. Jourdanet being
" convinced that the true nature of exterior influences is
far better seen in the maladies caused by them than in
the health which they favour." This portion of the work
has a principally medical interest, although some of the
results of his experience may be usefully mentioned. He
finds that consumption is rare in Mexico, and is princi-
pally confined to the poorer classes who have insufficient
nourishment, which he explains by their feebly oxygenised
blood being unfavourable to the development of the dis-
ease ; — typhus fever, on the contrary, finds there its most
suitable subjects, as do other inflammatory disorders,
while yellow and intermittent fevers are almost unknown.

The elevation of the country where these observations
were made, and concerning which M. Jourdanet's con-
clusions have been arrived at, is 2,000 metres and over ;
and the climate of these places he speaks of as " climats
d'altitude ;" while intermediate heights he characterises
as " climats de montagne ;" to which latter he also devotes

474

NATURE

{Sept. 30, 1875

a few chapters. These, however, are of less interest as
not embodying the results of his personal observations,
but being a discussion of the various well-known moral,
mental, and physical characteristics of mountaineers.
To these follow chapters on the influence of mountain
travelling on health, and detailed experiences of the appli-
cation of artificial rarefaction of the air in disease.

With the desire of making the work as complete on
the subject as possible, the author has compiled a large
part of it from well-known writers, and recapitulates
much that is of everyday observation ; and these parts
have naturally less interest than those which deal directly
with his Mexican experiences. The whole of the facts,
however, which bear upon the question discussed are
conveniently collected together and put in an interesting
form for the perusal of the general reader, for whom,
however, much of it has too medical an aspect.

OUR BOOK SHELF

The Royal Tiger of Bengal : his Life and Death. By
J. Fayrer, M.D. (London : J. and A. Churchill.)

In this small work Dr. Fayrer gives a popular description
of the zoological relationships, anatomical structure, geo-
graphical distribution and habits of the tiger. Accounts
are also introduced of tiger-hunts, which well exemplify
the dangers to be feared and the precautions to be taken
in the pursuit of that large game, which even under
the most favourable circumstances cannot be followed
without a great amount of risk. The author's con-
siderable Indian experience gives great weight to his
opinions on many of these points, especially with refer-
ence to the nature of the wounds inflicted by the enraged
creature.

Anatomically Dr. Fayrer brings to our notice a point
in the disposition of the claw-bearing or ungual phalanges
of the digits in the cat-tribe, which is not without interest.
In the fore-limbs, as is well known, these bones, when the
claws are fully retracted, bend extremely backwards in
order to allow of the claws themselves being protected
during progression. To so great an extent is this retrac-
tion carried, according to Prof. Owen, that the bone
passes back to the side of the second phalanx in the
same way that the blade of a clasp-knife may be said to
do the same with reference to each lateral portion of the
handle. In the hind limb of the tiger. Prof. Owen re-
marks that they are retracted in a different direction,
"viz., directly upon, not by the sides of the second
phalanges, and the elastic ligaments are differently dis-
posed." Dr. Fayrer finds that in the smaller Felidse, as
the Ocelot, the hind claws are constructed and retracted
on exactly the same principle as the fore. Such being
the case, either the tiger differs from its smaller con-
geners, or Prof. Owen is wron^. Till Dr. Fayrer proves
the latter, we prefer to assume that the former is the case.

" Contrary to custom, I propose to give him (the tiger)
precedence of the lion. He is generally described as
inferior, though nearly equal, to the so-called king of
beasts ; but in size, strength, activity, and beauty he
really surpasses him ; and therefore, though he may
neither be so courageous nor so dignified, he is entitled
to the first place — at all events in India." Thus says
our author, and many of his descriptions fully exemplify
all the animal's best points. Nevertheless, though he
may be slightly greater in length, and is perhaps more
active, we considerably doubt his greater strength, and
as the work before us fully proves, we cannot say of him
as a recent writer tells us of the lion, that " it should
always be recollected, before meddling with lions, that if
you do come to [close quarters with them death is the

probable result,'' the tiger having a much less dignified
habit, an example or two of which we quote with reference
to a case in the Madras Presidency, where a sportsman
wounded the creature more than once. " It charged and
seized him by the loins on one side, gave him a fierce
shake or two, dropped him, and then seized him on the
other side, repeated the shaking and again dropping, left
him and disappeared." In a second instance a military
man, " a most distinguished soldier and sportsman, when
following a wounded tiger on foot in the long grass, was
suddenly seized and carried off by the animal he was
seeking. He managed, however, to effect his escape
without having received any serious injury, and rejoined
his companions, who had deemed him lost."

When so acute an observer as the late Mr. Edward
BIyth, with his great experience, expresses uncertainty as
to whether the lion or the tiger is the larger animal, Ave
may be certain that there is no great difference either
way. Dr. Fayrer tells us, " I have been informed by
Indian sportsmen of reliabiUty, that they have seen and
killed tigers over twelve feet in length." In none of the
special instances he mentions, in which careful measure-
ments were made, did the length exceed ten feet by more
than an inch. We quite coincide with the author in look-
ing with doubt on Bufifon's statement that one has attained
the length of fifteen feet.

For further information on the above and kindred
points with reference to the Royal Tiger of Bengal, we
cannot do better than recommend the reader to glance
through the small work under review.

A)i Introduction to Animal Physiology. By E. Tulley
Newton, F.G.S. (Mumby's " Science and Art Depart-
ment " series of Text Books.)
In more than one of the Science Primers which we have
lately had occasion to look through and notice, it has
been painfully apparent that the author is not nearly so
well grounded in the subject he is endeavouring to teach
as even some of his probable pupils. Some write on
human physiology without having studied human anatomy ;
others even do not know their physiology. The author of
the work before us is not one of these. It is accurate,
and therefore reliable. The descriptions are precise and
clear. The limits of space within which the author is
confined have, in some of his descriptions, made it neces-
sary for him to sacrifice clearness to a certain extent, but
this cannot be avoided. A novel feature of the work is
the addition to each chapter of a practical section, in
which directions are fully given for study, by the student
himself, of the more simple physiological and anatomical
points referred to. These directions are particularly
clear, and if carefully worked out by everyone who reads
the book, will be found to lead to a sound knowledge of
the first principles of physiological science. The illus-
trations, which are numerous, though mostly to be found
elsewhere, are well selected, and sufficiently large to be
distinct.

Abstracts and Results of Magnetical and Meteorological
Observatio7is at the Magnetic Observatory, Toronto,
Canada, from 1841 to 187X. (Toronto, 1875).
In this thick pamphlet of 24.9 pages, Professor Kingston
gives the results of an elaborate, able, and discriminative
discussion of the magnetical and meteorological obser-
vations made at Toronto during the thirty-one years
ending with 1871, in a series of fifty-one tables. To these
are appended the daily observations from January 1863
to December 1871. While all the results of the obser-
vations, devised and carried out with so much care, and
extending over so long a period, are of very great value,
we would point to the wind observations as regards the
diurnal changes, but particularly in their relations to
differences of temperature, pressure, humidity, and cloud,
and to light, moderate, and heavy falls of rain and
snow respectively, as affording, from the fulness and

Sept. 30, 1875J

NATURE

475

originality with which they are discussed, much valu-
able information on many intricate points which it
would be difficult if not impossible to find elsewhere.
The influence of Lake Ontario is seen in the diurnal
changes of the wind, which in July is nearly S. from
10 A.M. to 3 P.M., W. at 5 P.M., nearly N. at mid-
night, about which it remains till 9 A.M , when it
rapidly shifts to S.W., and ultimately to S. at 10 a.m.
From October to March, when storms are most frequent,
the greater depression of the barometer and increase of
vapour occur with winds from N.E. to S.S.E., and the
greatest rise of the barometer and diminution of vapour
with winds from W. to N.N.W. On the other hand, in
summer the greatest depression of the barometer occurs
with winds from E.N.E. to E.S.E., but the greatest in-
crease of vapour with winds from E.S.E. to S.S.W. Most
of the light falls of rain occur with winds from N.E. by
S. to \V., and of snow with winds from S.W. by N. to
N.E. ; most of the moderate falls of rain with winds from
N.E. to S_S.W., and of snow with winds from N.N.W. to
S.E. ; and most of the heavy falls of rain with winds from
N.E. to S.S.E., and of snow from N. to E.S.E. The im-
portant bearing of these facts on the question of North
American storms as well as on the climate of no incon-
siderable portion of that continent is evident. Tables II.
and XX. giving by interpolation-formute the mean tem-
peratures and mean pressures of different days of the
year, while of very slight scientific value, may be found
to be useful in a meteorological office, but a simpler and
in everyway more preferable table of normal daily values
for pressure and temperature could be constructed from
ihe arithmetic means of the thirty-one years' observations
treated by Bloxam's method of averages.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

\The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return,
or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications. \

" Tone " and " Overtone "

In the very favourable estimate of the work I have done in
my translation of Helmholtz, la your number for Sept. 23, I am
akcn rather severely to task for my use of '* Sensations of Tone"
on my title-page, and my refusal to use the expression overtones
in the body of the work. The title was long a matter of
anxious consideration to me, and I have not yet seen my way
to improving it. True, practical musicians, physiologists, and
artists have each their own, very different, technical meanings for
tone. The two last generally use it without an article, and in
the singular ; but musicians are accustomed to speak of " a tone,"
or of several tones, when they allude to musical intervals. In
common speech, however, all three agree with the outside world
in speaking of a "loud and soft, gentle and angry tone of voice,"
of a '* im^-toned instrument," of the " splendid or miserable tone
produced by a violinist," of the "magnificent tones of the
organ." That is, we are all accustomed to use tons, as I have
done on my title, for "a musical quality of sound." I know no
other single word in English which expresses the same concep-
tion. In the original German, Prof. Helmholtz (and af^er him
Prof. Tyndall) endeavours to use tone for a "simple tone " only.
Neither have contrived to be consistent in so doing. I have had
to correct the text several times in my translation on this very
point, and instead of using tone for " simple tone " only, which
is a new conception, and f/a«f (in English, a din) for "com-
pound musical tone," which is also a new and not an easy con-
ception, I have invariably used the word tone (except when
distinguished by a capital letter — thus. Tone, for the interval) in
tlie usual general sense of the word, and distinguished the par-
ticular cases by the prefix "simple" or "compound." It
seems to me that this is not so much "a little waywardness" on
my part, as a desire for scientific accuracy.

As to " overtones," it is well known to those who, like my
reviewer, are acquainted with the work in the original, that
Helmholtz's expression ' ' Obertone " is a mere contraction for
" Ob°rtbeiltone " or " Oberparzialtone," both of which terms he

not unfrequently uses, and these are literally rendered by my
"upper partial tones," Waiving my strong linguistic objection
to the term "overtones " as an English word, my scientific justifi-
cation for not using it in my translation must be sought for in the
fact that even the German " Obertone " has led Prof. Helmholtz
himself not unfrequently to its inaccurate use for "partial tones "
simply, including the lowest partial tone, which the word was
especially invented to exclude. Singularly enough, even my
reviewer has many times fallen into the same error (Nature,
p. 451, col. 2) in speaking of the "overtones" of a piano-
forte string. Thus he says, "the first six overtones are
all audible," which is not correct ; but he means " the lowest
partial tone and first /'z'^ of the upper partial tones," or briefly
"the first six partial tones," which is correct. Again, he says,
"the seventh and ninth (overtone) which are inharmonious, Sec,
which is not correct, for the seventh and ninth overionzs are the
eighth and tenth partial tones, and are perfectly harmonious; but
he meant the seventh and ninth partial tones. Again, he cites from
p. 126 of my translation, the relative force of the first six "partial
tones," as they are there called, but refers the table to the first
six "<7zv;-tones," which is altogether incorrect. Now if such men
as Helmholtz, who invented the term, and as my reviewer, who
uses it familiarly, can be led by it into what with them are mere
inaccuracies of expression, must we not look to the utmost con-
fusion of thought among persons to whom the whole subject is
new, and who employ the term with a very vague or loose con
ception of its meaning ? In point of fact, many such cases have
come to my notice. Hence, again, I cannot agree to think that
my deliberate rejection of the word "overtones" is " the chiel
fault" or "a blot on the translation," but rather submit that it is
a consistent endeavour to attain scientific accuracy of expression,
and avoid confusion of thought.

I thank the reviewer for his generally favourable estimate,
gladly accepting his rectification ot the accidental Germanism
"the musically beautiful" for "the beautiful in music," and
I apologise for the length of this communication on the ground
that it is not a merely personal vindication,

Sept. 25 Alexander J. Ellis

^Colours of Heated Metals

I HAVE just watched the casting in gun-metal, in an engineer-
ing establishment in this town, of what is intended to be the
rudder-post of a large vessel, which when completed will weigh
about three tons. As the casting was a simple one, it was
accomplished very quickly, and as the contents of the huge four-
ton ladle were emptied into the mould, the dazzling stream of the
metal flowed in a large volume over its lip. Brilliantly glossy it
appeared as it broke through the folds of thin dross with which
its surface was encrusted ; and this it did at the lip of the vessel,
while fold after fold of the encrusting pellicle was swept down
the stream, and left behind it a straight or ragged edge of the
thin film, from underneath which the metal welled out for a
moment with an appearance on the surface of perfectly trans-
parent purity. The appearance was a deception arising from the
strong bluish-green colour of the light emitted by the pure sur-
face of the metal, which I have never seen exhibited under
similar circumstances by melted iron or steel. It extended also
for only a short distance from the encrusting edge, the green
colour soon passing into white, or paler green, where exposure
to the air enveloped the metal again in a rapidly increasing
film of oxides that tarnish its surface and render the stream
white, or nearly so, in every part, excepting in a bluish-green
ring, or border where the fresh metal made its appearance, and
flowed over in a beautifully coloured stream from the mouth of
the ladle. The strongest patches of the colour there were tran-
sient, the film of oxide apparently soon thickening enough to
eclipse it, and by connecting itself to the broken edge of the thin
film in the pot to tear away another fold, when the characteristic
greenish glow of the metal immediately presented itself along
the freshly-broken edge. I had watched and thus interpreted
this beautifully varied play of natural colours in the molten
stream for some time before it occurred to me that the peculiar
hue of the freshly-exposed surface of the metal, glowing as it
does with the brightness of what in the black film of oxide
appears as white heat, is no other than the very colour of the
heated metal which the theory of exchanges would lead us to
expect. For as the colour of gun-metal in a cold state is yellow,
the selective absorption of its surface in that condition must
be exercised chiefly upon rays occupying the blue portion of
the spectrum, and consequently in the heated state these rays

476

NATURE

[Sept. 30, 1875

are emitted in excess ; or if the heat is sufficiently intense to
produce them largely, as in the melted metal, where the thin
films of oxide on its surface glow with perfect whiteness, the
metal itself must shine with bluish, or it may be with geeenish-
blue light, if the heat is only high enough to m>ake the excess of
green rays very strongly visible. If this should be, as I suppose,
the real explanation of the very curious appearance of depth of a
certain tint of colour, contrasting strongly in some parts of the
melted stream by its greenish hue with the surrounding redder
lights, according as the natural tinted appearance of the vivid
metal is effaced or diluted by the floating films of white-hot
oxides in lines and parts of the stream depending on the surface-
flow, and suggesting in some degree the idea of a transparent
cascade, and even from its colour of a waterfall, the process
often repeated in large foundries of ninning gun-metal into
large 'castings presents an instance of well-defined action of
the law of exchanges which must be constantly witnessed
and noted inquiringly by daily observers, and which certainly
presents, if a different and more natural explanation can be given
of its origin, to eyes unaccustomed and unprepared to receive
it, a somewhat surprising and otherwise unaccountable appear-
ance. In gun-metal, when the proportion of zinc introduced is
very small, the coating of the melted surface by copper oxide is
comparatively slow, and in melted brass it might not be possible,
from the rapid oxidation of zinc upon the surface, successfully to
observe the same phenomenon. In order to render melted copper
fluid enough for casting, a small proportion of alloy sufficient to
give it almost the colour of brass is required to be mixed with it,
and large pourings of the pure metal cannot commonly be made ;
but perhaps in small castings of this metal, and probably also in
those of gold, opportunities would present themselves similar to
that which I have here attempted to describe, of verifying the same
general law of radiation connecting together the qualities of lumi-
nosity and absorption in the surfaces of highly coloured metals.
Newcastle-on-Tyne, Sept. 20 A, S. Heeschel

Changes of Level in the Island of Savaii

While feeling some diffidence about setting myself in oppo-
sition to so careful an observer as the Rev. S. J. Whitmee (Nature
vol. xii., p. 291), I cannot allow his statements in regard to
changes of level in the island of Savaii, Samoan group, to pass
altogether unchallenged. In the month of June 1874 I spent
some weeks on the island, during which time I travelled around
nearly the whole of it on foot. Though not a scientific observer,
I was on the look-out for indications of change of level along
the coast, and it is my decided opinion that such indications are
quite as little apparent in Savaii as in Upolu. Mr. Whitmee,
whom I had the pleasure of meeting on the island, directed my
attention to what he believed to be a line of upheaved cliffs a
couple of hundred yards back from the sea, near Tufu, on the
south side of the island. On examining the place, after
parting from Mr. Whitmee, I particularly observed that the
floor of volcanic rock at the base of the cliffs bore exactly the
appearance of lava that had cooled in the open air. The creases
and ripples left on the surface of the lava in cooling were dis-
tinctly visible, which could not have been the case if the rock had
ever been exposed to the action of the waves. No doubt was
left on my mind that the floor of volcanic rock between the base
of the cliffs and the sea was at one time on a level with the top
of the cliffs, and that it had broken away and sunk several feet,
from some cause which I do not attempt to explain.

I brought away the impression that Savaii was at one time
much ;more fully supplied with barrier reefs than at present, and
that recent lava-flows had extended the island out beyond the
reef. So far as my observations extended, where reefs do exist
they are terminated by points or capes of volcanic rock, looking
as if the lava had overflowed and cut off the reef.

Orie circumstance almost, if not quite, fatal to the theory that
Savaii has been upheaved in whole or in part in recent times, is
that nowhere are there any signs of coral in situ above the sea-
level. In this respect it is very different from the island of
Rarotonga, in the Hervey group, which has'most unquestionably
been upheaved several feet, at least on the south side. There
the barrier reef is altogether out of water, and what was once
the enclosed lagoon is in some places dry land.

In regard to the absence of barrier reefs in front of lava-flows,
I venture to suggest that it is more likely to be caused by the
depth of the water or by the recency of the lava-flow than by
any effect of existing submarine volcanic action on the coral insect.
^ Sai) Francisco, Sept. 7 Richard Webb

Origin of the Numerals
Having never met with any explanation of the origin of the
numerals, or rather of the figures symbolising them, perhaps I
am right in supposing that nothing satisfactory is known of it.
In that case the following may be interesting to your readers.
The first column contains the original figures, each containing as

I

Q

n

h

H

5

^

&

6

Q

%

^

1

%

%

%

s

%

\

many lines as the number which it is intended to represent. The
other columns show the transitions likely to result from quick
writing. W. Donisthorpe

17, Porchester Terrace, W.

Pugnacity of Rabbits and Hares

I have occasion just now to keep over thirty Himalayan
rabbits in an outhouse. A short time ago it was observed that
some of these rabbits had been attacked and slightly bitten by
rats. Next day the person who feeds the rabb-ts observed, upon
entering the outhouse, that nearly all the inmates were congre-
gated in one corner, and upon going to ascertain the cause, found
one rat dead and another so much injured that it could scarcely
run. Both rats were of an unusually large size, and their bodies
were much mangled by the rabbits' teeth.

I never before knew that domestic rabbits would fight with
?.ny carnivorous antagonist. That wild rabbits never do so I
infer from having several times seen ferrets turn out, from the
most crowded burrow in a warren, ^young stoats and weasels riot
more than four inches long.

It is evident that the show-fight instinct cannot have been
developed in Himalayan rabbits by means of natural selection,
but it is no less evident that if it ever arose in wild rabbits it
would be preserved and intensified by such means. And in this
connection I should like to ask any of your readers who may
be able to supply information upon the point, whether there is
any difference between the hares of Great Britain and those of
the Continent with regard to pugnacity. I have been assured
by Germans that in their country a hare will fight a good-sized
dog rather than run, and that it is dangerous to handle a
wounded individual. I do not know, however, whether or not
to trust these statements, and as there appear to be very few
examples of local varieties of instincts, it is desirable that anyone
who can should either confirm or deny this curious instance.

Dunskaith, Ross-shire George J. Romanes

Ol/R ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN
" 35 Camelopardi," B.A.C. 1924.— The principal com-
ponent of this double star is not included either amongst
the certain or suspected variables in Professor Schon-
feld's last catalogue, but there would appear to be suffi-
cient evidence of change to justify its being placed in the
former class. Variability was suspected by the Baron
Dembowski from his own estimates of magnitude 1865-

Sept. 30, 1875I

NATURE

477

68 (A.N. 1810), and the following are almost decisive of
fluctuation through about two magnitudes, so that at
times the star will be visible to the naked eye, and at
others fairly beyond unassisted vision.

As lower estimates we have Argelander 1842 January
25—8 mag., and Radcliffe Obs. 1870 February 22—7-5
mag.

As higher estimates we find, Flamsteed, 1696 January-
s', Lalande (in Fedorenko's Catalogue), 1790 February—
5^6, Dembowski, 1868 February 2—5-5, and Radcliffe
Obs., 1872 March 9—60.

It does not occur in the Uranometria^ but is B.A.C.
1924, and there very properly removed from Camelo-
pardus, to which it could only have been originally
assigned by a mistake. It belongs to Auriga, though it
is hardly, as the Bedford Cycle tells us, " in the Wag-
goner's eye."

The Double Star 2 2120. — M. Camille Flammarion
sends us some remarks on this object, to which allusion
was made in Nature, vol. xi. p. 147. Identifying it with
No. 89 of Sir W. Herschel's Class III., M. Flammarion
thinks the early observation tends to establish the binary
character of the star, notwithstanding the measures from
1829 to 1S73 may be represented by rectilinear motion.
We shall revert to this subject next week.

The Minor Planets.— The elements of No. 148 have
been calculated by M. Bossert and Herr V. Knorre ; the
orbit is one of the most inclined to the ecliptic (26°).—
No. 136, Austria, was recovered at the Observatory of
Berlin on the 6th of the present month. Dike and
Camilla, with one or two others, are still adrift.

The August Meteors. — As previously stated, the
systematic course of observation of the meteors of the
August period, organised by the French Scientific Asso-
ciation, has this year been attended with considerable
success, the atmospheric conditions on the nights of the
9th, 10th, and I ith having been as favourable as possible at
many of the stations. The greatest number was observed
during the night between the loth and nth, but this
number varies much in the different accounts so far pub-
lished by M. Leverrier. The Lisbon observers would appear
to have recorded the greatest number, 1,227 meteors having
been noted between loh. and i5h. 25m., when the sky
clouded. A table of more than forty tracks, exactly noted,
appears in the Paris " Bulletin International" of Sept. 23,
the co-ordinates of the points of commencement and
extinction being expressed in right ascension and declina-
tion, with the corresponding mean times. At Avignon,
on the same night, 858 meteors were recorded between
8h. 35m. and I5h. 40m. At Bordeaux M. Lespiault
remarked tliat four- fifths of the meteors seen were Perseids,
generally very small, though in a few cases they had con-
siderable brightness and left trains. At Dijon, on a mean
of the three nights' observations, the radiant was fixed
approximately in R.A. 37°, and polar distance 45°, and in
addition to this point, two secondary radiants were
detected, one in R.A. 320^-4, N.P.D. 9i°-8, and the other
in R.A. 33i°'o, and N.P.D. 9o°-o. With respect to these
it is remarked that although, by the means, these co-
ordinates appeared to be confused together, yet for each
night the points of radiation were very distinct, the meteors
of the first group appearing to be directed towards the
second radiant, and those of the second group towards the
first. At Rouen, 500 meteor-tracks were entered upon the
charts, the invariable direction being from Perseus. At
the Observatory of Palermo, Prof. Tacchini and M. Delisa
made numerous determinations of the position of the
radiant from August 9-12 inclusive, the mean of the whole
being in R.A. 2h. som.g, N.P.D. 36° 51', but when the
points are laid down on a chart it is seen that they are
comprised in a very narrow ellipse, a circumstance to
which Prof. Tacchini has already drawn attention.

M. Wolf, in reporting the results of this year's observa-
tions, considers that the phenomenon advances rapidly

towards a very brilliant maximum ; the next year will
enable us to judge if this maximum has been attained,
and it may then be possible, he thinks, to determine the
period of revolution of a swarm of meteors, which, though
now extended far along the orbit, still presents a very
marked region of condensation. On the contrary, M.
Wolf observes, the November shower has so nearly
ceased, passing now almost unperceived, that it may be
unnecessary to call upon observers, who have previously
co-operated in this class of observations, to expose them-
selves again to the possible severity of the nights at that

THE CLINICAL LABORATORIES ANNEXED
TO THE PARIS HOSPITALS

THE first and typical clinical laboratory was created
at the Hotel-Dieu, by private exertions, a very few
months after the time when blood had been running
so freely on the pavement of the great city. It was
organised at the expense of two doctors, who had shared
the disappointments and dangers of those troubled times.

Dr. Liouville, a nephew of the celebrated academician
who edited for so many years Xho. Aftnals of Mathonatics,
having learned by his travels, before the Franco-German
war, that Prussia and other German powers had estab-
lished special laboratories at Berlin and other large cities
for promoting physiological researches in the Universi-
ties, resolved to introduce establishments of that descrip-
tion in his native land, but under a different system. He
bid his ideas before Dr. Behier, one of the most popular
professors of the Faculty who adhered to the scheme, and
lent all his influence and patronage to bring physical and
chemical instruments to the very bedside of the patients
at the hospitals.

The intention of these two distinguished physicians
was not only to open an institution where physiological
science might be promoted as it is at Berlin and Vienna,
but to place under the hands of practitioners ready
means for enlarging the degree of accuracy of their dia-
gnoses. At a moment's notice an able microscopist armed
with a powerful instrument is to answer any question put
for ascertaining the composition of humours, the nature
of abnormal secretions, &c. A competent chemist,
well acquainted with the properties of reagents, is
ready to make an analysis of blood, of virus, of medica-
ments, of urine, of excreta, suspected poisonous matters,
&c. The use of the spectroscope was not so general at the
time as to call for the service of a spgctroscopist, but the
utility of the speciality even then was made apparent to
MM. Behier and Liouville.

These operations can be done daily for the instruction
of the students following the daily practice of the hospital.

When the patient dies, his autopsy being carefully
made, it can be shown whether the diagnosis was
true, or whether the fatal result was due to some uncon-
trollable circumstance. The unhappy inmate whom
science and humanity were powerless to save, is turned
into an object of instruction, so that human knowledge
may be enlarged and other sufferers cured under similar
circumstances. The laboratory was also open from the
time of its infancy to foreign men of science or to prac-
titioners wishing to investigate any points connected with
their patient.

To the Hotel-Dieu Laboratory was annexed a " chenil,"
where a number of rabbits and the like are constantly
bred and kept in an excellent state of health. These ani-
mals are destined to be employed in testing the efficacy
of new medicines to be tried, if proved innocuous, on the
patients. In cases of poisoning, the localisation of toxic
substances is ascertained, as well as the symptoms of
death, and in some cases antidotes are administered for
testing their restorative power. They may be considered
as living instruments fo# exploring and extending scientifi-
cally the scope of Pharmacology.

478

NATURE

{Sept. 30, 1875

The results obtained by the two learned associates
were so rapid and so unquestionable, that in 1872 their
laboratory at the Hotel-Dieu was declared to be anjesta-
blishment of public utility.

A few weeks afterwards the Commissioner of the Budget
of the National Assembly having paid a visit to the
Hotel-Dieu, inserted in his report a clause asking support
for the then existing establishment, at the expense of
the Government, and the extension of the system to
other Paris hospitals. A sum of 32,000 francs was voted
without opposition, and three laboratories were opened,
one at La Pitid, the second at the Charitd, and the third
at the Clinical Hospital. The reports of the Com-
mission de Budget were succesively presented by M. Beuld,
the ex-Minister of the Interior, and, after he had met his
untimely death, by the present sub-Minister of Justice,
M. Bardoux, who both of them asked for frais de premier
etablisscinent. A sum of 90,000 francs was voted, partly
by the Versailles National Assembly and partly by the
Municipal Council of Paris.

Dr. Liouville was appointed the chief of the Hotel-Dieu
Laboratory ; Dr. Carnhill, an anatomist universally known
by his researches on the diseases of the liver, was ap-
pointed the chief of the La Charite Laboratory.

In one of the first sittings of the last session the
Municipal Council decided that a large pavilion on the
northern part of the New Hotel-Dieu, now building,
should be reserved for the clinical laboratory. No money
is to be spared in order to procure the most important
instruments which can be designed for chemical or
medico-physical observations, either in the way of gal-
vanic batteries, microscopes, sjjectroscopes, &c. A clinical
laboratory will also be established in the new hospital
to be inaugurated at the end of next November, which
will be one of the most extensive in Paris.

NOTE ON HAEMATITE INDIAN AXES
FROM WEST VIRGINIA, U.S.A.

THROUGH the kindness of Horace Fisk, of Trenton,
and Major Jed. Hotchkiss, of Staunton, Va., I have
been able to procure two specimens of hjaematite iron ore
hatchets, of aboriginal manufacture. They possess great
interest from the fact of being very similar to native
copper axes, characteristic of the "finds" of relics of
" mound builders." The specimens, one of which is here
figured, have unquestionably been hammered out cold,
and shaped from a fragment of the ore, without the aid
of fire in previously refining the mass. The specimen
figured measures five inches and a quarter in length, by
three inches in breadth at the cutting end. The opposite
end is square, nearly two inches in width, and somewhat
thinner than the broader portion of the implement, which
is nowhere of greater thickness than one-fourth of an
inch.

The entire surface still shows the hammer marks made
in shaping the hatchet, even to the edge, which now
shows no trace of grinding or polish ; but this may have
been obliterated by the rust ; but I am inclined to believe
from close inspection of both specimens, that the edge
originally was a hammered one, and not a ground one ;
making the specimen more nearly allied to the " clipped "
jasper hatchets than polished (ground) porphyry axes.

The accompanying specimen is four-and-a-half inches in
length, by two in breadth, is nearly uniform in thickness
about three-sixteenths of an inch, and has a well-defined
edge, which from its slightly wavy outline, and slight
variation in width, I believe to be a hammered, and not
a grounj or polished edge.

Two other specimens, similar to these, were found with
them, and are now in the calimat of Major Hotchkiss, who
informs me that the series of four were found under an
uprooted tree, on an Indian trail, at the Forks of Kelley's
and Rich Creek, Gauley Mt., Tayette Co., West Va.

It has been suggested that the use of hcematite for paint
among our Indians may have led to its employment for
other purposes (" Flint Chips," by E. T. Stevens, p. 553),
and this is no doubt true, inasmuch as small irregular
fragments of this mineral were often utilised, if the shape
would at all permit, as arrow heads. Among the thou-
sands of arrow-heads gathered in New Jersey, I have not
met with one of iron* ore that has been worked into any
of the various patterns of flint points ; but from graves,
associated with others, I have found fragments of the ore,
and once, of native copper, of such shape and size, and so
placed, that they were evidently arrow-heads.

A curious form of " relic," known here as a " plummet,"
occasionally occurs, made of iron-ore. One such is
figured in the "American Naturalist," vol. vi., p. 643,
Fig. 132. This specimen " is made of iron ore, ground
down and polished until it is almost as smooth as glass."
As such plummets are found in the western mounds, as
well as on the surface of the ground throughout the
Atlantic coast States, and are always polished, it seems
fair to presume that a cutting instrument of such hard
material would undoubtedly be polished and ground, if,
at the time of its manufacture, grinding was known or
practised among the aborigines in fashioning their various
weapons and instruments.

When we consider that these iron hatchets were found
in a locality once thickly populated by Indians, and
probably frequently visited, if not occupied, by the mound-
builders, and now yield, on search, an abundance of ordi-
nary stone implements of every grade of workmanship
and variety of pattern, it seems at least probable that the
specimens in question were not fashioned at a time when
the polishing and grinding of weapons was customary,
but earlier, as the labour of beating so hard a material
into its present shape would doubtless be supplemented
by polishing, if the additional value given to an implement
by the operation had been recognised.

As the writer has already endeavoured to show, through
an extensive series of New Jersey specimens (Nature,
vol. xi., p. 215), that the ruder chipped implements of
"our native rocks" are older than the more elaborate
jasper and porphyry specimens, so I consider these
hammered iron hatchets to be of an earlier age than
either the polished iron plummets of the mound-builders,
or ground axes of the Indians.

Charles C. Abbott

Trenton, New Jersey, U.S.A.

Sept. 30, 1875J

NATURE

479

DOHRN ON THE ORIGIN OF THE VERTE-
BRA TA AND ON THE PRINCIPLE OF SUC-
CESSION OF FUNCTIONS

'T'HE introduction of the doctrine of Descent into the
■■■ study of organic phenomena has opened the flood-
gates of speculation, of hypothesis, and theory. Pro-
bably, with very few exceptions, this is regarded with
regret and impatience by zoologists and botanists, even
though staunch Darwinian converts, who had made any
name in biology in the period anterior to the publication
of Mr. Darwin's work on the " Origin of Species." Those
were the days of a reaction brought about by the fan-
tastic imaginings of Oken and his school ; and the natu-
ralists brought up in those days cannot rid themselves of
a dread of speculation which has become as much an
organic part of their nervous systems as has the fear of
precipices, bricklayers' ladders, and of the mythological
personages of their childhood, to most men. It remains
for the present and later generations who will be brought
up, not to fear, but to use speculation, to turn fully to
account the immense engine of research which Mr.
Darwin has placed in their hands. We see, in fact, no
reason for refusing to welcome any number of hypotheses
and theories on biological topics : let every one make his
suggestion— the more ingenious and original the better —
and let it be taken for what it is worth. If in its author's
or another naturalist's hands it should lead to the dis-
covery of new facts — if it should in a more or less modi-
fied form be established as true — it will bring thanks and
honour to its promoter. If, on the other hand, it should
lead to nothing, should be tested and found neither true
nor suggestive of truth, it will fall to the ground quietly
enough, and do no harm to anybody. This, be it said,
applies only to the pubhcation of such hypotheses within
the scientific area — a totally different and a very grave
responsibility is incurred when an author represents a
hypothesis as an established doctrine, and appeals to the
support of an uninstructed public. The fact is that we
have acquired this freedom of speculation as compared
with the proscription of it in the pre-Darwinian period,
through the circumstance that biological theory has
passed from the theological to the scientific form. To-
day— no matter who its author — a speculation as to the
mode of development of this or that group of animals and
the significance of this or that organ, may be verified or
rejected ; no one will attach undue value to it until this
process has been gone through. Formerly it was not
possible to test such speculations ; we had in fact no hnk
by which organic phenomena were made part of the
whole series of phenomena of which science takes cog-
nisance, and biology had no foundation in the so-called
experimental sciences. Hence speculations were liable
(as in theological discussion) to be launched by authori-
ties, and to be received not as speculation, but as something
like inspiration, by disciples ; and on the other hand to
be rigorously and almost puritanically tabooed by a con-
stantly increasing number who, refusing to occupy them-
selves with these vain imaginings, endeavoured to keep
the facts pure and undefiled, waiting for the coming
of an interpreter — who was realised in Mr. Darwin.
The doctrine of organic evolution as elaborated by Mr.
Darwin and his immediate successors has provided us
with a proper scientific framework, and we can now
proceed to build on that by the legitimate methods of
modern inductive science. It will be some time before
biology fully emerges from its theological form ; at least
another generation must pass ; and in the mean time we
must expect the continuation of special claims on the
part of authorities to advance speculative doctrines ex
catJied?-d ; and on the other hand a hngering antagonism
to all speculation, even to that which makes no pretension
to authority, on the part of those who have imbibed the

horror of fantastic "^Natur-philosophie " and of dogmatic
pretensions.

To those who belong to neither of these 'sections, it is
worth while pointing out that even the most careful
observation and recording of phenomena in the absence
from the observer's mind of some theory or speculation
which shall, so to say, sharpen his wits and keep his
eyes open, is likely to be of the very smallest value. It
cannot be too strongly asserted that in observing a com-
plicated phenomenon — such as an organic structure or
series of structures — the investigator is only likely to see
what he has already imagined inay be there ; the chances
are greatly against his detecting an arrangement or a
mode of development of which he had previously no
suspicion. Though cases of unforeseen discovery do
occur, yet it may be safely stated that, as far as all but the
most patent and macroscopic appearances are concerned,
the observations of no predecessor should be trusted by
an investigator beyond the limit which is given by the
hypotheses which are known to have been present to that
predecessor's mind. In fact, a man can only expect to get
answers from Nature to specific questions ; she will not
give him unsolicited information, nor make a voluntary
statement, however attentive the listener. Hence the
value and legitimacy of speculations, even ad nauseam,
on such matters as the pedigree of animals and plants.
When advanced, with due knowledge of ascertained facts,
they suggest to the embryologist, to the paleontologist,
and the anatomist, a number of possibilities which he
holds before him as so many questions to be answered by
the material of his studies. It is true that it is desirable
in a high degree that the person who frames a hypothesis
should also himself be active in using it in a practical
way, and indeed if he is not, he may find no one who
will take the trouble to bear it in mind. Therefore, one
must admit the generosity of those who now-a-days make
a present of their speculations to scientific confreres, and
undertake the part of the profound thinker, whilst assign-
\r\3; to others the more practical task of verification and
elaboration. For, since the days of scientific inspiration
are past, but little credit will attach to the launchers of
hypotheses, and more and more to those who destroy
them, either by showing their error or by transubstantiat-
ing them, in demonstrating that which was supposed,
actually to be. It is Darwin whose name we associate
with the doctrine of evolution — not Lamarck's, nor
Goethe's, nor Wells', nor Freke's.

These remarks are a necessary prelude to the consi-
deration of the bold speculations with which Dr. Anton
Dohrn, the founder of the zoological station of Naples,
known also for some interesting observations on the
development of Crustacea, has recently astonished the
zoological world in his " Ursprung der Wirbelthiere und
Princip des Functionswechsels." The necessary sequence
of the general acceptance of Darwin's theory of the origin
of species by descent and natural selection has been an
attempt to establish the pedigree of the animal kingdom,
and to indicate the degrees of consanguinity among
the different members of it known to us. In the
first attempts in this direction no one can doubt that
errors and vagaries of all kinds must occur. It is
only when naturalists have fairly set themselves to the
task and made some few false starts that we can expect
to see anything like a just appreciation of the methods to
be pursued, of the difficulties to be encountered, and of
the fallacies to be avoided. We are obliged to admit
that the first attempts in the way of constructing the
pedigree have been influenced, as they were likely to be,
by the remnants of old notions and by the lack of a per-
fectly unprejudiced appreciation of the question in hand.
The pamphlet of Dr. Dohrn comes opportunely enough
to insist upon one or two important considerations which
have been neglected ; and *ven though, by an excess of
antagonism to prevailing prejudice, Dr. Dohrn may be

48o

NATURE

{Sept. 30, 1875

led to oppose exaggeration to exaggeration, we cannot
the less feel that there is sound sense and truth in the
general purport of his views.

In the pre- Darwinian period naturalists looked upon
the series of classes and orders of the animal kingdom
as a more or less branched ascending series. The effort
in nearly all classifications was to distinguish the lower
from the higher and to place the groups in their sup-
posed order of merit, as competitors for the highest
rank of organisation. This has led— now that Darwinism
is accepted — to a tacit assumption that the order of
" degree .of organisation " which was worked out in the
pre-Darwinian era, is necessarily the order of historical
development ; that consequently the lower forms of any
group which are existing to day, are nearer to the ances-
tral forms of that group than are the more highly organised
forms.

Whilst an exception has been made to this unreasoned
and unchallenged assumption in favour of the parasitic
forms for which the term " retrogressive development "
has been coined, it does not appear to have occurred to
any prominent naturalist, at any rate it has not been
prominently maintained, that the " retrogressive develop-
ment" which all so readily admit for parasites, may be a
very general phenomenon, as widely or more widely dif-
fused as that of "progressive development." To have
insisted on this possibility even to an excess (of which
more below) is the merit of Dr. Anton Dohrn. Dr. Dohrn
has arrived at an appreciation of the possibilities of degra-
dation or retrogressive development, by divesting himself
of all preconceived notions and of all respect for authori-
ties. In his pamphlet he grapples courteously, but fear-
lessly enough, with Von Baer, Darwin, Haeckel, Gegen-
baur, and for the matter of that by implication with almost
every zoologist of note.

We claim for him, first of all, full liberty to do this
and to launch the hypothesis of general retrogressive
development as a competitor with that of universal pro-
gressive development. It requires but a few words of
explanation and an example, for which Dr. Dohrn has
selected the possible relations of the Ascidians to the
Vertebrata, to show that retrogressive development is not
only a possibility, but must be going on and has been
going on— on a very large scale — and in any doubtful
case is as much entitled to consideration as the hypothesis
of progressive development. A less important portion
of the pamphlet is that which precedes the development
of the author's Hypothesis of Degradation, and illustrates
the application of what he calls the " principle " of the
Succession of Functions. To put it in the form of a
hypothesis it comes to this : — " Organs do not arise de
novo in organisms, but are formed by the gradual change
of function and accompanying change of structure of pre-
existing organs." That this is true, or at any rate that it
is the hypothesis which, according to the " principle of
uniformity," must be preferred to its converse, namely,
" that organs are formed de novo " must be admitted by
everyone. In fact, most of Dr. Dohrn's readers will feel
that there really is not much novelty in this proposition,
since it is already involved in the doctrine of homologies to
a very large extent. Dr. Dohrn admits this in his pamph-
let, but we conceive that his view differs from that im-
plied in the generally recognised doctrine of homologies,
in that the latter is not aljsolute ; it would merely assert
that many or some organs do not arise de novo, but are
loimed by the gradual change of function and accom-
panying change of structure of pre-existing organs. Dr.
Dohrn raises this into a hypothesis of tmiversal appli-
cation, and proposes to apply it stringently in speculations
as to the genealogical relationships of organisms. He
illustrates its application in an attempt to explain the
genealogical affinities and mode of development of Asci-
dians, Amphioxus, Lampreys, and Sharks. We are very
much disposed to believe that here, as in his advocacy of

the hypothesis of degradation, Dr. Dohrn has grasped
and emphasised a truth which has been floating before
the eyes of other people but has not been appreciated at
anything like its real importance by them. We believe
that the hypotheses of degradation and of continued
homologies put before naturalists in the present pamphlet
will have a very important and powerful influence on the
rapidly progressing reconstruction of the animal pedigree
with which so many zoologists are busy.

At the same time it is necessary to point out that the par-
ticular speculative conclusions at which Dr. Dohrn arrives
as to the new Vertebrate mouth which has replaced the
ancestor's mouth as well as the new Ascidian mouth,
which has done the same thing — further, the conclusion as
to the secondary character of the Vertebrates' anus, and
the development of Vertebrate gill-slits from segment
organs and of Vertebrate limbs from annelidan gill-
supports — all this and more besides is ingenious and
healthy hypothesis, but has no value unless Dr. Dohrn
or some one else (which is not a thing he should rely
upon) will bring it to bear upon the facts and seek to
establish it by new observations. We must confess that
although we are inclined to entertain some of Dr. Dohrn's
suggestions as hypotheses, yet we feel that he has given
us rather a large supply, which, in justice' to his reputation
as an observer, he should hasten to balance by a fair
amount of new investigation. Such a speculation as that
which he gives us relative to the origin of Vertebrates,]can
from his hands only be regarded as a sort of programme or
announcement of the work which he intends to do during
the next decade at the Zoological Station. We shall look
most anxiously for the first instalment of results.

Lastly, we shall not shrink from pointing out that Dr.
Dohrn urges the hypothesis of degradation to a degree
which would be regrettable were it quite evident that he
is serious and not merely anxious to engage the attention
of his reader by letting imagination have its full swing.
Supposing, says Dr. Dohrn, that the Ascidians are the
degenerate descendants of a half-worm- half-fish-like
ancestor — and the mere consideration of their individual
development is enough to make this probable — then we
have to admit an amount of degeneration which covers
very wide possibilities. For the compound Ascidians,
with their various encrusting species, are included in the
series ; and, moreover, many forms which have ceased
in their individual development to give any indication of
the affinities which are indicated by the larva; of other
forms. If so large, so abundant, and varied a group
can thus take its rise by degeneration, what is to prevent
the simpler worms from having originated in the same
way ? Why may not the Ccelenterata have acquired histo-
logical and general simplification in a parallel manner by
degeneration accompanying a fixed life ? And the Pro-
tozoa, the whole series of unicellular animals, why are
they not to be considered as degenerated from multi-
cellular forms by a process of simphfication ? In fact, in
a few sentences Dr. Dohrn suggests doubts which land
him in a theory which is almost identical with that of
Aristotle.

" Thus then," he says, " the animal kingdom has quite
a new aspect for us when we look at it from the point of view
developed in this essay. Instead of having before us a
large mass of forms which from the first commencement
of organic life have made little or no progress, whilst
a few favoured stems have developed themselves to
the highest perfection, we obtain the conception of
one single stem, which bore within itself the germ of
all other higher, highest but also lowest forms, whose
descendants on the one hand in thought and fancy
embrace the universe and recognise themselves within the
universe as individuahties, whilst others lead a senseless
inert existence and give rise to the belief that a non-living
nature might be able now or at any time to originate such
things." Finally, the author argues that the development

Sept. 30, 1875]

NATURE

481

of this single stem is not to be assigned to either chance
or to chemico-physical, but to an " Entwickelungs-gesetz "
yet to be discovered. This, we confess, is to us a disap-
pointing termination to a clever and spirited essay.
Surely Dr. Dohrn would not expect a scientific man to
understand by the word " chance " anything but a peri-
phrasis for the operation of hidden cause. And what can
he expect any law of development to be, if not an expres-
sion of the operation of chemico-physical causes ?

As to the original form under which life made its first
appearance, Dr. Dohrn's words would almost lead to the
impression that he believes in the creation of a " type-
form ■' something like the Cherubim, with an account of
which Archdeacon Freeman favoured Section D of the
British Association when it met at Exeter in 1869. His
language is, however, sufficiently vague to warrant the
supposition that, as an orthodox physical philosopher, he
holds the doctrine of the evolution of organic forms sub-
ject to the larger doctrine of general evolution, and conse-
quently we may suppose that he would hold that the
single stem which has blossomed in man, and from which
all other forms have descended by retrograde develop-
ment, did take its origin from simple protoplasm, which
had naturally been evolved from carbon compounds. If
the animal pedigree did originate from these very simple
beginnings, we suppose Dr. Dohrn would say that all
trace of them is gone, what is simple now in the way of
organisms is not the simplicity of the original stock, but
a simplicity attained by degeneration. We do not see
any reason to accept this hypothesis of universal degra-
dation (man alone being excepted from its influence), any
more than we can see reason to accept the competing
hypothesis of universal progress. We are very strongly
inclined to think that neither hypothesis can have the
whole field to itself. We should expect to find in some
directions progress, in others retrogression.

The extent to which each of these processes has gone
on in past ages in connection with the family history of
the animal kingdom is the great problem for zoological
research, E, R L,

excess of aqua regia without undergoing any loss by
volatilisation.

When hydrated zinc chloride containing a trace of the
new substance is heated to the point when zinc oxychlo-
ridc begins to form, the gallium remains in an insoluble
condition, possibly as oxychloride.

The quantity of the substance procured was too small
to attempt its isolation. Some drops of zinc chloride
solution in which the new metal had been concentrated
were examined spectroscopically by the electric spark. The
spectrum is composed chiefly of a violet line about wave-
length 417, and a feeble line about 404.

In his communication to the French Academy, the
author states that he obtained the first indications of the
new metal on Friday, Aug. 27. It is to be hoped that a
good supply of the mineral will be procurable, so that the
new element may be isolated, its atomic weight deter-
mined, and its reactions studied in detail. This now
makes the fifth terrestrial element which the spectro-
scope has been instrumental in bringing to light.

R. Meldola

THE NEW METAL GALLIUM

THE discovery, by M. Lecoq de Boisbaudran, of a sup-
posed new element in a blende from the Pierrefite
mine in the Argeles Valley, Pyrenees, was made known
in our " Notes " of last week. This element, which the
discoverer proposes to name Gallium, has revealed itself
by the following chemical reactions : —

The oxide, or possibly suboxide, is precipitated by
metallic zinc from a solution containing chlorides and
sulphates.

In a mixture of the chlorides of the new metal and of
zirc, ammonia throws down the new element first if added
in a quantity insufficient to precipitate the whole of the
metals present. Nearly the whole of the gallium is thus
thrown down in the first fraction.

Under conditions competent to peroxidise the new
metal, the oxide is soluble in excess of ammonia.

Ammonium sulphydrate produces a precipitate insoluble
in an excess of the reagent. The sulphide appears to be
white.

Sulphuretted hydrogen produces a precipitate in pre-
sence of ammonium acetate and excess of acetic acid. In
presence of zinc salts the new substance concentrates
itself in the sulphides first deposited, but six fractional
precipitations were requisite to remove the greatest part
of the zinc sulphide. In presence of hydrochloric acid
no precipitate is formed.

The oxide, like that of zinc, dissolves in excess of
ammonium carbonate.

The salts of gallium are readily precipitated in the cold
by barium carbonate.

The chloride may be frequently evaporated with great

UNPUBLISHED LETTERS OF GILBERT
WHITE

AT the meeting of the Norfolk and Norwich Natu-
ralists' Society, held on the 28th inst., the secretary
read an interesting series of ten unpublished letters,
written by Gilbert White, of Selborne, to Robert
Marsham, F.R.S., of Stratton Strawless, Norfolk, and
communicated by the Rev. H. P. Marsham, great-grand-
son of the latter. The letters, which are dated between
August 13, 1790, and June 15, 1793, are excellent exam-
ples of Gilbert White's delightfully discursive style, their
contents being of a very varied nature, Mr. Marsham,
to whom they were addressed, was a great planter, and
communicated his experiments on growing trees to the
Royal Society ; the beauty and great size of the timber
at Stratton bear testimony at the present day to his
judgment and successful treatment. As might be
expected, under these circumstances, a Urge por-
tion of the correspondence is devoted to lorest-trees,
the love for which was shared in an almost equal
degree by both correspondents. The " Indications of
Spring," of which Mr, Marsham left such a remarkable
register, and which have been continued by his family,
with one slight interruption, from the year 1736 to the
present time (see " Philosophical Transactions " for 1789,
and the "Transactions" of this Society for 1874-5), of
course form an annual topic, as well as the rainfall ; but
perhaps the most valuable part of the correspondence is
the gossip about birds, some of which is of very great
interest. On the 30th October, 1792, Marsham writes to
White : " My man has just shot me a bird which was
flying about my house ; I am confident I have never seen
its likeness before." On reference to his Willoughby, he
declares it to be " the Wall-creeper, or Spider-catcher,"
and a description, endorsed by him on one of White's
letters, as well as a manuscript note in his copy
of Willoughby's " Ornithology," still in the posses-
sion of the Marsham family, places it beyond doubt
that the bird was a veritable Tichodronia muraria.
White, after saying he is persuaded that the bird is the
" very Certhia muraria," continues : " You will have the
satisfaction of introducing a new bird of which future
ornithologists will say, ' Found at Stratton, in Norfolk, by
that painful and accurate naturalist, Robert Marsham,
Esq.,' "—a prophesy which, after an interval of eighty-two
years, will at length be fulfilled. Nearly a whole letter is
devoted to an extract from an unpublished " Natural
History of Gibraltar," by Gilbert White's brother, the
Rev. John White, who resided many years on the
" Rock." By this it is shown that John White, who went
to reside there in 1756, soon discovered the Crag Swallow

482

NATURE

[Sept. 30, 1875

{Cotyle riipestris) to be distinct from the Sand Martin, for
which it was then mistaken. He gives an interesting
account of its habits, and names it Hiriindo hyemalis,
from its great abundance at Gibraltar in the winter
months. The last letter of the series, dated June 15,
1793, has a special interest attached to it from the fact
that it was written only eleven days before the death of
this estimable man and ardent naturalist. The whole of
this interesting series will be published in the Transac-
tions of the Society, and it is hoped, through the kind-
ness of Prof. Bell, in whose hands they now are, that
Marsham's letters to White may be added.

NOTES
During the last week there has been a goodly talk about
education, and Mr, Cross has come to the front in a most unex-
pected manner, while the modern English Cardinal has been
acting as his foil. Cambridge, too, in the shape of Mr. James
Stuart, has been active at Nottingham, and the world thinks that
the University is active. The truth is, however, that the Uni-
versity is too poor to do anything, and that the Colleges are
simply looking on while a private benefactor is providing both
with those means of teaching which third-rate institutions on the
Continent have possessed to a greater or less extent any time
during the present century. Mr. Cross not only foreshadows com-
pulsion, but he shows that we have now a Minister who knows
the difference between Education and Instruction. "It is not
mere book learning that I am talking of. That is not the object
of these schools. It is the school discipline, the training of the
mind of the child, the teaching him how to teach himself, the
self-control and the self-respect which he gets at school, which
do more for him than all the book learning that you put into his
head." The Cardinal, on the other hand, defines " Secular Edu-
cation" as "secular knowledge," and then adds : " Education
means the full possession and understanding and enjoyment of
the inheritance of faith, which the child has by virtue of his
regeneration in baptism." It is clear that the Cardinal, if he
means anything, confounds instruction with education as suc-
cessfully as ninety-nine out of every hundred who talk on the
subject confound education with instruction.

At a meeting of the Entomological Club of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science, Mr. C. V. Riley,
the secretary, read a paper on "Locusts as Food," in which he
gave his own experience in cookmg and eating them. On one
occasion he ate nothing else for a whole day. He found them
to have an agreeable nutty flavour, and especially recommended
them deprived of their legs and wing-cases, and fried in butter,
and also spoke very highly of a soup made from them. He
referred to John the Baptist, who had often^ been pitied for the
scantiness of his fare, locusts and wild honey, and expressed his
opinion that he was rather to be envied than otherwise. The
writer regarded it as absurd that parties should actually die of
starvation, as some had done in the districts where this locust
plague had prevailed, while surrounded by such an abundance
of nutritious and palatable food.

From different settlements on the West Coast of Africa
young living gorillas have several times been shipped for Europe
under auspices apparently the most favourable. On one occasion,
about six years ago, a Dutch merchant at St. Paul de Loanda took
the trouble to keep a young male in company with a black boy
for some considerable time on the coast, and when the two had
become good friends, took passages for them both to Holland.
The animal only survived a fortnight from the date of its embar-
cation, dying rather suddenly, as most others seem to have done^
from a kind of depression or home-sickness, not from any well-
marked disease. No gorilla, exported as such, has reached
Europe alive. Quite recently, within the last month or so, ore

destined for Hamburg arrived within two days of its journey's
end, when it shared the fate of its predecessors. This speci-
men was, immediately after its death, placed into spirit, and
will, we believe, form the subject of a monograph by Dr.
Bolau, of the Zoological Museum of Hamburg, from whom vk-e
may expect the settlement of several important and doubt-
ful points in the anatomy of the greatest of the anthropoid apes.
In about the year 1852, in one of Wombwell's travelling me-
nageries, there was exhibited for some months a monkey very
like a chimpanzee. The animal was expert at tricks, and was
clad in a grotesque costume. P'rom a daguerreotype photo-
graph in the possession of Mr, A. D, Bartlett, resident super-
intendent of the Zoological Gardens in Regent's Park, that
gentleman was enabled to identify the specimen as one of a
young gorilla, and not a chimpanzee. Its face was dark, its
arms and legs proportionately larger, its ears very much smaller,
and the distance between the eyes greater than in the chim-
panzee. A still more interesting instance of the same kind has,
however, recently occurred. For the last two years there has
been a female "chimpanzee " at the Zoological Gardens at Dres-
den, named Mafota, which has attracted considerable atention.
She was purchased by Herr SchopfT, the Director of ihe Dresden
Gardens, in a very unpromising condition, being much denuded
of hair, and covered with an unhealthy skin eruption. Since the
animal has been under Herr Schopff 's skilful care, it has become
quite a different creature. It has grown veiy rapidly ; surprisingly
so. The hair now forms an abundant covering, and the skin is in
a perfectly healthy condition. It is quite tame with its keepers,
whose boots it is in the,habit of taking off and replacing for the
amusement of visitors. It performs many other tricks, showing
great intelligence, Herr Carl Nissle, an artist, we believe, whilst
studying the figure and movements of Mafota, became rapidly
impressed with the idea that she is not a chimpanzee at all. Her
great size, the numerous black spots on . the naked skin of the
face, which in the chimpanzee is simply flesh-colour, the black
instead of pink hands, the slight webbing between the fingers,
and the different expression, with a broader nose, all led him to
the conviction [that she is a gorilla. He carefully studied the
stuffed specimens of the gorilla and chimpanzee, both at Berlin
and Lubeck, and, what is more, has had the opportunity of seeing;
the new Hamburg spirit specimen above referred to. Tliese all
confirmed his surmise, towards the complete verification of which
we have the affirmative opinion of Prof, R. Hartmann, prosector
to the Anatomical Museum of Berlin. So there is strong reason
for the belief that Mafota is a gorilla, the first living specimen
recognised as such in this continent.

The following are the hours of the various Introductory Lec«
tures at the London Medical Schools, which will be delivered
to-morrow (Oct. ist), with the names of the respective lec-
turers :—

Hospital. Lecturer. Hour.

Charing Cross Mr, Fairlie Clarke 4 p.m,

St. George's Dr. Barnes 4 ,,

Guy's Dr. Stevenson 2 ,,

King's College Dr. Curnow 4 ,,

London Dr. B. Woodman 3 ,,

St. Mary's Dr. Randall 3-30

Middlesex Mr. Lowne 3 ,,

St. Thomas's ... Dr. Payne 3 ,,

University College Dr. Corfield 3 ,,

Westminster Mr. R. Davy.. 3 ,,

Dr. James Bell Pettigrew, F.R.S., Lecturer on the Insti-
tutes of Medicine at the Royal College of Surgeon?, Edinburgh,
has been appointed to the Chair of Medicine in the University of
St. Andrews, vacant by the death of the late Dr. Oswald Home
Bell.

The following is a list of candidates who have been successfid
in obtain'ng Royal Exhibitions of 50/. per annum ea?h for three

Sept. 30, 1875]

NATURE

483

years, and free admission to tlie course of instruction at the
Royal School of Mines, London, and the Royal College of Science
in Dublin : — i. School of Mines : John Gray, 21, engineer,
Strichcn, N.B. ; Frederick G. Mills, 14, student, London j
Thomas E. Holgate, 20, farmer, Blackburn. 2. College of
Science: C. C. Hutchinson, 21, engineer, Leeds; Henry Hat-
field, 20, student, Stockport; Thomas Whittaker, 18, clerk,
Accrington.

The term of office of the present Lord Rector of Aberdeen
University — Professor Huxley — having nearly expired, the stu-
dents are already looking out for a successor. Mr. M. E. Grant
Duff, M.P., Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Mr. Robert Lowe, and Dr.
Alexander Russel, editor of the Scotsman, are proposed for
election. A report in the Times states that the feeling of the
majority seems to be in favour of Dr. Carpenter.

The preliminary North-west African Expedition is expected
to leave England for the coast of Africa early in November.
General Sir Arthur Cotton and several scientific gentlemen are
expected to accompany it. The object in view is to make a
survey of the coast of Africa opposite the Canary Islands for the
purpose of finding a suitable position for a harbour and commer-
cial and missionary station ; to enter into commercial arrange-
ments with the native tribes, and to inquire into their present
means of commerce, and the resources of the countries through
which it is proposed to pass. To examine as far as practicable the
sand bar across the mouth of the River Bella, wliich it is sup-
posed keeps back the waters of the Atlantic Ocean from flowing
into the dry bed of the ancient inland sea, to obtain levels and
other necessary information. Mr. Mackenzie, the director of
the party, expects to get the friendly support of the most power-
ful chief of the tribes on the north-west coast of Africa.

The celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the opening of
the first railway between Stockport and Darlington is attracting
the notice of ihe French papers. A curious fact connected with
French railways is that Baron Charles Dupin, who published
his celebrated work on Great Britain in 1826, described railways
at full length, but abstained from saying a word about motive-
power. Baron Dupin, a great geometer and [mechanician, de-
clared to the Institute that locomotives could never move, owing
to the weakness of their hold on the rails, and that the use of
horses could not be dispensed with. Baron Charles Dupin's repu-
tation was so great that the truth of the statement was taken for
granted, and in the Ecole des Fonts et Chaussees, the public insti-
tution where S;ate engineers are educated at the expense of the
Government, in a course of lectures given after 1830, it was said
that horses could never be dispensed with. The advantages of
locomotion were lectured upon in a free institution which was
opened at that time, called the licole Centrale des Arts
tt Manufactures. The professor was the celebrated railway
engineer, Perdonnet. Arago was opposed to the boring of
tunnels as endangering the health of travellers, owing to the
great cold which he anticipated would be felt.

M. Leverrier has addressed a circular to the Presidents of the
Meteorological Commissions of the departments with reference
to the Meteorological Atlas in course of publication for the" years
1S72, 1873, and 1S74. It is intended that this important work shall
contain instructions relative to meteorological observations and
tables for their reduction : a discussion of thunderstorms which
have occurred in the different river-basins as well as over France
generally; a. n'suw/oi the observations made during the three
yearj at the departmental stations ; hail charts ; the rainfall for the
whole of France, by M.Belgrand; and lastly, a series of memoirs
on special subjects by French and foreign meteorologists. The
price for the large or folio volume will be only eight shillings,
representing the price of paper and printing, the printing being
undertaken by the Government, and the compilation having

been done by the Meteorological Service at the Observatory.
The number of copies printed being necessarily limited, persons
wishing to purchase the work are required to send a money order
to the Secretary of the Association Fran9aise, I r, Quai Voltaire,
Paris.

Dr. Gustavus Hinrichs, Director of the Laboratory of the
Iowa State University, Iowa city, has issued a circular, dated
August 1875, with the view of organising a system of rainfall
observation for the whole of the State of Iowa. He is confident
of a start with one rain-gauge in each county of the State, and hopes
in a few years to secure the erection of four or five gauges in each
county. Printed forms on addressed postal cards will be issued to
the observers, whoare requested to mail them on the ist, nth, and
2 1st of each month. Thrice a month Dr. Hinrichs will prepare
a statement of the rainfall of Iowa for the corresponding ten days,
comparing it at the same time with past averages, and forward it
to the daily press for publication. Other States will doubtless
soon follow the example.

The Upsala Observatory has published a Circular (No. 6)
giving an elaborate discussion by Dr. Cronwall, of the observa-
tions made over Sweden to determine the annual periods of the
duration of ice. The six coloured maps, which illustrate the
paper, showing, by lines passing through equal times and periods,
the beginning, end, and number of days' continuance of the ice
over the different districts of the country during the winters of
1871-72 and 1872-73, are valuable contributions to the climato-
logy of Sweden. Their great value lies in illustrating in a precise
as well as striking manner the influence of its adjoining seas, its
lakes, its' mountains and lesser elevations, and latitude, in deter-
mining the times of occurrence and termination of this element
of the climate of Sweden. These discussions, begun by Dr.
Hildebrandsson for the winter of 1870-71, cannot fail to be of
great benefit to agricultural and other public interests.

Since our last issue we have received telegraphic intelligence
of frightful floods and'consequent loss of property in Texas. At
Indianola the storm began on the 15th. The east wind which
prevailed next morning^increased to a gale. The water soon
became six feet deep in the streets. On the 17th the wind veered
to the norih-west. The waves became chopped. The houses
were washed away or tumbled down . Toward the morning of
the i8th the wind lulled and the water receded ; wind veered to
the north. When daylight broke an awful destruction became
visible. The town could not be recognised. The ruin was
almost total. Seventy ^bodies were found in a brief period and
buried. Men and women were discovered who had floated on
doors or anything obtainable. Some were imprisoned beneath
roofs. Hundreds had miraculous escapes. The loss of life may
reach 200. Every business house but five has been destroyed.
Every pilot but one has been drowned. The city of Sabine has
been submerged and greatly damaged, but without loss of life.
Matagorda, at the entrance of Matagorda Bay, has been swept
away ; but two houses are standing. Cedar Lake is also
destroyed. All the inhabitants are reported lost at East Bay.
In a village containing twenty-eight people, all but five are lost.
A CORRESPONDENT of the Daily\News, writing from Chris-
tiania, says : " I translate the following from the Finmarkm-
post, a newspaper published, in Europe's northernmost city —
Ilammerfest : — ' On the 3rd instanfarrived at Hammerfest the
schooner Regina, Capt. ^Gundersen, belonging [to thej firm of
O. J. Finckenhagen, from a voyage in the Arctic regions and
the north coast of Nova Zembla. Capt. Gundersen discovered
in Nova Zembla a journal, kept by the Dutch Arctic voyager,
Barent, apparently giving an account of his doings from the 1st
of June to the 29th August,\i58o, as far as Capt. Gundersen
was able to make out, being unacquainted with Dutch and Dutch
writing of 300 years ago. Thf paper is in excellent preservation,

484

NATURE

[Sept. 30, 1875

and the writing distinct. Barent passed the winter 1596-97 in
the Arctic regions. This journal, tlierefore, relating presumably
to 1580, will give no information of his stay, but will, neverthe-
less, be of great interest. ' "

We learn from Harper's Weekly i\ia.t the Kirtland School of
Natural Sciences, established in Cleveland, Ohio, for summer
instruction in natural history, concluded its course on the 9th of
August last. The school consisted of twenty members, of
whom thirteen were ladies, and lasted for five weeks, during
which time gratuitous instruction was given by lectures and
otherwise, and shorty excursions were made in connection with
the subjects of study. Dr. ;^Newberry, Prof. Theodore B. Com-
stock. Prof. Albert Tuttle, and Dr. William K. Brooks were the
instructors. The operations of the school were mainly conducted
by Prof. Comstock. Facilities were extended by railroad and
steamboat companies in the transportation of the school and in
various interesting excursions.

In a recent number of the Philadelphia American Times, Dr.
W. W. Keen proposes the employment of a solution of chloral
as a preservative for objects of anatomy and natural history, its
special advantage being said to be that the colour of objects is
perfectly preserved, and all the parts retain their natural con-
sistency, at the same time that no special precaution is neces-
sary in stoppering the bottles containing the preparations. It is
tised by injecting it into the blood-vessels, or by immersion.

In a recent number of the Journal de la SociHe centrale d' Horti-
culture de France, there is an article by M. Ch. Royer, " On the
Causes of the Sleep of Flowers." The sleep of flowers has been
attributed to various causes, including heat, light, moisture,
dilatation of the epidermis of the inside of the perianth, contrac-
tion of the outside of the perianth, &c. The writer of the
article in question endeavours to prove that expansion of the
flowers in the morning is due to a turgescence of the parenchyma
of the flower, brought about by heat, certainly ; but .the same
agent indirectly causes the same flowers to close up again, after
the disappearance of the swelling through evaporation. This,
he contends, accounts for the early closing of flowers under a
high temperature, or in dry soils. We have always understood
that this phenomenon was governed by the hygrometrical condi-
tions of the atmosphere.

The Revue des Eaux et des ForSls, 1875, gives some statistics of
the constituents of the forests of Denmark. The beech is now
the most universal, having gradually succeeded in displacing the
oak and pine. Next in order are the birch, alder, aspen, hazel,
&c. Although at a very remote period pines appear to have
formed the principal forests of Denmark, they are not now indi-
genous, nor [have they been for many centuries j indeed, they
do not thrive when introduced. According to the celebrated
Danish geologist, M. Forchhausmer, the beech grows best in
the formation which he calls argile caillouteuse, or ai-giles d blocs
erraiiques ; whereas the oak prefers the sable caillouteuse, or sable
d blocs crratiques. An examination of the vegetable remains in
the bogs so common in Denmark reveals the fact that the
earliest forests were composed of pines, followed by the sessile-
fruited variety of the oak, now to a great extent superseded by
the beech, &c. It is supposed that the pine forests flourished
during the Age de la pierre a eclats ; and the oak was at its greatest
development at the commencement of the bronze age.

Amongst the several ameliorations which are in preparation
at the Ministry of Public Instruction in France, is the remodel-
ling of the haccalaureat in a manner which is likely to benefit the
study of medicine and the spread of the study of science. The
haccalaureat of sciences is to be required as formerly from
students in medicine ; but after having passed a general exami-
nation for their first haccalaureat they will be examined in a

second haccalaureat of sciences physiques, which includes not only
physics, but general notions of botany, zoology, mineralogy,
&c. The general haccalaureat is common to students in medicine
and in mathematics, the students of the latter branch having to
pass a special examination of their own entitled Baccalaureat
des Sciences Mathemaliques.

We believe that the Belgian Government is about to establish
tide gauges on the Escault, and to undertake complete researches
on the tides and currents of the coasts of Belgium generally.
Prof. Van Rysselberghe, the inventor of the self-recording meteor-
ograph, to which we have already called attention, has been
attached to the -Hydrographic Department, with a view of
aiding in these researches.

W^E would direct the attention of our biological readers to a
translation from the Berliner Klinische Wochenschrijt, in the
current number of the now monthly London Medical Record, of a
paper by Dr. Scheele, of Dantzig, on two cases of complete
transposition of the viscera, together with valuable observations
and references on the subject generally.

An interesting ceremony recently took place at Estagel, a
small country town in the Department of the Pyrenees, where
the great Arago was born. The local authorities and an
immense number of people have celebrated the tenth anniversary
of the erection of a statue of that astronomer. No scientific
speaker was present, and Arago was merely eulogised in general
terms for his science as well as for his patriotism.

The vanilla plant has lately been attacked by a disease
which has greatly interfered with its cultivation. Chemistry
has been brought to bear in the production of a new
substance] from which the "vanilla essence" is produced.
Messrs. Hartig and Kubel, two German chemists, have found in
the cambium of conifers a species of resin which, after certain
processes, produces an aroma exactly similar to that of the
vanilla, and which possesses the same composition as that of the
true vanilla essence itself. This pseudo vanilla is sold largely in
Germany for the real aracle ; its price is about two-thirds that
of the true vanilla essence.

On Tuesday last there was a private view of the works of the
Westminster Aquarium and Winter Garden. From their un
finished state it was not possible to form an accurate idea of the
contemplated arrangements, but the considerable area already
occupied or (o be covered with buildings struck everybody. At
the luncheon subsequently given the Managing Director made a
speech, in which much was said about science and intellectual
enjoyment. Undoubtedly the Company will have a powerful
engine at its disposal either for instruction or amusement.

No. 3, vol. iv., of the Proceedings of the Geological Associa-
tion, contains, besides pleasant descriptions of some excursions,
the following papers : — " On the deposits now forming in British
seas," by G. A. Lebour ; " Notes onspecimens of Phosphorate
from the Department of the Lot, France," by F. W. Rudler ;
" A probable origin of the perforation in sharks' teeth, from the
Crag," by H. A. Burrows ; and " On the conditions of animal
life in the Deep Sea bottom," by Dr. W. B. Carpenter.

The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the
past week include two Bonnet Monkeys {Macacus radiatus) from
India, presented by Mr. TurnbuU ; a Macaque Monkey [Ma-
cacus cynomolgus) from India, presented by Mrs. Knight ; two
Common Wolves {Canis lupus) from Russia, presented by Mr.
Charles Bell ; a Chinese Mynah {Acridotheres cristatellus) from
China, presented by Mr. J. R. France; two Rattlesnakes {Cro-
ialus durissus) from N. America, a Long-nosed Crocodile {^Cro-
codilus cataphractes) from W. Africa, received in exchange ; five
Russell's Vipers ( Vipera russelli) born in the Gardens.

Sept 30, 1875]

NATURE

485

SOME LECTURE NOTES UPON METEORITES

"^OWHERE in the " Cosmos" does Alexander von Humboldt
-'-^ show more vividly his keen appreciation of all the grander
operations of nature than in those passages in which he discusses
the subject of meteors, and in which he gives us a forecast of the
connection of those striking and still not entirely explained phe-
nomena with other celestial spectacles, such as the apparition of
comets and the fall of meteorites.

Thus Humboldt dwells with a lingering interest on the subject
of the meteoric showers which in their grandest form, cri at least
one, and generally en some successive Novembers in every gene-
ration, and in a less brilliant degree on every loth of August,
illuminate the sky with countless lines of momentary light. And
while bringing the occurrence of these swarms of meteors with
much vividness before 'our eyes, he treats them as a special
form of the same display presented by the single meteor, that,
gliding down the sky, leaves its thread of light to illumi-
nate a few degrees of the great arc described on the dome of
heaven by the meteor ; nor does he hesitate lo link these pheno-
mena into one series with those larger mcteoroids that we call
fueballs, and which sometimes light up the whole heavens, and
may occasionally be seen over half a continent. And we may go
on with Humboldt to connect with these greater meteors a class
of still more striking phenomena accompanying the descent gene-
rally out of a dark cloud when seen in daylight, or with a bright
flame, when seen by night, of meteoric stones, heralded by sounds
as of thunder.

Within the last few years the cases of recurring periods of
meteoric showers have been considerably multiplied, while these
and the comets have been recognised by astronomers as belonging
to the same order of celestial objects : and we are now enabled
to group the whole of the phenomena we are considering under a
single category with a confidence far greater than that on which
Humboldt built his surmise regarding them.

It is with the meteoric bodies that fall from out of a cloud
when seen by day, and in fiery mass where the light can be dis-
tinguished, and accompanied by detonations like cannon, that
we are going more immediately to deal here ; and it may be well
therefore, without recalling the descriptions that may be found
in many treatises of some of the more familiar meteoric falls,
such as those of L'Aigle and of Braunau, to recount the evidence
of eye-witnesses of these events on other occasions. The follow-
ing is a contemporary account of the fall of a shower of stones in
the county of Limerick, at Adare, on Sept. 10, 1813 : —

" Friday morning, the lOtli September, 1813, being very calm
and serene, and the sky clear, about 9 o'clock, a cloud appeared
in the east, and very soon after I heaid eleven distinct reports,
appearing to proceed thence, somewhat resembling the discharge
of heavy artillery. Immediately after this followed a considerable
noise not unlike the beating of a large drum, which was succeeded
by an uproar resembling the continued discharge of musketry in
line. The sky above the place whence this noise appeared to
issue became darkened and very much disturbed, making a hissing
noise, and from thence appeared to issue with great violence dif.
ferent masses of matter, which directed their course with great
velocity in a horizontal direction towards the west. One of these
was observed to descend ; it fell to the earth, and sank into it
more than a foot and a half, on the lands of Scagh, in the neigh-
bourhood of Patrick's Well, in the county of Limerick. It was
immediately dug up, and I have been informed by those that
were present, and on whom I could rely, that it was then warm,
and had a sulphurous smell. It weighed about 17 lbs., and had
no appearance of having been fractured in any part, for the whole
of its surface was uniformly smooth and black, as if affected by
sulphur or gunpowder. Six or seven more of the same kind of
masses, but smaller, and fractured, as if shattered from each other
or from larger ones, descended at the same time with great
velocity in different places between the lands of Scagh and the
village of Adare. One more very large mass passed with great
rapidity and considerable noise at a small distance from me; it
rame to the ground on the lands of Brasky, and penetrated a
very hard and dry earth about two feet. This was not
taken up for two days ; it appeared to be fractured in
many places, and weighed about 65 lbs. ! Its shape was rather
round, but irregular. It cannot be ascertained whether the small
fragments which came down at the same time corresponded with
the fractures of this large stone in shape or number, but the un-
fractured part of the surface has the same appearance as the one
first mentioned. There fell also at the same time, on the lands

of Faha, another stone, which does not appear to have been part
of or separated from any other mass ; its skin is smooth and
blackish, of the same appearance with the first-mentioned ; it
weighed above 74 lbs. ; its shape was very irregular. This stone
is in my possession, and, for its volume, is very heavy.

" There was no flash of lightning at the time of, or immediately
before, or after the explosion ; the day continued very calm and
serene, was rather close and sultry, and without wind or rain. It
is about three miles in a direct line from the lands of Brasky,
•where the very large stone descended, to the place where the
small ones fell in Adare, and all the others fell intermediately ;
but they appeared to descend horizontally, and as if discharged
from a bomb and scattered in the air."

The next account is that of a stone that fell at Durala, or
Dooralla, on February 18, 1815.

Extracts Jrovi a Letter jrcm Caft. G. Bird.

" Loodiana, April 5, 1815.
" On the 1 8th February last, some people who were at work
in a field about half a mile distant from the village of Dooralla
were suddenly alaimed by the explosion of what they conceived
to be a large cannon, ' the report being louder than that of any
other gun they had ever heard,' which report was succeeded by
a rushing noise like that of a cannon ball in ils greatest force.
When looking towards the quarter whence the noise proceeded,
they perceived a large black body in the air, apparently moving
directly towards them, but, passing whh inconceivable velocity,
buried itself in the earth at the distance of about 60 paces from
the spot where they stood. The Brahmins of the village, hearing
of it, proceeded to the spot w ith tools for digging it up. They
found the surface broken, and the fresh earth and sand thiown
about to a considerable distance, and at the depth of lather more
than 5 ft. in a soil of mingled sand and loam they found the stone,
which they cannot doubt was what actually fell, being altogether
unlike anything known in that part of the country. The Brah-
mins conveyed it to the village, covered it with wreaths of flowers,
and started a subscription for the purpose of raising a small
temple over it. It fell on the i8th of February, about mid-day,
in a field near the village of Dooralla, which lies about lat. 30°
20', long. 76" 41', within the territory belonging to the Patlialah
Rajah, 16 or 17 miles from Umbalia, and 80 from Loodiana,
The day was very clear and serene, and, as usual at that season
of the year, not a cloud was tc be seen, nor was there in the
temperature of the air anything tc engage their attention ; the
thermometer of course may be stated about 68" in the shade.
The report was heard in all the circumjacent towns and villages,
to the distance of 20 coss, or 25 miles, from Dooralla. The Rajah
having been led to consider it as a messenger of ill omen, accord-
ing to my wish gave immediate orders for its conveyance to Loo-
diana, but with positive injunctions that it should not approach
his place of residence. It weighs rather more than 25 lbs., and
is covered with a pellicle thinner than a wafer, of a black sul-
phureous crust, though it emits no smell of sulphur that I can
discover. It is an ill-shapen triangle, and from one of the ccr-
ners a piece has been broken off, either in its fall or by the in-
struments when taken out of the ground. This fracture disclose*
a view of the interior, in which iron pyrites and nickel are dis-
tinctly visible. No Hindoo ventures lo approach it but with
closed hands in apparent devotion, so awful a matter is it in their
eyes. "

This aerolite was brought from India by Lieut. -Col. Penning-
ton, and presented to the Hon. East India Company. It is now
in the British Museum.

The next description is that of the fall of a stone at Manegaum,
in Kandeish, on June 29, 1843. The account is given by two
Hindoo eye-witnesses : —

" On the day the aerolite fell we were both seated, about
3 o'clock in the afternoon, on the outskirts of the village, in a
shed belonging to Ranoo Patel, There was at the time no rain,
but heavy clouds towards the northward. There had been several
claps of thunder for two hours previously, and some lightning.
Suddenly, while we were seated in the shed, several very heavy
claps of thunder occurred in quick succession, accompanied with
lightning, on which we both went out to look around us, when,
in the middle of a heavy clap, we saw a stone fall to the ground
in a slanting direction from north to south, preceded by a flash
of lightning. It fell about 50 paces from us. On going up to it
we found that it had indented itself .some four or five inches into
the ground ; it was broken in pieces, and, as far as we could judge,
appeared to be about fifteen inches long, and three inches in dia-
meter, of an oblong shape, somewhat similar to a Chouthe grain

486

NATURE

Sept 30, 1875

measure ; it was of a black vitreous colour outside, and of a
greyish yellow inside ; it was then of a mouldy texture,
and hardened to the consistence of the present specimens
afterwards.

" Only one stone fell. No rain had fallen for eight days pre-
viously, nor did it for four days after the fall of the stone. It had
been warm all day before, but not much more so than usual. From
mid-day till the time the stone fell (3 p.m.) it was very cloudy
towards the northward ; after its fall the thunder ceased, and the
clouds cleared away. No stone'of a similar description had ever
fallen near our village before. The pieces of the stone were im-
mediately after carried off by the country people. Our village is
situated on the banks of the small river, the Poorma. There are
no hills in its vicinity, the nearest being 3 coss (or 6 miles) off. "

Finally, we may extract from the contemporary notices pub-
lished in the United States, the more remarkable circumstances
attending the fall of a great number of aerolites at New Concord,
U.S.A. :—

" About fifteen minutes before one o'clock. May i, i860, the
people of South-eastern Ohio and North-eastern Virginia were

startled by a loud noise The area over which the

explosion was heard was probably not less than 1 50 miles in dia-
meter Anexaminationof all the different directions

leads to the conclusion that the central point from which the
sound emanated was near the southern part of Noble County,
Ohio

" Twenty- three distinct detonations were heard, after which the
sounds became blended together, and were compared to the rattling
fire of an awkward squad of soldiers, and by others to the roar of
a 'railway train. These sounds, with their reverberations, are
thought to have continued for two minutes. The last sounds
seemed to come from a point in the south-east, 45° below zenith.
The result of this cannonading was the falling ^of a large number
of stony meteorites upon an area of about ten miles long by three
wide. The sky was cloudy, but some of the stones were seen
first as 'black specs,' then as 'black birds,' and finally falling
to the ground. A few were picked up within twenty or thirty
minutes. The warmest was no warmer than if it had lain on the
ground exposed to the sun's rays. They penetrated the earth
from 2 ft. to 3 ft, The largest stone, which weighed 103 lbs.,
struck the earth at the foot of a large oak tree, and after cutting
off two roots, one 5 in. in diameter, and grazing a third root, it
descended 2 ft. 10 in. into hard clay. This stone was found rest-
ing under a root which was not cut off. This would seemingly
imply that it entered the earth obliquely. It is said that other
stones which fell in soft ground entered the earth at a similar
angle. They must have been flying in a north-west direction.
This fact, added to the other facts, that the detonations heard at
New Concord came lower and lower from the zenith toward the
south-east, and that the area upon which the stones fell extends
with its longer axis in a south-east and north-west direction,
would imply that the orbit of the meteor, of which these stones
are fragments, extended from south-east to north-west. This
conclusion is confirmed by the many witnesses who saw at the
time a luminous body moving in the same direction. It is a fact
of some interest that the larger stones were carried by the orbital
force further than the small ones, and were found scattered upon
the north-west end of the area referred to.

"Prof. Evans computes, from data supplied by several reliable
witnesses, the altitude of the meteor when first seen to range be-
tween thirty-seven and forty-four miles.

" A train accompanying the stones is described as a cone, having
its base upon a fire-ball. As seen from near Parkersburg its
length was estimated at twelve times the diameter of the ball.
The part next the base appeared as a white flame, but not so
bright as to render the outline of the ball indistinct. About half
way toward the apex it faded into a steel blue.

" Near McConnellsville several boys observed a huge stone
descend to the earth which they averred looked like a red ball,
leaving a line of smoke in its wake." McConnellsville is twenty-
five miles south of Concord.

Another observer at Berlin saw a baH of fire flying in a
northerly direction with great velocity. It appeared as white as
melted iron, and left a bright streak .of fire behind it which soon
faded into a white vapour. This remained more than a minute,
when it became crooked and disappeared. Berlin is about 80
miles south-west of Concord.

Now, these and other descriptions of similar events witnessed
by people in different parts of the world substantially agree. In
some minute circumstances they naturally differ, as doubtless do
also the events themselves or the conditions under which they
are witnessed. The appearance of a cloud at a great elevation,
its rapid motion, the emanation from it of masses of matter ulti-
mately falling to the earth, the association with these appearances
of a fiery light forming a splendid spectacle that lights up the
heavens by night and in twilight, and is often also seen by day ;
the trail that follows the great meteoroid mass, and lingers on
the air in the form of a long-drawn film of cloud that remains
luminous by night for some short period after the passage of the
luminous ball or cone, — are phenomena to which witness is borne
in many cases besides the last above recorded. Testimony is
also concurrent on the loudness and repetition of detonations
that accompany these phenomena, irrespectively of their multi-
plication by the effect of echo. In the case of a group of
meteorites that fell at Butsura, in India (near Goruckpore), on
May 12, 1861, we have evidence of three different explosions.

Now, for some parts of the phenomena thus recorded we can
offer satisfactory explanations, though of other parts of them the
explanations hitherto offered may seem not quite so complete.

First, we have the enormous velocity with which such a body
comes into our atmosphere, sufficient in some cases to bear the
meteorite through the distance from London to Edinburgh in as
many seconds as an express train takes hours ; and where the body
enters our atmosphere that medium is so rare that we can hardly
conceive it presenting any resistance ; yet even at that enormous
elevation — certainly in many cases as much as forty miles above
the earth, where the meteor enters this fine atmosphere — there
cannot be a doubt that the atmospheric resistance at once called
into play is sufficient to impede the body that enters it with
so enormous a velocity. And by virtue of a principle which is
now an axiom of science, this arresting of the velocity of the
meteorite means, calling into activity intense heat that is largely
imparted to the meteorite itself — heat, in fact, that is proportional
to the velocity for which it is exchanged.

Now, these meteoric masses must often come into our atmo-
sphere, not individually, but in swarms. From the rapidity
with which the heat is developed, and partly also as a conse-
quence of the low conductivity for heat of the stony masses, their
surface only has time to experience the effects in the few seconds
of transit, and therefore only the surface fuses ; and, as a conse-
quence of this fusion, there arises a sort of spray of meteoric dust
flung off from the meteorite or from the meteoric swarm ; and
this forms a cloud, such as may be seen lingering on the
track of almost any large meteor that is visible by daylight. To
the material nature of such a cloud as it rests, or rather,
though rapidly falling, seems to rest, poised in the air, the
writer can bear personal testimony, having witnessed it in the
train of a fine meteor many years ago, about sunset. When the
ordinary clouds had long ceased to be tinted by the rays of the
evening sun, as in the after-glow on the Alps, the long line of
meteoric cloud became lit up with rose-tinted hues, and bending
into a curve towards the east before an upper current of air, offered
proof beyond question of the material nature of this cloud, and
at the same time of its great elevation and the fine state of
division of its dust-like particles, which undoubtedly resulted from
the disintegration of the meteoric mass in its passage through
the air. The same cloud of dust is often visible as a luminous
trail by night, in consequence partly of its retaining its incandes-
cence for a certain time, but probably also in part from the
phosphorescence of its material. We are thus able to offer an
undoubtedly true explanation of one part of the spectacle.

The existence in the crust of a meteorite of projecting particles
of unoxidised meteoric iron, and, in the case of the Busti
meteorite, of calcium sulphide unaltered, is explained by the
momentary character of the process which during the flight of
the meteorite perpetually removes the outer surface and exposes
a fresh one, which, however, is always screened by a protecting
glaze of fused silicate from the immediate action of the air, so
long as there is velocity enough left to the mass thus to fuse
and to throw off" in its wake fresh portions of its surface ; while
in the later stage of its flight the glaze accumulates into a denser
crust highly charged with magnetic iron oxide, mainly the result of
the oxidation of the iron of the silicates.

The cause or causes of the explosions are more difficult to de-
monstrate. They have been accounted for in two separate ways,
which, though different, are not inconsistent, and are both pro-
bably involved in a complete explanation of the disruption and
detonations. Why should a meteorite explode with a repor

'lept. 30, 1875]

NATURE

487

which could be heard forty or fifty miles away? Nay, why
should it explode at all ?

One answer is this. The aerolite comes into our atmosphere
from regions in which the temperature, " the cold of space," may
range as low as 140° below zero Centigrade ; and though the
mass, from the absorption of solar heat, would possess a tempera-
ture much above this, it would nevertheless be intensely cold,
and consequently more brittle than at ordinary temperatures ; and
hence, en its entering our atmosphere, the heat it instantaneously
acquires on its outer portion expands this, and tends to tear
it away, so as to dissever the exterior from the interior, which
continues to be relatively contracted by the intensity of the cold
which the aerolite brings with it from space. The consequence
is, first, that little bits of the stone spring out all over it, leaving
those curious little holes or pit marks which are characteristic of
a meteorite ; and eveiy now and then, as the heat penetrates,
larger masses split away, of which interesting evidence is afforded
by the meteorite, for instance, that fell at iJutsura on May 12,
i86r. Fragments of this stone were picked up three or four
miles apart ; and by supplementing them by a small piece
modelled to fill up one lacuna, one is able to build up again with
much certainty the original meteorite, or at least the portion of
it represented by the fragments of it which were found. Im-
portant portions of this stone are in the British Museum, presented
some years ago by the liberality of that invaluable institution, the
Asiatic Society of Calcutta. Now, it is remarkable that these
fragments, which in other respects fit perfectly together, are, even
on the faces of junction, now coated with a black crust. On the
other hand, another of these fragments not thus coated fits like the
former to a part of the meteorite that was found some miles away
rom it, and is also not incrusted at the surface of fracture. Hence

we can assert that this aerolite acquired after coming into our at
mosphere a scoriated and blackened surface or incrustation. The
first explosion drove the fragments first alluded to asunder, and
these became at once incrusted on their broken surfaces ; but
others that were separated afterwards, probably on the last of the
three explosions, had not sufficient velocity left to cause their in-
crustation in the same manner as was the case with the fragments
previously severed. Now, this successive incrustation of the
fragments of the meteorite confirms the idea that the disruption
of the mass, and the explosions heard for so vast a distance as
Goruckpore (some sixty miles), are parts of the same convulsion ;
and sixty miles is by no means an uncommon distance for the
sound of such a meteoric explosion to be heard.

The late W. von Haldinger (to whom we are indebted for a
collation of the facts and for valuable suggestions bearing on this
subject) threw out the notion that what really produced the de-
tonation was not the disruption of the mass (which he held not
to be a sufficient cause for so loud a report) so much as the col-
lapse of the air into a vacuum which, after following the
meteorite as it pursued its rapid course, suddenly ceased to exist
as the velocity of the meteorite became practically reduced to
zero.

But it still would remain to be explained why at one time
more than another this collapse of the vacuum should take place,
or how it could be repeated ; of this, however, a sufficient ex-
planation would seem to be afforded by the actual bursting
asunder of the meteorite from the cause before assigned, since
this explosion, by disturbing the conditions on which the per-
sistence of the vacuutn depends, would permit the collapse of
the air and consequent detonation.

(7a be continued.')

OBSERVATIONS ON A REMARKABLE FOR-
MATION OF CLOUD AT THE ISLE OF
SKYE*

T^HE resistance offered by the earth's surface to the wind is
•^ known to reduce its velocity and to cause deviations in its
direction both horizontal and vertical, as well as to retard
the progress of the storm itself This friction to which aerial
currents are subjected is probably least for a surface of water
such as the sea — greater for plains of loose sand, where, as in
the Nubian deserts, lofty sand pillars are produced — and greater
still where the surface is immoveable, as in the case of solid
land ; but the greatest resistance of all is due to the obstruction
offered by rugged hills and lofty mountain-ranges.

In an account of the Morayshire easterly storm of September
1871 ; published in the Scottish Meteorological Journal, I sug-
gested that the great amount of rainfall which fell on that occa-

sion at and near the Morayshire coast, and on the sea-coasts of
the counties of Fife and East Lothian which also fronted this
storm, was due to the sudden increase of friction which the wind
encountered when it reached the land. The in-shore stream of
air being checked by the unyielding nature of the shore, even
though it was, as in this case, of no great elevation, would form
a pillow of obstructed or perhaps nearly stationary air, which
would produce vertical deflection on the strong currents coming
in from the sea. The stream of air thus projected upwards to a
height where the temperature is lower would be condensed into
vapour and rain.

This sudden change of resistance to in-shore winds is probably
one of the causes of the well-known peculiarity of seaside
climates.

On the 27th July last, about 11.30 a.m., when in the steamer
of the Northern Lighthouses off the Sound of Harris, I saw a
beautiful example of the genesis of c'ouds — due, however, not to

a low foreshore, but to hills of about 900 f.el high. The sky was
perfectly clear, with a steady but very slight breeze from the
S.W., which came straight upon the south-western extremity of
the Island of Skye, distant about twelve miles from the ship.
A small portion of the most southerly projection of the island,
which was considerably lower than the more inland parts, was
perfectly free from vapour, but at a short distance Inland from
the shore, there was an abrupt face of hill, from the top of which
there rose a very slender column of white vapour which gradually
expanded as it ascended into the air, presenting exactly the
appearance of the escape of steam from the spiracle of a volcano.
The cloud thus formed not only extended as far as the northern
extremity of Skye— itself a distance of twenty-eight miles— but

* By Thomas Stevenson, F.R.S.E.

was visible as a well-defined stratum of cloud for a long distance
beyond Skye, so that its whole length must have considerably
exceeded forty miles, beyond which distance it became more
diffuse and attenuated. Had I not known to the contrary, I
should undoubtedly have believed that what I saw was due to
volcanic eruption.

The vapour caused by the lower temperature of the atmo-
sphere at the level of the top of the bluff face was obviously
carried away by the breeze gradually as it was fi)rmed, thus pro-
ducing by a continuous process of generation the long extent
of cloud which I have described. This fact shows that clouds
may be due to deflections produced by irrejjularitics on the
earth's surface far remote from the place where we actually see
them. I may mention, in proof of the steady nature of the
breeze and of the entire absence of any vertical disturbance in

488

NATURE

{Sept. 30, 1875

the atmosphere, that later in the day we traced the smoke from
the steamer's funnel for a distance of nearly fifteen miles.

The accompanying woodcut is from a sketch which I made on
board the vessel at the time, and I doubt not will be interesting
to your readers.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

Zeilschrift der Oesieyreichischen Geselhchaft fiir Mdeorologie,
August 15. — This number contains a description, with dia-
grams, of Theorell's printing meteorograph, a very ingenious
instrument, likely to be of much service in meteorology. It
differs from other meteorographs in this, that instead of tracing
curve?, which have to be afterwards translated into figures, it
prints the figures at once, thus saving much future trouble. One
of the three already made has been in use at the Royal Observa-
tory of Vienna since September 1874, and has been so adapted
as to record, by electric communication, the state of the follow-
ing instruments, placed in any situation : anemometer, vane,
wet and dry thermometers, and barometer, once in every quarter
of an hour. The moving force is a galvanic current connected
with a clock. Dr. Theorell's account of the instrument refer-
ring to the plates will be continued in the next number of the
Zeitschrift. In the "Kleinere Mittheilungen" Prof. Hoffmann, of
Giessen, compares the sum of the daily maxima of solar radiation
in several years with the time of the flowering of certain plants.
His results in 1875 bear out his expectations derived from four
previous years' observations, 1866-69, ^"d in certain cases his
forecast of the time of flowering was nearly correct. — There is
besides a paper by Dr. Schreiber on a new registering air ther-
mometer ; also a letter from Mr. Ferrel on the theory of storms.

' Jahrhuch der Kais.-kon. Geologischen Rekhs-Anstalt, Band 24,
heft iv. — Nearly all this part of the Jahrbiich is occupied by the
second part of Dr. Guido Stache's elaborate memoir on the
Palaeozoic regions of the eastern Alps. In this part he sum-
marises all that is known respectmg the geology of the western
slopes (Cadoric Alps) of the area embraced in his review. — The
only other paper is one by M. V. Lipoid — " Explanation of the
geological map of the environs of Idria, in Carniola." A coloured
map and plate of horizontal sections accompany the paper. — In
Dr. Tschermak's " Mineralogische Mittheilungen" Dr. R. v.
Drasche concludes his paper, entitled ' ' Petrographic-geological
Observations on the West Coast of Spitzbergen." The editor
describes the Labradorite of Verespatak ; and a notice of two
other minerals, Famatinite and Wafplerite, is given by A.
Frenzel.

The Boleiin de la Academia Nacional de Ciencias exadas en
la Universiiad de Cordova {South America'), Entrega iii., 1874,
contains some papers of interest. We note the following : —
On the chemical composition of the water of the La Plata River,
by Senor Kyle. — On the formation of saline deposits, by D. Fred.
Schickendantz. — On the chemical and physical rction which took
place in the formation of the pampas of Cordova, by Dr. A.
Doering. — Critical notices on some entomological publications,
by Dr. D. C. Berg.

The Annali di Chiniica appUcata alia Medecina (August)
contain the following papers of note :— On salicylic acid, by Dr.
D. Gibertini. — Note on chloral-santonine, byC. Pavesi. — On the
health of smokers, by Dr. Bertherand. — On the substitution of
iron shot for lead shot for the purpose of cleaning bottles in hos-
pitals, barracks, &c., by Sig. Fordos. — On the comparison of
Innnan milk with cows' milk with regard to the nutrition of
infants, by Ph. Biedert. — A number of papers of minor interest.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

Vienna
Imperial Academy of Sciences, July 15. — On the solu-
bility of calcic chloride in water, by H. Hammerle. — On
the decrease in the temperature of the maximum of density
of water through pressure, by C. Puscljl. — On the system of
vessels of the tube-bones, with notes on the structure and
developm.ent of bones, by C. Danger. — Researches on the
capacity of gas-mixtures for conducting heat, by J. Plank. — On
the theory of the composite eyes and the seeing of motions, by
Dr. S. Exner. — On the graduation of induction apparatus, by
Dr. E. Fleischl. — Researches on the motion of the imbibition-

water in wood and in the membrane of the vegetable cell, by
Prof. Wiesner. — On the morphology and biology of Lenticellae,
by G. Haberlandt. — Meteorological observations made at Hohe
Warte, near Vienna.

July 22. — (Last meeting before holidays).— Remarks on the
variations in the velocity of light passing through quartz which
is subjected to pressure, by J. Merten. — The Crustacea, Pygno-

fonida, and Tunicata of the Austro-PIungarian North Polar
Expedition, by C. Heller. — On the finer structure of bone sub-
stance, by Prof, von Ebner. — On the construction of the rellec-
tion goniometer, by Prof, von Lang. — (The next meeting will
take plac« on Oct 14.)

K.K. Geologische Reichsanstalt, May 31. — Report from
Dr. O. Lenz on his travels in Africa. — On the occurrence of

marine petrefacts in the Ostrau layers, by D. Stur. On the

coal deposits of Drenovec, by Dr. R. Homes.

June 30. — On the Island of Kos, by Dr. M. Neumayer. —
On fresh-water strata amongst the Sarmatic deposits near the Sea
of Marmora, by Dr. R. Homes. — On the landslip near
Unterstein, on the Salzburg-Tyrol Railway, by II. Wolf.

July 31. — On some fossil plants from India, by O. Feistmantcl.
On the formation of the terra rossa, by Th. Fuchs. — On moun-
tain folds, by the same. — On secondary infiltrations of carbonate
of lime into loose and porous formations, by the same. — Report
by D. Stur on his travels in Silesia. — On the fauna of the
Schliers of Ottnang, in Upper Austria, by R. Homes.
Stockholm

Kongl. Vetenskaps Akademiens Forhandlingar, March
ID. — The foUowmg papers were read : — Genera et species Litho-
bioidarium disposuit, by A. Stuxberg. — Review of all Lithobioidae
hitherto known in North America, by the same. — Report on the
bryological researches in Norway during 1874, byC. Hartman. —
On the moss flora of Lulea (Lappmark), by P. J. Hellbom. —
On the observation of two crossing rainbows, by O. Gumaelius,
with some remarks on the same, by R. Rubenson.

April 14. — On the marine Entomostraca collected during the
Swedish Scientific Exhibition to Spitzbergen, by W, Lilljeborg.
— On the formation of the smaller bays, of the river valleys, of
lakes, and of sea banks, by A. Holland.

GoTTINGEN

Nachrichten von der konigl. Gesellschaft der Wissen-
schaften, Aug. 7. — The following papers were read : — On lens
fibres, by Prof. J. Henle. — On the linear differential equations of
the second order which possess algebraic integrals, and on a new
application of the "invariant" theory, by Prof. L. Fuchs.

CONTENTS PAr.B

Thk Science Cojimission Report on the Advancement of

Science 41^9

The Government Researches in Pathology and Medicine . . 470
The Influence of the Pressure of the Atmosphere on Human

Life v 472

Our Book Shelf : —

The Royal Tiger of Bengal ; his Life and Death 474

Newton's Introduction to Animal Physiology 474

Abstracts and Results of Magnetical and Meteorological Observa-
tions at the Magnetic Observatory, Toronto, fro:n 1841 to 1871 . 474
Letters to thk Editor : —

" Tone" and " Overtone." — Alexander J. Ellis 473

Colours of Heated Metals. — Prof. A. S. Herschel 475

Changes of Level in the Island of Savaii. — Richard Wehb . . . 476

Origin of the Numerals. — W. Donisthorpe (With Uiusiration) 476

Pugnacity of Rabbits and Hares. — G. J. Ro.manes 476

Our Astronomical Column :—

" 35 Camelopardi," B.A.C. 1924 476

The Double Star 2 2120 477

The Minor Planets 477

The August Meteors 477

The Clinical Laboratories Annexed to the Paris Hospitals . 477
Note ON HvEmatitk Indian Axes from West Virginia, U.S.A.

By Dr. Charles C Abbott {IVitA I llustratioii) 478

Dohrn on the Origin of the Vertebrata and on the|Principls

OF the Succession ov Functions. By E. R L. . . ' . . . . 479

The New Metal Gallium. By R. Meldola 481

Unpublished Letters of Gilbert White 481

Notes 482

Some Lecture Notes upon INIeteorites 415

Obsrrvations on a Remark.^ble Formation of Cloud at the
Isle of Skve. By Thomas Stevenson, F.R.S.E , &c. {With

Illustration) 4S7

Scientific Serials 488

Societies and Academies 488

Errata. — Vol. xii. p. 455, col. i, line 8 ftoin bottom, for "time/" read

"very small time t." V. 463, col. i, lipe 21 from bottom, for " 2n + ^ " read
' 2« + 2."

NATURE

489

THE ASTRONOMY OF THE BABYLONIANS

THE astronomical science of the ancient Babylonians
and their pupils, the Assyrians, was neither so
profound nor so contemptible as has often been main-
tained. Now that we are able to read the native
records written in the cuneiform or wedge-shaped cha-
racter, we find that the progress made at a very early
period in mapping out the sky, in compiling a calendar,
and above all in observing the phenomena of the heavens,
was really wonderful, considering the scanty means they
possessed of effecting it. Certainly their astronomy was
mixed up with all kinds of astrological absurdities, but
this did not prevent them from being persistent and keen
observers, whose energy in the cause of knowledge is not
undeserving of imitation even in the present day.

The originators of astronomy in Chaldea, as indeed of
all other science, art, and culture there, were not the
Semitic Babylonians, but a people who are now generally
termed Accadians, and who spoke an agglutinative lan-
guage. They had come from the mountains of Elam or
Susiana, on the east, bringing with them the rudiments
of writing and civilisation. They found a cognate race
already settled in Chaldea, and in conjunction with the
latter^they built'the great.cities of Babylonia, whose ruins
still attest their power and antiquity. Somewhere be-
tween 3000 and 4000 B.C. the Semites entered the
country from the east, and gi-adually contrived to con-
quer the whole of it. It is probable the conquest was
completed about 2000 B.C. At all events, Accadian be-
came a dead language two or three centuries later, but
as the Semitic invaders owed almost all the civilisation
they possessed to their more polished predecessors, it
remained the language of literature, like Latin in the
Middle Ages, down to the last days of the] Assyrian
Empire.

Astronomy was^includcd in the branches of science bor-
rowed by the Semitic Babylonians from the Accadians.
Consequently their astronomical records contain many
words which belong to the old language, while most of the
stars bear Accadian and not Semitic names. Even where
the Assyro-Babylonians had a technical term of their own^
like kasritu, "conjunction," they continued to write the old
Accadian word ribatma, of which kastiiu was a transla-
tion, though they ^rohzhXy pronounced it /casriiu, just as
we pronounce viz. " namely."

The oldest Chaldean astronomical records of which we
know are contained in a great work called " The Observa-
tions of Bel," in 70 books, compiled for a certain Kinj
Sargon of Agand, in Babylonia, before 1700 B.C., and of
which we possess later copies or editions, made for the
Library of Sardanapalus at Nineveh. The catalogue of
this work shows that a great part of it was purely astro-
logical ; other books, however, were more scientific. Tiius
there was one on the conjunction of the sun and moon,
another on comets, or, as they are called, " stars with a
corona in front and a tail behind," a third on the move-
ments of Mars, a fourth on the movements of Venus, and
a fifth on the Pole-star.* The catalogue concludes with a

* That is, (t Draconis.

Vol. xn.— No, 310

curious intimation to the student, who is told to write down
the number of the tablet or book he wishes to consult,
and the librarian will thereupon hand it to him. The
larger portion of the work itself has been recovered,
though some of the tablets belonging to it still lie under
the soil of Kouyunjik, and a good part of the details
which follow is extracted from this primitive Babylonian
treatise.

The Accadians seem to have begun their astronomical
observations before they left Elam, since the meridian
was placed in that country, while the old mythology made
"the mountain of the East" the pivot on which the sky
rested. This will account for the large number of eclipses
recorded in the " Observations of Bel," which imply a
corresponding antiquity for the commencement of such
records. These records were carefully kept, as there
were State Observatories in most of the Babylonian and
Assyrian towns— at Ur, Agane, Nineveh, and Arbela, for
instance — and (at all events in later times) the astro-
nomers royal had to send fortnightly reports to the King.

It is to the Accadians that we owe both the signs of
the Zodiac and the days of the week. The heaven was
divided into four parts, and the passage of the'sun through
these marked the four seasons of the year. A tablet
brought home by Mr. Smith informs us that the spring
quarter lasted from the ist of the month Adar to the
30th of the month lyyar (that is, from the ist degree of
Pisces to the 30th degree of Taurus), the summer quarter
from the ist of Sivan to the 30th of Ab (the ist degree of
Gemini to the 30th of Leo), the autumn quarter from the
1st of Ebal to the 30th of Marchcsvan (the ist degree of
Virgo to the 30th of Scorpio), and the winter quarter from
the 1st of Chisleu to the 30th of Sebat (the ist degree of
Sagittarius to the 30th of Aquarius). The fact that the
spring quarter^did not commence with the beginning of
the year in Nisan or March, shows that the scheme
was subsequent to the formation of the calendar.

The year was divided into twelve lunar months and
360 days, an intercalary month being added whenever a
certain star, called " the star of stars," or Icit* which was
just in advance of the sun when it crossed the vernal
equinox, was not parallel with the moon until the 3rd of
Nisan, that is, two days after the equinox. This, how-
ever, did not always suffice tokeep the seasons in order,
and the calendar had more than once to be rectified by
the intercalation of other so-called months, consisting of
a few days each. Cycles of twelve solar years were also
in use, during which the same weather was expected to
recur. The day was divided into twelve casbtimi, or
" double hours," each of these being further subdivided
into sixty minutes and sixty seconds. The month, too, was
cut into two halves of fifteen days, each subdivided into
periods of five days, though a week of seven days was
also employed from the earliest times. The days of the
week were named after the sun, moon, and five planets ;
and since the 7th, 14th, igtb, 21st, and 28th of the month
were termed " days of rest " on which certain works were
forbidden to be done, it is clear that the origin of
our modern week must be referred to the ancient Chal-
deans. The names of the months were taken from the
corresponding signs of the Zodiac, and as the Zodiac

* Called Dil-gan, or " messengejfof light," in Accadian. It must be identi-
fied with T Arietis, and at a later time with a Arietis.

490

NA TURE

Oct. 7, 1875

began with Aries and the year with Nisan, neither the
Zodiac nor the Calendar of the Accadians could be
earlier than 2540 B.C. This is also indicated by the fact
that even as late as the composition of the " Observa-
tions of Bel," time is calculated in the case of echpses,
not by the casbu, or " double hour "—a word which is
Accadian, and not Semitic— but by the older division into
three watches. These consisted of four hours each,
beginning at 6 P.M. and ending at 6 A.M,, and they were
called respectively the " evening," " middle," and " morn-
ing " watches. Something like an accurate measurement
of time was attained by the invention of the clepsydra.

Eclipses of the moon were observed from a very early
epoch ; but numerous as are the records of them in the
great astronomical work of Sargon's Library, the vague
and unscientific way in which they are recorded renders
them of little value. The usual formula is : " In the
month so and so, on the 14th day, an eclipse takes 'place,
beginning on the east and ending on the west : it begins
in the middle watch [10 P.M. to 2 A.M.], and ends in
the morning watch, the shadow being eastward from the
commencement to the cessation of the eclipse." In sub-
sequent times, however, the language of the observatory
reports becomes more precise and the gradual progress of
an eclipse is carefully described. Long before the reign
of Sargon of Agan^, the discovery had been made that
lunar eclipses recur after a cycle of 223 lunations, and
records of them incorporated into the " Observations of
Bel " generally begin with the words " According to cal-
culation," or (it may be) " Contrary to calculation, the
moon was eclipsed." One of the most curious tablets
now in the British Museum is one of lunar longitudes,
which seems to have formed part of the great Babylonian
work on Astronomy, but, since it is written ;in Accadian,
must be older than 2000 B.C. As a translation of it has
not been made before, it is here given in full : —

The 1st day (the moon) advances 5 deg.

The 2nd day ,, ,, 10 deg.

The 3rd day „ ,, 20 deg.

The 4th day ,, ,, 40 deg.

The 5th day ,, „ 80 deg.

The 6th day ,, „ 96 deg.

The 7th day „ ,, 112 deg.

The 8th day ,, „ 128 deg.

The 9th day ,, ,, 144 deg.

The loth day ,, ,, 160 deg.

The nth day ,, „ 176 deg.

The 1 2th day ,, ,, 192 deg.

The 13th day ,, ,, 208 deg.

The 14th day „ ,, 224 deg.

The 15th day ,, „ ... ... 240 deg.

The i6th day for 224 deg. of advance it retrogrades* 16 deg.

The 17th day for 208 deg. ,, ,, 32 deg.

The i8th day for 192 deg. ,, ,, 48 deg.

The 19th day for 176 deg. ,, ,, 64 deg.

The 20th day for 160 deg. ,, „ 80 deg.

The 2ist day for 144 deg. „ ,, 96 deg.

The 22nd day for 128 deg. ,, ,, 112 deg.

The 23rd day for 112 deg. ,, ,, 128 deg.

The 24th day for 96 deg. ,, ,, 144 deg.

80 deg. ,, „ 30 deg.

32 deg. „ ,, 56 deg.

23 deg. ,, ,, 12 deg.

15 deg. „ . „ 26 deg.

S^Vdeg. „ „ 4tdeg.

The 25th day for

The 26th day for

The 27th day for

The 28th day for

The 29th day for _

The 30th day the moon is the god Ami.

The fractions at the end of the tablet are hard to

* Literally, " becomes obscure. "J

explain, and it is unfortunate that the month is not named
during which the observations were made, and that we
have no other tablet of a similar kind to compare with it.
It will be noticed that here, as everywhere else in Baby-
lonian mathematics, the soss or 60 was the unit, and also
that the path of the moon was divided into 240 (60 X 4)
degrees. This corresponds with an analogous division of
the equator into 240°, t] Piscium being 60°, y Piscium
(or rather a Pegasi) 80°, and so on. An inner circle
was drawn within the equatorial and divided into 120
(60 X 2) degrees, a line passing through r\ Piscium being
30°, and 10° being marked for every 20° of the equator.
The ecliptic, " the yoke of the sky " as it was picturesquely
called, was divided into 360°, 30° for each sign.* It is
curious that no trace is to be found of the 28 nakshatras
or lunar mansions of Hindu and Chinese astronomy
which have been so confidently assigned to a Babylonian
origin. Should M. Biot, however, be right in holding
that there were primarily but 24 of these, the four addi-
tional ones being added by the Chinese sage, Chcu-kung
(B.C. 1 100), it is possible that they might be connected
with'the 24 zodiacal 'stars which, according to Diodorus,
were called "judges" by the Babylonians, 12 being north
and 12 south.

The problem of calculating solar eclipses by tracing
the shadow as projected on a sphere had also presented
itself at an early period. Like echpses of the moon,
eclipses of the sun are spoken of as occurring either
" according to calculation " or " contrary to calculation."
In a report sent in to one of the later kings of Assyria
by the State Astronomer, Abil-Istar states that a watch
had been kept on the ,28th, 29th, and 30th of Sivan, or
May, for an eclipse of the sun, which did not, however,
take place after all. The shadow, it is clear, must have
fallen outside the field of observation. Besides the more
ordinary kind of solar eclipses, mention is made of
annular eclipses, which, strangely, enough, are never
alluded to by classical writers. It is interesting to find
that observations were made as early as the time of
Sargon of Agand on the varying colour of the sun, espe-
cially at the beginning of the year on the ist of Nisan.
Thus in one place we^are told that the sun on that day
was " bright yellow," in another place that it was " dis-
coloured " (or rather " spotted ").

Of the planets, only Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter,
and Saturn were known, besides the earth. These, how-
ever, excited great attention, and their phenomena were
carefully studied. The movements of Venus and Mars
especially attracted notice. Among the names given to
Mars was that of "the vanishing star," in allusion to its
recession from the earth, just' as Jupiter was frequently
called " the planet of the ecliptic," from its neighbour-
hood to the latter. The title of Mars just alluded to,
however, raises the very interesting question whether the
Babylonians had observed the phases as well as the
movements of Venus and Mars. Now a report, taken
from the " Observations of Bel," distinctly states that
Venus "rises, and in its orbit duly grows in size,"
and this, fn combination with the name of Mars
as " the vanishing star," shows plainly that the phases
of the two planets must have been noticed. Such a
fact necessitates the existence of some kind of telescope,

* The Babylonian symbol for a degree was the star *).

Oct. 7, 1875]

NATURE

491

however rude ; and Mr. Layard's discovery of a crystal
magnifying lens at Nineveh indicates that such an instru-
ment may have actually been in use.*

The portion of Chaldean astronomy which was con-
cerned with the planets was unnecessarily complicated
by the habit of naming them from the fixed stars near
which they happened to be at different times of the year,
so that the same planet is often spoken of under varying
names. Thus Nibaianu was properly Altair, but be-
came a very common title of Mars. The number of the
fixed stars observed by the Chaldeans was very great, and
again suggests the use of something more than the naked
eye. The principal stars had individual names, the rest
being included in the constellations to which they be-
longed. In this way the heavens were mapped out long
before the idea of a terrestrial atlas had suggested itself.
The identification of the Chaldean constellations and
fixed stars is of course a work of considerable difficulty,
but the modern representatives of several of them have
now been determined, and with the help of these and
fresh astronomical texts, there is every reason to hope
that our knowledge of the celestial globe] of the Baby-
lonians will be as complete as it is in the^case of the
Greeks and Romans.

A. H. Sayce

COMTE'S PHILOSOPHY

The Positive Philosophy of Aiiguste Co?nie, freely trans-
lated and condensed. By Harriet Martineau. In
Two Volumes, 8vo. Second Edition. (London:
Triibner and Co., 1875.)

THE first edition of Miss Martineau's version of the
" Positive Philosophy " was published in the
autumn of 1853. The considerable space of time which
has since elapsed cannot have been due to any defect in
the adapter's work. So excellently were the translation
and condensation accomplished by Miss Martineau, that
Comte substituted her two volumes for his own six
volumes, and since Comte's death the work has actually
been retranslated into French. It does not give us a
great idea of the demand for Comte's works in England,
when we find that twenty-two years intervene between
the first and second editions. At last, however, the work
is re-issued in two handsome volumes, but we are not in-
formed that any alteration at all has been made either in
the matter or language of the work, and I have not been
able to detect a difference even in a word. The appear-
ance of this new edition nevertheless affords an oppor-
tunity for a few remarks upon the value and pretensions
of the " Positive Philosophy,"

It has been asked "What's in a name?" As regards
the positive philosophy, it may be answered that there is
a great deal in the name. The name Positive is an
admirable question-begging epithet. Everything which
Comte wished to stamp with his approval, and make a
part of his system, he called positive, and a formidable
list of new names was invented. We have Positive

* A broken tablet I, have come across seems to record a transit of Venus
across the sun. It is to be hoped that Mr. Smith will before long succeed in
bringing to England the remainder of the Kouyunjik Library. At present
a tablet is often broken off at its most interesting part, while the correspond-
ing fragment is still lying under the soil on the banks of the Tigris.

Philosophy, Positivism, Positivity, Positive Method,
Positive Polity, Positive Morality, and even Positive
Practices. It would be much more correct to say
Comte's Philosophy, Comtism, Comte's Method, Comte's
Polity, Comte's Practices, because I believe it is impos-
sible to attribute any invariable meaning to the word
Positive, as used by Comte, except that it meant what
belonged to his system. Nevertheless, the word was of
inestimable value to Comte, because it enabled him to
represent all his own views, some being of the most
peculiar character, as the natural outcome of the] Baco-
nian Philosophy.

We frequently find Comte stating, in the frankest
manner, that there was nothing new in the idea of a
positive philosophy. Bacon and Descartes (vol. ii., pp. 381,
386, &c.) were the two great legislators of the philosophy.
Even the common sense of ordinary thinkers contains all
the elements of Positivism, provided that absurd meta-
physical and theological ideas do not obscure them.
Through Hume, Brown, and a few other philosophers,
the pure method of positivism descended to Comte,
whose mission it was to develop a complete system of
positive thinking. When we attempt to find a clear
definition of what the positive method is, it appears to be
simply synonymous with the scientific method of induc-
tion, resting upon facts. Having thus mvested himself
with the prestige of whatever is best in the results of
modern science, Comte proceeds to deliver at full length
his own ideas of the origin and progress of civilisation,
the grounds of morality, the best form of government,
and the coming system of religious worship. All these
ideas, being called positive, are of course the necessary
outcome of the pure scientific_method.

The following is one of the clearest statements,'which I
can find, of the nature of the positive method (vol. ii.
p. 424) :— " The Positive Philosophy is distinguished from
the ancient ... by nothing so much as its rejection of
all inquiring into causes, first and final; and its con-
fining research to the invariable relations which constitute
natural laws. . . . We have accordingly sanctioned, in
the one relation, the now popular maxim of Bacon, that
observed facts are the only basis of sound speculation ; so
that we agree to what I wrote a quarter of a century ago,
— that no proposition that is not finally reducible to the
enunciation of a fact, particular or general, can offer any
real and intelligible meaning. On the other hand, we
have repudiated the practice of reducing science to an
accumulation of desultory facts, asserting that science, as
distinguished from learning, is essentially composed, not
of facts, but of laws, so that no separate fact can be in-
corporated with science till it has been connected with
some other, at least by the aid of some justifiable hypo-
thesis." Now this passage not only contains very
good sense, but it may be regarded as a most clear state-
ment of what correct scientific method aims at, the ascer-
tainment of general laws. But there is nothing whatever
in this to distinguish the positive'method from that pursued
by all scientific inquirers who. have any share of the spirit
of Galileo, or Gilbert, or Newton, or Hooke, or Lavoisier,
or Laplace, or Faraday. The question really is, then,
whether Comte, having properly formulated the method
of scientific inquiry, knew how to apply it in regions
where he was not led by greater minds. There is no

492

NATURE

\OcL 7, 1875

doubt that Comte possessed a remarkably extensive and
generally accurate knowledge of mathematics, astronomy,
and many portions of physics and chemistry, as deve-
loped in his day. The first part of his work is therefore
comparatively free from objection, and consists to a great
extent of an interesting and able review of the progress of
physical science.

Incidentally I may reniark, that Comte,'while continu-
ally sheltering himself under Lord Bacon's great name,
appears to have known little or nothing of Bacon's works.
If there was one thing which Comte abjured, it was the
inquiry into causes, whereas Bacon quotes approvingly
the old dictum that " truly to know is'to know by causes.''
Every reader of the " Novum Organum " must be aware
that Bacon deals not only with causes, but with still
vaguer ideas. Forms, Natures, Essences, terms so meta-
physical that even the editors of Bacon hardly pretend to
make out clearly what they mean. The following is a
characteristic extract from the second book of the "Novum
Organum " (Aphorism iv.) : — " The true form is such that
it deduces the given'nature from some source of essence
which is inherent in things, and is better known to nature,
as they say, than Form is. And so this is our judgment
and precept respecting a true and perfect axiom for know-
ledge, that another nature be discovered which shall be
convertible with the given nature, and yet be a limitation
of a more general nature, like a true genus." It is
possible that Bacon knew what he meant, but his own
employment of his "true and perfect axiom" was no
more happy than I hold Comte's application of his
positive method to be.

It is of course impossible to show in a single brief
article how crude and unscientific were Comte's results
when he applied his method to new fields ^of research,
especially in Sociology. One of his supposed greatest
discoveries was the philosophical law of the succession of
three states : the primitive theological state, the transient
metaphysical, and the final positive state. This is one
of those vague and hasty generalisations which have the
worst scientific vice of being incapable of precise verifica-
tion. The theory can be stretched, like india-rubber, to
cover any difficulties. If we object that the Hebrews
were from the earliest historical times Monotheists, and
have so continued to the present day, we are told that
they were prematurely monotheistic, and are left to
imagine that they will ultimately become positivists.
What sufficiently condemns Comte's laws of evolution is
that they led him away from the doctrines of evolution aj
now established by Darwin and Spencer, and their fol-
lowers. Comte was well acquainted with Lamarck's views,
which he discusses in Book V. chap. 3, coming to the
unfortunate conclusion (vol. i. p. 345) that in every view
Lamarck's conception is to be condemned, and "that
species remain essentially fixed through all exterior varia-
tions compatible with their existence." In the beginning of
the fifth chapter of the sixth book, too, we find a passage
which entirely cuts Comte off from any share in the
sociological doctrines of Spencer. " Gall's cerebral theory,"
he says (vol. ii. p. 105}, " has destroyed for ever the meta-
physical fancies of the last century about the origin of
man's social tendencies, which are now proved to be
inherent in his nature, and not the result of utilitarian

considerations." It is highly remarkable that, though the
germs of the new philosophy of evolution had been put
afloat by the elder Darwin, Lamarck, Malthus, and others,
both Comte and his admirer, John Stuart Mill, entirely
failed to appreciate their value.

There is no doubt that Comte had very wide and
general views as to the possibility of creating great bodies
of social science, described by various combinations of
the adjective Positive, such as Positive Morality, Positive
Polity ; but I quite deny that he had any true conception
of the proper way of going about the work. It is im-
possible that he should have, because he altogether
abjured and ridiculed that branch of mathematical science,
namely, the theory of Probability, by which alone we can
approach the scientific investigation of the complex con-
dition of a nation. He says (vol. ii. p. 416) : " Mathema-
ticians drop the supposition of natural laws as soon as
they encounter phenomena of any considerable degree of
complexity, and especially when human action is in any
way concerned ; as we see by their pretended calculation
of chances, through a special application of analysis — an
extravagance which is wholly incompatible with true posi-
tivity, but from which the vulgar of our algebraists still
expect, after a century of wasted labour, the perfecting of
some of the most difficult of human studies." It becomes
hardly possible to treat Comte's pretensions seriously,
when we contemplate this intellectual freak by which he
rejects the theory which is becoming more and more the
basis of all exact science. The more exact and perfect,
in fact, a science becomes, the more complete is the appli-
cation of the rules^derived from the theory of probability.
In the computations at Greenwich and other astronomical
observatories, they are used in almost every reduction.
Nothing is more accurate than a good trigonometrical
survey, and yet there is no work to which the theory of
chance is more elaborately applied. In proportion as
chemistry and physics become exact and methodical
sciences, they also resort to the theory of chance, as we
see in the researches of Sir B. C. Brodie, or the elaborate
labours of Prof. W. H. Miller on standard weights and
measures.

As to social science, the Method of Means and the law
of divergence from an average, founded on the theory of
probability, are simply the alpha and omega of scientific
method. We cannot stir a step in any branch of statisti-
cal inquiry without drawing an average, and we cannot
do this unless we accept the theory which Comte ridiculed.
Quetelet is the true founder of exact social science, and
his long labours consisted in the unwearied appUcation of
the doctrine of chance to vast bodies of statistical facts.
In Mr. Francis Galton's works we find the same true
method carried out with perfect appreciation of its value.

I might go on to point out, again, that the one branch
of social science which most early assumed a partially
scientific form, namely, political economy, was that to
which Comte entirely refused his imprimatur. He never
would allow it to be called Positive, though he predicted
that in the positive era the world would be governed by
bankers. Criticism, however, is disarmed when we con-
sider the vagaries to which the positive method is sup-
posed to have led its great expositor.

W. Stanley Jevons

Oct. 7, 1875I

NATURE

493

INTERNA TIONAL ME TEOROLOG V

Repoyl on Weather Tda^raphy and Storm Warnings to
the Meteorological Congress at Vienna, by a Committee
appointed at the Leipsig Conference. — Report of the
Proceedings of the Conference on Maritime Meteorology,
held in London, 1874. (Published by authority of the
Meteorological Committee, 1875.)

THE first of these reports is a clear and admirable
statement drawn up by Dr. G. Neumayer, of Berlin,
secretary to the Committee, of the present position of
Meteorology with reference to storm warnings. In this
light we recommend it, as well as the appendix which
gives the opinions of nearly all our best meteorologists on
this important question, for attentive perusal. It is a
significant fact, as marking the change of opinion which
has taken place since the Dundee meeting of the British
Association, that the Committee declare it to be desirable
that in all countries in which up to the present time
systems of storm warnings have not been organised, steps
leading to such an organisation should be taken as soon
as possible. What is now required is the further deve-
lopment of the system as regards the principles on which
it is based, and its practical application to other public
interests than those of commerce and navigation.

The Maritime Conference which met in September
1 874 did some goodwork towards securing for meteorology
greater exactness and uniformity in observations made
at sea — not the least important consideration being the
number of countries represented at the Conference, all of
which, it may be inferred, will be guided by the decisions
arrived at. Of thejmprovements effected on the Brussels
Abstract Log may be noted the recording of the direction
and force of the wind as at the time of observation,'and
not as estimated for a certain number of previous hours,
and the recording of the upper and lower clouds in separate
columns. The notation of clouds from o, a clear sky, to 10,
an entirely clouded sky, is also an improvement as being in
accordance with the procedure now adopted on land. As
regards the discussion of ocean statistics, the decision is
in every way admirable, viz., that the observations and
results be published in such a manner that every foreign
institute may be able to incorporate them with its own
observations and results ; that, to this end, the number of
observations, as well as the means deduced from them,
be preserved for single degrees square, and that, whatever
charts be published, the results for single degrees square
be printed in a tabular form.

In the proposed English instructions for keeping the
log, we regret to see it stated that for all except wind
observations it is sufficient to observe at the four-hourly
periods, viz. at 4, 8, 12, A.M. and P.M. A strong recom-
mendation should have been made to make the 10 a.m.
and p.m. observations, particularly with the view of
arriving at a correct knowledge of the distribution over
the ocean of the daily barometric fluctuation which is of
so great importance in its connection with atmospheric
physics. Since by the hours recommended, no systematic
observation will be made from 8 to 12 a.m. and p.m., the
two daily maxima of atmospheric pressure will remain
wholly unobserved, even approximately.

The box for protecting the thermometers on iboard,
figured at p. 53 of the Report, is of faulty construction—

the louvres being 'single and'too wide apart to afford the
required protection from the disturbing influences which
are so great on board ship. A double-louvred box of the
pattern, for instance, of Stevenson's, now so extensively
used on land, is indispensable. An arrangement of this
sort is the more desirable when it is considered how impor-
tant it often is in practical navigation to know with
exactness the difference between the temperature of the
air and that of the sea.

It is with much satisfaction that we notice at pp. 19
and 20, the resolutions passed with 'reference to the co-
operation of the navies of different countries in the working
out of the problems of ocean meteorology. Doubtless the
time [will soon come when the navy will occupy, in
practical ocean meteorology, the place occupied in land
meteorology by the Central Office in prosecuting instru-
mental and physical researches ; and when it will
seriously grapple with the difficult problems of making
real wind, rain, and hygromctric observations at sea ;
make hourly observations for determining the constants
of temperature, humidity, and pressure over the ocean ;
and make observations at outlying stations, and observa-
tions at oh. 43m. Greenwich mean time, in connection with
the United States Signal Office ; as well as collect data on
matters more immediately connected with physical geo-
graphy, such as those with which the Challenger has
enriched physical science. Towards the bringing about
of these desired results, the resolutions of the Conference
are well-timed.

OUR BOOK SHELF

Ratnbhs in search of Shells. By J. E. Harting, F.L.S.,

F.Z.S. (London : John Van Voorst, 1875.)
Says the author of this small work, in his introduction :
" It has often been a matter of surprise to us that the
study of the land and freshwater shells has not more
votaries, especially amongst the fair sex. The subject
may be easily coupled with botany, being, as it were,
nearly associated with it ; for, whether we ramble on the
downs, in the woodland, or in the marsh, in search of any
particular plant, we seldom fail to find in close proximity
to it some species or other of mollusca which claims its
shelter or support." The large field of entertaining detail
—comparatively little trodden, except by the erudite few—
which is opened up by a study of shells and their inmates,
cannot be better entered than by a perusal of the work
before us. Mr. Harting has a happy way of placing the
rudiments of a science in a light which goes far to remove
the comparative uninterestingness of its bare facts. These
latter he intersperses with references to easily appreciated
and well-known collateral associations, which retain the
attention of the reader, at the same time that nothing is
taught but trustworthy and important principles. It is
evident that, to the beginner, the classification adopted
by systematists is comparatively unintelligible, and often
only confusing. That based upon the localities and cha-
racteristic soils which the different species inhabit, being
at first sight much the more simple, is the one adopted.
Accordingly, we find chapters devoted to the shells found
on the London Clay, others on chalk soils, &c. ; the less
common species, from whatever soil, being described in
proximity to their better known and nearest allies. Several
carefully-drawn coloured plates of the species described
greatly facilitate the identification of each. A useful
appendix also is a list of the local catalogues of the native
land and freshwater mollusca, with the assistance of
which the study, commenced in the work itself, can be

494

NATURE

{Oct. 7, 1875

extended by the enthusiastic local collector. The number
of species described as undoubtedly British is one hundred
and twenty, including the slugs, which, "though generally
regarded as shell- less, have the shell placed beneath the
mantle."

A Manual of the MoUusca. By S. P. Woodward. Third

Edition. (London : Lockwood and Co., 1875.)
In noticing a third edition of the late Mr. S. P Wood-
ward's well-known " Manual of the MoUusca," our object
is only to indicate wherein it differs from its predecessors.
The body of the work is unaltered ; whilst the new editor,
Mr. Ralph Tate, in order to bring the work up to the
present state of our knowledge, has added an appendix,
containing the description of those recent and fossil genera
which, either from more recent discovery or oversight, are
not to be found in it. This appendix, with its separate
index, occupies eighty- five pages, and is illustrated with
twenty-seven woodcuts, including drawings of Clydonites
costatus, Cochloceras Jischeri (Hauer), Eucychis goniatus
(Desl), Niicleospira ventricosa (Hall), &c. Its separate
existence we do not object to, on account of the expen-
sive typography of a work of the kind ; nevertheless, the
outlay involved in an incorporation of the two indexes
into a single whole would have been fully made up for by
the extra faciUty of reference afforded, and the diminu-
tion in the chance of any additional remarks on previously
described genus being overlooked. In the preface to the
second edition, which is retained in that under notice, it
is remarked that " the chapter on Tunicata has been
omitted, since they aie more nearly allied to the Polozoa
than to the MoUusca proper, and since the MoUuscoidan
group would have made the work inconveniently bulky."
Such being the case, we cannot help asking why the
Brachiopoda are not also removed. I^ it not because
they have shells, whUst the Ascidians are deficient in in-
destructible parts ; not, by the way, that Ascidians are
MoUuscoidan now-a-days. Additional remarks will be
found on the nature of Belcmnites ; that Crioceras must
merge into Ancyiocei'as is shown to be certain ; the genera
Vermetus and Siliquaria are placed in a family by them-
selves, at the same time that their differences from the
mimetic SerpilidcE are explained. Severe! of the fami-
lies are re-arranged, at the same time that the newly added
genera are introduced. The work with the appendix is
as accurate a representation of the state of conchology in
1871 as was the first edition on its publication. We put
it thus because we can find no difference between this
third edition and the second, which has latterly been
been bound up with Mr. Tate's appendix in exactly the
same form as it appears in the newly produced work.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return,
or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications. "X

Oceanic Circulation

I HAVE just read Dr. Carpenter's letter in Nature (vol. xii.
p. 454) in reference to my paper on the Challenger'' s crucial lest
of the wind and gravitation theories of oceanic circulation, read
before the British Association, and am somewhat astonished at
the nature of the objections which he advances.

"The doctrine," says Dr. Carpenter, " to which he (Mr. CroU)
applied his test, was not mine, but a creation of his own. For
his whole argument was based on the assumption that the ocean
is in a state of static equilibrium ; whereas the theory I advocate
is, that the ocean never is and never can be in a state of equi-
librium, so long as one part of it is subjected to polar cold and
another to equatorial heat, but that it is in a state of constant
endeavour to recover the equilibrium which is as constantly being
disturbed."

Those who were present at the meeting and heard my paper
read, or who have since seen it in the September number of the

Philosophical Magazine, will no doubt feel surprised that the fol-
lowing paragraph should have escaped Dr. Carpenter's notice : —
" It will not do as an objection to assert that according to the
gravitation theory the ocean never attains to a condition of static
equilibrium. This is perfectly true, as I have shown on a former
occasion ;* but then it is the equator that is kept below and the
poles above the level of equilibrium; consequently the disturbance
of equilibrium between the equatorial and polar columns would
actually tend to make the difference of level between the equator
and the Atlantic greater than 3^ feet, and not less, as the objec-
tion would imply."

If Dr. Carpenter will refer to my examination of the mechanics
of the gravitation theory in the Philosophical Magazine for October
1871, "Climate and Time," chaps, ix., x., alluded to in the
above paragraph, he will find page after page devoted to prove
that a constant disturbance both of Icz'el and of static equilibrium
is a necessary condition to circulation by gravity. Physicists
may differ from me in regard to whether or not the present differ-
ence of temperature between the ocean in equatorial and polar
regions is sufficient to produce circulation, but I do not expect
that anyone familiar with mechanics, xoho has been at the trouble
to read what I have zuritten on the subject, will do so materially
in regard to the way in which difference of temperature is con-
ceived to produce motion.

It is singular that Dr. Carpenter should not have observed
that his objection strengthens my argument instead of weakening
it. For if it be true that the equatorial column, though in a
state of constant upward motion, never attains to the height
required to balance the polar column, then it must follow as a
necessary consequence that the rise from the equator to latitude
38° in North Atlantic must be greater than I have estimated it
to be ; and, therefore, so much the more impossible is it that
there can be any surface flow from the equator to the pole due
to gravity.

The next objection is as follows : — " The only objection raised
by Mr. CroU which has even a show of validity is based on the
supposed ' viscosity ' of water, which he asserts to be sufficient
to prevent' the disturbance of thermal equilibrium from exerting
the effect which the gravitation theory attributes to it."

What possible connection can "viscosity " have with the
crucial test argument ? Suppose water to be a perfect fluid and
absolutely frictionless : this would not in any way enable it io plow
tip-hill.

The crucial test argument brings the question at issue, in so
far as the North Atlantic is concerned, within very narrow limits.
The point at issue is now simply this : Does it follow, or does it
not, from the tempa-attire- soundings given in Dr. Carpenter' s
own scciiott, that the North Atlantic at lat. 38° is above the level
of the equator? If he or anyone else will prove that it does
not, I shall at once abandon the crucial test argument and
acknowledge my mistake ; but if they fail to do this, I submit
that they ought at least in all fairness to admit that in so far as
the North Atlantic is concerned, the gravitation theory is unte-
nable.

The Atlantic column is lengthened by heat no less than eight
feet above what it would otherwise be were the water of the
uniform temperature of 32° F., whereas the equatorial column is
lengthened only four feet six inches. The expansion of the
Atlantic column below the level of the bottom of the equatorial
not being, of course, taken into account. How then is it pos-
sible that the equatorial column can be above the level of the
Atlantic column ? And if not, let it be explained how a surface-
flow from the equator pole-wards, resulting from gravity, is to
be obtained. James Croll

Edinburgh, Sept. 29

Dehiscence of Collomia grandiflora

The following account of some observations of mine on the
dehiscence of Collo7?iia grandiflorarazy possibly prove interesting
to some of your botanical readers. I can find no allusion to the
singular mode in which the capsules as well as the seeds of this
plant become liberated. The fruit is a three-celled capsule, and
is almost wholly included within the tube of the cal>x. When
quite ripe it is of a pale straw colour, and becomes cartilaginous
and highly polished, as does also the internal surface of the calyx
tube. The latter is ribbed with fifteen prominent lines disposed
in threes, each set pertaining respectively to the five sepals, and
extending into their free portions. These ridges may possibly
help to give direction to the capsule during its exit. Dehiscence
■* Phil. Mag., Oct. 1871 ; "Climate and Time ; " chap. ix.

OcL 7, 1875]

NATURE

495

takes place loculicidally, and the three dark-brown seeds, one in
each cell, are exposed to view. It is at this stage that the phe-
nomenon in question may be observed. The pressure exerted by
the smooth sides of the somewhat obconical capsule against the
equally polished surface of the calyx-tube occasions the rupture
of the capsule from the base of the calyx, and its more or less
rapid expulsion into the air with its three seeds. The latter,
which are at this time free within the cells of the capsule,
are carried to greater distances on account of the smaller
amount of resistance they offer to the air by reason of their shape
and weight ; the action, in fact, being not altogether unlike that
of the discharge of a cartridge and its contents from a rifle. The
suddenness of the explosion depends very much on the state of
the atmosphere at the time. On a hot day I have observed
several instances of spontaneous discharges, whilst a slight
touch only was necessary for the explosion of the remaining
capsules whose dehiscence had already commenced. Many of
the seeds were observed adhering to the upper leaves and calyx-
segments, which are thickly covered with glandular hairs of a
remarkably viscid nature. Contact with these moist bodies very
soon induces the outgrowth of those curious and beautiful spiral
hairs for which the seeds of this and a i^'^ other plants are
remarkable, and thus they become doubly secured by adhesion.
I have noticed in some cases when seeds adhere to the flat surface
of a viscid leaf, that this outgrowth assumes a definite outline
extending all round the seed in the form of a flat membranous
expansion, and these, on removal, recall forcibly the appearance
of ordinary winged seeds, like those of Lepigonitin marginatum,
for instance. Can this attachment be of any use to the seeds or
to the plant itself by feeding on the nitrogenous products of their
decomposition ? Although I have observed a few of these
attached seeds undergoing partial decay, yet, from the nature of
their hard horny perisperm, it is not reasonable to suppose that
it can take place to any great extent, unless the viscid secretion
from the glands is able to render this substance sufficiently
soluble for the purpose. If, however, a certain proportion do
become sacrificed for the good of the plant, we can understand
the object not only of the delicate spiral hairs for ensuring firm
attachment, but also that of the explosive process, by means of
which a certain number of seeds are conveyed beyond the reach
of the viscid surfaces, and falling to the ground, are available for
the reproduction of the plant. Saxifraga tridactylites might be
mentioned as another instance of a viscid plant with the habit
of retaining the seeds on its glandular parts ; the much larger
quantity, however, produced by this latter plant in proportion to
what can be required for reproductive purposes would seem to
do away with the necessity for any sudden mode of expulsion.
Like most plants with sticky glandular hairs, the viscid parts of
this Collomia may be seen covered with small insects in various
stages of decomposition.

It might be asked, " What advantage can it be for an
annual plant to feed on its own seeds, the production of
which is the completion and, in a certain sense, the object
of its existence?" I would suggest, though with diffidence,
the possibility of certain annuals being raised by such means
to a higher state of existence as biennials or perennials, in
which condition they might or might not require the continued
assistance of glandular hairs or other such contrivances. This
might explain the occurrence of hairs on certain parts of plants
either constantly present or at particular times of their life;
such, for instance, as those on the first leaves of the turnip plant,
and many other examples could be given, in the-case of which we
might suppose that the possession of such hairs, or whatever
they may represent, have ceased to be required.

There does seem to be some sort of general relation as to the
degree of hairiness between annuals, biennials, and perennials,
and which often becomes apparent during the development
of many plants which in their adult condition are destitute of
hairs. On this hypothesis it seems to me conceivable that many
of our large glabrous-leaved trees may have originated from
hairy or glandular annuals, dependent, perhaps, more or less
on aerial nitrogenous food. In any case it is interesting to inves-
tigate the true purpose — for such there must be — of the elaborate
machinery of traps and spring-guns as displayed in the life of this
Collomia. J. F. DuTHiE

Koyal Agricultural College, Cirencester

P.S. Since the above was written I have observed the effect of
placing a few of the 'empty expanded capsules in water. In a
short time (about half an hour) their valves became completely
contiguous, and they presented the same appearance as they did

shortly before dehiscence, with the exception of a transj^arency
due to their containing water instead of seeds. This sensitive-
ness to the action of moisture is clearly a provision for preventing
the filamentous outgrowth^from the surface jof the seeds whilst in
the capsule J. F, D.

Lunar Phenomena

I HAVE pleasure in forwarding a brief account of facts relating
to two very remarkable protuberances which were observed on
the moon's disc in the Gulf of Siam, by Mr. E. C. Davidson,
Telegraphic Engineer, and myself.

H.S.M.'s guard-ship Coronation (Champon Bay), July 13
(civil time), in lat. 10° 27' 40" N. and long. 99° 15' E., at mid-
night, the moon bore S.W. by W. magnetic, and its altitude
was about 20", when a prominent projection was seen with the
naked eye on the moon's upper limb. The best glasses on board
were soon brought to bear upon it, and the enclosed sketches *
(with due regard ^to proportion) were carefully made on the
spot.

The protuberance, in colour, was similar to that of the moon.

On July 14, at 8 p.m., the moon was observed perfectly clear,
but without a vestige left of the protuberance of the previous
night. At this hour, however, a small one was noticed in a
different position of the limb.

This also had disappeared before the moon rose on the
evening of the 15th inst., when it finally presented its usual un-
broken appearance. A. J. Loftus

Champon Bay, Gulf of Siam, July 16

The Strength of the Lion and the Tiger

In Nature, vol. xii., p. 474, in a review of Dr. Fayrer's
book on the tiger, doubts are thrown by the reviewer on the
statement that the tiger is stronger than the lion. Dr. Fayrer's
statement cannot be contradicted by any person well acquainted
with both animals. In my book on " Animal Mechanics," pub-
lished in 1873, I have proved, p. 392, that the strength of the
lion in the fore limbs is only 69 '9 per cent, of that of the tiger,
and that the strength of his hind limbs is only 65'9 per cent, of
that of the tiger.

I may add that five men can easily hold down a lion, while it
requires nine men to control a tiger. Martial also states that
the tigers always killed the lions in the amphitheatre. The
lion i?, in truth, a pretentious humbug, and owes his repu-
tation to his imposing mane, and he will run away like a
whipped cur, under circumstances in which the tiger will boldly
attack and kill.

At p. 482 you state that Dr. Bolau, of Hamburg, is about to
publish an account of the anatomy of a gorilla which nearly
reached Hamburg alive, aitd was preserved in spirits. Your
readers will be glad to learn that he has been anticipated by
Prof. Macalister, of Trinity College, Dublin, who has already
published a full account of a similar animal, which nearly
reached Liverpool alive some years ago, and was dissected by
myself and Dr. Macalister. A comparison of his muscles with
those of man, chimpanzee, and hamadryas, will be found in
my " Animal Mechanics," p. 404 et seq.

Samuel Haugiiton

Trinity College, Dublin, Oct. i

A Snake in Ireland

The enclosed letter to the editor of the Irish Daily Express
may excite speculation as to how the snake got where it was
found. The fact is worthy of record, at any rate, that a snake
has been caught in Ireland. What would St. Patrick say ?

"Sir,— My gardener this morning killed a large snake in the
garden here, measuring five feet long by three inches in circum-
ference. It has a black back, with light yellow belly ; I do not
know what species it belongs to, but have preserved it in spirits.
Is it not very rare to find such in Ireland ? — Your obedient
servant, "Francis Wm. Greene.

" Kilranalagh, Baltinglass, Co. W'icklow, Sept. Ii."^

I have not seen it, but my correspondent Lady M. has it in
her possession, and remarks that its head is very small and its
nose pointed ; it is quite five feet long, black, and the colour of

• The sketches are not dear enough to be reproduced.

496

NATURE

\OcL 7, 1875

ashes underneath. It appears by a letter from Mr. Greene,
" that a gentleman brought two Indian snakes to Ballinrodan,
both of which escaped six or seven years ago ; one ot them was
found half eaten by a pig shortly afterwards, and this mi^ht be
the other, though how it lived through the winters I do not know. "

It would be interesting to ascertain whence the snake came
and how it found its way to the proscribed island.

London, Sept. 28 J. Fayrer

Origin of the Numerals

In the novel " David Elginbrod," by George Macdonald,
p. 45, is a suggestion of the origin of the forms of the numerals
in daily use, very similar to that indicated by Mr. Donnisthorpe
in last week's Nature, p. 476. The disposition of the lines in
some of the figures is very ingenious. G. W. Webster

Chester, Oct. 4

If your correspondent will refer to Leslie's " Philosophy of
Arithmetic," p. 103 et seq., he will find that very much is known
respecting the origin of the numerals. By referring to p. 107,
same work, he will find that the numerals he gave are wonder-
fully like the Sanskrit.

Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Oct. 4 Wm. Lyall

Scalping

Mr. Charles C. Abbott, in Nature, vol. xii. p. 369,
wishes to learn what other men, if any, besides the North
American Indians, have the practice of scalping among
them. The question is answered in Southall's " Recent
Origin of Man," chap. ii. p. 40. "In this connection we
may mention that the custom of scalping is not peculiar to
the American Indians. Herodotus mentions that it was one of
the most characteristic practices of the ancient Scythians. But
tins is not all •. it is stated that the practice prevails at this day
among the wild tribes of the frontier in the north-eastern district
of Bengal. The Friend of India, commenting on this state-
ment, adds : ' The Naga tribes use the scalping-knife with a
ferocity that is only equalled by the American Indians, and the
scalps are carefully preserved as evidences of their prowess and
vengeance over their enemies. On the death of a chief, all the
scalps taken by him during his warlike career are burned with
his remains.' " G. Peyton

University of Virginia, U.S.A., Sept. 22

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN

The Double Star 2 2120.-— As mentioned last week,
M. Flammarion advocates the binary character of this
star, identifying it, as Sir John Herschcl had already
done, with H. ill. 89. Sir W. Herschel's observation
runs thus : —

" III. 89. Ad 63-''n> Herculis. In linea per 0 et e ducta.

1 782 Nov. 26. Double. About 4 degrees from S towards 6
Herculis, near the 63rd. Very unequal. L. r. ; S. r. Dis-
tance 11" 53". Position 47° 48' n. following."

There is a contradiction here ; a position *' 4 degrees
from fi towards e Herculis," which pretty well agrees with
that of 2 2120, would not be near 63 Herculis, which is
little more than 1° s.p. S.

The formula given in Nature, vol. xii. p. 147, assigns
for the position of the small star at Sir W. Herschel's
date —

Angle ... 36° 39' ... Distance io"72

The observation has ,, ... 42 12 ... ,, II "iS

It is by the difference between these positions, which
however it may be remarked is not larger than we occa-
sionally meet with on comparing Sir W. Herschel's
measures with recent ones, in cases of stars which there
is reason to suppose merely optically double, that the
binary nature of the object is considered to be proved by
M. Flammarion, as it had been by Sir John Herschel in

the paper upon his father's measures, which appears in
vol. 35 of the " Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical So-
ciety." Until that single observation is supported by
curvature in the path of the small star subsequent to its
nearest approach to the primary, which if this be really a
binary system must probably become sensible within a
few years from the present time, the suspicion of recti-
linear motion of the small star as the cause of the change
of position, representing as it fairly does the measures
between 1829 and 1873, is not one perhaps that can be
legitimately abandoned. The apparent fixity or nearly
so of the principal component to which reference was
made in our former remarks, is supported by Dr. Engel-
mann's comparison of the place deduced from meridian
observations at Leipsic in 1867, with Struve's position in
" Positiones Mediae," for which the mean date is 1 836*1 ;
for secular proper motion he found Aa=+os"i92,
A S = -}- 2" '40— very insignificant quantities, and show-
ing that if proper motion, as we have surmised, enters
into the question, it is mainly the smaller star that is
affected by it. M. Flammarion, relying as stated upon
Sir W. Herschel's measure of 1782, concludes : " C'est
done un systeme orbital tres-inchnc,et c'est peut-etre celui
dont I'aspect ressemble le plus aux systcmes de perspec-
tive." We leave it for the measures that may be made
during the next few years to decide between these
opinions.

The Nebula in the Pleiades.— In No. 5 of- Pub-
licazioni del Reale Osservatorio di Brera in Milano,"
Herr Tempel has laid down the stars in the Pleiades,
from the " Durchmusterung," and traced the outline of
the nebula near Merope as it appeared to him with a
magnifying power of twenty-four on a telescope of four
inches aperture. The outline is shown to be elliptical,
one extremity of the longer axis, the northern one, at
Merope, and the inclination of this axis to the circle of
declination about 18'', so that as referred to Merope, the
angle of position of the longer axis is 198° ; the greatest
and least diameters of the ellipse are roughly 35' and 20'.

M. Wolf, of the Observatory of Paris, observing with
the telescope of o™-3r aperture in March 1874, perceived
two nuclei, one almost concentric with Merope, the other
and brighter of the two at a distance of about seven
seconds, on the same parallel, following. From the month
of November 1874 to the end of February 1875 the
nebula could not be seen notwithstanding the very
favourable atmospheric conditions, and at the same time
M. Stdphan was unable to detect it with the telescope of
o'"'8o. M. Wolf concludes that the nebula is certainly
variable, and that its period is pretty short.

Herr Tempel remarks that generally the nebula has
been much more readily seen with small telescopes than
with large ones, and doubt has been expressed as to any
real variabiHty of light ; yet it is not easy to understand,
except upon this supposition, why the nebula should be
visible at certain times in a particular telescope and in-
visible at others, the circumstances of sky appearing to be
about the same in all cases.

This nebula was first remarked by Herr Tempel, at
Venice, on the 23rd of October, 1859.

The Satellites of Uranus and Neptune.— An
elaborate and highly interesting investigation of the
elements of these sateUites from observations with the
26-inch equatorial of the United States Naval Observa-
tory, Washington, and of the masses of the primaries
thereby indicated, has been received from Prof. New-
comb during the past week ; it forms an appendix to the
Washington Observations for 1873. The most probable
value of the mass of Uranus derived from these observa-
tions is Tj^Jooj w^th a probable error of 100 in the deno-
minator "of the fraction. For Neptune the value of the
mass by satellite-observations is yiy^fro '■> the mass deduced
by Prof. Newcomb from the perturbations of Uranus

Oct. 7, 1875]

NATURE

497

i.aving been jg^ro '• ^^ value resulting from the satellite-
obsenations is preferred. A further account of this im-
portant memoir by the eminent American astronomer is
reserved for next week.

The Minor Planets. — M. Leverrier's Bulletin Inter-
national of Sept. 30 mentions the observation of a small
planet, on Sept. 21st, by M. Perrotin at Toulouse, 13th
mag., which may possibly be new, though at present there
is a chance of its identity with No. ']'], which is in the
same quarter of the sky and has not been observed since
1868, or with No. 137, of which no elements have yet
appeared. Its place at 8 P.M. was in R.A. 23h. i6m. 8s.,
and N.P.D. 95° 12'.

The Total Solar Eclipse of 1878, July 29. — The
American Ephemeris for 1878 is published. The elements
of the total eclipse of the sun on July 29, derived from
the Lunar Tables of Prof. Peirce, which are adopted for
the calculations in that work, are almost identical with
those of the Nautical Almanac, founded upon the Tables
of Hansen, Denver. Colorado appears to be one of the
principal places within the limits of the shadow, though
some distance from the central line. The sun will be
centrally eclipsed on the meridian, according to the
American Ephemeris, in long. 139° 8' W., lat. 60° 32' N. ;
and according to the Nautical Almanac, in long. 139° 10'
W., lat. 60° 27' N.

MAYER'S METHOD OF OBTAINING THE

ISOTHERMALS OF THE SOLAR DISC
n^HE short notice which I published of my " Discovery

-»- of a method of obtaining thermographs of the iso-
thermal lines of the solar disc " was so concisely written
that the precautions which are necessary in this new
method of research were omitted ; but as the republication
of my paper in NATURE (vol. xii. p. 301) and in other Euro-
pean journals may induce those engaged in astronomical
physics to try the process, I think it proper that I should
call attention to some very important experimental condi-
tions to be fulfilled before accurate results can be reached.

1. Special precautions must be taken to prevent
currents of air from acting on the film of double iodide.

2. If the image of the sun be formed on the blackened
side of the paper, it is absolutely necessary that uniformity
should be given to this coating of lamp-black. So diffi-

cult is this to achieve that I have generally formed the
sun's image directly on the film of iodide. Slight irregu-
larities in this film do not appear to affect the fomi of the
isothermals ; but the latter follow irregularities in the
smoked surface.

3. The most important, and indeed absolutely essential,
condition in these experiments is that the image of the
sun shall be formed on a truly horizontal surface j for the
centre of gravity of any isothermal formed on an inclined
surface is always above the centre of the sun's image and

in a vertical plane passing through this centre. Hence all
isothermals thus formed are very excentric when referred
to the sun's centre. They are also elliptical. The
accompanying figure gives isothermals obtained on an
inclined surface. iV .S" is the solar axis. On obtaining
these same isothermals on a horizontal surface they were,
as near as could be seen, circular and concentric with the
sun's image.

Of the influence of an inclined surface in displacing the
isothermals there can be no doubt, and the same action
has effected all of the results which have been obtained
in the employment of thermopiles in connection with the
sun's image received on screens attached to equatorial
telescopes. This displacement would mislead an observer,
and would cause him to be of the opinion that there existed
a decided difference of temperature between the north and
south solar poles, and between the portions of the peri-
phery of the sun's image near the poles and near the
solar equator. Do not these facts reached by me explain
the difference in the results obtained by Secchi and
Langley ?

The above effects of inclined surfaces appear to be caused
by a film of hot air which flows up over these surfaces, and
especially on the lower surface of the screen. If the sun's
image is received on a film of iodide enclosed between
plates of glass or of mica, the excentricity of the iso-
thermals is hardly apparent at first ; but after some time
it appears, produced by the action of the ascending film
on the surface of the glass.

The proper method of research is to use a simple
Fahrenheit's heliostat with a good plane mirror, and to
throw the solar rays in the direction of the polar axis of
the instrument. These rays traverse lenses of from 12 to
30 feet focus, and just before they have converged to form
the solar image they are reflected perpendicularly, by
another plane mirror, on to the horizontal surface of the
iodide. Alfred M. Mayer

FA YE ON THE LAWS OF STORMS*

Examination of the Theory of Aspiration. — After a
somewhat detailed account of opinions held regarding
waterspouts in the prehistoric and Roman epochs, and
from the sixteenth century downwards, all agreeing in this,
that the water of the sea is sucked up to the clouds by these
meteors (Fig. 6), M. Faye inquires. How then could it be
doubted that waterspouts, and consequently tornadoes,
typhoons, &c. are simply phenomena of aspiration .?f Such
has been in reality, since the time of Franklin, the point
of departure for meteorologists ; and hence the prevailing
notions regarding hurricanes, that they are centripetal and
formed by horizontal currents of air flowing from all
quarters towards the centre of aspiration.

Clearly in this case the concUisions have not been
drawn with the caution which science demands. To
accept, with the eyes shut, the most astounding assertions
without examination or verification ; to believe, for ex-
ample, that a waterspout could suck up the water of the
sea to a height of 2,000 feet when the most powerful
pump could not raise it to the height of forty feet ; to
admit that insubstantial vapours could form a tube whose
sides are capable of resisting the whirling masses of
water supposed to ascend through it ; to assert that
deluges of sea- water are engulphed in the clouds where
the clouds cannot retain simple drops of rain, is not
in accord with the usage of science, and indeed can only
be explained by the dominating power of an old prcju-

* Continued from p. 459.

t It not being considered as disputed that a tornado is nothing but a large
waterspout, a typhoon only a large tornado, and that there is no essential
difierence between a cyclone and a typhoon, M. Faye proceeds to test the
theory of centripetal aspiration as regards waterspouts and tornadoes, and
conceives that the conclusions thus arrived at will have equal weight when
applied to the theory of cyclones.

NATURE

yoct. 7, 1875

dice, which is constantly receiving new life and vigour by
the persistent testimony of observers already prepossessed
in its favour. There is another reason equally good which
accounts for this mode of explaining phenomena. Of all
physical inquiries, the most difficult are those which
belong to the order of mechanics, which as little admit
of sentiment in dealing with them as pure mathematics.
In those fields of inquiry where pure mechanics can no
longer guide us, the crudest hypotheses take root and
grow : witness the wild dreams of the astronomers of the
seventeenth century. Now the department of mechanics
to which falls the exposition of the gyratory movements
of liquids and gases, and on which depend exactly the
atmospheric phenomena we speak of, does not yet exist,
except as a first and most imperfect draft.

Taken thus at unawares, as it were, and compelled to rely on
evidence altogether illusory and suggesting unhesitatingly
the idea of aspiration on avast scale, modem meteorology
strives at least to free itself from conflicting impossibilities.
Thus, instead of making the waterspout suck up water in
its ordinary form, it is assumed that this water is first
blown into spray by the conflict of the winds at the base
of the waterspout, and then whirled aloft in this form. A

curious experiment was even made in. 1852 at Washing-
ton, for the purpose of showing that this is the case. The
following account of it is taken from the " Fourth Me-
teorological Report to the Senate of the United States,"
by Prof. Espy : —

* The effect produced by the ascent of a column of air
in a narrow space may be thus shown : — If we produce a
simple rarefaction of two or three inches of mercury in
the upper part of a vertical tube a few feet in length and
five inches in diameter, by putting it in connection with
the central opening of a machine in full blast, the air will
rush into the tube by the lower orifice with a speed pro-
portional to the square root of the diminution of pressure,
or about 240 feet per second for an inch of mercury.
Then, if a basin filled with water is placed under the
opening of the tube and the surface of the water be
brought to about 7.\ inches from the end of the tube, the
water in the basin will be quickly sucked up and ascend
the tube, and produce in miniature what takes place in a
waterspout. If the tube is glass and of the same dimen-
sions, the water will be seen rising in spray in the form of
an inverted cone. This experiment was made in a foundry
at Washington in the spring of 1852, in the presence of

Prof. Henry and several distinguished members of Con-
gress."

It is singular that none of those present at this experi-
ment remarked the difference there is between a tube of
metal or of glass and an almost ideal tube whose bound-
ing surface is only thin insubstantial vapour. The expe-
riment is, however, a proof of the resoluteness with which,
in this age even, a belief in the powerful upward suction of
waterspouts is entertained.

In order that an ascending current may take place in
the atmosphere for some seconds, it is essential that a
mass of a lower stratum of air be heated a little more
than the air surrounding it. It thus becomes lighter than
the layers above it, and consequently rises. In ascend-
ing, however, it expands and cools, and soon all further
ascent is arrested at a height where the pressure and tem-
perature equal the pressure and temperature of the
ascending mass. It is, moreover, replaced from below by
air of a lower temperature from all sides. Up to this
point there is little, if any, resemblance to a waterspout ;
there is, however, already the beginning of a movement
of ascension, and by means of some new additional hypo-
theses the phenomenon is completed by giving to it the
essential characteristics of a real waterspout.

^^' -' S...

Moist air ascends, it is affirmed, more quickly and to a
greater height than dry air. Prof. Espy maintains even
that it will rise till the limits of the atmosphere be reached
in this way : — Moist air in ascending expands and
becomes colder ; a portion of its aqueous vapour is con-
densed into mist, and the heat set free in the act of
condensation maintains the mass of ascending air con-
stantly at a higher temperature than the stratum of air
through which it is ascending. Some physicists consider
that these views, thus pushed to exaggeration, are erro-
neous, but the belief is pretty general, that " the heat due
to the condensation " of aqueous vapour is sufficient to
raise an ascending column of moist air to a much greater
height than an equal column of dry air. Be that as it
may, the result would be that when the layers of air rest-
ing on the ground are heated by the noonday sun and by
radiation, and above all by contact with the ground itself,
the equilibrium of the air is disturbed ; we should see con-
stantly appearing everywhere a stratum of mist obscuring
the rays of the sun. It is useless to point out that this
does not represent what takes place. We accept it, how-
ever, and proceed.

If we advert to the phenomena of mirage, we find there
combined, according to the writers whose theory we are
expounding, all the conditions which favour the produc-
tion of a permanent local indraught of air, and conse-
quently the essential conditions of the waterspout. When
the air is perfectly calm and the soil highly heated, the
lowest strata of the air are highly heated and thus become
specifically lighter than the strata resting over them. But

Oct 7, 1875J

NATURE

499

as this excess of temperature is felt at the same time over
a wide area, the lower stratum of air rises bodily, so to
speak, over the whole region. Now there is no reason
why the air should begin to ascend at one place rather
than another in the region where the air is perfectly
calm ; there will be then between the lowest aerial
stratum and the one immediately above it a sort of equi-
librium, but an equilibrium so essentially unstable that
the slightest accident, such as the striking of a light or
the flight of a bird, instantly destroys it. As soon as the
charm is broken at some point the lower air will there
ascend, and as it is charged with moisture it will continue
to rise in an ascending column to the higher regions of
the atmosphere. In rising, this air will leave a vacuum
below it, towards which will rush the air of a lower
stratum. This will in turn follow the first in its ascent,
and it is seen that gradually the air of this highly heated
lower stratum will flow from all sides with an accelerating
speed towards the pathway opened by the first ascendtti<^
pufi of wind. As this propagation of the horizontal
movement extends wider and wider over the heated
stratum, the air which arrives at the place where ascend-
ing currents have set in will be of the temperature required
to keep up the indraught. Further, the vis viva of the
air currents about the narrow space where the equilibrium
was first disturbed will acquire a force capable of pro-
ducing, a short distance from the point towards which
they all converge, very considerable mechanical effects.
Then, if the whirlwind advances on the sea, its surface,
lashed on all hands by the converging winds, is thrown
into a state of ebullition ; the spray is drawn up in an
ascending column and whirled aloft, however slight may
be the spiral form assumed by the horizontal converging
currents. The air which rises so violently in the water-
spout will be thrust higher and higher, as we have just
seen, by the force constantly called into play by the con-
densation of the vapour into cloud and rain ; at length it
reaches the high regions of the atmosphere, where it
expands and swells into a dense cloud of enormous
dimensions. This, then, is the theory of aspiration.

Before a physicist reasons in this way he ought to be
well assured beforehand that the facts are as he supposes ;
in other words, that waterspouts suck up by a vast upright
tube the air and the water of the lower strata. Otherwise
he would not fail to remark that if the equilibrium, emi-
nently unstable, which he assumes to be established,
comes to be destroyed at any point, it would be quickly
destroyed over the whole extent of the lower stratum, the
different parts of which would then rise freely, each in its
place successively, over the small space required for the
re-establishment of the equilibrium of the atmosphere. If,
in support of any other theory, a similar mechanical com-
bination were proposed to him, he would reject it without
hesitation, and say — in order that such phenomena can
take place, in order that the lower air should flow horizon-
tally towards a particular orifice and then rise vertically
through this orifice, it would require to be forced
to do so by some sort of indefinite but solid boarding
placed over the lower stratum of air and pressing
on it with all the weight of the atmosphere. If a
hole be made in the boarding, the air will pass through
it; but even in this case, its ascensional force deter-
mined by the slight difference in density between the
layers on each side of the boarding will not be great,
and the column of air issuing through the orifice will
rise to no great height. In no conceivable case can it
ever exhibit the terrible and destructive force of water-
spouts and whirlwinds, or indeed any distant approach
to it, under even the most favourable conditions. Lastly,
let it be granted that the facts really are as they are sup-
posed to be, and that the lower stratum of air is on every
side in a state of motion towards an orifice of a limited
size, where there is no material object to divert it from a
horizontal to a vertical course, as in Fig. 7 ; it is plain that

aerial currents could not change their course so abruptly
in order to stream through this imaginary orifice ; they
would instantly enlarge and soon altogether efface from
the sky the narrow tube of this meteor to which the

advocate of aspiration clings because it is the sine qua
nan of his cherished hypothesis.

But we shall pass over all these impossibilities which
prejudice so readily forgets, and consider the conse-
quences which result from this theory— not those which
might be drawn to show its utter worthlessness, but those
which its own partisans have deduced. It is so easy,
from what has been said, to produce a waterspout at will,
and everything connected with it — large dense clouds
aloft with thunder and torrents of rain — that the idea could
not but strike some one. Accordingly, it occurred to
several persons in America, where the theory of aspira-
tion has been received as favourably as in France, and
the artificial production of a waterspout and a thunder-
storm in the United States is gravely related in a letter
from Mr. G. Mackay, which letter is published in the
" Fourth Meteorological Report to the Senate " (Wash-
ington, 1857.) It would be a waste of time to make any
further reference to an illusion which puts into man's
hands the power of originating waterspouts, tornadoes,
and typhoons, simply because it makes the phenomena
depend on a state of unstable equilibrium in those layers
of the atmosphere which immediately surround us.

Refutation of this Theory. — Let aspiration be established
by natural or artificial means at one point in the midst of
an absolute calm prevailing in the lower stratum of the
atmosphere : there is no reason in such a case why the

Fig. 9,

centre of aspiration should be displaced, because all is
symmetrical and tranquil round this point. Hence it
follows : — (i) Waterspouts, tornadoes, typhoons, and
cyclones should be stationary. At most the column of

500

NATURE

\OcL 7, 1875

ascending air, when it has reached the elevated regions
of the clouds, could not be diverted above by upper cur-
rents so as to assume the form represented in Fig. 8 ; for
these upper currents could no more displace the focus of
aspiration than they could move a locomotive by deflect-
ing the column of smoke which issues from it. (2) The
mechanical effects will be very limited, because the aspir-
ing force being measured by a few millimetres of mercury,
were the end of the suction-tube to be plunged into a
river or the sea, the water would be raised there a few
centimetres. Moreover, at the instant when the extre-
mity of the tube reaches the ground or the water, the air
ceases to flow into it and fails any longer to keep the
ascending column together, and thus all mechanical
action ought to disappear at this moment. Further, it is
evident that if the phenomenon has its origin in a per-
fectly calm stratum of air Avhere not a breath of air is
felt, the element of mechanical work, that is to say the
force or the motion, fails altogether, or becomes reduced
to a feeble ascensional tendency in any stratum of air
that may have acquired over the place an abnormal
excess of a few degrees of temperature.

Compare now with the facts, these two conclusions drawn
from the theory. It would be difficult to find a disagree-
ment more complete. Everyone is aware of the ravages
produced by hurricanes, typhoons, tornadoes, and even
simple waterspouts and whirlwinds— ravages which imply
an enormous development of mechanical force. Then,
everyone knows that the peculiarity of all cyclones is to
possess a movement of translation, often very rapid, which
the theory of centripetal aspiration denies to them. Of
all waterspouts hitherto observed, only one instance of a
stationary one has been recorded ; and even the sta-
tionary character in this exceptional case may have been
not real but only apparent. As regards tornadoes, all
those that traversed the United States since 181 1 were
propagated onwards with a speed varying from four or
five to twenty metres a second. The well-known water-
spout of Monville, in France, swept over a league in less
than four minutes, or at a rate of about twenty metres
per second. At such rates typhoons and cyclones, without
exception, also advance ; their movement of translation is
usually increased as they proceed into higher latitudes,
and varies from three to eighteen nautical miles an hour,
or from two to ten metres per second.

It has been said by the advocates of the theory of aspi-
ration as applied to hurricanes, that if the converging
currents are stronger on one side than on the other, the
centre of aspiration, that is the base of the waterspout,
will be displaced in the direction indicated by the stronger
currents, as shown in Fig. 9. But why this difference of
speed, especially over the sea, where there are no ine-
qualities of surface over which the different winds blow ?
The velocity with which air free to move rushes into a
suction-tube is determined by the amount of the suction
force ; if the movement be impeded on one side of the
orifice, the air will enter by the other with a determined
velocity, [but not with a velocity tripled or quadrupled.
Moreover, in order that an excess of velocity of twenty
metres per second on one side of the centripetally flowing
currents could communicate a like velocity to the onward
march of the waterspout, it would be necessary that a
wind of the force of a terrible tempest blew in that direc-
tion exceeding by a velocity of twenty metres per second
the contrary wind. This is scarcely compatible with the
absolute calm which ordinarily prevails round water-
spouts, tornadoes, and even typhoons.

Fig. 10 represents the appearance of a waterspout
whose base is represented as driven forward by a sup-
posed excess of velocity of the inflowing horizontal cur-
rents, whilst the top of the ascending column is retarded
by the resistance of the air. Now the real figure is that
represented in Fig. 1 1, and it agrees neither with Fig. 9
nor with Fig. 10.

It will be seen on reflection that under all these
attempts at explanation there lies a settled conviction
which Pliny has aptly expressed in these words : " Quum
spissatus humor rigens ipse se sustinet," — the idea, in fact,
which was naively reproduced in the experiment at the
foundry at Washington, in which it was tacitly assumed
that the column of a waterspout or tornado is composed
of some rigid material, and that it may be displaced
bodily by a force acting on its lower part. In truth, the
force which could so act is not to be lound. The expla-
nation suggested by Prof. Mohn, that the movement of
translation of storms is determined by a difference in the
average pressure in the front as compared with the rear
of the storm, caused by the condensation of vapour
which takes place in front, is insufficient, because we see
waterspouts and tornadoes marching onwards, from which
not a single drop of rain falls.

No navigator has ever shown that there is in a cyclone
the least indication of a decided movement of ascension
to which the essential cause of the phenomenon is attri-
buted. Everyone speaks about ascending currents, but
no one has seen them, or seems even to have had the
idea of verifying their existence in the case of their
assumed hurricanes of aspiration. The whole thing is
taken for granted, and preconceived notions, whose origin

we have traced, have complete control over tneir thoughts.
As regards waterspouts, no manner of doubt is enter-
tained, for the water is seen whirled up their columns sky-
wards. If this were really the case, waterspouts and
tornadoes might draw up even to the sky the thousands of
trees which they uproot, and a little afterwards furnish
the spectacle of a whole forest tumbling from the clouds,
it being evident that thousands of trees may be trans-
ported as easily to the clouds as thousands of tons of sea-
water. Eye-witnesses are not wanting to prove that
branches of trees have ascended beyond the clouds, they
having been seen lying at some distance on the ground,
covered with hoar-frost in the middle of summer.

What remains then of the theory of hurricanes which
is based on centripetal aspiration .? It starts from a pre-
judice, sacrifices at the outset the simplest notions of
mechanics, and does not take the trouble to represent a
single characteristic trait of the phenomenon. Is it then
on this theory we are to rely for the rectification and
completion of the laws of storms 1 Shall we borrow from
it, in order to correct the diagrams oi Reid and Pid-
dington which are perhaps in some cases too absolutely
circular, the hypothesis of centripetal currents suggested
by it. Especially shall we sacrifice to it the practical
rules of navigation followed during the past thirty years ?
Unhappily there is some cause for fear, for sailors them-
selves have long since been prepared by the tales and
narrations of the forecastle, for these ideas of aspiration
affirmed regarding tornadoes, typhoons, and cyclones. If
then they are told that in a particular case one of the

OcL 7, 1 875 J

NATURE

50 1

laws of storms has suffered an exception, that the wind
has on one occasion not blown perpendicularly to the
direction of the centre, they will be tempted to cast aside
the rules which have hitherto 'guided them. This would
only be to sacrifice reahty to an empty illusion, and
science to error.

It is for this reason that we have insisted at some
length on a prejudice which might result in consequences
so deplorable. But half of our task is still before us.
We have yet to point out the true theory of these pheno-
mena, and to show how the sailing rules hitherto adopted
are justified by it. In this way will these rules, thus
cleared from empiricism, be invested with the authority
which they at present stand in need of.

{To be continued.)

NOTES

The following are some of the principal works in the various
departments of science and in travel which are announced for
publication during the present season. Messrs. Longman and
Co. have the following in preparation : — " The Moon and
the Condition and Configurations of its Surface," by .Edmund
Neison, F.R.A.S., illustrated with maps and plates. "An
Epitome of the Geology of England and Wales, " by Horace B.
Woodward, F.G.S., Geologist on the Geological Survey of
England and Wales ; and a new volume of the "Text-Books of
Science," "Telegraphy," by W. H. Preece, C.E,, and J. Sive-
wright, M.A. " Shooting and Climbing in the Tyrol," with an
account of the manners and customs of the Tyrolese, by W. A. B.
Grohmann, with numerous illustrations from sketches by the
author. " The Frosty Caucasus, an account of a walk through
part of the Range and of an ascent of Elburz in the summer of
1874, by F. C. Grove, with map, and illustrations engraved on
wood by E. Whymper, from photographs taken during the
journey. '* The Indian Alps and how we crossed them," being
a narrative of two years' residence in the Eastern Himalayas, and
two months' tour into the interior towards Kinchinjunga and
Mount Everest, by a Lady Pioneer. This work will contain a
large number of wood engravings and twelve full-page chromo-
lithographs. "A Journey of a Thousand Miles through Egypt
and Nubia to the Second Cataract of the Nile," being a per-
sonal narrative of four-and-a-half months' life in a Daha-
beeyah on the Nile ; with some account of the discovery and
excavation of a rock-cut chamber or Speos at Aboo-Simbel ;
descriptions of .the river, the ruins, and the desert, the people
met, the places visited, the ways and manners of the natives,
&c., by Amelia Edwards, author of " Untrodden Peaks and
Unfrequented Valleys," &c. The work will also contain ground
plans, facsimiles of inscriptions, a map of the Nile from
Alexandria to Dongola, and about seventy illustrations engraved
on wood from finished drawings executed on the spot by the
author. — Messrs. Sampson Low and Co. have nearly ready for pub-
lication Mr. John Forrest's " Explorations in Australia." The
work will include three difterent journeys, namely : (i) Expedi-
tion in search of Dr. Leichardt and his party ; (2) A journey
from Perth to Adelaide, around the Great Australian Bight j
(3) From Champion Bay, across the desert to the Telegraph and
to Adelaide. The book will contain illustrations from the author's
sketches. Messrs. Longman have also in the press the fol-
lowing :— A work by Dr. Arthur Leared, on " Morocco and the
Moors," being an account of travels, with a general description
of the country and its people, with illustrations. A new volume
on Assyria, by Mr. George Smith, entitled "Assyrian Disco-
veries," containing the Chaldean accounts of the Creation, the
temptation and fall of man, the Deluge, the Tower of Babel and
Confusion of Tongues, Nimrod, <S:c. This book will be profusely
illustrated. A translation of llcrr Edouard Mohr's " Nach den

Victoriafallen des Zambesi " (reviewed in Nature, vol xii.
p. 231), containing an account of the South African Diamond
Fields, &c. , is also'promised ; it will be accompanied bynumeious
full-page and other wocdcut illustrations, several chromolitho-
graphs, and a map. — Messrs. Daldy, Isbister, and Co. have in
the press a " Geology for Students and General Readers," em-
bodying the most recent theories and discoveries, by A. H,
Green, Professor of Geology and Mining in the Yorkshire Col-
lege of Science. It will be divided into two parts, the first con-
taining the elements of Physical Geology ; and the second, the
elements of Stratigraphical Geology. Each part will contain
upwards of 100 illustrations by the author. — Messrs. Macmillan
and Co. have in preparation for the ensuing season, "A Course of
Practical Instruction in Elementary Biology," by Prof. Huxley,
F.R.S., and H. N. Martin, B.A. "The Modem Telescope,"
by J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S. ; lectures delivered at the
Royal Institution, with additions by G. M. Seabroke,
F.R. A.S. This work will be copiously illustrated, and will be
uniform with the author's "Solar Physics." Also a work on
" Stethometry : Examination of the Chest by a new and more
exact method ; " with some of its results in physiology and
practical medicine, by A. Ransome, M.D. The tv/o following
books of travel will also be published in the autumn by Messrs.
Macmillan and Co. : — "The Two Expeditions to Western
Yunnan, commanded by Major Sladen and Col. Horace
Browne," by Dr. Anderson, Director of the Indian Museum,
Calcutta, and Professor of Comparative Anatomy in the Medical
College, Calcutta, with numerous maps and illustrations. "The
Zoology and Geology of Persia," by W. T. Blanford, with
narratives of travel by Majors Lovett, St. John, and Evan Smith,
and an introduction by Sir Frederick Goldsmid. This work will
contain coloured plates and maps, and will be issued in two octavo
volumes. — Among Messrs. Smith, Elder, and Co. 's announcements
of forthcoming baoks we notice the following which may be of
interest to our readers : — " Science Byways," by Richard A.
Procter ; and " Notes on the Climate of the Earth, Past and
Present," byCapt.'.R. A. Sergeaunt, Royal Engineers. This last
work will be illustrated with diagrams.

The Yorkshire College of Science at Leeds, which was infor-
mally opened a year ago, was formally " inaugurated " yesterday
by [the Duke of Devonshire and other eminent men. There was a
luncheon in the Great Northern Hotel, and a public meeting in
the evening, addressed by the Right Hon. Lyon Playfair and
others. The first session of this College, it is said, was as successful
as could be expected. We have already stated that we cannot
regard this institution on its present basis as satisfactory. Except
for students whose education up to a certain point has been com-
plete, the curriculum of a science faculty by itself, however com-
plete, may easily do more good than harm. What we want are
not separate science colleges, but first-rate secondary schools in
which science should find its proper place. When these secon-
dary schools exist, then the students who have passe.d through
them may benefit from a technical school in which no literature
is taught —but not till then.

The inaugural sitting of the International Geodesical Con-
gress took place on the 20th September at the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs, Paris, under the presidency of General Hanez,
the delegate for Spain. No delegate was present for Great_Britain
or for the United States j'the German Empire was represented by
General de Bayer, the Russian Empire by General de Broch, the
Austrian Empire by Dr. Oppolzer ; Italy, Belgium, Roumania,
Switzerland, and the several German States were also repre-
sented. M. Cliarles Jourdain, member of the French Institute,
and general secretary of the Minister of Public Instruction,
deli veered a speech in the name of M. Wallon, who is travelling
in the provinces. It was replied to by General Hanez and by Ge-

502

NATURE

yOcL 7, 1875

neral de Bayer. M. Faye spoke in the name of the French section,
which had invited a number of eminent men of science to take
part in the proceedings. A number of reports of the Permanent
Section having been read, the assembly adjourned to the follow-
ing day. On the following evening a number of the delegates
visited the Observatory of Paris. It is stated that the longitude
of Palermo and Lisbon will be determined electrically with the
instruments which have been used for determining the longi-
tudes of Vienna and Algiers.

A PAIR of Sea Lions are shortly expected at the Brighton
Aquarium, from the coast of California. They most probably
are specimens of Steller's Sea Lion ( Otaria stelleri), or of Gillies-
pie's Sea Lion {O. japonica), iuigmgirom the locality whence
they were obtained. It must be remembered that the name
Sea Lion corresponds with the genus scientifically known as
Otaria, and that there are several species, two of which —
0. jubata, and 0. pusilla, both from the Falkland Islands— are
represented in the collection of the Zoological Society in Regent's
Park. Further information with reference to these interesting
animals, from some species of which the so-called sealskin of
commerce is obtained, will be found in our abstracts of two
lectures delivered in the Zoological Gardens by Mr. J. W.
Clarke during_the early summer of this year (Nature, vol. xi.
p. 514, and vol. xii. p. 8).

The organisation of the French meteorological regions is pro-
gressing satisfactorily. The example was set by Montpellier for the
southern Mediterranean . region. The northern Mediterranean
region has now been centralised at Marseilles, and will very shortly
commence operations. A special Meteorological Congress will
be held in Poitiers for the western and south-western regions.
The date is not quite determined, but a day in the end of
October will probably be chosen."

A NEW Physical Observatory is to be erected at Pawlowsk, in
connection with the Imperial Russian Physical Observatory at
St. Petersburg.

Mr. W. B. Hemsley has been appointed librarian to the
Lindley Library, at the rooms of the Royal Horticultural Society,
South Kensington, in the place of Prof. Thiselton Dyer.

The Astronomical School established at Montsouris under
the authority of the French Bureau des Longitudes was
opened on Monday morning at eight o'clock by Capt. Mouchez,
the director, and Admiral Paris. The pupils are six in number,
all of them being lieutenants in the national navy. The
period of study is six months. Every two months two pupils
will leave and be replaced by two other naval lieutenants. A
number of sailors will be attached to the establishment. The
students will be taught the practice of celestial photography,
spectroscopy, meridian observations, &c.

We noticed the establishment of a School of Anthropology as
being in preparation in Paris some months ago. We are in a posi-
tion now to give the complete list of professors and the subjects for
the course of lectures : — Broca, anatomical anthropology ; Dally,
ethnological anthropology ; De Mortillet, prehistoric anthropo-
logy ; Plovelaeque, linguistic anthropology ; Topinard, general
anthropology ; Bertillon, statistical and geographical anthropo-
logy. MM. Broca, Dally, and Bertillon are connected with the
press, and leading members of the Paris Anthropological Society ;
M. de MortUlet is the Conservator of the Prehistoric Museum
at St. Germains,

A Meridian-room, intended for the observations of the
French Bureau des Longitudes, was opened last Saturday by
M. Dumesnil. The Bureau is now an independent establishment,
having an office for meetings of members and computers in a
pavilion belonging to the National Institute.

It is proposed to hold an Electrical Exhibition in Paris in
1877. It will be held in the Palais de I'lndustrie, the object
being to illustrate all the applications of electricity to the arts, to
industry, and to domestic purposes. This project, which was
initiated by Count Hallez d'Arros, has been received with
general favour both by the scientific and industrial worlds, and
the necessary funds have been already guaranteed. An orga-
nising committee is being formed, and the provisional offices of
the Exhibition have been established at 86, Rue de la Victoire.

There has been recently published in Russia a work by MM.
Mendeleef and Kirpetschoff, on the Compressibility of Gases.
The authors have been led to several results which ought to
attract the attention of physicists ; they tend, in fact, to prove
that Mariotte's Law does not hold good at low pressures, and that
some of the results of Regnault's experiments do not agree with
those obtained in other conditions.

The Swedish Arctic Exhibition arrived at Hammerfest on
Sept. 26, in perfect health and condition. They have brought
back a rich naturalist collection and several important hydro-
graphic reports. The mouth of the Jenisei river was reached on
the 15th of August, and Professors Nordenskjold, Sundstroem,
and Stuxberg took leave of the expedition four days afterwards.
They will return to Sweden vid Siberia.

The following pretty optical experiment is sent us by Prof,
F. E. Nipher. Observe a white cloud through a plate of red
glass with one eye, and through green glass with the other eye.
After some moments transfer both eyes to the red glass, opening
and closing each eye alternately. The strengthening of the red
colour in the eye, fatigued by its complementary green, is very
striking. The explanation of the phenomenon is of course well
known, and many modifications of the experiment will readily
suggest themselves.

It is known to many experimenters that pulverised magnetic
oxide of iron is to be preferred to iron filings in making magnetic
curves. It is easily pulverised to any desired fineness. We do
not know why filings are so universally recommended by writers
on this subject.

The Botanical Society of France has been recognised as an
establishment of public utility by a presidential decree of Aug. 26.
French botany has [recently sustained a great loss in the' death
(at the age of seventy-two years) of M. Boreau, director of the
Botanic Garden of Angers. M. Boreau was the author of a
" Flora of Central France and of the Basin of the Loire, " a work
which has reached its third edition. Many papers by him have
appeared in the Memoirs of the Societe Academique de Maine-
et-Loire.

At the International Medical Congress at Brussels, Prof.
Marey gave before a large and interested audience a simple,
clear, and very complete account of the principal advances in
physiology which are due to the introduction of the graphic
method into its means of investigation. The application of
the methods of mechanics and physics, he believes, has shown
what vast horizons are open to the researches of the physiologist,
by proving that [now we may calculate exactly infinitely small
quantities in space and time.

The August part, just published, of the Bulletin of the French
Geographical Society contains a very curious and interesting
paper by M. E. Cortambert, on "the geogi-aj^hical distribution of
celebrated persons in France, or the density of the intellectual
forces in various parts of France." It is intended to accompany
a map in which, by various tints of colour, it is attempted to
indicate the proportion of notable men which have been born in
the various departments of the couniry. M. Cortambert goes

Oct. 7, 1875J

NATURE

503

rapidly over the various regions and departments, indicates the
relative proportion of notable men belonging to each, and the
particular intellectual product in which each has been most fer-
tile. As might be expected, the north, particularly the basin of
the Seine, which includes Paris, the great centre of population,
is the richest. Seine-et-Oise, I'Aisne, Seine-Infirieure, Calvados,
Champagne, are also marked by a deep tint. In the east,
Alsace and Lorraine — which in this respect may yet be considered
French — Burgundy, especially the Cote d'Or, Doubs, Lyonnais,
and French-speaking Switzerland, all stand out prominent. In
the south, Iscre, Bouches-du-Rhone, Hcrault, Haute-Garonne,
Gironde, are the most remarkable. The west, as a whole, is
but slightly tinted, notable exceptions being Ille-et-Villaine,
Charente-Inferieure, and to some extent Maine-et-Loire and
Finistere. In general, however, Brittany, whose inhabitants
have many other noble qualities, does not show any great
eminence from an intellectual point of view. This M. Cort-
ambert is inclined to attribute to the fact that the Bre-
tons are still to a large extent Celtic ; and it is noteworthy
that the centre of France, where also the same element
is still strong, is also comparatively poor in eminent intel-
lectual products. With regard to the particular kind of intel-
lectual product for which each district is noted, M. Cortambert
finds that the north is specially fertile in poets, claiming such
names as Malhcrbe, Cornei'le, Racine, Molicre, Boileau, La
Fontaine, Voltaire, Beranger, De Musset ; while in science it
has produced such names as La Place, Elie de Beaumont, De-
lambre, Ducange ; also not a few men eminent as painters,
warriors, musicians, historians, and a large proportion of geogra-
phers. From the east come many men who have a world-wide
fame in the natural, physical, and medical sciences — BufTon,
Cuvier, Daubenton, Eerthollet, Andre Ampere, Jussieu, Bichat,
Recamier, Saussure, Bonnet, De Candolle, Agassiz, and others ;
in other departments also, specially in literature and art, this
region hag been fertile in great names. The south stands out
prominent in the region of orators, but has also produced such
men as Fermat, I>egendre, Arago, Borda, Montesquieu, Mon-
taigne, Toumefort, and Adanson: Brave sailors and celebrated
voyagers are the special product of the west. In Brittany and
the Centre, philosophy seems to dominate ; to the latter belong
Pascal and Descartes, and the daring humourist Rabelais. Al-
together M. Cortambert's researches in this direction are of
special interest, and will be of real value if he connects the results
above indicated, as he states he intends to, with the nature of
the physical and ethnographical characteristics! of the various
regions which he has surveyed.

We read in the Lille papers that the Catholic University of that
town has been granted the use of Saint Eugenie Hospital, under
certain restrictions.

I The Geological Magazine states that Dr. W. Waagen has been
\ appointed to the post of Paleontologist to the Indian Survey
rendered vacant by the death of Dr. Stoliczka.

Scientific work will soon be resumed in Paris with activity,
the Geographical, Biological, Anthropological, and other societies
recommencing work within a few days. The Institute is the
only French scientific institution which takes no holiday,
even for any religious solemnity or national festivity. The
regular weekly meetings were only interrupted once during the
Commune, when civil war was raging in Paris. M. i<;iie de
Beaumont, who was the perpetual secretary, tried to reach
the Institute in order to open the sitting, but he was prevented by
insurgents refusing to allow him to cross the barricades.

We have now the final fasciculi of a work, the publication of
■which has extended over the last five years, the " Nomenclator
Botanicus," by Dr. L. Pfeifler, of Cassel. In two volumes,
amounting to over 3, 500 pages, are here enumerated all the names

j and synonyms which have been applied to classes, orders, tribes,
i families, divisions, genera, and sub-genera of plants, from the
: time of Linnaeus or earlier to the end of the year 1858, with
I reference to the place of publication. The work will be indis-
pensable to anyone compiling a monograph of a genus or order.
; It is intended shortly to continue the work down to the most
recent times.

The intended publication is announced, by subscription, of a
" Flora of Clackmannan," by Messrs, James R. and T. Drummond.
Subscribers' names are to be sent to Messrs. Maclachlan and
Stewart, Edinburgh.

The Report of the Curators of the Botanical Exchange Club
(Dr. J. T. Boswell and Mr, J. F, Duthie) for the last two years
has just been published. It gives the new localities for scarce
plants discovered during that time, and describes in great detail
the observations which have been made on new forms or varieties
of British plants.

The Photographic News, in speaking of " Photography and the
Illustrated Press," gives some examples of the extent to which
the latter is now dependent on the photographic art. The Ahw
York Daily Graphic, besides often executing its pictures from
photographs, 'employs a photo-mechanical process in the produc-
tion of some of its work. At the office of the Moniteur Uni-
versel, which is one of the most extensive printing and pub-
lishing establishments in France, arrangements are being made
for large photo-printing works, as well as for producing coloured
pictures by M. Leon Vidal's photo-chromic process. In this
country photography is used to aid the artist in sketching to a
great extent. One of these days, no doubt, the Nt-ws believes^
we shall have our papers illustrated by photographs /«r et simple,
but even now photography has far more to do with the execu-
tion of the illustrations in our journals than most people may
be aware of.

" We were witness, ' says the Photographic NrMs, " the
other day of a very pretty application of light made by a
gardener. Everybody knows that the ripening and colouring
of fruit are due for the most part to light and heat, and
that the roses upon an apple are influenced by the manner in
which the sun strikes it. On looking at some fine wall-fruit in
a Kentish garden, the proprietor called our attention to the
manner in which he allowed his peaches to be partially covered
by a leaf or two, in places— namely, where he wished them to
remain green— and thus heighten by contrast the purple bloom
on other portions of the fruit. There were many examples of a
leaf being very sharply photographed upon the fruit, and the
grower, by exercising a little care during the ripening season,
thus enhanced the beauty of his fruit, and also their value, as in
the case of a peach it is not only its flavour, but its appearance,
which governs the price at Covent Garden,"

A coRRESroNDENT writes as follows to the Dei-ry Sentinel :—
"On Sunday evening last, while going into the country, I ob-
served at Churchill, Glendermott, a bird which at first sight I
could not easily class among any known species. On coming
closer, however, I found that it was a white swallow. There
was no perceptible difference between it and the common
swallow, with the exception of its plumage being of the purest
white. Other swallows were flying about at the same time, but
this rara avis shunned their company, and did not seem anxious
to join them, as it flitted about by its solitary self, and kept at a
respectful distance from the others. As I have never heard of
a white swallow having been seen about this part of the country
before, I consider it to be a very strange visitor."

Prof. E. Morren, of Brussels, has been making some expe«
riments with insectivorous plants, with the result that he combats
the view that they possess t^ power of absorbing and assimi-

5^4

NATURE

[Oct. 7, 1875

lating animal matter, as stated by many observers in this and
other coimtries. He says that so far as Phiguiada longiJoUa
and Drosera roiundifolia are concerned, at least, he believes that
the glutinous excretions of their leaves simply hasten decomposi-
tion, which is moreover attended by the usual concomitant phe-
nomena. In very early stages he found monads, bacteria, the
mycelium of various fungi, and other conditions of putrefaction.
So far as the action of the mucus on the entrapped insects and
on coagulated albumen is concerned, he affirms that it is similar to
that of pure water, sugar-water, and the honey- secretions taken
from the flowers of Acchmea midiflora. Nevertheless he admits
having seen all the admirable contrivances for catching and re-
taining insects.

Mr. G. M. Dawson, F.G.S., has just issued a'report to the
Canadian Government, on the geology and resources of the
region in the forty-ninth parallel, between the Lake of the
Woods, S.E. of I^ake Winnipeg, and the Rocky Mountains ; in
other words, of the western portion of the boundary of British
America. Much of the country traversed had been previously
quite unknown, geographically as well as geologically, which
fact adds greatly to the importance of the report, the bulk of
which is devoted to the account of the Cretaceous and Tertiary
strata of the plains between the Rocky Mountains, as they are
constituted at the boundary, and the Lake of the Woods. The
Survey of the United States Government to the south of the
above-mentioned region, when taken in conjunction with that
under notice, forms a vast addition to geologic knowledge.
Among tlie most important results arrived at is the discovery of
beds which seem to gap over the apparently considerable interval
between the Cretaceous and lower Tertiary periods.

The following interesting statistics on the libraries of Europe
are taken from M. Block's recently published " Statistique de
la France comparee avec les divers pays de I'Europe" :— Paris
has six great libraries belonging to the State and open to the
public. Outside Paris there are in France 338 libraries which
possess more than 34 million volumes; of this number 41 are
open in the evening. Great Britain possesses 1,771,493
volumes, or six vols, to each 100 persons of the popula-
tion (this must surely refer solely to the British , Museum
library). Italy has 1 17 volumes per 100 inhabitants. In
France there are 4,389,000 volumes, or 117 per 100 persons;
in Austria, 2,488,000 vols, or 6'9 per 100; in Russia, 852,000
vols., or I "3 per 100 ; in Belgium, 509, 100 vols., or iO"4per 100.
Of all countries, France possesses the greatest number of volumes,
and Paris alone has one-third of them in its libraries. Since
1865 students' libraries have been formed over nearly the whole
of France. Since that year these libraries have increased from
4,833, containing 180,854 volumes, to (in 1870-1) 13,638, con-
taining 1,158,742 volumes.

The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens'during the
past -week include four Tigers {Felis tigris) from India, presented
by H.E. the Governor-General of India ; an Ocelot {Felis par-
dalis) from South America, presented by Mr. IT. Kirtley ; a
Golden Agouti {Dasyprocta aguli) from South America, pre-
sented by Mr. Henry T. Balfour; a Cuvier's Toucan {Ramphastos
cuvieri) from Upper Amazons, presented by Mr. A. Blumenthal ;
a Chilian Sea Eagle {Geranoacitis aguia) from Paraguay, pre-
sented by Mr. E. Nelson ; two Red and Yellow Mac aws {Ara
chloroptera) from South America, presented by the Misses Rix ;
three Tigers (7v//>'^zVm), a 'Lto^s.xd. [Felis pardus), 3. Caracal
[Felis caracal), two Musanga Paradoxures [Paradoxtirus mu-
sanga) from India, a Black Lemur (Lemur viacacd) from Mada-
gascar, a Crab-eating Opossum {Didelphys cancrivora) from
Central America, two Mexican Deer [Cerviis mexicanus), depo-
sited ; a Great-billed Parrakeet [Tanygnaihiis megalorhynchus)
from Gilolo, received in exchange ; an American Darter [Plotus
ajthinga) from South America, purchased.

SOME LECTURE NOTES ON METEORITES*

II.

W

E may next turn our attention to the nature of the substances
which fall on these occasions, and in the first place it may be
briefly stated that they are of three kinds : first, masses of iron,
alloyed with nickel, termed aorosiderites, or briefly siderites ;
secondly, stony meteorites (aerolites), which consist of sihcates
somewhat analogous to terrestrial rocks, but having nickeliferous
iron disseminated in small granules throughout them : and finally,
there is a sort of meteorite which is intermediate between these
iron and stone masses, consisting of a sponge-like mass of the
iron, containing in its hollows stony matter similar to that of the
aerolites. These are what are termed siderolites (or meso-side-
rites). These different kinds of meteorites— namely, siderites,
siderohtes, and aerolites— then, comprehend all the forms of
matter, as at present known, which fall to the earth .from the
regions external to its atmosphere.

Of these difiFerent kinds of meteorites, national as well as
private collections have been formed in most countries in
Europe. The most celebrated and historical collection of them
is that at Vienna, formed by the gradual and generally contem-
porary acquisition of specimens of the meteorites as they have
fallen or been found from time to time, from the early years of
this century, and descriptions of them have been given by very
eminent Viennese mineralogists. Then we have in the British
Museum a not less complete collection, numbering now about
294 differen t meteorites. Next to these in completeness is the
collection at Berlin, founded on that formed by Cliladni.

The importance of the study of such collections of meteorites
becomes evident, it we consider a remark of Humboldt's, in the
latter part of his " Cosmos," to the effect that there are only two
avenues to our knowledge of the universe outside of us, one being
light, by the agency of which the motions of the heavenly bodies
are revealed to us, while the other consists in the masses of
matter that come to our earth from that outer universe ; and
that these are the only means by which we are able to take any
cognisance of what is going on in the boundless regions of space.

Since Humboldt's time, indeed, light has become a totally
different instrument in our hands to what it was. No longer
are the heavens for us without speech or language, for
light is indeed the language of the universe, though man has only
yesterday begun to interpret the voices whereby one star calleth
to another star.

Our interpreter is the prism, that most subtle and sensitive
implement for probing the character of the most distant matter
provided only it be luminous. In Humboldt's time light merely
enabled us to record and calculate the mute motions of the orbs
around us. Now not only are we able so to tell their motion?,
but we may feel new trutlis ' ' trembling along that far-reaching
line " which connects our eye with a star, and take cognisance of
the physical conditions and chemical composition of the matter
in active change upon the surface of that star. And this alto-
gether new source of knowledge throws an entirely new interest
around the question of the origin or sources of meteoric matter.
Let us then next inquire of the meteorites themselves what they
have to tell us in elucidation of these questions.

The first aspect of a meteorite is that of a fragment. One
cannot look at it without saying so. But as to the question
whether it came as a fragment into our atmosphere, or whether
it became a fragment after it had entered it, we can at least say
that its present fragmentary form is mainly due to the action of
that atmosphere itself. Still, it is eminently probable, from other
grounds, that meteorites encounter our earth, and probably our
system, in the guise of fragments, or rather of angular and un-
shaped masses — chips, as it were, thrown off in the great work-
shop ; matter flung out into space, not yet used up in the making
of the worlds. It will be well first to consider what an exami-
nation of their physical characters and general internal structure
will reveal to us. For the incrustation and pitted surface of
aerolites already described an explanation was sought on the
hypothesis of external fusion arising from the sudden develop-
ment of enormous heat on the surface of a mass internally brittle
and contracted, owing to its very low temperature. And among
the more purely mechanical characteristics, we must not pass
over the general want of compactness in meteorites. Thus,
though a meteorite generally seems very compact, if it be sus-
pended in chloride of mercury to dissolve the iron without affect-
ing, or with*only slight effect on, the other minerals in it, you
* Continued from p. 487.

Oct, 7, 1875]

NATURE

505

will dissolve meteoric iron out of it ; but the remainder of the
mass will, after this treatment, in most cases, crumble into a
granular powder, showing that the cohesion of the mass is not
like that of an ordinary terrestrial rock. Some aerolites, again,
will even crumble in the fingers without previous treatment.

The rocks to which they bear the nearest resemblance, in
respect of their mechanical structure, among the products of our
volcanoes, are some volcanic bombs, and, as regards several of
the aerolites, certain kinds of volcanic tufa.

Now, in examining these bodies more closely, the first thing that
calls for attention is that they are composed entirely, or almost
entirely, of crystalline substances ; and that matter thus coming
from regions beyond our world crystallises in the same way, and
is obedient to the same law, as matter which crystallises on
the globe.

Sections of meteorites cut thin and ground down to transparent
slices, when examined by means of polarised light, are seen to
be crystallised throughout ; the crystalline character of the
substances being evidenced by the interference lints which colour
the different crystals of which the sections are made up.
Another characteristic of many meteorites, in which they differ
from ordinary terrestrial rocks, is what has been termed by
Gustav Rose their chondritic structure. The minerals in these
are found to be more or less aggregated in little spherules, which
are distributed in different degrees of abundance in different
meteorites through the ground-mass of the stone.

Sections of chondritic meteorites show them to consist in some
cases almost entirely of spherules. Such is the case with the
Parnallee aerolite, of which the most varied groups of spherules
may be seen assembled in a single section. Some of these
spherules are encased, as it were, in minute shells of metallic
(nickeliferous) iron, or of such iron mingled with a kind of
pyrites peculiar to meteorites, an iron sulphide termed troilite,
constituted by an equivalent of sulphur combined with one equi-
valent of iron. Minute granules of troilite and iron, without
any definite form, are so seen to be disseminated among the
grains of the interspherular ground-mass of the meteorite.

A closer inspection of the spherules further reveals in many
cases the presence of /w/r^rspherular iron. In some spherules the
meteoric silicates may be seen, radiating from a point, but while
the spherule is enclosed in a mixed outer mass of silicates, iron
and troilite in little black specks are seen scattered all through
it, presenting the appearance of having been spurted, as it were,
from a point, the larger particles to the greater distance : and
these specks consist in part of nickeliferous iron, while some are
meteoric pyrites (troilite).

In connection with the subject of these spherules, which form
so characteristic a feature of many stony meteorites, it should be
mentioned that occasionally some of the spherules are seen to
be broken in half and the halves separated from each other to
some small distance, a fact of considerable significance, though
not easy of interpretation in connection with the history of the
meteorite and the more or less violent crises it must have passed
through at successive periods in that history.

Evidence of another kind of historical succession in the events
and influences through which a meteorite may have passed is
afforded by the not rare peculiarity of a sort of vein, like a
mineral vein, running through the meteorite. In fact, just as in
a mine one may meet with a fissure that, once dividing the
** country," but subsequently filled by rocky matter, cuts across
the course of a mineral vein which itself was originally formed
in a similar way ; and just as such a cross fissure thus inter-
secting with the original metalliferous vein often gives us evidence
of a hcaze, i.e. that one side of the new, fissure has slid upwards
or downwards along the other, so an exactly similar thing is met
with in meteorites, and is admirably ieen in the microscopic
sections of them.

Such a fissure will sometimes divide several spherules lying on
its track, the two sides of the fissure having slid, the one along
the other. The corresponding halves of the spheniles are in
such cases separated to some distance along the fissure, and this
is itself filled with the vein of meteoric iron or troilite, in some
cases with a black fused substance, like the cnist of a meteorite.

In passing next to the consideration of the chemistry of meteo-
rites, one of the first inquiries that suggests itself is whether and
to what extent the elementary composition of these cosmical
rock-fragments accords with that of our own world, or with the
revelations which the prism has afforded us regarding the consti-
tution of the matter in energetic action on the surface of our sun,
or of those far distant suns, the stars ; or, again, in those still
uninterpreted assemblages of luminous matter that we call the

nebulae. Now, the elements that have been already recognised
by analysis as existing in meteorites form a list that comprises
one-third of all the elements known to our chemistry ; and these,
the more abundant elements on our world. They are —

Hydrogen Chromium Arsenic

Lithium Manganese Vanadium ?

Sodium Iron Phosphorus

Potassium Nickel Sulphur

Magnesium Cobalt Oxygen

Calcium Copper Silicon

Aluminium Tin Carbon

Titanium Antimony Chlorine

Now, of these elements, those in italics have also been found
by the spectroscope to be constituents of the solar surface,
together with zinc, strontium, and cadmium, which metals have
not yet been met with in meteorites.

The number of elements recognised as existing in activity on
the solar orb will undoubtedly be largely increased with the pro-
gress of the combined study of the solar spectrum and of the
conditions under which the several lines belonging to the diffe-
rent elements are developed. It is by study of this kind that
Mr. Lockyer has detected potassium in the sun. The fact that
at the present time all the elements detected in the sun excepting
three are met with in meteorites, while on the other hand the
meteorites contain five metals not as yet found in the sun, at the
same time that the six metalloids found in them are so strangely
all apparently absent from the surface of our great luminary,
might seem to place difficulties in the way of our recognising a
general unity of elementary composition in the matter that com-
poses the various orbs and wandering masses that pervade our
universe.

But it is clear, on the other hand, that it is too early as yet to
look on these results as establishing even probable exceptions to
such a unity.

That carbon, sulphur, potassium, and phosphorus^ elements so
frequently met with in meteorites and on our globe, should, with
nitrogen, be absent or have escaped detection among the elements
involved in the active operations on the surface of the sun, is
certainly not a little surprising. Nor is the failure of the prism to
detect the lines due to oxygen and silicon among those presented
by the solar photosphere to be accounted for by assuming the
persistency of particular silicates in resisting decomposition or
vaporisation even in a solar temperature, for Von Rath has
shown that silicates such as augite and leucite are actually depo-
sited by a process of sublimation even at the comparatively low
temperatures of our volcanoes. Yet it is difficult to believe that
the last-mentioned elements can be absent from the great
central body of our system, whether we reason from analogy,
from their great importance in the composition of our earth, or
from the more than probability that these elements must have
been contributed to a large amount to the material of the sun
by meteoric matter falling into his surface.

Mr. Lockyer has indeed grasped this difficulty with a bold
hand, and has not hesitated to declare as a probable explanation
of the results obtained from the spectra of the reversing layer and
chromosphere of the sun, that the elements exist there not in a
molecular but in an atomic condition ; and he further assumes
that the metalloids exist in a more simple elementary condition
than that in which we know them ; their terrestrial existence
being assumed to be that of compounds which have yet to be
resolved into their constituents by our chemistry, though under
the fierce chemistry of the sun it is only as thus resolved
that they exist on his surface. It is startling for the chemist
to be thus called upon to believe that enormous temperatures
are endowed with a dissociating power, capable of not
merely severing the bonds of ordinary chemical combination,
but further of forcing into a condition of ultimate atomic disin-
tegration composite molecules where these are the form under
which the chemist has learnt to recognise the ordinary condition
of even the isolated elements. Certainly the concordance of
the heights to which the different gaseous elements rise in the
reversing layer with the weights of the atoms of those elements
as represented by their equivalents in the older chemistry, would
lend something more than a justification to the even bolder
hypothesis that recognises in the metalloids (such as silicon,
sulphur, and oxygen, as they exist in our world) compounds of
other and to our chemistry unknown elements, were we able to
assert that the gaseous molecules of the metals in question, other
than hydrogen, potassium, and sodium, must necessarily, like
those of these elements, be dfiible. It would be, in any case, a

5o6

NATURE

{Oct, 7, 1875

splendid result of solar physics to establish the nature of the
gaseous molecules of so many elements that have as yet defied
the experimental methods of our terrestrial laboratories. The
banded character of the spectra of so many of these metalloids
has lent a really important argument to Mr. Lockyer in his bold
speculation as to their compound nature, in consequence of its
parallelism with the case of compound gases, and his hypothesis
has the merit of giving thus an explanation of the apparent
absence of elements that every argument would lead us to look
for, founded on a principle as ingenious as it is bold in^its appli-
cation.

The recognition by Mr. Huggins in the spectra of the stars of
the lines belonging to hydrogen, sodium, magnesium, calcium,
and iron, and of carbon compounds in comets and nebulas, tends
strongly to confirm the probability of a general identity in the
chemical nature of the matter which pervades our universe ; and
further shows that the results of these investigations present
no obstacle to our drawing any conclusion to which the logic of
facts might otherwise guide us as to meteorolitic matter having
been in its origin foreign to the solar system. Observations by
v. Konkoly of the magnesium, sodium, and possibly also iron
lines in the August meteoric swarm, like those by Alexander
Herschel of the sodium line in those same St. Lawrence meteors,
are of value as extending the coincidence in the elementary con-
stitution of the sun, the stars, and meteorites, to those minuter
formsjof meteoric matter which,b y their dispersion in the atmo-
sphere, have hitherto been unattainable for the purposes of inves-
tigation.

In passing from the merely elementary components of meteor-
ites to the chemical forms — that is to say, to the minerals in
which these elements are grouped in them, we find ourselves in the
presence of aggregates of crystallised minerals that at once remind
us of our terrestrial rocks. At a first aspect they might easily be
taken for rocks formed under conditions not very different from
those of our globe. A closer inspection, however, brings out dis-
tinctive characters in these that evidence a very different set of
conditions as having prevailed in the formation of the meteoric
and the terrestrial rocks. Without going into minute minera-
logical variations, and needlessly multiplying names, we may
tabulate in a very short list the constituent minerals of the different
sorts of meteorites. Several of these minerals are nearly identical
in composition and crystallographic character with corresponding
minerals met with in terrestrial rocks ; others again are unknown,
while some of them could hardly exist permanently as terrestrial
minerals ; and two present the composition of minerals familiar
to us in our own rocks, but crystallographically distinct from these
as belonging to different types of symmetry or ' ' systems " from
theirs.

In the Elementary Condition.

Iron xvith Nickel, traces of Cobalt and Copper, in some and
probably in all cases with Hydrogen, Carbonic oxide, or other
gases occluded in the metal.

Carbon (graphitic and plumbaginous).

Sulphur.

Compounds,
Ferrous Sulphide [Troilite) FeS

Magnetic Pyrites FcySg

Magnesium Sulphide ? MgS

Calcium Sulphide [Oldhamite) Ca(Mg)S

A Titanium — Calcium Sulphide {Osbornite) ?

Magnetite Fe304

Chromite {FeCr)304

Silica (orthorhombic as Asmanite) SiOg

,, (hexagonal as Quartz) ? )
Tin Oxide )

Silicates, viz. : — ■

Olivine varieties /Mg n Fe m-n^ 38104

Enstatite MgSiOj

Bronzite varieties /MgnFe m-nXSiOj

\ m m /

Augite varieties /MguCa m-nXSiOj

\ m m /

„ varieties containing corresponding ferrous silicate.
Anorthite CaAlgSiOs

Labradorite ?

„ in tesseral forms (Tschermak's Maskelynite).

Schreibersite varieties (phosphides of iron and nickel).
Hydrocarbons (not yet sufficiently investigated).

SnO,

The names printed in italics are thus new to our mineralogy.
The mineral to which I originally gave the name of Oldhamite
is in all probability a mixture of two minerals — a Calcium Sul-
phide (which would be the pure Oldhamite) and a Magnesium
Sulphide ; and it is probable that they are not uncommon,
though sparsely scattered, ingredients in freshly fallen meteorites,
which, however, the action of a damp atmosphere rapidly de-
composes into calcium sulphate or carbonate, and free sulphur,
all which minerals occur in minute quantities occasionally, in
meteorites after they have been exposed to the weather.

Until the year 1867 the mineralogical department at the
British Museum was without a laboratory, and chemical analyses
could not be performed. I accordingly had recourse in 1861 to
microscopic investigation as my only means of attacking the
mineralogical problems presented by meteoric rocks. By the
use of polarised light, of which the position of the plane of
polarisation was accurately determined, it was possible, by the
aid of an eyepiece goniometer and also of a revolving stage, to
determine with some precision the directions of the principal
sections in any of the minute sections of crystals which a frag-
ment of a meteorite worked down to a thin transparent slice
might present. Where such crystal sections happened to be
approximately parallel to a zone plane, and the traces of the faces
belonging to the zone could be seen with sufficient sharpness, or
where cleavage planes occurred parallel or at recognisable incli-
nations to faces of the zone, important decisions could be arrived
at by aid of polarised light. And this method is now becoming
one of great importance to petrologists.

It was thus that I was enabled to anticipate with much con-
fidence the orthorhombic character of one and the clinorhombic
character of another ingredient (the enstatite and augite) in the
Busti meteorite, and determine the cubic character of the oldhamite
in that meteorite in 1862 ; and to be the first to announce the more
than probability of enstatite (including of course, as the term
then did, bronzite) being an important ingredient in meteorites ;
in the case of the Nellore meteorite in June 1863 and of that ot
Kaee in August 1864; a view confirmed afterwards (in November
1864) by Dr. Lawrence Smith on his repeating his analysis of
the meteorite of Bishopville, Of the meteorites of Busti and of
Manegaum, before they were cut, only minute fragments were at
my disposal ; and though in naming and first describing old-
hamite in 1862, I had spoken of it as having all the appearance
of being a " calcium galena," a small amount of probably sulphur
and gypsum that separated in the watch-glass in which I made a
qualitative investigation of it constrained me to say that I
believed it -to contain an excess of sulphur beyond that in the
neutral sulphide.

Of the Manegaum meteorite also I employed only a minute
fragment for investigation, and I attributed the bronzite of that
meteorite to oUvine, the section of the crystal examined not
being really paralled to a zone-plane, and was confirmed in this
error by finding the powdered bronzite not to be insoluble in
acids. The addition of a laboratory to the department in 1867
enabled the long-desired analysis of the minerals I had separated
to be made ; and Dr. W. Flight being at my request appointed
chemical assistant, I was able, with the help of his analytical
skill, to complete the account of the minerals the presence of
which in the meteorites in question had been determined so
many years before.

The separated sulphur in the oldhamite proved, when a
sufficient amount was taken for investigation, to be due to a
superficial decomposition ot the mineral, while bronzite was
shown to be distinctly soluble in acid. The methods I adopted
for the investigation of meteorites have since been employed by
other observers, as well in the mode of using the directions of the
principal sections of crystal-sections in the microscopic exami-
nation of terrestrial rocks as in the mode of attacking a meteo-
rite by separating and isolating by toilsome microscopic selection
its ingredient minerals ; the plan by which the silicates in the
Breitenbach siderolite and also those in fresh amounts from the
Busti aerolite had been separated with a view to analysis in 1864
and 1865. Viktor von Lang, to whose assistance and to whose
friendship I owe two or three of the most valued years of my
life, while he was my colleague, measured, and some time after-
wards published the account of the crystals of bronzite in the
Breitenbach meteorite ; the first occasion on which the crys-
tallography of that mineral had been made out, only the system
and approximate prism angle of the terrestrial bronzite and
enstatite being previously known through the optical researches
of Des Cloizeaux.

The form of asmanite, the orthorhombic'variety of silica, occur-

Oct. 7, 1 875 J

NATURE

507

ling in the same meteorite, oflfered a difficult problem which I
had taken in hand. One little crystal, however, carrying a por-
tion of a zone with four consecutive faces, picked out in 1867,
furnished the final key to its crystallography.

N. S. Maskelyne
(TV be continued.')

INSTINCT AND ACQUISITION.*
CJ O great was the influence of that school of psychology which
'^ maintained that we and all other animals had to acquire in
the course of our individual lives all the knowledge and skill
necessary for our preservation, that many of the very greatest
authorities in science refused to believe in those instructive per-
formances of young animals about which the less learned multi-
tude have never had any doubt. For example, Helmhaltz, than
whom there is not, perhaps, any higher scientific authority, says :
"The young chicken very soon pecks at grains of corn, but it
pecked while it was still in the shell, and when it hears the hen
peck, it pecks again, at first seemingly at random. Then, when
it has by chance hit upon a grain, it may, no doubt, learn to
notice the field of vision which is at the moment presented to it."

At the meeting of this Association in 1872, I gave a pretty full
account of the behaviour of the chicken after its escape from the
shell. The facts observed were conclusive against the individual-
experience psychology. And they have, as far as I am aware,
been received by scientific men without question. I would now
add tliat not only does the chick not require to learn to peck at,
to seize, and to swallow small specks of food, but that it is not a
fact, as asserted, and generally supposed, that it pecks while still
in the shelL The actual mode of self-delivery is just the reverse
of pecking. Instead of striking forward and downward (a move-
ment impossible on the part of a bird packed in a shell with its
head under its wing), it breaks its way out by vigorously jerking
its head upward, while it turns round within the shell, which is
cut in two — chipped right round in a perfect circle some distance
from the great end.

Though the instincts of animals appear and disappear in such
seasonable correspondence with their own wants and the wants
of their offspring as to be a standing subject of wonder, they have
by no means the fixed and unalterable character by which some
would distinguish them from the higher faculties of the human
race. They vary in the individuals as does their physical struc-
ture. Animals can learn what they did not know by instinct and
forget the instinctive knowledge which they never learned, while
their instincts will often accommodate themselves to considerable
changes in the order of external events. Everybody knows it to
be a common practice to hatch ducks' eggs under the common
hen, though in such cases the hen has to sit a week longer than on
her own eggs. I tried an experiment to ascertain how far the time
of sitting could be interfered with in the opposite direction. Two
hens became broody on the same day, and I set them on dummies.
On the third day I put two chicks a day old to one of the hens.
She pecked at them once or twice ; seemed rather fidgety, then
took to them, called them to her and entered on all the cares of
a mother. The other hen was similarly tried, but with a very
different result. She pecked at the chickens viciously, and both
that day and the next stubbornly refused to have anything to do
with them.

The pig is an animal that has its wits about it quite as soon
after birth as the chicken. I therefore selected it as a subject of
observation. The following are some of my observations : —
That vigorous young pigs get up and search for the teat at once,
or within one minute after their entrance into the world. That
if removed several feet from their mother, when aged only a few
minutes, they soon find their way back to her, guided apparently
by the grunting she makes in answer to their squeaking. In the
case I observed the old sow rose in less than an hour and a half
after pigging, and went out to eat ; the pigs ran about, tried to
eat various matters, followed their another out, and sucked while
she stood eating. One pig I put in a bag the moment it was
bom and kept it in the dark until it was seven hours old,
when I placed it outside the sty, a distance of ten feet from
where the sow lay concealed inside the house. The pig soon re-
cognised the low grunting of its mother, went along outside the
sty struggling to get under or over the lower bar. At the end
of five minutes it succeeded in forcing itself through under the
bar at one of the lew places where that was possible. No sooner
in than it went without a pause into the pig-house to its mother,
* Read at the Bristol meeting of the British Association.

and was at once like the others in its behaviour. Two little pigs
I blindfolded at their birth. One of them I placed with its
mother at once : it soon found the teat and began to suck. Six
hours later I placed the other a little distance from the sow ; it
reached her in half a minute, after going about rather vaguely ;
in half a minute more it found the teat. Next day I found that
one of the two left with the mother, blindfolded, had got the
blinders off ; the other was quite blind, walked about freely,
knocking against things. In the afternoon I uncovered its eyes,
and it went round and round as if it had had sight, and had
suddenly lost it. In ten minutes it was scarcely distinguishable
from one that had had sight all along. When placed on a chair
it knew the height to require considering, went down on its
knees and leapt down. When its eyes had been unveiled twenty
minutes I placed it and another twenty feet from the sty. The
two reached the mother in five minutes and at the same moment.

Different kinds of creatures, then, bring with them a good deal
of cleverness, and a very useful acquaintance with the established
order of nature. At the same time all of them later in their
lives do a great many things of which they are quite incapable
at birth. That these are all matters of pure acquisition appears
to me an unwarranted assumption. The human infant cjinnot
masticate ; it can move its limbs, but cannot walk, or direct its
hands so as to grasp an object held up before it. The kitten
just born cannot catch mice. The newly hatched swallow or
tomtit can neither walk, nor fly, nor feed itself. They are as
helpless as the human infant. Is it as the result of painful
learning that the child subsequently seizes an apple and eats it ?
that the cat lies in wait for the mouse ? that the bird finds its
proper food and wings its way through the air ? We think not.
With the development of the physical parts, comes, according to
our view, the power to use them, in the ways that have preserved
the race through past ages. This is in harmony with all we
know. Not so the contrary view. So old is the feud between
the cat and the dog, that the kitten knows its enemy even before
it is able to see him, and when its fear can in no way serve it.
One day last month, after fondling my do^, I put my hand into a
basket containing four blind kittens, three days old. The smell
my hand had carried with it set them puffing and spitting in a
most comical fashion.

That the later developments to which I have referred are not
acquisitions can be in some instances demonstrated. Birds do
not learn to fly. Two years ago I shut up five unfledged swallows
in a small box not much larger than the nest from which they
were taken. The little box, which had a wire front, was hung
on the wall near the nest, and the young swallows were fed by
their parents through the wires. In this confinement, where they
could not even extend their wings, they were kept until after
they were fuUy fledged. Lord and Lady Amberley liberated the
birds and communicated their observations to me, I being in
another part of the country at the time. On going to set the
prisoners free, one was found dead — they were all alive on the
previous day. The remaining four were allowed to escape one
at a time. Two of these were perceptibly wavering and un-
steady in their flight. One of them, after a flight of about ninety
yards, disappeared among some trees ; the other, which flew
more steadily, made a sweeping circuit in the air, after the
manner of its kind, and alighted, or attempted to alight, on a
branchless stump of a beech ; at least it was no more seen. No.
3 (which was seen on the wing for about half a minute) flew
near the ground, first round Wellingtonia, over to the other side
of the kitchen-garden, past the bee-house, back to the lawn,
round again, and into a beech-tree. No. 4 flew well near the
ground, over a hedge twelve feet high to the kitchen-garden
through an opening into the beeches, and was last seen close to
the ground. The swallows never flew against anything, nor
was there, in their avoiding objects, any appreciable difference
between them and the old birds. No. 3 swept round;the Wel-
lingtonia, and No. 4 rose over the hedge just as we see the old
swallows doing every hour of the day. I have this summer
verified these observations. Of two swallows I had similarly
confined, one, on being set free, flew a vard or two too close to
the ground, rose in the direction of a beech-tree, which it grace-
fully avoided ; it was seen for a considerable time sweeping
round the beeches and performing magnificent evolutions in the
air high above them. The other, which was observed to beat
the air with its wings more than usual, was soon lost to siyht be-
hind some trees. Titmice, tomtits, and wrens I have made the
subjects of a similar experiment and with similar results.

Again, every boy who has^rought up nestlings with the hand

5o8

NATURE

\pcL 7, 1875

must have observed that while for a time they but_^hold up their
heads and open their mouths to be fed, they by-and-by begin
quite spontaneously to snap at the food. Here the development
may be observed as it proceeds. In the case of the swallow I
am inclined to think that they catch insects in the air perfectly
well immediately on leaving the nest.

With regard, now, to man, is there any reason to suppose that,
unlike all other creatures, his mental constitution has to be in
the case of each individual built up from the foundation out of
the primitive elements of consciousness ? Reason seems to me
to be all the other way. The infant is helpless at birth for the
same reason that the kitten or swallow is helpless — because of its
physical immaturity ; and I know of nothing to justify the con-
trary opinion, as held by some of our distinguished psychologists.
Why believe that the sparrow can pick up crumbs by instinct,
but that man must learn to interpret his visual sensations and to
chew his food? Dr. Carpenter, in his " Mental Physiology,"
has attempted to answer this argument in the only way in which
it could be answered. lie has produced facts which appear to
him to prove "that the acquirement of the power of visually
guiding the muscular movements is experimental in the case of
the human infant." More than forty years ago Dr. Carpenter
took part in an operation performed on a boy three years old for
congenital cataract. The operation was successful. In a few
days both pupils were almost clear ; but though the boy " clearly
recognised the direction, of a candle or other bright object, he
was unable as an infant to apprehend its distance ; so that when
told to lay hold of a watch he groped at it just as a young child
lying in its cradle." He gradually began to use his eyes ; first
in places with which he was not familiar, but it was several
months before he trusted to them for guidance as other children
of his age would do. No one will doubt the accuracy of any of
these statements ; but I cannot agree with Dr. Carpenter that he
had in the case of the boy anything "exactly parallel" to my
experiment of hooding chickens at birth and giving them their
sight at the end of one or two days. This boy was couched
when three years old. Probably sight would have been at first
rather puzzling to my chickens, had they not received it until
they were six months old. Dr. Carpenter seems to have for-

fotten for the moment that instincts as well as acquisitions
ecay through desuetude, and that this is especially true when
the faculties in question have never once been started into action
and are of the kind which develop through exercise. Another
and vital difference between Dr. Carpenter's experiment and
mine is this, that Avhen at the end of two days I gave my chickens
sight, I did not do so by poking out or lacerating the crystalline
lenses of their eyes with a needle.

The presumption, then, that the progress of the infant is but
the unfolding of inherited powers remains as strong as ever.
With wings there comes to the bird the power to use them ; and
why should we believe that because the human infant is born
without teeth, it should, when they do make their appearance,
have to discover their use by a series of happy accidents ?

One word as to the origin of instincts. In common with
other evolutionists, I have argued that instinct in the present
generation may be regarded as the product of the accumulated
experiences of past generations. More peculiar to myself, and
giving a special meaning to the word experience, is the view that
the question of the origin of the most mysterious instincts is not
more difficult than, or different from, but is the same with the
problem of the origin of the physical structure of the creatures.
For, however they may have come by their bodily organisation,
it, in my opinion, carries with it a corresponding mental nature.

In opposition to this view it has been urged that we have only
to consider almost any well-marked instinct to see that it could
never have been a product of evolution. We, it is said most
frequently, cannot conceive the experiences that might by inheri-
tance have become the instincts ; and we can see very clearly
that many instincts are so essential to the preservation of the
creatures that without them they could never have lived to
acquire them. The answer is easy. Granting our utter inability
to go back in imagination through the infinite multitude of forms,
with their diversified mental characteristics, that stand between
the greyhound and the speck of living jelly to which, according
to the theory of evolution, it is related by an unbroken line of
descent. Granting that we are, if possible, still Jess able to
picture m imagination the process of change from any one form
to another. What then? Not surely that the theory of evo-
lution IS false ! For the same argument will prove that no man
present can possibly be the son of his father. Our ignorance is
very great, but it is not a very great argument.

The other objection, that the creatures could never have lived
to acquire their more important instincts, rests on a careless mis-
understanding of the theory of evolution. It assumes in the
drollest possible way that evolutionists must believe that in the
course of the evolution of the existing races there must have from
time to time appeared whole generations of creatures that
could not start on life from the want of instincts that they
had not got. There can be no need to say more than that
these unfortunate creatures are assumed to have been singu-
larly unlike their parents. The answer is, that it is not the
doctrine of evolution that the bodies arc evolved first by one
set of causes and the minds are put in afterwards by another.
This notion is but the still lingering shadow of the individual-
experience psychology. As evolutionists, whether we take the
more common view and regard the actions of animals as
prompted by their feelings and guided by their thoughts, or
believe, as I do, that animals and men are conscious automata,
in cither case wc are under no necessity of assuming in ex-
planation of the origin of the most mysterious instincts anything
beyond the operation of those laws that we see operating around
us, but concerning which we have yet to learn more, perhaps,
than we have learned. D. A. Spalding

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

Paris
Academy of Sciences, Sept. 20. — Resume of the obser-
vations of the sun and of the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, made at the Par s Observatory
during the year 1874, by M. Leverrier.-— On a remarkable
anatomical peculiarity of the rhinoceros, by MM. Paul and
Henri Gervais. — Addition to the note rela.ing to M. Bienayme's
theorem, by M. J. Bertrand. — Chemical and spectroscopic cha-
racters of a new metal, Gallium, discovered in a blende from
the Pierrefitte mine, Argeles Valley, Pyrenees, by M. Lecoq de
Boisbaudran. An account of this metal has already appeared in
our columns.— Theorem on the composition of co-variants, by
M. C. Jordan. — Preliminary note on the function of the pro-
tective sheath in herbaceous Dicotyledons, by M. J. Vesque. —
On a vertical column of vapour observed from a balloon, by M,
W. de Fonvielle. — On the development and structure of interior
foliaceous glands, by M. Joannes Chalin. — Existence and deve-
lopment of the Avicttla contorta zone in the Isle of Corsica, by
MM. L. Dieulafait and Hollande.— On the theory of hail, by
M. E, Renou. — On hailstones picked up at Criel-sur-Mer during
the storm of August 12, 1875, by M. A, Landrin.

CONTENTS Pack

The Astronomy of the Badylonians. By Rev. A. H. Sayce . . 489

Comte's Philosophy. By Prof. W. Stanley Jrvons, F.R S. , . 491

International Meteorology 493

Our Book Shelf : —

R.-imbles in search of Shells 493

A Manual of the Mollusca 49 ^

Letters to the Editor:—

Oceanic Circulation.— James Croll 494

Dehiscence of Colloima Grandijlora. — J. F. Duthie . . . » 494

Lunar Phenomena — Capt. A. J Loftus 495

The Strength of the Lion and Tiger. — Prof. Samuel Haughton,

F.R.S .49s

A Snake in Ireland — Dr. J. Fayrhr » . 495

Origin of the Numerals. — G. W. Wedster ; Wm. Lvall . . . 496

Scalping.— G. Peyton , 496

Our Astronomical Column :—

The Double Star 2 2120 496

The Nebula in the Pleiades * 496

The Satellites of Uranus aud Neptune 496

The Minor Planets 497

The Total Solar Eclipse of 1878, July 29 497

Mayer's Method of onTAiNiNG the Isothermals of the Solar

Disc. By Alfred M. Mayer (^IVii/i Itti/stratiofi) 497

Fayeoi^ THE Laws OF Storms i^yitA Ittustraiions) 497

Notes 501

Some Lecture Notes upon Meteorites. By Prof. N. S. Maskk-

LYNE, F.R.S 504

Instinct and Acquisition. — D. A. Spalding 507

Societies and Academies 508

Erratum.— P. 301, line 24, for " blackened temperature " read " maximum
temperature."

NATURE

509

THURSDAY, OCTOBER 14, 1875

THE INAUGURATION OF THE YORKSHIRE
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

''T^HE formal opening of the College of Science at
J- Leeds by the Duke of Devonshire, which we briefly
announced last week, is an event of no mean importance
to the co'.mty, and of no small interest to the rest of the
community, inasmuch as we must regard it as another
indication of the great educational movement which has
already been experienced by Manchester, Newcastle,
Birmingham, and Bristol, and is beginning to be felt
more or less strongly in every industrial centre through-
out the country. This movement, as Mr. Foriter tells us,
is not merely to give education to the captains of in-
dustry ; it is to increase the culture of every individual
working man and working woman in the land, and to
give them not elementary education alone, but skilled
knowledge to enable them to earn their living as effi-
ciently as possible by affording them the key to the stores
of knowledge.

It really appears that at last, in this county utterly de-
void of any organisation for anything but the lowest
education, there are persons who are gradually realising
the fact, the statement of which has been dinned into
our ears by the best informed minds for more than a
quarter of a century, that the industrial supremacy of
this country depends on other factors than natural
resources, mental vigour, industry, and perseverance.
The illustrious Liebig more than a generation ago,
and in the very town which witnessed the ceremony of
last week, warned us how impossible it was for England
permanently to preserve this supremacy unless she be-
stowed more attention on the sciences which formed the
basis of her chief industries. Nothing could be happier
than the coincidence that Dr. Playfair, who then inter-
preted this memorable saying of the great German philo-
sopher, should be present to see the Yorkshire people
establishing an educational organisation, which is in no
small degree the outcome of the counsel given to them so
long ago. Truly the bread cast upon the waters has
returned to Leeds after many days. And now let the
promoters of the Yorkshire College take heed to the
words of counsel given by the many eminent men whom
they invited to take part in the opening ceremony. If
the county is as earnest in furthering its welfare as we
believe it to be, the institution ought not to remain long
on its present limited basis : we hope and trust that the
opinion of its President, Lord Frederick Cavendish, that
to restrict the College to natural science would make it
" a one-legged, one-sided concern," is shared by the rest
of the Council. We do not want a Yorkshire College of
Science, but a Yorkshire College in which science will be
found in its proper place. It must be remembered that the
whole duty of these local colleges is not limited to the in-
struction in the particular sciences which more directly
relate to the manufacturing industries of the districts in
which they are placed ; they must be made to act as nuclei
for higher culture by the establishment of chairs of Art and
Literature. As Dr. Playfair told the people of Leeds,
"a College of Science, such as we are inaugurating to-day.
Vol. XII. — No. 311

is admirable in itself, but it is not complete. Perhaps
it even focusses the light too strongly on a particular spot,
and for this reason it intensifies the darkness around.
Its directors are too enlightened men not to see this, and
I am sure they will aid in the co-ordination of your other
educational resources." We are aware that the estab-
lishment of an institution on so broad a basis as we have
indicated is a work of time and patience, but that it can
be accomplished, and in the face of great disadvantages, is
evident from the example of Owens College. There are
doubtless special difficulties in the case of the Yorkshire
College ; no John Owens has yet come to its aid with a
munificent endowment, nor has it the advantage of being
connected with an established institution in the manner
that the Newcastle College is affiliated to Durham, or the
proposed Bristol College to Oxford.

Yorkshiremen are proverbially a hard-headed race, with
a keen eye to immediate practical benefits, but they must
have patience, not forgetting that institutions similar to
their own College have had their day of small things, and
that it has needed much money and much time before
their advantages have been fully realised. We have just
one more word of advice and caution. The wealthy
manufacturers who, roused by the fear of foreign compe-
tition and the cry for technical education, aid the strug-
gling institution with their money, may be too apt to
demand the establishment of technical classes as the
condition of their support ; and in consequence of the
outside pressure thus exerted on the government of the
College, it may be driven to regard such classes as
the main feature of the work of the professors and lec-
turers.

We would counsel the College authorities to weigh well
the words of the gentleman whose advice they specially
asked. Dr. Playfair warned them against giving the Col-
lege too much of a technical character, at least in its
infancy. ** The object of education, even in a technical
school, is not to teach men how to use spinning jennies
or steam-hammers, but it is to give a cultured intelligence
which may be applied to work in life, whatever that may
be. Teach science well to the scholars, and they will
make the applications for themselves. Good food becomes
assimilated to its several purposes by digestion. Epic-
tetus used to say that though you feed sheep on grass, it
is not grass but wool which grows upon their backs. So
if this College teach science as abranch of human culture,
it will reappear as broad cloth, worsted, puddled iron, or
locomotives, according to the digestive capacities of the
Leeds manufacturers who consume it."

BURTON'S ''ULTIMA THULE,"
Ultima Thiilej or, a Summer in Iceland. By Richard
F. Burton. With Historical Introduction, Maps, and
Illustrations. Two vols. (Edinburgh and London :
W. P. Nimmo, 1875.)

OF the 780 pages which make up these two handsome
volumes, only one half is occupied with an account
of Capt. Burton's doings in Iceland during the summer,
June to September 1872, which he spent there. No one, of
course, can conceive Capt. Burton having any temptation
to the production of a mere big book, and we have no

5IO

NATURE

{Oct. 14, 1875

doubt that his object has been to enlighten the British
public as to the real condition of Iceland and its inter-
esting people. Indeed he hints as much in his preface ;
""the main object of the book," he says, "has been to
advocate the development of the island."

Capt. Burton's method of accomplishing his object
will, certainly be effective with those who take a real
interest in Iceland, and who are willing to take
the trouble to master the contents of his two volumes.
The Introduction, covering 260 pages, consists of a con-
densed mass of facts compiled from many sources, relat-
ing to Iceland in all its aspects, and he who studies them
thoroughly will be well rewarded for his pains ; besides
the mere pleasure of adding to his knowledge, he will
possess an excellent vantage-ground from which to watch
the progress of the island and any future attempts that
may be made to increase our knowledge of it. Iceland is
gradually becoming a popular tourist-ground, and when
good hotels are built and the means of travel are im-
proved and organised, no doubt it will be included in the
programme of the omnipresent Cook, Intending travellers,
as well as all who desire to see the most trustworthy in-
formation about Iceland put in an accessible form, ought
to feel grateful to Capt. Burton. He has indeed acted in
a very unselfish manner in thus compiling what is really
a valuable monograph on Iceland, instead of concentrating
the attention of the public exclusively on himself and his
own experiences in the country. So great an explorer as
Capt. Burton has long ago proved himself to be would
have been perfectly justified in so doing, and therefore the
voluntary service he has rendered to Iceland and the
British public is all the more enhanced.

There has been a great deal more written about Iceland
than most people are aware of ; in his Introduction, Mr.
Burton gives a list of no less than fifty works, mostly
English narratives of travel, which have been written
during the present century, not to mention all that has
been written in previous centuries. The author has not,
however, confined himself in collecting his facts and
theories to what has been published, but has drawn largely
on the liberality of willing friends who have made special
studies of various points connected with the country, its
history, and its people. The result is, we beheve, a
handier and more complete account of Iceland than will
be found in any other single work.

The first section of the Introduction treats " Of Thule,"
and consists of a formidably learned discussion as to the
applications which the classical term has had in various
writers and at various times, from Pytheas of Mar-
seilles downwards. Of course the important point in such
a discussion is to ascertain what Pytheas meant by the
term ; and although it seems to us that the few details
concerning " Thule " which have been preserved apply
more appropriately to Iceland than to any other country
which has been proposed, we are inclined to doubt with
St. Martin (" Histoire de Geographe," p. 104) whether
Pytheas ever saw the country, and to think it more
probable that he got his accounts from the inhabitants of
North Britain. This, however, is not the place to discuss
such a question, even had we space. Capt. Burton,
who seems to take delight in advocating improbable
theories, makes much more than we think the evidence
justifies of the few ecclesiastical remains which the

first Norsemen found on the island, and of the tradi-
tions concerning the Irish ecclesiastics who at one time
found their way to the coasts. These latter no doubt
found their way to Iceland at first by accident ; after-
wards very probably they may have resorted to it in
considerable numbers because there they could live in
retirement "far from all men's knowing." But, apart
from these Irish priests, Mr. Burton is inclined to
believe that Iceland may have had a considerable pre-
historic population, the remains of which he does not
despair of seeing brought to light. At present there
is no evidence whatever on which to base such a
belief, and had any such population ever existed in the
island, we maybe almost certain that some indications of
its existence would have been met with during the
thousand years that the Norse have possessed it. The
Bull of Gregory IV., dated about 835 A.D., in which Ice-
land and Greenland seem to be mentioned, cannot but be
regarded with the gravest suspicion} and we have a strong
impression that quite recently conclusive proof has been
found that the names of these two countries are inter-
polations.

Capt. Burton concludes this section by referring to
the various etymologies that have been proposed for
the term "Thule;" we dare say most readers will be
struck with the hopelessness of ever finding an origin
for the word, and with the utterly improbable theories
which the most learned men allow themselves to ad-
vance. Here we may remark that one of the notable
points of the work before us is etymology ; Capt.
Burton seldom, we might with confidence say never, in-
troduces a Norse word — and his pages bristle with them —
without ginng its etymology. This is a most commend-
able feature, though its value is much diminished by the
want of a sufficient index, the three pages at the end of
the work being quite inadequate to a book so rich in facts
of all kinds. We think it would have added to the value
of the work and the comfort of the reader, if a special
etymological index had been given. Capt. Burton's
flights into comparative etymology are sometimes of the
most daring kind. And the reckless way in which he
resorts to Semitic and even Turanian languages for con-
geners to Aryan roots and even Teutonic words, will
rather astonish sober students of the science of lan-
guage.

Besides a sketch of the history of Iceland, the author
furnishes in the Introduction valuable details concerning
the following matters : — Physical Geography, including
Geology, Hydrography, Climate, Chronometry, &c. ;
Political Geography, Anthropology, Education and Pro-
fessions, Zoological Notes (including notes on the Flora,
Agriculture, Fishing, Industry, &c.). Taxation, and a
Catalogue-raisonm of Modern Travels in Iceland, besides
instructions as to what preparations an intending tra-
veller ought to make. Under these various heads there
are many points we should like to notice did space per-
mit ; under all of them the reader will find a vast amount
of useful information, which it must have taken Captain
Burton no little trouble to collect and condense. In
speaking of the chmate, Capt. Burton doubts much if the
Gulf Stream has anything to do with its comparative
mildness, and especially the commonly accepted theory
that a branch of the great " river in the ocean " bifurcates

Oct. 14, 1875J

NATURE

511

off the south-west corner, one arm proceeding northward
and the other along the south coast, both reuniting in the
North Atlantic between Iceland and Norway. We have
certainly much yet to learn about the causes which con-
tribute to form the climate of a country, but without the
action of some such influence as would be derived from
the Gulf Stream, it seems to us difficult to account for
the comparatively mild climate of Iceland as contrasted
with the decidedly Arctic climate of countries in the same
latitude. But this is a dangerous question to enter upon;
what is wanted at present is not so much discussion as
facts.

Capt. Burton tells us in his preface that he " went to
Iceland feeling by instinct that many travellers had pro-
digiously exaggerated their descriptions, possibly because
they had seldom left home." Stay-at-home people will
therefore be grateful that so experienced a traveller and
so trained an observer as Capt. Burton has gone over the
old ground and told them in a plain, matter-of-fact, yet
exceedingly graphic way, what is actually to be seen. In
his account of his tour the usual " stupendous " writing
will not be found, and many indeed may be inclined to
think that the narrative has too much of the " nil
admirari" spirit about it. This is not our opinion : Capt.
Burton shows frequently throughout the work that he is
quite prepared to admire all that is admirable in the
country and its people, and concerning the latter espe-
cially, it was quite time that we should have a sober and
trustworthy account. Travellers hitherto have been too
much inclined to look upon the Icelander under quite
an auroral glow, as a descendant of the " Hardy Norse-
man " with his traditional tawny beard, fair hair, brawny
build, splendid fighting qualities, with an infusion of rude
gentleness. The Icelander is no doubt a descendant of
the dauntless men who contributed their share in the
building up of the English people, but there seems little
reason to doubt that he is a degenerate one. If we can
beheve Capt. Burton, as well as the reports of some other
recent travellers, the chief virtue of the Icelander is lazi-
ness, which keeps him as well from doing harm as positive
good. Even that gentleness of manner and primitive sim-
plicity of social intercourse which early travellers tell us
characterised the people, seem to be rapidly leaving them.
But this is inevitable, and from a practical and humane
point of view not to be regretted ; it is the first stage in the
breaking up of their long lethargy, and to doing away
with a condition of society which is really an anachronism.
There does not seem to be native energy sufficient to the
development of the resources of the country, and it is
well that foreign attention and foreign capital should
be drawn to it, {especially with an eye to the no doubt
extensive sulphur resources ; we believe such intercourse
would benefit the Icelanders by bringing them, with all
their dormant good qualities, into the active life of the
present.

It is unnecessary to follow Capt. Burton in what was to
a great extent a tour, though an unusually critical one,
over previously trodden ground, rather than a journey of
exploiation. He begins at the end with pretty full notes
of a visit to Orkney and Shetland, which he paid on his
return from Iceland. Concerning the prehistoric and
other antiquities of these islands he has of course some-
thing to say, and we commend his criticisms to the anti-

quarian. In Iceland he stayed some time at Reykjavik
before setting out to explore the island, and concerning
the capital, its institutions and people, as well as what is
to be seen in the neighbourhood, he has much to say,
finding a little to praise and a great deal to blame. The
Icelander can obtain a very fair education in his own
country, with even a smattering of science, and it seems
to us that it would not take much to convert the High
School of Reykjavik into a really good high-class school.
Much has been expected to result from the new constitu-
tion granted to Iceland last year ; we have no doubt that
this, combined with other new influences, will have a good
effect upon what we cannot but regard after all as a healthy
scion of a good stock. After spending some days at the
capital Capt. Burton set out on a trip to the north in the
Jon Sigtcr^sson steamship. The principal features of
the west and north-west coast are described with con-
siderable minuteness, and many interesting details given
concerning the various places at which the steamer
stopped— Stykkishdlm, Flatey, Eyri or Isafjord, BorS-
eyri, and Grafards, the termination of the trip. At
every stopping-place Capt, Burton used the short time at
his disposal rrost industriously in making himself ac-
quainted with whatever was noteworthy. Some space is
devoted to the SnaefcllsjokuU (4,577 Danish feet) and its
associations, and to the striking features which charac-
terise the hold noith-west peninsula.

On his return from the northern trip, Capt. Burton made
the popular round from Reykjavik by the Krisuvik sulphur
springs, Hekla, the Geysirs, Thingvellir, back to the
starting-point. Here his observations are especially
minute, and his descriptions somewhat photographic, as
it is in reference to this region that previously travellers
have been specially exaggerative. Capt. Burton has of
course seen too much of some of the most " stupendous '"'
scenery in the world to be much impressed with any of
the features to be seen in this often travelled round. It
is evident, however, that he desired to observe without
bias, and to record impartially what he saw ; and if at times
he seems too depreciatory, there is ample excuse for his
measured statements in the irritation naturally caused by
the ecstatic descriptions of previous travellers. With regard
to the sulphur deposits at Krisuvik and in the My-vatn
district, ample information will be found in the work ;
Mr. Vincent's paper read at the Society of Arts is repro-
duced, and a considerable appendix is devoted to the
subject, consisting of papers by various authorities who
have given attention to the subject. Capt. Burton himself
seems to think that much more can be made out of the
My-vatn district than out of that of Krisuvik.

Hekla, Capt. Burton speaks of as a humbug, and its
ascent mere child's play. "The Hekla of reality is a
commonplace heap, half the height of Hermon, and a
mere pigmy compared with the Andine peaks, rising de-
tached from the plains. ... A pair of white patches re-
present the * eternal snows.' . . . We [there were two young
ladies with him] had nerved ourselves to 'break neck or
limbs, be maimed or boiled alive,' but we looked in vain
for the 'concealed abysses,' for the 'crevasses to be
crossed,' and for places where ' a sUp would be to roll to
destruction.' We did not sight the ' lava-wall, a capital
protection against giddiness.' The snow was anything
but slippery." In short, for those who have never seen

512

NATURE

Oct. 14, 1875

a volcano, Hekla may be a wonder, but as compared with
other volcanoes it is a mere smoking cinder-heap. What-
ever may be the value of Capt. Burton's conclusions, his
minute comparative study of this notable feature of Ice-
landic scenery deserves attention. The Geysirs also he
inspected with considerable minuteness, and concludes
that in their present condition they are " like Hekla, gross
humbugs ; and if their decline continues so rapidly, in a
few years there will be nothing save a vulgar solfatara,
440 by 150 yards in extent."* In this connection a pretty
full account is given of the various attempts which have
been made to account for the action of Geysirs. The
whole of this portion of the narrative we deem of special
value.

Capt. Burton's final trip was to eastern Iceland. He
sailed from Reykjavik to BerufjorS on the east coast.
Thence [he proceeded with a small cavalcade on
ponies north-west by devious ways to the My-vatn, the
lake in the neighbourhood of which sulphur is so plentiful.
The lake itself and the neighbouring district he describes
in considerable detail, and notes carefully the prominent
features to be met with in the route from BerufjorS. On
his return he attempted to climb the steep pyramidal
mountain- of HetSubreiS (5,447 feet), a few miles south
of My-vatn, but after a strenuous effort failed to reach the
summit. He also paid a visit to Snsefell and the northern
boundary of the great glacier Vatnajokull, which for the
first time has been recently crossed by the indomitable
Mr. Watts. Capt. Burton speaks of the glacier with con-
siderable enthusiasm, and gives a minute and striking
picture of all he was able to observe ; and now that Mr.
Watts has shown the way, we may hope ere long to have
its main features observed and described in detail.
While in this region the traveller was in the vicinity of
the mysterious ^central desert of Iceland, the OddSa
Hraun, which the ignorant natives still people with fierce
robbers.

Capt. Burton thus nearly accomplished the circuit of
the island, and it is impossible in the space at our dis-
posal to give any adequate idea of even his personal
narrative. His lively pictures, sketched with the hand of
a master, of Icelandic character and of social life among
all classes, are specially attractive. Nothing worthy of
note escapes his observation, and both the scientific and
the " general "reader will find the work to abound in interest
and ins truction. As a corrective to the usual indiscrimi-
nating narrative of Icelandic travel, it is invaluable. As
we said at the beginning, the work as a whole will give
a better idea of the country from' all points of view than
any other single work hitherto published.

One of the most marked features in Capt. Burton's
style is its digressiveness and excessive allusiveness ; in
the present work he carries it often to a perplexing extent,
and unless the reader be as well-informed as the traveller
himself, he is apt to get bewildered. This feature en-
forces the most careful reading, and we therefore, perhaps,
ought not to consider it a fault.

The lithographic and other illustrations 'which adorn
the work are creditably done and add to its value. The
general map is very good and useful, but would have
been more so had it been on a larger scale. The special
map of the My-vatn and Vatnajokull district is excellent.
The publisher deserves the word of praise which the
author awards him in the preface.

DUPONT AND DE LA GRYE'S ''INDIGENOUS

AND FOREIGN WOODS"
Les Bois indighies et dtrangers : Physiologie, Culture,
Production, Qualitdsjndustrie, Commerce. Par Adolphe
E. Dupont et Bouquet de la Grye. (Paris : Rothschild.
London : Asher and Co., and Williams and Norgate.)
•T^HE science of forest conservation, as is well known,
-»- is much more carefully attended to in France and
Germany than it is in England or even in India, where,
indeed, much has been done of late years in the conser-
vation of the valuable timber trees in which the forests of
our Eastern Empire abound.

Though it cannot be denied that Scotland turns out
some clever foresters, it is in Continental Europe that
forestry is taught under a complete system, practical
lessons and lectures being conducted in the forests them-
selves amongst the very objects which it is the aim of the
student to become closely acquainted with. The forest,
to the young forester, is in every respect what the hospital
is to the medical student. In it he sees the various forms
of disease or of injury resulting from mismanagement,
and by comparison of the effects of judicious and scien-
tific treatment the means of success or failure are practi-
cally demonstrated. It is from these facts that the
curriculum of training young officers for the Indian
forest service, which now obtains, includes a given time
of study in France or Germany. In consideration of
this established and systematic course of instruction, it is
not surprising that there should issue from the Continen-
tal press from time to time some valuable works on forest
produce, either with regard to the cultivation of the trees
or the utilisation and application of their timber.

The work before us is one which we should not expect
to be produced in England, except, perhaps, as a transla-
tion. It is a bulky book of 552 pages, and is of a very
comprehensive nature, including the consideration of
all matters connected with trees from the very beginning
of life to the commercial aspects of the timber trade.
Being the joint production of a naval architect and a con-
servator of forests, each author has done much towards
making the book valuable to all interested in the growth
and production of timber.

The first chapter is devoted to the physiology of plants,
and occupies 128 pages; rather too much, it must be
confessed, when it is borne in mind that a good deal of
the ground has been gone over before in most manuals
of botany : the latter part of the chapter, however, is
interesting, as showing the effects of climate, altitude,
rains, &c. Chapter II, treats of cultivation in its various
phases, and its effects upon the quality of the woods in a
commercial point of view. Passing over the chapter on
forest statistics, in which some interesting comparisons
are given on the extent of forests in France, Germany
Russia, Sweden, Norway, &c., and passing also that on
the working of the forests, in which, however, is a notice
on the production of charcoal— essentially a French in-
dustry— we come to Chapter V., on the quality and
defects of wood. This subject is treated of very fully in
its various bearings ; and with regard to the drying or
desiccating process, which is a very important matter, as
upon it rests nearly the whole question of commercial
value, we have some facts, many of which, though not

Oct. 14, 1875J

NATURE

513

absolutely new, are worth recording, and should be well
known to forest officers. Thus we are told (page 278) the
proportion of water contained in wood varies according
to the season. Schubler and Neuffler found in the fir
(Abies) 53 per cent, in January and 61 in April ; in the
ash {Fraxitnis), 29 per cent, in January and 39 in April.
These facts prove that trees contain more water at the
time of the ascent of the sap than in winter. Besides,
it has been found that small branches contain more free
water than large ones, and that these last contain more
than the trunk, which results agree with the knowledge
we possess of the porous nature of the different parts.
The presence of the bark retards desiccation consider-
ably.

Uhr having had some trees felled in June, after the
ascent of the sap, and then having had them placed in
the shade, found that those from which the bark had been
removed had lost 3453 per cent, of water in July, 3877 in
August, 39'34 in September, 32*62 in October ; whilst
those with the bark untouched had only lost during the
same periods 0*41, o"84, o"92,o"98. Thus it will be seen
that the desiccation of barked wood proceeds much more
rapidly. It is only stripped trunks of small size and soft
wood that dry up with the rapidity above mentioned.

The numerous woodcuts dispersed throughout the book,
and more especially those showing the defects of wood,
are accurate representations of the subjects intended to be
illustrated. A large portion of the book is devoted to the
consideration of felling and cutting up timber, and of
machinery used in its manipulation. J. R. J.

OUR BOOK SHELF

Zur lehre der Parallel-projection vnd der Flcichen. Von

Prof. Dr. Wilhelm Matzka. (Prag, 1874.)
Gruiidziii^e ciner Theorie der cubischen Involutionen.

Von Dr. Emil Weyr. (Prag, 1874.)
These two reprints from the " Abhandlungen der k.
bohm. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften " are purely ma-
thematical, as may be gathered from their titles. The
author of the first treatise states that the orthogonal pro-
jection of broken hnes on given axes, whether in a plane
or in space, has been discussed in scientific works on
theoretical and practical mathematics, but the obliqtie
projection has not obtained so great prominence. The
subject is gone into very thoroughly by Dr. Matzka, as
may be inferred from the fact of its discussion occupying
70 quarto pages.

The work by Dr. Weyr needs only to be mentioned in
these columns, as his exhaustive treatment of any subject
he takes in hand, especially of a geometrical character, is
■well known — " Nihil tetigit, quod non ornavit." The
treatise occupies 54 quarto pages.

Practical Hints on the Selection and Use of the Micro-
scope. By John Phin. (The Industrial Publication
Company, New York.)

The contents of the small volume before us fully justify
the wording of its title. On the other side of the
Atlantic the system of puffing worthless optical instru-
ments seems to be on a much greater scale than in this
country. " To the young student whose means are
limited, and to the country practitioner whose ability to
supply himself with instruments often falls far short of
his desires, the offer of a serviceable microscope for a
couple of dollars is a great temptation, and when the
instrument in question is endorsed by a long list of
clergymen, lawyers, and even editors, this temptation

becomes irresistible." To show what these worthless
microscopes really are, and what ought to be expected of
the most ordinary one, are the main objects the author
has in view in the earlier pages of the work. Further on
he explains the manner of using the instrument, and
the method of mounting specimens for examination.
Accurate formulae are given for the preparation of a large
number of preservative solutions, amongst which we do
not find any sufficiently novel to deserve special mention.
It is in the practical nature of its remarks, and not in
their novelty, that the value of Mr. Phin's short book
rests, and to the tyro it will be found to give information
of real value. Beside Mr. R. B. Tolles, J. Grunow, J.
Zentmayer, and W. Wales are mentioned as manufac-
turers of good objectives in the United States ; and Mr.
McAllister's stands are particularly praised.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[ The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return,
or to correspond with the ivriters of, rejected manuscripts.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.'^

The Sleep of Flowers
In your " Notes " (vol. xii. p. 484) you mention a recent paper
by M. Royer on this little-understood class of phenomena. We are
acquainted with the objects of most of the spontaneous and periodi-
cal movements of plants, but of the physiological means by which
these same movements are effected we know little or nothing. But
it is important to remember that phenomena like in effect may be
diverse in cause. The folding up of petals may have nothing
physiologically in common with that of foliage-leaves. In fact,
these phenomena may be divided into several classes. Thus
movements due to irritation or concussion must be considered
apart from those due to spontaneity, and the movements which
form part of the series of processes of growth, such as the first
unfolding of leaves and flowers, from those which occur in
mature organs, though movements belonging to any two of these
classes may be exhibited by the same plant, as in Oxalis and
Mimosa. Cerens grandijlorus opens between 7 and 8 p.m.,
Mtrabilis jalapa between 5 and 7 P.M. There is every proba-
bility that these times are those at which the insects which fer-
tilise these two species also come forth, and that the same object
exists in the case of other species which open and close
their flowers more than once, "waking" and "sleeping;"
but in the case of Cereus and Mirabilis the movement is one of
growth only, though, no doubt, affected by external influences,
such as the variation of heat and light. We have, however,
cases of true ' ' sleep " in Ipomaa nil and Calystegia sepium, which
open between 3 and 4 a.m. ; Tragopogon, the ligulate florets of
which behave like petals, and which, opening at the same time,
closes again before noon ; Anagallis arvensis, opening at 8 A.M.
and closing when the sky is overcast ; the Mesembryanthaceoe,
which open generally about 12 — Mesembryanthemum nccti-
florum, which opens between 7 and 8 p.m., being an excep-
tion ; and Victoria regia, which opens for the first time about
6 P. M. , closes in a few hours, opens again at 6 A. m, , and closes
finally and sinks in the afternoon ; and in many other cases.
Besides the causes mentioned in your note, the movements have
been attributed to actinism. That they are not hygrometric is
clear from the fact stated by Sachs, on the authority of unpub-
lished experiments by Pfeffer (" Text-book of Botany," p. 798),
that they take place under water. These same experiments
show them to be due to variations in the temperature, and when
the temperature is constant, to variations in the intensity of
light, and also to be accompanied, at least in some cases, with an
increase of the length of the inner side of the phyllre of the
perianth when opening. Light certainly seems to have more to
do with the movements of the "poor man's weather-glass" than
heat, though perhaps atmospheric pressure might equally well be
argued to be their cause. We must remember that as osmotic
action is constantly going on at the root-hairs and in the grow-
ing parts of living plants, so a constant molecular diflusion of
gjSes is going on through cell-walls, besides the passage of gases
through stomata. " The movements of diflusion," as Sachs
says (p. 614), "tend to bring about conditions of equilibrium
which depend on the co-efScients of absorption of the gas by

514

NATURE

\Oct. 14, 1875

a particular cell-fluid, on the molecular condition of the cell-
wall, &c., on temperature, and on the pressure of the air. But
these conditions are continually varying, and the equilibrium con-
tinually disturbed." That a turgescence such as M. Royer
describes occurs in many cases is well known, Space does not
allow a detailed description of the physiological mechanism, but
nearly all we yet know may be found in Sachs, who, however,
attributes the phenomena directly solely to the passage of water
and the elasticity of the cell-walls. Indirectly the cause may
very possibly be heat acting as M. Royer supposes. It would
be interesting to learn the effect of pollination on these plants,
especially whether after it had taken place Vidoi-ia regia would
re-open. G. S. Boulger.

S, Westbury Road

Dehiscence of the Capsules of Collomia
In Mr. Duthie's very interesting account (vol. xii. p. 494) of the
mode of dehiscence of the ca[)sules of this plant, he suggests that
the purpose of the projection of the seeds on to the viscid hairs of
the plant itself may possibly be found in its enabling the plant to
live on its own seeds. Surely this is a superfluous and needlessly
improbable hypothesis. The violent discharge of the seeds is
undoubtedly one of the modes adopted by nature for their dis-
persion to plots of ground where the mineral constituents of the
soil which they mainly require have not been entirely used up by
the parent plant. Their interception by the parent plant is no
doubt accidental. The purpose served by the viscid hairs of
this and other plants .'-till remains to be discovered if we follow
the clue afforded by Mr, Darwin's observations on in?; ctivorous
plants. The violent expulsion of the seeds from the ripe capsule
is a much more common phenomenon than that which we have
exhibited in Collomia, together with a few other plants, as
Acanthus, Ruellia, Eschscholtzia, and Geranium, where the whole
fruit is thrown off together. Mr. Duthie will find a good
description of the phenomenon in Hildebrand's "Die Schleu-
derfriichte und ihr im anatomischen Bau begriindeten Mechanis-
mus," in Pringsheim's "Jahrbui^h" for 1873-74, The author
draws an interesting comparison between the structure of
Collomia, with its single seed in each division, and its apparatus
for projecting these to a distance, and that of the allied genus
Cilia, with its numerous seeds in each division, which possess no
such mechanism, but which, being much lighter, are conse-
quently more easily dispersed by the wind.

Alfred W. Bennett

Oceanic Circulation

Mr. Croll's statement (vol. xii. p. 494), that the North Atlantic
in lat. 38° is above the level of the equator, is based partly^on the
C/'rt//w^^soundings and partly on Muncke's determinations of the
thermal expansion of sea- water, which, however, were not made on
sea-water at all, but on a saline solution prepared for him by
Leopold Gmelin, according to data furnished by the incomplete
analyses of Vogel and Bouillon La Grange. As Mr. Croll's
statement depends on such very minute difterences of volume, I
am led to ask him to compare the rate of expansion of real sea-
water, as determined by Prof. Hubbard, with Muncke's table ;
he will notice a discrepancy sufficiently wide to make it a matter
of interest to ascertain how far the employment of the American
observations may serve to substantiate or modify his conclusion.

Yorkshire College of Science, Oct. 11 G. E. Thorpe

High Waves with a North-west Wind

Your correspondent Capt. Kiddle has again called attention
(vol. xi. p. 386) to the greater height of waves raised by a north-
west wind, over those raised by a S.W. wind. I have observed
the fact twice in the mid- Atlantic, but also very often on the west
coast of Scotland, from which it is evident the phenomenon can
be due to no particular combination of currents.

An examination of synoptic charts, for the dates of many
cases, has convinced me that the phenomenon is due to the
nature of the circulation of the air in a cyclone.

In the south-east portion of a cyclone, where S.W, winds are
found, the wind seems to blow along and almost off the surface
of the sea ; while in the south-west portion, where N, W, winds
are found, the wind seems to bear down on the sea, and
" harrow " it into streaks of foam.

A perfectly analogous phenomenon appears in dust whirls,
where to the right front_of the centre the dust is closely packed,

and tends to rise off the ground ; while behind the centre the
dust is "raked" into streaks by the more downward direction
of the blast.

The portion of the Atlantic about 45° N. latitude, and between
40° and 50° W. longitude, where Capt. Kiddle has observed such
high waves, has long been known as the "Roaring Forties."
An examination of synoptic charts of the North Atlantic, for
every day of the year 1865, show.s that the bad weather in those
parts is generally due to one of two conditions of the distribution
of atmospheric pressure.

In the commoner case, the great area of high barometric
pressure, which constantly covers the North Tropical Atlantic,
stretches northwards to the east of Newfoundland like a wedge,
on the east side of which cyclones are formed which go in an £.
or N.E. direction.

In the rarer but more violent case, the great Atlantic area of
high pressure rises into two heads or humps, one about Madeira,
the other about Bermuda, stretching up to Newfoundland.
Cyclones coming from Labrador work round this hump to the
S.E., and die out in mid- Atlantic. In either case gridients for
N.W. winds, often very steep, are formed between the fortieth
and fiftieth parallels of longitude, Ralph Abercrombv

21, Chapel Street, S,W., Oct, i

Diatoms

I HAVE reason to think that I have made a discovery which
may change the ideas of naturalists as to the nature of some
Diatoms.

In co)X^c\xs\g Di itomacea: I have found a species of N'avicula (?)
which is invested with a gelatinous envelope, and from the edges
of the frustule project a numbsr of long processes or arms of the
same soft nature. These vary much in number, in some speci-
mens being eight or ten, and in others as many as twenty-five or
even more. They are longer than the frustule, and radiate from
it with much regularity. The Diatoms when detected (upon a
floating fucHs common in the sea hereabout) were dead, and I
was unable to detect any movements.

a, the frustule : b, the gelatinous envelope projecting beyond the margin ;
^c c, the processes, or pseudopodia.

T have examined so many individuals of this Diatom that I
think it hardly likely that I have been deceived, as they are by
no means very minute,

Dr, Carpenter, in the fifth edition of his admirable work on
the microscope, speaks of some observations by Mr. Stevenson
on the genus Coscinodiscus, which hint at the possibility of some
Diatoms having appendages projected through apertures of the
frustule. The highest power of my microscope is one of Messrs.
R, and J, Becks, |th, a very fine glass.

I propose to forward as soon as possible the sticks, dry and in
balsam, as well as the "gathenng" in spirits, to a competent
diatomist, who will confirm my observations if correct, and I
send this to Nature to ;^secure priority in case I have really
made a discovery, ' W, W, Wood

Manila, July 20

Oct. 14. 1875]

NATURE

515

Tails of Rats and Mice

It is, I believe, pretty generally supposed that rats and mice
use their tails for feeding purposes in cases where the food to be
eaten is contained in vessels too narrow to admit the entire body
of the animal. I am not aware, however, that the truth of this
supposition has ever been actually tested by any trustworthy
person, and so think that the following simple experiments are
worth publishing.

Having obtained a couple of tall-shaped preserve bottles with
rather short and narrow necks, I filled them to within three
inches of the top with red currant jelly which had only half
stiffened. I covered the bottles with bladder in the ordinary
way, and then stood them in a place frequented by rats. Next
morning the bladder covering each of the Ijottles had a small
hole gnawed through it, and the level of the jelly was reduced in
both bottles to the same extent. Now, as this extent corre-
sponded to about the length of a rat's tail if inserted at the hole
in the bladder, and as this hole was not much more than just
large enough to admit the root of this organ, I do not see that
any further evidence is required to prove the manner in which
the rats obtained the jelly, viz., by repeatedly introducing their
tails into the^ viscid matter, and as repeatedly licking them
clean.

However, to' put the question quite beyond doubt, I refilled
the bottles to the extent of half an inch above the jelly level left
by the rats, and having placed a circle of moist paper upon each
of the jelly surfaces, covered the bottles with bladder as before.
I now left the bottles in a place where there were no rats or
mice, until a good crop of mould had grown upon one of the
moistened piece; of paper. The bottle containing this crop of
mould I then transferred to the place where the rats were
numerous. Next morning the bladder had again been eaten
through at one edge, and upon the mould there were numerous
and distinct tracings of the rats' tails, resembling marks made
with the top of a penholder. These tracings were evidently
caused by the animals sweeping their tails about in the fruitless
endeavour to find a hole in the circle of paper which covered the
jelly. George J. Romanes

Dunskaith, Ross shire

NEWCOMB ON THE URANIA N AND
NEPTUNIAN SYSTEMS.

WHEN the 26-inch equatorial, with an object-glass
" nearly perfect in figure," was mounted at the
United States Naval Observatory, Washington, it was
resolved that its great powers should be first devoted to
systematic observations of the satellites of the exterior
planets, with the view not only to the better determination
of the elements of their orbits, but, more especially, of
the masses of their primaries ; previous attempts in this
direction, from the great difficulties attending observa-
tions, having led to very discordant values. Accordingly
all the minor arrangements of the instrument were com-
pleted with this particular object in view, and no other
regular work of dissimilar character was attempted while
the satellite-observations were in progress.

In the memoir (Washington Observations, 1873, Ap-
pendix I.) to which allusion was made in this column last
week, Professor Newcomb describes generally his method
of observation ; and with respect to his measures of the
inner satellites of Uranus, which he thinks may fairly be
regarded as the most difficult well-known objects in the
heavens, he expresses surprise at the degree of precision
with which he was able to bisect them with the faintly-
illuminated wire of the micrometer, an examination of
the individual measures having shown that they were not
more discordant than those of the outer satellites.

In discussing the observations of the satellites of Ura-
nus, extending from January 1874 to May 1875, circular
elements are assumed for the formation of equations of
condition, and by the usual methods elliptical orbits are
obtained lor each satellite ; but it results that there is but
shght evidence of any real cxcentricity of the orbits, and
none whatever of any mutual inchnation. Circular ele-
ments derived similarly are retained, and Tables for the
ready prediction of the positions of the satellites which

are most essential for their certain observation are
founded upon them, and appended to Prof. Newcomb's
memoir. The most probable mean plane of the orbits is
found to have the following elements : —
Ascending node on earth's equator ... 165° 'lo H- i°'43 (/- 1850)
Inchnation 75* 14 - o -14 (^-1850)

Or, as referred to the ecliptic.

Ascending node 1 65" -48 -H I "•40 (/— 1850)

Inclination 97 '85 - 0013 (/- 1850)

(The motion of the satellites of Uranus is direct upDn
the equator, but retrograde when referred to the ecliptic.)
Other elements are : —

Radius of Period of Revo-

orbit, lution.

I3"78 ... 252038

I9"20 ... 414418

3i"-48 ... 870590

42"io ... 13-46327

Ariel . .
Umbriel
Titania
Oberon

Mean Longitude

2i°-83 .

. i36°-52 .

• 229° -93 .

• 1 54° -83

Mean noon at Washington, 1871, December 31, is taken
for the epoch of mean longitude, which is reckoned from
the point where the orbit intersects the plane p.-irallel to
the earth's equator and passing through the centre of the
planet. The arc values of radii of orbits are for the
distance [i'283[o]. If we assume the mean solar parallax,
8""875, and adopt Clarke's equatorial semi-diameter of the
earth, we find from these values the following distances
of the satellites from Uranus, expressed in English miles.

Ariel 118,100 [ Titania ... 269,800

Umbriel ... 164,550 | Oberon ... 360,800

It may be mentioned that Sir W. Herschel's observa-
tions between the years 1787 and 1798 are brought to
bear upon the determination of the periods of Oberon
and Titania.

For reasons which are given. Prof. Newcomb thinks it
" extremely improbable that the masses of the satellites
exceed Ysh^ °f ^^^^ of the planet," in which case the
Uranocentric perturbations due to mutual action will be
" incapable of detection with any instrumental means yet
known." He mentions that, seen with the 26-inch tele-
scope, the brighter satelUtes, Titania and Oberon, shine
with about the brilliancy of a fourth magnitude star to a
single unassisted eye.

We must not omit to state that the discovery of the
inner satellites, Ariel and Umbriel, is distinctly assigned
by Prof. Newcomb to Mr. Lassell ; indeed, there appears
every reason for believing that these excessively minute
objects have not yet been recognised with any instru-
ments except the Washington refractor and the reflectors
which Mr. Lassell has constructed : the discovery of these
satellites may be dated from the definitive announcement
made by Mr. Lassell to the Royal Astronomical Society
in November 1851. Prof. Newcomb remarks that " where
any difficulty whatever is found in seeing the outer satel-
lites," he would not hesitate to pronounce it impossible to
see the inner ones, and thus it is not likely that the
Bothkamp and other observations can have referred to
the latter.

Though no systematic search was made for additiona-
satellites. Prof. Newcomb believes " he may say with con-
siderable certainty that no satellite within 2' of the planet
and outside of Oberon, having one-third the brilliancy of
the latter, and therefore that none of Sir William
Herschel's supposed outer satellites can have any real
existence."

In the Washington refractor the planet has always pre-
sented a sea-green colour, no variations of tint being ever
noticed. Markings upon the disc were not especially
looked for, but if any had been visible they would hrrdly
have escaped remark.

The observations of the satellite of Neptune are treated
in a very similar manner to those of the satellites of
Uranus. No certain amount of ellipticity is exhibited,

5i6

NATURE

{Oct. 14, 1875

and circular elements are accordingly used in the forma-
tion of tables for the prediction of the positions of the
satellite. For the epoch 1873, December 31, Washington
mean noon, the mean longitude of the satellite, reckoned
from the intersection of the orbit with the plane parallel
to the earth's equator, and passing through the centre of
the planet, was 98°96 ; the node on equator, i83°'03, and
the inclination, i2i°7. The radius of the orbit at the
mean distance of Neptune [1*478 14] is found to be
i6'"'275, or 218,550 miles. The mean motion assumed at
the commencement of the discussion was that founded
upon the observations of Mr. Lassell (Hind, " Monthly
Notices," vol. xv.), and does not appear to admit of any
sensible correction. Prof. Newcomb thinks the motion of
mean longitude is correct within 2° or 3° a century. The
period of revolution of the satellite is 5*8769 days.

No trace of a second satellite of Neptune has ever been
seen, though it has been looked for carefully on several
occasions.

The conclusion to which Prof. Newcomb's investiga-
tions have led, " that the orbits of all the satellites of the
two outer planets are less excentric than those of the
planets of our system, and that, so far as observations
have yet shown, they may be perfect circles," will appear
a remarkable one.

We take this opportunity of presenting the elements of
the orbits of Uranus and Neptune adopted in the Tables
of Prof. Newcomb, as perhaps an acceptable addition to
the preceding outline of his researches on the satellites of
these planets. The values of the major axes here given
are not those which would result from the mean motion
with correction for the mass, but in the case of Uranus
include a constant term in the perturbations of the radius
vector, and in that of Neptune, constants introduced by
the action of the planets, and effect of secular variation of
the longitude of the epoch : —

Uranus.

28° 25' 17"

168 15 6

Mean longitude, )
iSsoJan. o-oG.M.T. \

Longitude of perihelion io» 15 b '7

Ascending node 73 14 8 'o

Inclination o 46 20*5

Excentricity 00469236

Mean motion in the ) j-.^./^.^j

Julian year \ 54-5 75

Semi-axis major 19-19130

Period in days 30686*63

Neptune.

335° 5' 38"-9

43 17 30*3
130 7 31-9
I 47 o • 6
00084962

7864" -935

30*07055
60186-64

CASSOWARIES

LIKE the minor planets. Cassowaries are of late years
continually increasing in number. A short time ago
there was but one "Cassowary" recognised by naturalists,
which was vaguely stated to inhabit "the Moluccas."
Even Mr. Wallace's extensive researches in the Indian
Archipelago only resulted in ascertaining the exact'island
to which the original Casuarius galeaius is restricted,
without making us acquainted with other species. But
recent expeditions into the less known parts of the Papuan
sub-region have led to a much more extended knowledge
of the subject, and we have now arrived at the conclusion
that the genus Casuarius embraces a numerous group of
species, each of which has special distinctive characters
and a peculiar geographical distribution. Six of these
forms of Cassowary are at the present time represented
by specimens living in the Gardens of the Zoological
Society of London, where they have attracted much
attention. It is with the hope of obtaining further exact
information concerning these fine birds from travellers
in the countries which they inhabit that I have drawn up
the following short summary of the present state of our
knowledge of the different species.

The Cassowaries may be divided into three sections, as
shown in the subjoined table \—

Table of Species of the Genus Casuarius.

a. Casside lateraliter compressa ; appendicula cervicis aut duplici
aut divisa.

1. C. gahatus, ex ins. Ceram.

2. C. beccarit, ex ins. Aroensi Wokan.

3. C. australis, ex Australia bor.

4. C. bicarmtadains, ex ins. Aroensibu=;.

b. Casside transversim compressa ; appendicula cervicis unica.

5. C. tiniappendictilatns, ex Papua.

c. Casside transversim compressa ; appendicula cervicis nulla.

6. C, papuanus, ex Papua boreali.

7. C. vjestermanni, ex ins. Papuana Jobie (?).

8. C. picticollis, ex Papua meridionali.

9. C. benneid, ex Nov. Britann.

The first of these sections contains the large species
allied to the original C. galeatns. These have on their
heads an elevated casque, laterally compressed and termi-
nating in a ridge in the same line as the culmen of the
bill. They have also a large fleshy caruncle on the front
of the neck, ending in two distinct flaps. A single species,
which stands somewhat alone and forms a second section,
is also of large size, but has the casque transversely com-
pressed and ending in a ridge at a right angle to the culmen.
It has but one medial throat-wattle, whence it has been
named ziniappendiculatus. The third section embraces the
smaller species allied to Bennett's Cassowary, or the
Mooruk. These have the casque transversely compressed
as in the one-wattled species, but have no wattle on the
throat^only a bare, brightly coloured space. Theyaie
further distinguishable by the extraordinary form of the
claw of the inner toe, which attains a remarkable length
and is used as a weapon of attack. Of these three sections,
the following nine species are now known with more or
less certainty : —

1. The Common Cassowary {G. gahatus), of which
there is now no doubt that the island of Ceram is the true
habitat. Of this species we have now one example, not
yet adult, in the Zoological Society's Gardens.

2. Beccari's Cassowary {C. beccarit).—1\\\s form
is closely allied to C. galeatus, but is easily dis-
tinguishable from it by having only one medial throat-
wattle, which is slightly divided at the extremity. It
has a large elevated casque like the Australian Casso-
wary, and remarkably large strong legs. The species was
originally described by me from a specimen in the Museo
Civico at Genoa, which was brought by Beccari from the
Aroe Islands ; but the living individual now in the Zoolo-
gical Gardens (if it is really of the same species) was
obtained in the south of New Guinea by YiM.S: Basilisk.

3. The Australian Cassowary (C. australis).— Oi
this Cassowary, remarkable in the adult for its large size
and highly elevated casque, we have now two specimens
living in the Gardens. It is a native of Northern Queens-
land and the peninsula of Cape York.

4. The Two-wattled Cassowary (C bicartincu-
latus). — This species, which is easily known, even in the
young condition, by having the wattles separated and
placed far apart on the sides of the neck, was first
described from two examples, formerly living in the
Zoological Gardens, but now dead. There are several
stuffed specimens of it in the Leyden Museum, which,
were undoubtedly obtained in the Aroe Islands.

5. The One-wattled Cassowary (C uniappendicu-
latus). — The single small wattle which ornaments the-
middle of the neck at once distinguishes this fine species,
of which we have now in the Gardens a young specimen
brought by H.M.S. Basilisk from the coast on the nortlr
of New Guinea, opposite Salawatty. There is a good
figure of this Cassowary in the supplement to Gould's
" Birds of Australia."

6. The Papuan Cassowary (C papuaims).—1h:\s
name has been given to two specimens in the Leyden
Museum, obtained near Dorey, in New Guinea, by Rosen-

OcL 14, 1875J

NATURE

517

berg. Prof. Schlegel at first identified them with the
Mooruk, but afterwards admitted their distinctness. My
behef is that they are probably the same as the next
species (C wesfermanm), although the colours of the
neck, as restored in the stuffed specimens, do not quite
agree.

7. Westerman'S cassowary (C westermaHnt).~Th\s
species I established on a bird still living in the Zoological
Gardens, which we received from Mr. Westerman in 1871.
At first I referred this bird to C. kaupi, of Rosenberg,
until that naturalist showed that the pretended species
which he had so named was nothing more than the young
of C. uniappendiculatiis. I then changed our bird's name
to C. ivcsiermanni. I have recently seen two other living
specimens of this bird in the Zoological Gardens at
Rotterdam. It has been suggested that its true home is
the island of Jobie, in the Bay of Geelvink, where Dr.
Meyer ascertained the existence of a Cassowary, but was
not able to procure specimens.

8. The Painted-necked Caszowkkv {C. picticolUs).
— This species was likewise established by me on a speci-
men now living in the Zoological Gardens, which was
obtained by the officers of H.M.S. Basilisk at Discovery
Bay, on the east coast of New Guinea. It greatly resembles
the Mooruk, but differs in its brilliantly-coloured neck, of
which I have given a drawing in the P. Z. S. for the
present year (1875, Part I.)

9. The Mooruk, or Bennett's Cassowary (C. ben-
iietti). — In 1857 Mr, Gould described this Cassowary from
a drawing sent to him by Dr. George Bennett, of Sydney,
and soon afterwards a living pair were sent to us by our
excellent friend, after whom the species had been named.
These birds bred in the Gardens in 1864, but we have
now unfortunately lost them. Bennett's Cassowary is an
inhabitant of New Britain, to the east of New Guinea,
and is easily distinguishable from its congeners by its blue
throat and back of the neck.

Omitting for the moment the doubtful C. ^apuanus, it
will be thus seen that we have tolerably certain indica-
tions of the districts in which the other eight Cassowaries
are found. It would be very desirable, however, to get
further information concerning them, and also to ascer-
tain what is the Cassowary of Jobie, and whether the
other islands adjacent to New Britain possess, as is
probable, indigenous species of this group.

P. L. Sclater

ANOTHER MONSTER REFRACTOR

THE experiment rendered possible, now some ten
years ago, by Mr. Newall, and made with such
triumphant success by Mr. Cooke, is again bearing fruit.
Another monster telescope, indeed the largest yet at-
tempted, is now in course of construction at Mr. Grubb's
new works, near Dublin. This instrument has been
ordered by the Imperial and Royal Austro- Hungarian
Government for the new Observatory now in course of
erection at Vienna. The object-glass will have an aper-
ture of over 26 inches, probably about 27 inches, according
as the discs of glass, which are being manufactured in the
rough, by M. Feil, of Paris, may turn out on finishing.
The focal length is to be about 32 feet. The general form
of mounting will be modified to suit the special require-
ments of such a monster instrument. The great base
casting (weighing some seven to eight tons) will form a
chamber (about 12 feet long, 4 feet 6 inches wide, and 8
feet high) for the clock, which will be massive in propor-
tion to the other parts. The axes will all have their fric-
tion relieved by anti-friction apparatus. The tube will be
entirely of steel, and all the various motions of the instru-
ment, as well as the reading of the different cir jles, will
be available to the observer from the eye-end of the
telescope.

A circular chamber of 45 feet diameter has been pro-
vided in Mr, Grubb's new workshops, to be covered for

the present by a corrugated iron roof 50 feet high. In
this the telescope is to be set up, and over this will be
meanwhile erected an enormous steel dome, revolving on
the system of rollers designed some years since by Mr.
Thomas Grubb, and adopted at Dunsink Observatory,
near Dublin, and at Lord Lindsay's Observatory. All of
this dome and revolving machinery is afterwards to be
removed to Vienna. Thus, by taking do\Vn the stationary
iron roof, when the steel dome is erected over it, the equa-
torial will be placed in perfect working order, under its
own roof in Dublin, for trial. It is proposed to attempt to
illuminate the verniers and circles by Geissler's tubes. If
M. Feil can, as he hopes, perfect the pair of discs required
within twelve months, Mr. Grubb expects to have the whole
instrument complete by the autumn of 1878, in which
year, we may remark, it is not impossible that the British
Association may be invited to Dublin. Should Lord
Rosse's reflector be in order and the Vienna telescope
complete. Section A will certainly muster in great force.

THE DIFFERENCE OF THERMAL ENERGY
TRANSMITTED TO THE EARTH BY RADIA-
TION FROM DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE
SOLAR SURFACE

DERE SECCIII, in the second edition of "Le Soleil," pub-
_ lished at Paris 1875, again calls attention to the result of
his early investigations of the force of radiation emanating from
different regions of the sun's surface, reiterating without modifi-
cation his former opinions regarding the absorption of the radiant
heat by the solar atmosphere. It will be well to bear in mind
that the plan adopted by the ItaHan physicist in his original
researches, on whicli his present opinion is based, was that of
projecting the sun's image on a screen, and then, by means of
thermopiles, measuring the temperature at different points. The.
serious defects inseparable from this method of measuring the
intensity of the radiant heat I need not point out, nor will it be
necessary to urge that a correct determination of the energy
transmitted calls for direct observation of the temperature pro-
duced by the rays projected towards the earth. Accordingly,
on taking up that branch of my investigations of radiant heat
which relates to the difference of intensity transmitted from diffe-
rent parts of the sun's surface, I adopted the method of direct
observation. The progress was slow at the beginning, owing to
the necessity of constructing an astronomical apparatus of unusual
dimensions, but having devised means which rendered the em-
ployment of any desirable focal length practicable, the work has
progressed rapidly. An instrument of 177 metres (58 feet) focal
length, erected to conduct preliminary experiments, has proved
so satisfactory that the construction of one of 30 metres focal
length, which I supposed to be necessary, has been dispensed
with. Considering that the apparent diameter of the sun at a
distance of 177 metres from the observer's eye is 162*4
millimetres even when the earth is in aphelion, the efficacy of
the instrument employed might have been anticipated. The
nature of the device will be readily comprehended by the follow-
ing explanation: — Suppose a telescopic tube 17' 7 metres long,
I metre in diameter, devoid of object-glass and lenses, and
mounted equatorially, to be closed at both ends by metallic plates
or diaphragms, at right angles to the telescopic axis. Suppose
the diaphragm at the upper end to be perforated with two circu-
lar apertures 200 millimetres in diameter, situated one above
the other in the vertical line, 360 millimetres from centre to
centre ; and suppose a third circular perforation whose area is
one-fifth of the apparent area of the solar disc, viz. 72 "6 milli-
metres diameter, to be made on either side of the vertical line.
Suppose, lastly, that the diaphragm which closes the lower end
of the tube be perforated with three small apertures 6 milli-
metres in diameter, whose centres correspond exactly with the
centres of the three large perforations in the upper diaphragm.
The tube being then directed towards the sun, and actinomcters
applied below the three small apertures in the lower diaphragm,
it wi 1 be evident that two of these instruments will, after due
exposure to a clear sun, indicate maximum solar intensity, say
35° C, while the actinomcter applied in line with the perforation
whose area is onc-fifth of the apparent area of the solar disc,

will indicate •— = 7° C, unless the central portion of the solar

5i8

NA TURE

\_Oct. 14, 1875

disc raiiiates more powerfully towards the earth than the
rest, in which case a higher intensity than 7° C. will be
indicated by the actinometer referred to. It will be readily
understood that the solar rays entering through the perforations
at the upper end of the tube, converge at the lower end and
piss through the small perforations, causing maximum indication
of the f jcal actinometers as stated. Now, suppose that a cir-
cular plate, the area of which is exactly % of the apparent area
of the sun, viz. 145-2 millimetres diameter, be inserted concen-
trically in either of the two large perforations of the diaphragm
at the top of the telescopic tube. The apparent diameter of the
sun being as before stated i62'4 millimetres, it will be perceived
that the inserted plate will only partially exclude the solar radia-
tion, and that the rays from a zone l' 42" wide will pass outside
the said plate, converging in the form of a hollow cone at the

lower end of the tube, and there enter the respective actinometer.
The indication of the latter will then show the thermal energy
transmitted by radiation from a zone whose mean width extends
49" from the sun's border. It should be particularly observed
that the three focal actinometers employed will be acted upon
simultaneously by the converged rays, (i) from the entire area of
the solar disc, (2) from a central region containing \ of the area,
and (3) from a zone at the border containing also \ of the area of
the solar disc. It is scarcely necessary to point out that an
accurate comparison of the intensity of the radiant heat emanating
from the central part and from the sun's border calls for simul-
taneous observation, in order to avoid the errors resulting from
change of zenith distance and variation of atmospheric absorption
during the investigation. The great advantage of obtaining also
a simultaneous indication of the intensity transmitted by radiation

Fia 2;

FIG. 3.

from the entire solar disc is self-evident, since this indication
serves as an effectual check on the observed intensities emanating
from the centre and from the border. The latter obviously must
be less, while the former must be greater, for a given area, than
the indication of the focal actinometer which receives the radia-
tion of the entire solar disc.

The foregoing demonstration, based on hypothesis, having
established the possibility of ascertaining by direct observation
the temperature produced by the rays projected from certain
parts of the solar surface, let us now examine the means actu-
ally employed. An observer on the 40th deg. latitude, stationed
on the north side of a building 28 metres high pointing east and
west, can just see the sun pass the meridian, during the summer
solstice, if he occupies a position about 8 metres from such
building. Now, if an opaque screen perforated by a circular
opening 313 millimetres in diameter be placed on the top of the

supposed building, the entire solar disc may be seen through the
same, provided it faces the sun at right angles. But if the per-
foration in the said screen be 140 millimetres in diameter, only \
of the area of the solar disc will be seen. And if the screen be
removed and a circular plate 280 miUimetres in diameter put in
its place, the observer, ranging himself in line with the plate
and the sun's centre, can only see a narrow border i' 42" of the
solar disc. Obviously the screen placed on the top of the build-
ing might be perforated like the upper diaphragm of the sup-
posed telescopic tube, and a plate resembling the lower dia-
phragm, secured by appropriate means near the ground, might be
made to support the focal actinometers in such a manner that
their axes pass through the centres of the perforations of the
screen above the building. It is hardly necessary to state that
the plate supporting the actinometers should be attached to
some mechanism capable of imparting to it a parallactic move-

OcL 14, 1875]

NATURE

519

mett, during the observation, corresponding with the sun's decli-
nation and the earth's diurnal motion ; and, that some adequate
mechanism should be employed for regulating the position of
the perforated screen and adjusting the focal distance in accor-
dance ".vith the change of the subtended angle consequent on the
varying distance from the sun. It will be evident that since the
first-named mechanism rests on the ground, while the latter is
secured to a massive building, far greater steadiness will be
attained by our simple and comparatively inexpensive device,
than by employing a telescopic tube of the most perfect con-
struction mounted equatorially.

With reference to the influence of diffraction, it should be
stated that before determining the size of the screens intended to
shut out certain parts of the solar disc during the investigation,
the amount of inflection of the sun's rays was carefully ascer-
tained. Two distinct methods were adopted : (i) measuring the
additional amount of heat transmitted to the focal thermometers
in consequence of the inflection of the rays ; (2) increasing the
theoretical size of the screens until the effect of inflection was
overcome and the luminous rays completely excluded. Regarding
the first-named method of ascertaining the diff"raction, it is im-
portant to mention that the temperature transmitted to the focal
actinometers by the inflected radiation which passes outside of
the theoretically determined screens is not proportionate to the
inflection ascertained by the process of enlargement referred to.
This circumstance at first rendered the investigation somewhat

complicated, but it soon became evident that the discrepancy is
caused by the comparatively smill inflection of the invisible, heat
rays. It will be seen presently that the radiant heat which
passes outside of the screens in consequence of diffraction U
considerably less than that which would be transmitted to the
focal actinometers if the calorific rays were subjected to an
amount of inflection corresponding with the enlargement of the
screens beyond the theoretical dimensions necessary to exclude
the luminous rays.

Let us first consider the method of ascertaining the inflection
of the rays by measuring the additional amount of heat trans-
mitted to the focal actinometers. Fig. i, see illustration, repre-
sents the solar disc, a being the focal actinometer exposed to the
converged rays, d a' representing an imaginary plane situated
177 metres from a, at which distance the section of the pencil of
converging rays will be 162-4 millimetres in diameter, provided
the earth is near aphelion. Fig. 2 also represents the solar disc,
and c the actinometer exposed to the converged rays ; but a per-
forated screen // b' is interposed, the perforation being of such a
size that only the rays projected by the central half of the solar
disc (indicated by the circle b b) pass through the same and reach
the focal actinometer. The screen b' b' being situated 177 metres
from c when the earth is in the position before referred to, the
said perforation must be ii4'83 millimetres In diameter, in order
that the lines 1^ ;»;' c may be straight Fig. 3 likewise represents
the solar disc, its area being divided in two concentric halves by

the circle dd ; but in place of a perforated screen, an opaque cir-
cular screen d' is introduced at the same distance from the focal
actinometer as in Fig. 2 ; consequently the lines dy'f will be
straight. Now, if the actinometers a, c, and /be exposed to the
converged solar radiation simultaneously and during an equal
interval of time, c and/ receiving the heat from one half of the
solar disc (the former from the central and the latter from the
surrounding half), the temperatures of c and / added together
should correspond exactly with the temperature transmitted from
the entire solar disc to a. Observation, however, shows that
the temperatures of c and / together is o'ogi greater than the
temperature imparted to a. Hence an increase of temperature
of nearly one-eleventh is produced by the inflection of the calorific
rays, one-half being the result of the bending of the rays within
the perforation of the screen b'b\ the other half resulting from
the bending outside of the screen d'. The increment of tempe-
rature being thus known, the degree of inflection may be easily
determined by drawing a circle x x round the circle b b, covering

an additional area of — ^^ = 0-0455 5 a"'^ ^J inscribing a circle

2
yy within ddy covering an area of 0-0455 ^^ss than the area of
d d. It will be perceived on reflection that xx' b represents the
angle of inflection of the calorific rays within the perforation of
the screen b' b' , and that d-/ y represents the angle of inflection
outside of the screen d'. Demonstration shows that the former

angle measures I4""57, while the latter measures 14" -86, the
mean being I4''-7I. Having thus determined the inflection
resulting from invisible radiation, let us now ascertain the inflec-
tion of the luminous rays. As before stated, the apparent
diameter of the sun at a distance of 177 metres from a given
point is 162-4 millimetres when the luminary is furthest from the
earth. Now our investigation shows that a screen 167 milli-
metres in diameter hardly suffices to exclude the luminous rays ;

hence their inflection amounts to

167 - 162-4

= 2-3 millimetres

at a distance of 1 7-7 metres. Their angle of inflection will there-
fore be 26" -8 r, against 14 "-71 for the dark rays. We have thus
incidentally established the fact that the inflection of the luminous
and calorific rays differs nearly in the same proportion as the
calorific energies of the visible and invisible portions of the solar
spectrum.

Our space not admitting of a detailed account of the result ot
the investigation, the leading points only will be presented.
The observations have all been made at noDn, the duration of
the exposure to the sun having been limited to seven minutes,
during which period the actinometers are moved, by the paral-
lactic mechanism, through a distance of about 55 centimetres,
from west to east. The intensity of the radiant heat imparted
to the actinometers has been recorded by the observers at the
termination of the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh minute, the

520

NATURE

\Oct. 14, 1875

exact moment for reading off being indicated by a chronograph*
The relative intensities transmitted by radiation from the centr^
and from the border of the solar disc, first claim our attention-
Fig. 6 represents the solar disc covered by a circular screen
145-25 millimetres in diameter, excluding the rays excepting
from a narrow zone, the mean width of vi'hich is situated 49"
from the border ot the photosphere. Fig. 7 shows a screen
excluding the solar rays excepting from the central portion, the
area of which is precisely equal to the area of the narrow zone in
Fig. 6. The following table shows the intensities transmitted to
the actinometers during an observation, August 25, 1875, the
radiation from the solar disc being then excluded in the manner
shown in Figs. 6 and 7 : —

!me.
4'

Central portion.
Cent.

3" -28

Border.
Cent.

2<'-I9

Rate of

clifTerence.

fS-«7

5'

6'

3° -56
3°73

2''-37
2° -49

7'

3-88

2" -60

IS = ceo,

Mean = 0-667

It should be particularly observed that this table records the
result of four distinct observations ; nor should it be overlooked
that although the intensities vary greatly for each observation in
consequence of the continued exposure to the sun, yet the rates
showing the difference of the intensity of the rays transmitted
from the border, inserted in the last column, is practically the
same for each observation, the discrepancy between the highest
and the lowest rate being only 0-004.* Persons practically
acquainted with the difficulty of ascertaining the intensity of
solar radiation will be surprised at the exactness and consistency
of the indications of our actinometers. This desirable exactness
has been attained by surrounding the actinometers with water-
jackets, which communicate with each other by connecting pipe?,
through which a steady stream of water is circulated. By this
expedient the chambers containing the bulbs of the several ther-
mometers are maintained with critical nicety at equal tempera-
ture, an inexorable condition when the object is to determine
differential temperature with great exactness. Apart from this,
the chambers which contain the bulbs of the thermometers are
air-tight, the radiant heat being admitted through a small aper-
ture at the top of the chamber, covered by a thin crystal.

Referring to the preceding table, it will be seen that the in-
tensity transmitted by radiation from the sun's border, repre-
sented in Fig. 6, is 0-667 of the intensity transmitted from the
central region represented in Fig. 7, the area of each being pre-
cisely alike. From the stated intensity must be deducted the
heat imparted to the actinometer by the inflection of the calorific
rays. The circumference of the perforation of the screen shown
in Fig. 7 being exactly one-half of the circumference of the
screen in Fig. 6, while the central region radiates more power-
fully than the border, fully one-half of the inflected radiation
from the border will be balanced by the inflected radiation
emanating from the central region. Agreeable to the previous
demonstration relating to Figs. 2 and 3, it will be seen that the
unbalanced inflection amounts to 0*029 5 hence the radiation trans-
mitted from the border zone will be 0667 — 0-029 = o'638 of
the intensity of radiation transmitted from the central region.
We have thus shown by a reliable method that the intensity of
the rays directed towards the earth from the border zone suffers
a diminution of I'coo — 0638 — 0-362 of the intensity of the
radiation emanating from the central region. But the mean
depth of the solar atmosphere of the border zone, in the direc-
tion of the earth, is 2-551 greater than the vertical depth, while
the mean depth over the central region referred to is only 0036
greater than the vertical depth of the solar atmosphere. Conse-
quently, if we accept the assumption that the retardation is as
the depth, the absorption by the solar atmosphere cannot exceed

5-^ = 0*144 of the radiant heat emanating from the

2-551-0-036 ^ ^

* All my instruments for measuring radiant heat have been graduated to
the Fahrenheit scale, which practically is more exact than the Centigrade,
owing to its finer divisions. For the benefit of the Continent.il readers of
Nature, and in order to satisfy English and American advocates of the
course Centigrade, the observed temperatures have been reduced to that
cale before being entered in our taWes.

photosphere.* It will be found, on referring to the revised
edition of "Le Soleil," vol. i. p. 212, that P^re Secchi
makes the following statements regarding the absorptive power
of the solar atmosphere, (i) "At the centre of the disc,
that is to say perpendicularly to the surface of t1:e pho-
tosphere, the absorption arrests about f or more exactly
tVt <-'f ttie total force." (2) "The total action of the ab-
sorbing envelope on the hemisphere visible from the sun is
so great that it allows only tircr of the total radiation to pass,
the remainder, namely, //ir. being absorbed." It is unnecessary
to criticise these figures presented by the Roman astronomer,
as a cursory inspection of our table and diagrams is sufficient
to show the fallacy of his computations. Apart from deter-
mining the absorptive power of the solar atmosphere, the most
important problem which may be solved by accurately measur-
ing the intensity of the radiation emanating from various parts
of the disc, is that relating to the sun's emissive power in dif-
ferent directions. In order to decide this question, I have
adopted the plan of measuring the energy of the radiant heat
transmitted from zones crossing the solar d'sc at right angles,
as shown in Figs. 10 and 11. Should it be found that our
actinometers are equally affected by the radiation from these
zones, each of which occupies an arc of 30 deg- containing one-
third of the area of the disc, the inference will be irresistible
that the sun emits heat of equal intensity in all directions. It
should be borne in mind that, agreeable to our method, the
radiations from these zones are observed simultaneously. The
arrangement exhibited in Figs. 10 and 11 hardly needs explana-
tion. Referring to Fig. 10, it will be seen that two segmental
screens are employed excluding the radiant heat, excepting
from tlie zor.e, which is parallel with the sun's equator.
Similar screens are employed (see Fig. Ii) for excluding the
rays excepting from the zone parallel with the sun's polar axis.
The curvatures of the segmental screens, it should be observed,
have been struck to a radius of ninety millimetres, in order to
cut off effectually the inflected radiation from the suh's border.
Obviously diffraction has not called for any correction of our
observations relating to this part of the investigation, since the
inflected radiation from the equatorial zone exactly balances the
inflected radiation from the polar zone. It only remains to be
stated that repeated observations show that the radiant energies
transmitted to the actinometers from the two zones are iden-
tical. The result of observations relating to the radiation
emanating from the polar regions, represented in Figs. 8 and 9,
together with other observations, will be discussed in future
communications. J. Ericsson

SOME LECTURE NOTES ON METEORITES^
III.

A MONG the mineral constituents of meteorites the tmstable sul-
-^^ phides, it is hardly necessary to observe, could with difficulty
be conceived as continuing permanently undecomposed, or as being
even formed under the ordinary conditions of reck formation on
our globe ; and the same remark may be extended, though with
some limitation, to the metallic iron that is so characteristic and
ubiquitous a constituent of almost every, if, indeed, not (as main-
tained by Dr. Lawrence Smith) of every meteorite. On the other
hand, it is to be remembered that the rocks that we are acquainted
with on our globe are only those composing its outer crust;
rocks which represent the results of the corrosive action of the
atmospheric agencies, oxygen, carbonic acid, and water, and
their counterpart the ocean, on whatever material the con-
solidated surface of our planet offered for their action. The
endless cycle of mechanical and chemical disintegration, decom-
position, and reconstruction would be limited to a shallow shell,
and even the fresh matter forced out to the surface in volcanoes,
through the contraction of the cooling globe, would consist in
all likelihood only of the lower-lying layers of an already to a
certain degree metamorphosed material. Whether the inner
core of this planet is still in the meteoric condition — that is to
say, still may contain such minerals as native iron, associated
with nickel, not to say magnesium or calcium sulphides, is a
question not to be lost sight of in explaining the high specific
gravity of our globe as compared with that of the rocks that
form its crust.

* In the first edition of " Le Soleil," p. 264, the author assumes that the
absorption of the calorific rays by the atmosphere " augments in proportion
to the secant of the zenith distance ;" in other words, as the depth of the
atmosphere penetrated by the rays.

t Concluded from p. 507.

I

/. 14. 1875]

NA rURE

52f

That the silicates contained in meteorites should be identical,
or nearly so, with corresponding minerals in our globe seems
only the natural consequence of the identity in the elements
that constitute both. They are essentially magnesium silicates —
namely, olivine the basic, and enstatite (or bronzite) the neutral
silicate, the latter taking the form of augite to an amount corre-
sponding to the calcium present, where this latter element is a
constituent of the meteorite. Where, at the first production of
the meteoric minerals by the union of their elements, the oxygen
was in sufficient amount to allow of a portion of the iron pre-
sent being in the state of an oxide, ferrous oxide is combined in
the silicate, and the meteoric olivines are from this cause gene-
rally ferriferous, and the enstatite also assumes one of the varie-
ties of that mineral which the mineralogist has termed bronzite.
The silicic acid is rarely in excess of the amount requisite to
form an enstatite or augite ; usually the contrary condition is
evidenced by the presence of some olivine. The case of the
occurrence of free silica in the Brcitenbach meteorite, at present
exceptional, may, however, hereafter prove to be characteristic
of a type, and its occurrence, not as quartz, nor even as tridy-
mite (the crystallised silica discovered by von Rath), but in the
form to which I gave the name asmanite, in crystals belonging to
the orthorhombic system with the specific gravity of fused quartz,
seems to point to conditions, probably involving an enormous
temperature, as those under which such meteorites have been
formed, and such as have not been realised in the production of
any of the acid or super-siliceous silicates of our globe. The
felspathic ingredients of meteorites are for the most part basic,
chiefly consisting of anorthite, the most basic of terrestrial
felspars, known as a crystallised mineral in volcanic rocks.
Crystals of meteoric anorthite were measured by Viktor von Lang
at the British Museum, with results quite concordant with those
yielded by the crystals from the volcanoes of our planet. A
felspar with a composition corresponding to that of labradorite,
on the other hand, in the only meteorite in which its presence
has been established beyond doubt, is proved by Tschermak to
crystallise in the cubic system, instead of the anorthic system to
which terrestrial labradorite belongs.

Attempts have been made to classify meteorites according to
their mineralogical constitution. As a provisional method,
such a classification has its uses ; but while we find that the same
meteorite may contain distinct portions which severally would
authorise its being placed in different classes, such a classification
must necessarily be very imperfect.

The best general divisions are those of Gustav Rose ; and in
the following table are classed the various groups of Aerolites,
with a statement of the minerals that are met with in them : —

Aerolites.

Olivine.

Bronzite.

Augite.
^ Nickel- Iron.
' Troilite.
f Augite.
{ Anorthite.
i Nickel- Iron.
f Bronzite or Enstatite.
I Augite (occasional).
/ Nickel-Iron.

Troilite Oldhamite (occasional).
; Osbornite.
) Chromite.
(J Olivine.
•• Chromite.

Olivine.

Enstatite.

Nickel-Iron.

Sulphur.

Carbon.

Troilite.

Chromite.

Hydrocarbons.

The great division of meteorites into iron masses or siderites,
mixed masses or siderolites (the pallasites and mesosideritcs of
Rose), and aerolites or stony meteorites ; and tlie sub-division of
the latter into chondritic and non-chondritic varieties, seems to be
a sufficiently logical division. And among the non-chondritic aero-
lites, those designated in Gustav Rose's classification as Eukrites
form one well-marked group. They consist of anorthite mingled

Chondritic

EUKRITIC

Chladnitic

Chassignitic.

Carbonaceous

sometimes with augite in a crystallogranular admixture, with
nickel-iron, troilite, magnetic pyrites, a little olivine, .ind small
amounts of other minerals. The crystals of anorthite and the
augite in the eukritic meteorite of Juvinas have afforded satis-
factory goniometrical measurements, and been identified as re-
gards their crystalline forms — the former, as before mentioned
by V. von Lang, and the augite by Gustav Rose — with the
corresponding terrestrial minerals ; and it is the eukritic aerolites
which most closely resemble some of our volcanic rocks.

The carbonaceous meteorites form another remarkable though
not a distinct group. In these we meet with minerals
which, if occurring in a terrestrial rock, would lead us to
ascribe to that rock an igneous origin ; they are the same
minerals that occur in other meteorites (olivine, enstatite, &c.),
but are associated with carbon and with a minute amount
of a white or a yellowish crystallisable matter, soluble in
ether and partly so in alcohol, and exhibiting the characters
and the composition of one or more hydrocarbonous bodies
with high melting points. Such an ingredient permeating a
rock on our globe would assuredly be accepted as a product
resulting indirectly from animal or vegetable existence. We
must be cautious, however, in the extending of this generalisation
to celestial hydrocarbons. It seems not at all improbable that
this singular ingredient of these otherwise stony and fire-formed
meteoric rocks may have been taken up by the mass subsequently
to its formation ; perhaps while passing through an atmosphere
of these hydrocarbonous substances in the form of a vapour.
The probability of this is enhanced by the smallness in the
amount (about 0*25 per cent, only) of the white soluble bodies
contained in the aerolite, and by the fact that the whole of it may
be dissolved out from a mass of considerable size by the direct
treatment of the solid aerolite by the boiling solvent, even
without previous pulverisation ; the substance, in short, mechani-
cally fills the pores of the aerolite, but does not appear to be
otherwise contained or entangled in the interior of the silicates
or of the compacter aggregations of these within the meteorite.

The remaining divisions into which aerolites have been
grouped are less distinctly marked, and their boundaries less
fixed than those we have considered. In fact, a more compre-
hensive knowledge of all the varieties of meteorites and the
modes in which their constituent minerals may ht associated
is needed for our forming a complete classification of them, and
it is only necessary to make one observation in order to indicate
the importance of our being able thus to arrange together these
meteorites which are strictly comparable, and may be supposed
to have had a common or at least a similar origin and history.

Such a classification is in fact a necessary preliminary to our
ever successfully dealing with the problem of the periodically
recurrent visitation to our earth of any particular class or group
of meteorites. And it is here that the great collections of
meteorites brought together in the National European Museums
already are, and promise in a far higher degree in the future to
be, so valuable. They offer the opportunities for the most
complete comparison and the widest induction that our limited
material admits of.

It may thus be possible hereafter by their aid to trace such
a periodicity in the falls of meteorites of particular kinds as has
been established in the cases of several meteor showers ; or
again the accumulation of observations recording the directions
from which these bodies fall to the earth may enable us to
connect those of a particular class with some definite direction
that may indicate for these a common source in space. It may
be feared, however, that owing to the species of refraction which
their paths must undergo on entering the atmosphere, and the
great difficulty, if not impossibility, of obtaining very accurate
comparable parallactic observations of their paths, it will be
impossible to rely on any calculated elements of their ori)its before
approaching our planet.

One of the difficulties confronting us in any endeavour to trace
them to their sources, lies in the near similarity of composition of
very large groups of them, such for instance as the entire group
of the chondritic aerolites, or again thjit of the siderites, a
similarity so close in each case as to render it difficult at first
to suppose that the masses belonging to either of these groups
originated under dissimilar conditions, or in widely sundered
regions of space.

A difficulty of a similar kind further presents itself in the
relative importance of nickel as an ingredient in the iron element
of meteorites. One cannot indeed mstitute a comparison in this
respect with the iron of our globe, which cannot be said to exist
within the scope of our knowledge in the native state, while on

522

NATURE

\Oct. 14. 187

the other hand the silicates composing meteorites, and those
constituting the mass of our terrestrial rocks, are alike almost
devoid of nickel ; and a process that would reduce the iron in
such rocks {e.g. serpentine or Iherzolite) as contain traces of this
element would' simultaneously reduce the nickel also to the
metallic condition, as has been shown by Daubree.

Among those who have sought to throw light on the part of
our problem which deals with the chemical history of meteorites,
M. Daubree, the distinguished Director of the Ecole des Mines,
stands forward. He has subjected both meteorites and certain
terrestrial rocks in some respects mineralogically allied to them to
fusion under special conditions. He has, further, reviewed in a
valuable article in the Comptes Rendus of the French Academy,
the two opposite chemical conditions under which aerolitic matter
may be supposed to have assumed its present form ; those namely,
first, of the oxidation with a limited supply of oxygen of the
elements composing a meteorite assumed as combined inter se ;
and secondly, a condition under which a basic ferruginous silicate
may be supposed to be converted into a neutral silicate with the
emancipation of free iron by the operation of reducing agents,
such as hydrogen or carbon, acting on the ferrous silicate at a
high temperature.

In this way an olivine, rich in diferrous silicate, would become
a bronzite poor in ferrous silicate, or become an enstatite without
any iron in it at all, the iron lost in either case by the olivine
being separated as metallic iron ; and M. Daubree performed
transformations of this kind.

Now, the remarkable discovery by the late Prof. Graham of
hydrogen in the Lenarto iron, and that recently made by Wohler
of carbonic oxide in the iron of Ovifak (due, however, probably
in this case to the action of magnetic iron-oxide on the carbon
of the meteorite), and also by Prof. Mallet of the same gas in a
meteoric iron from Virginia, lend some probability to the view of
M. Daubree.

Still the existence of great masses of siderolites like those of
Pallas and from Atacama, rich in ferruginous olivine, and pre-
senting, so far as the analyses may be trusted, no trace of ensta-
tite, or even bronzite, offers a great obstacle to the view that the
iron in these cases was the result of a reduction from olivine.
So again the Breitenbach siderolite, notwithstanding its large
ingredient of free silica (as asmanite) consists largely of a bronzite
very rich in ferrous monosilicate. This bronzite, however, it is
to be said, resists the reducing action of hydrogen at a considerable
temperature.

The similarity, not to say the peculiarity, as well in their chemical
nature as in their mechanical condition that 1 have alluded to as
characterising so many meteorites would seem to impose some
restrictions on our freedom in tracing the origin of these bodies to
distant and dissevered regions of interstellar space. And, indeed,
though a great unity and simplicity in condition and in material
Avould seem to rule throughout thestellar universe, as viewed by our
present means of knowledge, and so far would justify our treating
lightly the sameness of the meteoric material that reaches us as a
check on our reasonings ; yet it is to be borne in mind that the
prism has only begun to interpret for us the language of the stars,
and that further research may introduce complexity, and narrow
the limits of our problem. On the other hand, we can only
reason legitimately from the standing-point of the present ; and
it is equally probable, nay, almost certain, that the stellar
spectra, in wnich, for instance, the lines characterising nickel
have not yet been found, will, on direct search for them, yield
those lines, and then the arguments otherwise converging on the
probability of meteorites coming to us from interstellar space will
acquire an almost conclusive character ; for the difficulties in the
way of our confining their origin to our own solar system are
almost insuperable. Their high proper velocity, often far greater
than that ot the earth in her orbit, the directions of their motion,
sometimes direct, often retrograde, and continually at high angles
to the ecliptic, are not consistent with their being portions of
asteroidal matter sporadically dispersed, while they are still less
so with any explanation of meteorites as resulting from lunar
volcanoes or from any lost telluric satellite, or from satellitic
matter that had escaped the centralising influence of gravitation.

Whether any of the meteorites are intercepted by our earth
while passing nodes common to our orbit, and to long cometary
orbits described by innumerable meteoric groups around the sun,
is a question we cannot answer in the present condition of our
knowledge.

But reasoning by analogy from the movements of the meteor-
swarms that we are acquainted with, this is rendered highly proba-
ble by the identification beyond a question of the orbits of periodic

meteor-swarms with those of known comets, and the statement of
Leverrier that these meteor-swarms are probably vast cosmical
clouds consisting of sparsely-spread particles ; and that some
of them entering our solar system from interstellar space have been
drawn aside by planetary attraction, and have assumed a circum-
solar orbit. When the curve is an ellipse, they of course remain in
our system, and are seen now as comets, or also again in certain
very rare instances, where their orbit intersects with our own, as
star-showers, which recur annually, or at the long intervals sepa-
rating tlieir approach to their perihelia, according as they have
or have not been long enough members of our system for
the meteoric dust to have become more or less equally distributed
along their orbit in a ring, or have still only the form of a pro-
longed cloud continually becoming more and more annular in the
distribution of its ingredient particles.

Four cases of unquestionable accordance between comets and
meteor showers are established in —

The Lyriad meteoric shower (April 20-21) and Comet I. of
1 86 1 (Galle and Weiss).

The Perseids meteoric shower (August lo-ii) and Comet III.
of 1862 (Schiaparelli).

The Leonids meteoric shower (November 13-14) and Comet I.
of 1866 (Oppolzer, Peters, and Schiaparelli).

The Andromedes meteoric shower (November 27-28) and
Biela's Comet (Galle and Weiss).

If we imagine meteorites to have a similar history, but with
the difference that the meteor-particles are assembled into larger
masses or clusters of them, and that these consequently are sepa-
rated from each other by far vaster distances than is the case with
the even widely-spread units that compose a meteor- swarm, we
may comprehend why the meteorite is such a rare visitant
as compared with the meteors proper, of which thousands
must pass into our atmosphere every hour. Indeed, when
we consider what has been before alluded to, touching the com-
paratively loose condition of aggregation of so many meteorites,
and when we remember that the fine dust and little particles of
a meteoric cloud are separated by no such atmosphere, gaseous
or vaporous, as prevents actual contact between surfaces on a
terraqueous globe, we may perhaps go so far as to suppose that if
groups of the individual particular units of a meteor cloud once
should approach each other to a distance small enough to give
their mutual gravitation a sensible influence, they might gradually
collect into masses, and acquire a cohesion more or less compact
according to the conditions imposed on such masses during their
subsequent history. Such is possibly the case with the nuclei of
the comets, which would thus possess the character of a cluster
of meteorites, while the coma is composed of meteoritic particles
of the character of ordinary meteors.

There is one respect in which the comparison of the smaller
meteors with those of greater magnitude and with meteorites
may seem to point to a difference of some importance in the
character of the objects themselves. The velocities usually as-
cribed to the former class of bodies are in many cases very much
higher than that belonging to the larger objects. Thus, a velo-
licity of 140 miles per second has been ascribed to some of the
smaller meteors. Mr. Hind, however, gives the perihelion
velocity of the August swarm at 26 miles per second, which,
added to the motion of the earth (as the meteors are retrograde),
would give a velocity of about 40 miles at a point so near their
perihelion as that in which our earth meets them. On the other
hand, a velocity of from 13 to 40 miles per second is that usually
ascribed to the larger meteoric masses, and to meteorites of
which the actual fall has been witnessed.

Furthermore, we have to consider, on the one hand, the very
great difficulty in determining the parallax of a body moving so
rapidly in the absence of accurate instrumental means of observ-
ing it, and on the other hand, the fact that a large meteoric mass
is sure to be observed best, and by daylight almost exclusively,
during the more brilliant and imposing, and therefore the nearer
and more slowly traversed, portion of its track. Thus the small
particles represented by the ordinary meteor are kindled and
extinguished almost instantaneously in the upper part of the atmo-
sphere, while themeteoroid masses of larger volume are observed
and reasoned upon almost entirely during the more imposing
part of their course, namely, their passage through its lower and
denser regions.

While, then, we are restrained by the facts, as they at present
stand, from separating into different classes of cosmical pheno-
mena the meteors and the meteoroid bodies known as fireballs and
meteorites, and I must add the comets, so are we constrained

Oct. 14, 1875]

NATURE

523

to recognise for all of these bodies — whether on encountering tlie
earth they had become actually members of the solar family or
not — an ultimately extra-solar origin ; that, in fact, whether
they, some or all of them, had become temporarily or penna-
nently imprisoned, as it were, in the vortex of solar attraction,
the probability is that they originally entered our system from the
interstellar spaces beyond it. And it may further be said, that
the tendency of scientific conviction is in the direction of recog-
nising the collection towards and concentration in definite cen-
tres of the matter of the universe, as a cosmical law, rather than
the opposite supposition of such centres being the sources whence
matter is dispersed into space.

In the meteorites that fall on our earth (certainly in con-
siderable numbers) we have to acknowledge the evidence of
a vast and perpetual movement in space of matter otherwise
unseen, about which we can ocly reason as part of a great
feature in the universe, which we have every ground for not
supposing to be confined within the limits of the solar system.

That this matter, whether intercepted or not by the planets
and the sun, should to an ever-increasing amount become en-
tangled in the web of solar and planetary attraction, and that
the same operation should be collecting round other stars and
in distant systems, such moving clouds of meteoric particles as
have been treated by Schiaparelli, Leverrier, and other astro-
nomers, whether as indiviluals or in clusters widely separated,
of wandering stone or iron, is a necessary deduction from the
view that we have assumed regarding the tendency of cosmical
matter to collect towards centres.

But in order to trace the previous stages of the history of any
meteorite, and in particular to determine the conditions under
which its present constitution as a rock took its origin, we have
only for our guide the actual record written on the meteoric mass
itself ; and it is in this direction that the mineralogist is now
working.

But the process is necessarily a gradual one. We may indeed
assert that the meteorites we know have, probably all of them,
been originally formed under conditions from which the presence
of water or of free oxygen to the amount requisite to oxidise
entirely the elements present were excluded ; for this is proved
by the nature of the minerals constituting the meteorites, and by
the way in which the metallic iron is distributed through them.

The progress of solar physics and the reflex light it is likely to
shed on the condition of the primeval chaos of nebular matter,
and the stages by which suns and planets were evolved, will no
doubt help to explain the origin of meteorites ; and possibly they
in turn will be found to offer some not unimportant evidence on
those cosmogenic questions which still belong to the more specu-
lative region of Science.

N. S. Maskelyne

A CITY OF HEALTH*

T T is my object to put forward a theoretical outline of a com-
•^ munity so circumstanced and so maintained by the exercise
of its own free will, guided by scientific knowledge, that in it the
perfection of sanitary results will be approached, if not actually
realised, in the co-existence of the lowest possible general mor-
tality with the highest possible individual longevity. I shall try
to show a working community in which death, if I may apply so
common and expressive a phrase on so solemn a subject — in which
death is kept as nearly as possible in its proper or natural place
in the scheme of life.

Before I proceed to this task, it is right I should ask of the
past what hope there is of any such advancement of human pro-
gress. For as my Lord of Verulam quaintly teaches, "The past
ever deserves that men should stand upon it for awhile to see
which way they should go, but when they have made up their
minds they should hesitate no longer, but proceed with cheerful-
ness." For a moment, then, we will stand on the past.

From this vantage-ground we gather the fact, that onward
with the simple progress of true civilisation the value of life has
increased. F.re yet the words "Sanitary Science" had been
written ; ere yet the heralds of that science, some of whom, in
the persons of our illustrious colleagues Edwin Chadwick and
William Farr, are with us in this f lace at this moment ; ere yet
these heralds had summoned the world to answer for its profligacy
of life, the health and strength of mankind was undergoing im-
provement. One or two striking facts must be sufficient in the

* An Address by Dr. B. W. Richardson, F.R.S., at the Erighton'meeting
of the Social Science Association. Revised'^by the author.

brief space at my disposal to demonstrate this truth. In England,
from 1790 to 18 10, Heberden calculated that the general mor-
tality diminished one-fourth. In France, during the same period,
the same favourable returns were made. The deaths in France,
Berard calculated, were i in 30 in the year 1780, and daring the
eight years from 18 17 to 1828, I in 40, era fourth less. In 1780,
out of 100 new-bom infants in France, 50 died in the two first
years ; in the later period, extending from the time of the census
that was taken in 1817 to 1827, only 38 of the same age died,
an augmentation of infant life equal to 25 per cent. In 178033
many as 55 per cent, died before reaching the age of ten years ;
in the later period 43, or about a fifth less. In 1780 only 21
persons per cent, attained the age of 50 years ; in the later
period 32, or eleven more, reached that term. In 1780 but 15
persons per cent, arrived at 60 years ; in the later period 24
arrived at that age.

Side by side with these facts of the statist we detect other
facts which show that in the progress of civilisation the actual
organic strength and build of the man and woman increases.
Just as in the highest developments of the fine arts the sculptor
and painter place before us the finest imaginative types of
strength, grace, and beauty, so the silent artist, civilisation,
approaches nearer and nearer to perfection, and by evolution ol
form and mind develops what is practically a new order of
physical and mental build. Peron — who first used, if he did
not invent, the little instrument the dynamometer, or muscular
strength measurer — subjected specimens of different stages of
civilisation to the test of his gauge, and discovered that the
strength of the limbs of the natives of Van Dieman's Land and
New Holland was as 50 degrees of power, while that of the
Frenchmen was 69, and of the Englishmen 71. The same order
of facts are maintained in respect to the size of body. The stal-
wart Englishman of to-day can neither get into the armour nor
be placed in the sarcophagus of those sons of men who were
accounted the heroes of the infantile life of the human world.

We discover, moreover, from our view of the past, that the
developments of tenacity of life and of vital power have been
comparatively rapid in their course when they have once com-
menced. Tliere is nothing discoverable to us that would lead to
the conception of a human civilisation extending back over two
hundred generations ; and when in these generations we survey
the actual effect of civilisation — so fragmentary, and over-
shadowed by persistent barbarism — in influencing disease and
mortality, we are reduced to the observation of at most twelve
generations, including our own, engaged indirectly or directly in
the work ot sanitary progress. During this comparatively brief
period, the labour of which, until within a century, has had no
systematic direction, the changes for good that have been efTected
are amongst the most startling of historical facts. Pestilences
which decimated populations, and which, like the great plague of
London, destroyed 7,165 people in a single week, have lost tlieir
virulence ; gaol fever has disappeared, and our gaols, once each
a plague spot, have become, by a strange perversion of civilisa-
tion, the health spots of, at least, one kingdom. The term Black
Death is heard no more ; and ague, from which the London
physician once made a fortune, is now a rare tax even on the
skill of the hard-worked Union Medical Officer.

From the study of the past we are warranted, then, in
assuming that civilisation, unaided by special scientific know-
ledge, reduces disease and lessens mortality, and that the hope
of doing still more by systematic scientific art is fully justified.

I might hereupon proceed to my project straightway. I per-
ceive, however, that it may be urged, that as mere civilising in-
fluences can of themselves effect so much, they might safely be
left to themselves to complete, through the necessity of their
demands, the whole sanitary code. If thus were so, a formula
for a city of health were practically useless. The city would
come without the special call for it.

I think it probable the city would come in the manner de-
scribed, but how long it would be coming is hard to say, for
whatever great results have followed civilisation, the most that
has occurred has been an unexpected, unexplained, and therefore
uncertain arrest of the spread of the grand physical scourges of
mankind. The phenomena have been suppressed, but the root
of not one of them has been touched. Still in our midst are
thousands of enfeebled human organisms which only arc com-
parable with the savage. Still are left amongst us the bases of
every disease that, up to the present hour, has afilicted humanity.

The existing calendar of diseases, studied in connection with
the classical history of them, written for us by the longest un-
broken line of authorities in the world of letters, shows, in un-

524

NATURE

{Oct. 14, 1875

mistakable language, that the imposition of every known malady
of man is coeval with every phase of his recorded life on the
planet. No malady, once originated, has ever actually died out ;
many remain as potent as ever. That wasting fatal scourge,
pulmonary consumption, is the same in character as when
Coelius Aurelianus gave it description ; the cancer of to-day is
the cancer known to Paulus Eginosta ; the Black Death, though
its name is gone, lingers in malignant typhus ; the great plague
of Athens is the modern great plague of England, scarlet fever ;
the dancing mania of the Middle Ages and convulsionary
epidemic of Montmartre, subdued in its violence, is still to be
seen in some American communities, and even at this hour in
the New Forest of England ; smallpox, when the blessed protec-
tion of vaccination is withdrawn, is the same virulent destroyer
as it was when the Arabian Rhazes defined it ; ague lurks yet in
our own island, and, albeit the physician is not enriched by it,
is in no symptom changed from the ague that Celsus knew so
well ; cholera, in its modern representation, is a more terrible
malady than its ancient type, in so far as we have knowledge of
it from ancient learning ; and even that fearful scourge the great
plague of Constantinople, the plague of hallucination and con-
vulsion which raged in the fi f th century of our era, has, in our
time, under the new names of tetanoid fever and cerebro-spinal
meningitis, been met with here and in France, and in Massa-
chusetts has, in the year 1873, laid 747 victims in the dust.

I must cease these illustrations, though I could extend them
fairly over the whole chapter of disease, past and present.
Suflice it if I have proved the general proposition, that disease
is now as it was in the beginning, except that ia some examples
of it it is less virulent ; that the science for extinguishing any
one disease has yet to be learned ; and that, as the bases of
disease exist, untouched by civilisation, so the danger is ever
imminent, unless we specially provide against it ; that the deve-
lopment of disease may occur with original virulence and fatality,
and may at any moment be made active by accidental or syste-
matic ignorance.

I now come to the design I have in hand. Mr. Chadwick has
many times told us that he could build a city that would give
any stated mortality, from fifty, or any number more, to five, or
perhaps some number less, in the thousand annually. I believe
Mr. Chadwick to be correct to the letter in this statement, and
for that reason I have projected a city that shall show the lowest
mortality.

I need not siy no such city exists, and you must pardon me
for drawing upon your imaginations as I describe it. Depicting
nothing whatever but what is at this present moment easily
possible, I shall strive to bring into ready and agreeable view a
community not abundantly favoured by natural resources, which,
under the direction of the scientific knowledge acquired in the
past two generations, has attained a vitality not perfectly natural,
but approaching to that standard. In an artistic sense it would
have been better to have chosen a small town or large village
thin a city for my description ; but as the great mortality of
states is resident in cities, it is practically better to take the
larger and less favoured community. If cities could be trans-
formed, the rest would follow.

Our city, which may be named Hygeia, has the advantage of
being a new foundation, but it is so built that existing cities
might be largely modelled upon it.

The population of the city may be placed at 100,000, living
in 20,000 houses, built on 4,000 acres of land — an average of
twenty-five persons to an acre. This may be considered a large
population for the space occupied, but, since the effect of density
on vitality tells only determinately when it reaches a certain
extreme degree, as in Liverpool and Glasgow, the estimate may
be ventured.

The safety of the population of the city is provided for against
density by the character of the houses, which ensure an equal dis-
tribution of the population. Tall houses overshadowing the
streets, and creating necessity for one entrance to several tene-
ments, are nowhere permitted. In streets devoted to business,
where the tradespeople require a place of mart or shop, the
houses are four stories high, and in some of the western streets
where the houses are separate, three and four storied buildings
are erected ; but on the whole it is found bad to exceed this
range, and as each story is limited to 15 feet, no house is higher
than 60 feet.

The substratum of the city is of two kinds. At its northern
and highest part there is clay ; at its southern and southeastern
gravel. Whatever disadvantages might spring in other places
from a retention of water on a clay soil, is here met by the plan

that is universally followed, of building every house on arches
of solid brickwork. So, where in other towns there are areas,
and kitchens, and servants' offices, there are here subways
through whicli the air flows freely, and down the inclines of
which all currents of water are carried away.

The acreage of our model city allows room for three wide
main streets or boulevards, whicli run from east to west, and
whicii are the main thoroughfares. Beneath each of these is a
subway, a railway along which the heavy traffic of the city is
carried on. The streets from north to south which cross the
main thoroughfares at right angles, and the minor streets which
run parallel, are all wide, and, owing to the lowness of the
houses, are thoroughly ventilated, and in the day are filled with
sunlight. They are planted on each side of the pathways with
trees, and in many places with shrubs and evergreens. All the
interspaces between the backs of houses are gardens. The
churches, hospitals, theatres, banks, lecture-rooms, and other
public buildings, as well as sorfie private buildings such as ware-
houses and stables, stand alone, forming parts of streets, and
occupying the position of several houses. They are surrounded
with garden space, and add not only to the beauty but to the
healthiness of the city. The large houses of the wealthy are
situated in a similar manner.

The streets of the city are paved throughout in the same
material. As yet wood pavement set in asphalte has been found
the best. It is noiseless, cleanly, and durable. Tramways
are nowhere permitted, the system of underground railways being
found amply sufficient for all purposes. The side pavements,
which are everywhere ten feet wide, are of white or light grey
stone. They have a slight incline towards the streets, and the
streets have an incline from their centres towards the margins of
the pavements.

From the circumstance that the houses of our model city are
based on subways, there is no difficulty whatever in cleansing
the streets, no more difficulty than is experienced in Paris. That
disgrace to our modern civilisation, the mud-cart, is not known,
and even the necessity for Mr. E. H. Bayley's roadway movable
tanks for mud sweepings (so much wanted in London and other
towns similarly built) does not exist. The accumulation of mud
and dirt in the streets is washed away every day through side
openings into the jubways, and is conveyed, with the sswage,
to a destination apart from the city. Thus the streets everywhere
are dry and clean, free alike of holes and open drains. Gutter
children are an impossibility in a place where there are no
gutters for their innocent delectation. Instead of the gutter, the
poorest child has the garden ; for the foul sight and smell ot
unwholesome garbage, he has flowers and green sward.

It will be seen, from what has been already told, that in this
our model city there are no underground cellars, ki'chens, or
other caves, which, worse than those ancient British caves that
Nottingham still can show the antiquarian as the once fastnesses
of her savage children, are even now the loathsome residences
of many millions of our domestic and industrial classes. There
is not permitted to be one room underground. The living part
of every house begins on the level of the street. The houses are
built of a brick which has the following sanitary advantages : —
It is glazed, and quite impermeable to water, so that during wet
seasons the walls of the houses are not saturated with tons of
water, as is the case with so many of our present residences.
The bricks are perforated transversely, and at the end of each
there is a wedge opening, into which no mortar is inserted, and
by which all the openings are allowed to communicate with each
other. The walls are in this manner honeycombed, so that there
is in them a constant body of common air let in by side openings
in the outer wall, which air can be changed at pleasure, and, if
required, can be heated from the firegrates of the house. The
bricks intended for the inside wall of the house, those which
form the walls of the rooms, are glazed in different colours,
according to the taste of the owner, and are laid so neatly that
the after adornment of the walls is considered unnecessary, and,
indeed, objectionable. By this means those most unhealthy
parts of household accommodation, layers of mouldy paste and
size, layers of poisonous paper, or layers of absorbing colour
stuff or distemper, are entirely done away with. The walls of
the rooms can be made clean at any time by the simple use of
water, and the ceilings, which are turned in light arches of
thinner brick, or tde, coloured to match the wall, are open to
the same cleansing process. The colour selected for the inner
brickwork is grey, as a rule, that being most agreeable to the
sense of sight ; but various tastes prevail, and art so soon

Oct. 14, 1875I

NATURE

525

nisters to taste, that, in the houses of the wealthy, delightful
patterns of work of Pompeian elegance are soon introduced.

As with the bricks, so with the mortar and the wood em-
ployed in building ; they are rendered, as far as possible, free
of moisture. Sea-sand containing salt, and wood that has been
saturated with sea-water, two common commodities in badly-
built houses, find no place in our modern city.

The most radical changes in the houses of our city are in the
chimneys, the roofs, the kitchens, and their adjoining offices.
The chimneys, arranged after the manner prorosed by Mr.
Spencer \Yells, are all connected with central shafts, into which
the smoke is drawn, and, afler being passed through a gas
furnace to destroy the free carbon, is discharged colourless into
the open air. 1 he city, therefore, at the "expense of a small
smoke rate, is free of raised chimneys and of the intolerable
nuisance of smoke. The roofs of the houses are but slightly
arched, and are indeed all but flat. They are covered either with
asphalte, which experience, out of our supposed city, has proved
to last long and to be easily repaired, or with flat tile. The roofs,
barricaded round with iron palisade, tastefully painted, mrke
excellent outdoor grounds for every house. In some instances
flowers are cultivated on them.

The housewife must not be shocked when she hears that the
kitchens of our model city, and all the kitchen offices, are imme-
diately beneath these garden roofs ; are, in fact, in the upper floor
of the house instead of the lower. In every point of view, sani-
tary and economical, this arrangement succeeds admirably. The
kitchen is lighted to perfection, so that all uncleanliness is at
once detected. The smell which arises from cooking is never
disseminated through the rooms of the house. In conveying the
cooked food from the kitchen, in houses where there is no lift,
the heavy- weighted dishes have to be conveyed down, the emptied
and lighter dishes upstairs. The hot water from the kitchen
boiler is distributed easily by conducting pipes into the lower
rooms, so that in every room and bedroom hot and cold water
can at all times be obtained for washing or cleaning purposes ;
and as on every floor there is a sink for receiving waste water, the
carrying of heavy pails from floor to floor is not required. The
scullery, which is by the side of the kitchen, is provided with a
copper and all the appliances for laundry work ; and when that is
done at home, the open places on the roof above make an
excellent drying ground.

In the wall of the scullery is the upper opening to the shaft
of the dust-bin. This shaft, open to the air from the} roof,
extends to the bin under the basement of the house. A sliding
door in the wall opens into the shaft to receive the dust, and this
plan is carried out on every floor. The coal-bin is off the
scullery, and is ventilated into the air through a shaft, also
passing through the roof.

On the landing in the second or middle stories of the three-
storied houses thtre is a bath-room, supplied with hot and cold
water from the kitchen above. The floor of the kitchen and of
all the upper stories is slightly raised in the centre, and is of
smooth grey tile ; the floor of the bath-room is the same. In
the living-rooms, where the floors are of wood, a true oak margin
of floor extends two feet around each room. Over this no carpet
is ever laid. It is kept bright and clean by the old-fashioned
bees' -wax and turpentine, and the air is made fresh and ozonic by
the process.

Considering that a third part of the life of man is, or should
be, spent in sleep, great care is taken with the bedrooms, so
that they shall be thoroughly lighted, roomy, and ventilated.
Twelve hundred cubic feet of space is allowed for each sleeper,
and >from the sleeping apartments all unnecessary articles of
furniture and of dress are rigorously excluded. Old clothes, old
shoes, and other offensive articles of the same order are never
permitted to have residence there. In most instances the rooms
on the first floor are made the bedrooms, and the lower the
living-rooms. In the larger houses bedrooms are carried out in
the upper floor for the use of the domestics.

To facilitate communication between the kitchen and the
entrance-hall, so that articles of food, fuel, and the like may be
carried up, a shaft runs in the partition between two houses, and
carries a basket lift in all houses that are above two stories high.
Every heavy thing to and from the kitchen is thus carried up and
down from floor to floor and from the top to the basement, and
much unnecssary labour is thereby saved. In the two-storied
houses the lift is unnecessary. A flight of outer steps leads to
the upper or kitchen floor.

{,To be conHnutd.\

NOTES

The reorganisation 'of the German Seewarle at Hamburg
makes very satisfactory progress. To the Third Section is
assigned the duty of issuing slorm-warnings for the German
coasts, and the investigation of the meteorological conditions on
which the warnings depend. Hitherto meteorology has been
prosecuted in Germany exclusively in its climatic aspects. It is
now intended, whilst keeping in view what is required for
climatic researches, to give more special attention to the investi-
gation of weather-condition?, simultaneously observed over a
wide area, and to the movements and changes taking place in
the great currents of the atmosphere. In carrying out these
objects, stations of the first order are established at Hamburg,
Memel, Neufahrwasscr, near Danzig, Swinemiinde, Warce-
miinde, Keitum in Sylt, Borkum, Wilhelmshafen, and Kiel, at
which, in addition to the ordinary instruments of observation,
self- registering barometers and anemometers are erected. At
these places observations are made at 8 a.m., noon, and 4 and
8 P.M., of which the observations at 8 a.m. and 4 p.m. are sent
by telegraph to Hamburg. To these nine stations and some
others on the German coasts at which wind and weather only are
noted, the Seewaite intends to add sixteen others, situated
inland in diflerent parts of Germany, in selecting which particular
attention is to be given to the position of the station and the
instruments, so that really good observatio;)s of wind and tem-
perature will in each case be furnished. The action taken by
the German Seewaite to secure that the observations of tempera-
ture and wind will be of such a quality that they can be used in
scientific^investigations of weather changes, is deserving of all
p raise, the more so since these observations as at present made
are often of very doubtful quality and in many cases worse than
useless, considered as data for weather-inquiries.

On the occasion of the centenary of the Genevan Society of
Arts, founded in 1776, that body proposes to offer a number of
prizes in its various departments. A most important service
which the Academy will render to horology will be the
International Competition in the Regulation of Pocket Chrono-
meters. The trials of these chronometers will take place at the
Geneva Observatory, under the superintendence of M. Planta-
mour, the director. All chronometers intended for the com-
petition must be forwarded to him before mid-day of
February 14, 1876. All competitors not resident in Geneva
»hould correspond with the Observatory through a resident
agent, who will manage all the details. M. J, B. Grandjean,
president ©f the Section of Horology of the class, offers his [ser-
vices gratuitously to makers who have no agent in Geneva.
Each chronometer should be accompanied by a paper containing
data to identify the chronometer, details of its construction, &c.
The trial will last fifty-two days from February 15, 1876, divided
into nine periods. In a hot chamber and in an ice-house {^/aal're)
the chronometers will be tested by being placed in all possible
positions. All chronometers not complying with the following
conditions will be excluded from competition :— i. The mean
variation from day to day ought not to exceed six-tenths of a
second so long as the chronometer preserves the same position in
the Hall of the Observatory. 2. The values which express the
mean rates during each of the periods except that of the hot
chamber and the ice-house, ought to agree with their mean in the
limits of two seconds more or less. 3. The error of compen.
sation determined by the comparison of the rates in the hot
chamber and in the ice-house ought not to exceed two-tenths of a
second of degree centigrade. 4. The difference of rates between
periods six and nine (both in the Observatory Hall, horizontal
position, dial above), />. before and after the proofs relative to
temperature, ought not to be above one second in twenty-four
hours. The value of the results obtained in the trials which con-

526

NATURE

\Pct. 14, 1875

cem the two former conditions will have an importance double
that which will be given to the two latter. No competitor can
receive two prizes. A sum of 3,000 francs at least will be
devoted for the purpose of awarding gold medals, or an equiva-
lent value, to competitors who will have been judged worthy.
A number of medals in silver and bronze will also be awarded.
Those who wish for further details concerning this and other
competitions, should apply to the Secretary of the Academy.

Our readers will hear with regret that the well-known
observatory at Twickenham' belonging to Mr. Bishop, and pre-
sided over by Mr. Hind, is shortly to be dismantled and the
instruments presented to the Royal Observatory at Naples.
This, however, will probably not take place till the latter part
of next year. Mr. Bishop has, we believe, been induced to part
with his Twickenham property mainly on account of the benefit
he found from residence in a southern climate. Not wishing to
sell his scientific apparatus, he offered it by letter through Prof,
de Gasparis to the Italian Government for the use of the Royal
Observatory of Naples, where we believe an equatorial instru-
ment of about the dimensions of the one at Twickenham was
much desired. The offer was accepted in the first instance by
telegram, and Mr. Bishop has this week received the formal
authorisation of the Italian Minister of Public Instruction per-
mitting the gift for the use of the Observatory at Naples. The
most useful portion of the valuable library collected by Mr.
Bishop's father (so long treasurer of the Royal Astronomical
Society) may probably accompany the instruments.

In 1859 Napoleon III. published a decree ordering that a
prize of 20,000 francs should be presented every two years by the
French Institute, each of the five academies being in turn autho-
rised to nominate the candidate, and the choice to be ratified by
the whole body of the Institute. The first laureate was M.
Thiers, proposed by the Academic Francaise for 1861, on the
ground of the excellency of his historical works. In 1863 the
prize was proposed by the Academy of Inscriptions, and given
to M. Jules Oppert, for his Assyrian discoveries. In 1865 M.
Wurtz was proposed by the Academy of Sciences, for his
discoveries in chemistry. In 1867 M. Henri Martin was se-
lected by the Academy of Moral Sciences, for his Histo'.y of
France. In 1869 M. Guizot was elected by the Academic Fran-
caise, using its right for the second time. In 1873 the Academy
of Inscriptions selected M. Mariette, for his Egyptian discoveries.
The Academy of Sciences having to exert its prerogative this
year, has, it is stated, selected M. Paul Btrt,. It appears that
the ground of selection is his "discoveries on the effects of oxy-
gen in the act of respiration." M. Claude Bernard declared that
these discoveries are the most astounding which have been made
since Priestley dicovered that gas. These conclusions will not
be accepted without opposition, even in France, although the
Academy is said to have ratified the award without any objection.
The lamented Zenith's ascent was organised in order to test the
accuracy of M. Bert's conclusions.

The Natural Science Lectures at Cambridge during the
Michaelmas term present several new features of interest. The
list of lectures, practical courses, and classes is now, happily,
so long that it is impossible for us to notice them in detail.
Prof. Dewar will commence his career as a Cambridge Professor,
and inaugurate a new departure in the history of the Jacksonian
Chair, by lecturing on Dissociation and Thermal Chemistry.
Prof. Liveing's laborious course of instruction in Spectroscopic
Analysis, in which successive batches of students are taught at
successive hours of the afternoon, will be resumed. Mr. Apjohn
will lecture on Volumetric Analysis, at Caius Laboratory, and
Dr. H. N. Martin on Physiological Chemistry at Christ's Col-
lege. Prof. Livehig promises a course on the History of Che-
mistry in the* ensuing May term. In addition to Mr. Bridge's

ordinary course of practical work in Comparative Anatomy, a
valuable series of lectures with practical instruction in Morpho-
logy will be given by Mr. F. Balfour, of Trinity, and Mr. A. M.
Marshall, of St. John's. Dr. Michael Foster's usual course of
Practical Physiology and Histology will this term meet in two
sections, elementary and advanced. Prof. Hughes's courses are
divided into three sets. On Tuesdays he will lecture on Physical
Geography and Elementary Geology ; Thursdays, on the period
represented by the depositions between the Lower New Red
(Permian) and the top of the chalk inclusive; Saturdays, on
various unconnected vexed questions. Prof. Hughes may be
expected to propound many novel views, which Prof. Hull
called heresies at Bristol, as to the Permian, Rha^tic, and Tri-
assic beds.

Prof. Stokes lectures at Cambridge this term on Double
Refraction and Polarisation, Prof. Challis on Practical As-
tronomy and Magnetism, and Prof. Cayley on a course of Pure
Mathematics.

Intelligence has been received at Sydney that the expedi-
tion under tlie leadership of Mr. Macleay, which left Sydney in
the Chevert about four months ago to explore New Guinea, has
become disorganised, and is returning. At the same time a
report has reached Sydney that a large navigable river has
been discovered in New Guinea.

During the past week the Social Science Association has been
holding its meetings at Brighton. In all the Sections much busi-
ness was done in the way of reading papers and subsequent dis-
cussion, though we regret to see that the attendance, especially of
townspeople, was considerably below previous years. Few of the
papers call for notice by us. The most striking, if not indeed
the most valuable paper read, was that of Dr. B. W. Richard-
son, which we print elsewhere. The inaugural address, by Lord
Aberdare, dealt with the subject of " Crime." Of other papers
read we may note that of Sir Charles Reed, president of the
Education Section, on the subject^of " Education," principally
dealing with its elementary aspect. A paper was read by the
Hon. G. C. Brodrick on the question, " How can the influence
of the Universities be most effectively exerted in the general
education of the country?" Among other methods of reform
he advocated the encouragement of literary and scientific
research by University grants. Mr. Brodrick evidently is of
opinion that our two great Universities are still far behind the
age, and this was the tone of the discussion which followed.
Miss Sherriff's paper on the question, " Is a fair proportion of
the endowments of the country made applicable to female
education ?" is worthy of attention. In the course ot the paper
she gave an account of the progress of the Girls' Public Day
School Company.

The Sea-Lions, the expected arrival of which we mentioned
last week, reached London on Tuesday, and were forwarded to
Brighton yesterday.

Dr. Carpenter has declined to stand for the Lord Rector-
ship of Aberdeen University.;

Dr. W. J. Russell has been appointed Examiner in Chemistry
at the Royal College of Physicians, London.

The open Scholarship at St. Bartholomew's Hospital, value
100/., has been awarded this year to Mr. C. Pardey Lukis.

We have had forwarded to us two photographs of a mounted
specimen of an almost complete Solitaire {Pezophaps solitarius),
found, with a second, in the island of Rodriguez, in the June of
this year, by Mr. J. Caldwell, the Assistant Colonial Secretary
of Mauritius, and Sergeant Morris. These specimens, together
with that procured by Mr. Slater, one of the naturalists to the
Venus Transit Expedition, will settle some points in the oste-

Oct. 14, 1875J

NATURE

527

ology of the peculiar extinct Columbine bird?, of which so many
separate bones have been obtained.

Some interesting results were given by Mr. H. M, Taylor,
Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge, in a paper
" On the Relative Values of the Pieces at Chess," read before
the British Association at Bristol. He found by a mathema-
tical process that if .'a knight and king of different colours were
placed on a chessboard at random, the odds against the king
being in check were li to i ; if a bishop and a king, 31 to 5 ; if a
rook and a king, 7 to 2 ; and if a queen and a king, 23 to 13. If,
however, we consider only safe check {i.e. check in which the
king is unable to take the piece), the odds are respectively 1 1 to
I, 131 to 13, 5 to I, 107 to 37. From these numbers we can
obtain a fair theoretical [measure of the relative values of the
pieces. Thus, if we take as our measure the chance of safe check,
the values of the knight, bishop, rook, and queen are in the ratio
12, 13, 24, 37, while the^alues of these pieces in the same order
as given by Staunton are 3 '05, 3*50, 5 '48, and 9*94, the value
of the pawn being taken as unity. Mr. Taylor remarks that the
value of a pawn depends so much on the fact that it is possible
to convert it into a queen, that the method does not appear appli-
cable to it.

Messrs. H, S. King and Co. v/ill publish, during the forth-
coming season, the following new volumes lof their International
Scientific Series : — " Animal Parasites and Messmates," by M.
Van Beneden, Professor of the University of Louvain, and Corre-
spondent of the Institute of France. It will contain eighty-three
illustrations. — "The Nature of Light," with a general account
of physical optics, by Dr. Eugene Lommel, Professor of Physics
in the University of Erlangen. This work will contain a table of
spectra in chromolithography and a large number of other illus-
trations.— "The Five Senses of Man," by Professor Bernstein,
of the University of Halle, — "Fermentations," by Professor
Schutzenberger, Director of the Chemical Laboratory at the
Sorbonne ; and a new edition of Dr. Hermann Vogel's " Chemi-
cal Effects of Light and Photography."

Two nests of English Humble-bees were last week sent to
New Zealand by Mr. Frank Buckland, for the Canterbury Accli-
matisation Society. These insects are specially desired in New
Zealand for the purpose of fertilising the common clover ; the
proboscis of the common bee is not sufficiently long to reach
down to the pollen of the clover flower, while the humble-bee
is enabled to do so. In this way the insect is expected to do
great service to the agriculturist by largely extending the growth
of the clover. The bees were packed in their own nests in
two boxes, and will be under the charge of a member of the
New Zealand Council, who is provided with every necessary for
their welfare during the voyage. They are expected to arrive
about the middle of January — midsummer at the antipodes.

The production of silk in South America is rapidly increasing
both in quantity and quality. At a local exhibition recently held
at Buenos Ayres, some samples, both raw and manufactured,
were shown, which compared favourably with the best silks of
Asia. The climate of Brazil seems to be especially well suited for
the cultivation of the silkworm, which feeds on the leaves of the
Palma christi, a plant which grows in abundance in the country.
The Government of Brazil is said to be contemplating offering
subsidies for the cultivation of silkworms in the country.

Almost every day the French Journal Officicl publishes a list
of professorships created by the Government in the several acade-
mies, principally in the provinces, in order to enable them to sus-
tain any competition which may be eventually offered by the free
academies. The law of the liberty of instruction will benefit
unquestionably not only the [public at large, but also the official
universities, in raising a spirit of emulation.

A PROFESSOR of the Academy of Grenoble, M. Violle, made
several balloon ascents in the Alps last summer in order to
measure the degree of heat generated by the sun, and conse-
quently the temperature emanating from that body. It is said by
the Liberti that M. Violle is quite opposed to the idea that the
degree of temperature is immense ; he says that it is not much
hotter than temperatures produced in the laboratories. Details
will shortly be published in the Comptes Rendus.

The Geographical Magazine for October 'contains a detailed
account of the voyage of the Arctic Expedition from Portsmouth
to Waigat, and of the work of the Valorous. A map of part of
the North Atlantic showing the tracks of the three ships accom-
panies the paper, the sea being tinted according to depth. There
is also a section of the Atlantic showing the soundings of the
Valorous, and a plan of the harbour of Holsteinberg, off which
the ship grounded.

The Times and other London papers of Tuesday contain
letters from members of the Pandora Arctic Expedition, under
Capt. Young. The expedition reached Disco on August 7, and
all was going well, though on the way out squalls and contrary
winds had been met with. Capt. Young was to leave Disco on
the loth.

Prof. Ed. Morren has published a small biography of
Charles de I'Escluse, commonly known as Clusius, after whom a
small order of plants was named by Lindley. Born in 1526 and
dying in 1609, he was for sixteen years Professor of Botany at
the University of Liege. His works are comprised in two folio
volumes — " Rariorum Plantarum Historia," and " Exoticorum
Libri Decern," and he was one of the pre-Linnean naturalists
who attempted a classification of plants founded on artificial
characters.

The first part has just been published of the long- announced
"Medicinal Plants," by Messrs. Bentley and Trimen. Each
part is to contain eight coloured plates of plants included in the
Pharmacopoeia of Britain, India, or the United States, together
with letterpress comprising a full description of the plant, its
nomenclature, geographical distribution, &c., and an account of
its properties and uses.

In a recent number 'of the Transactions of the Academy of
Science of St, Louis, Mr. Charles Riley describes the curious
habits of two insects which occur alive in [the pitchers of Sarra-
cenia variolaris. The first is [a small moth (Xanthoptera semi-
crocea), whichllays its eggs within the pitcher. The young cater-
pillars there weave a gossamer-like web and feed on the cellular
tissue of the leaf. The putrid remains of insects previously cap-
tured, which have perished, are covered over by the excrements
of these caterpillars. The second is a dipterous insect {SarcO'
phaga sarraceniic). The mature fly is stated to drop a number of
the larvse into the pitcher, where they feed on the decaying remains
of other insects, and finally burrow through the bottom of the
pitcher into the ground, where they undergo their transforma-
tions.

The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens'during the
past week include a Campbell's Monkey {Cercopiihecus campbelli)
from W. Africa, presented by Miss A. J. Brown ; a Brown Bear
(Ursus arctos) from Russia, presented by Mr. A. Vale ; two
Vervet Monkeys {Cercopithecus lalandii) from S. Africa, pre-
sented by Mr. Abbett ; two Grey-breasted Parrakeets (Bolbo-
rhynchus vionachus) from Monte Video, presented by Miss
Maiden ; a Peewit ( Vanellus cristatus), European, presented by
Dr. William Brewer ; a Brown Bear {Ursus arctos) from Russia,
two Argus Pheasants {Argus giganteus) from Malacca, an Alli-
gator {Alligator mississippiensii) from the Mississippi, a Common
Snake ( Tropidonoius nairix) from South Tyrol, deposited ; two
Graceful Ground Doves {Geoptlia cunuita) from Austraha, re-
ceived in exchange ; a Scolopaceous Rail {Aravius scolopaccus)
from S. America, purchasei

528

NA TURE

\Oct. 14, 1875

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

The Journal of the Chemical Society, July and August, 1875.
— These numbers contain the following papers, besides the usual
number of abstracts from other serials : — On Narcotine, Cotar-
nine, and I lydrocotarnine (Part I.), by G. H. Beckett and Dr.
C. R. A. Wright. The authors first treat of the preparation of
cotarnine, then of its conversion into hydrocotarnine, and the
action of oxidising agents upon the latter. Finally, there are
accounts of the action of nascent hydrogen, of boilmg baryta
water, and of ordinary water on narcotine. As an appendix to
this interesting paper we have a treatise by Dr. F. Pierce, on
the Physiological Action of Cotarnine and Hydrocotarnine. It
appears from this that the addition of hydrogen to cotarnine
converts a base which is apparently inert into a very active
substance, the change in physiological action being far more
striking even than the alteration brought about in the physical
and chemical properties.— On Andrewsite and Chalkosidehte, by
Prof. Story Maskelyne. — An Examination of Methods for effect-
ing the quantitative separation ot Iron Sesquioxide, Alumina,
and Phosphoric Acid, by Dr. Walter Flight ; this paper is very
elaborate and interesting. — On a New Method of Supporting
Crucibles ia Gas I'^urnaces, by C. Griffin. — On some points in
Examination of Waters by the Ammonia method, by W. II.
Deering. — On the Structure and Composition of certain Pseudo-
morphic Crystals, having the form of Orthoclase, by J. Arthur
Phillips. — On Sodium Ethylthiosulphate, by Wm. Ramsay. —
On the Action of Organic Acids and their Anhydrides on the
Natural Alkaloids (Part IV.) by G. H. Beckett and Dr. C. R.
A. Wright The authors treat of the action of polybasic acids
on morphine and codeine, of succinic acid on morphine, of
camphoric acid on codeine and morphine, of tartaric and
oxalic acids on codeine, and of oxalic acid on morphine. — A
note, by the same authors, on the Sulphates of Narceine and
other Narceine deiivatives ; giving an account of the action of
nascent hydrogen, of acetic anhydride, and of ethyliodide
upon narceine. — On the Action of Chlorine on Pyrogallol, by
John Stenhouse and Ch. E. Groves ; the authors speak of two
substances not described before, with such minuteness, and call
them Mairogallol and Leucogallol. —In an appendix Mr. W. J.
Lewis gives an account of the crystallographic characters of
IMairogallol. — On the Action of Dilute Mineral Acids on Bleach-
ing Powder, by Ferdinand Kopfer ; a very elaborate treatise
with numerous tables and results of analysis, going far to eluci-
date the still somewhat doubtful chemical composition of the
substance commonly known as " chloride of lime."

The most important article in the Journal of Botany for
September is by Mr. J. W. Clark, " On the absorption of
nutritive material by the leaves of some insectivorous plants."
In a veiy carefully conducted series of experiments, a number of
llics were supplied to the bases of Drosera rotundifolia and inter-
media, Avhcse bodies had previously been soaked in lithium
citrate ; care was taken that the salt did not reach any other part
of the plant externally ; and after a period of about forty-eight
hours the leaf-stalks were incinerated and tested by the spectro-
.scope for lithium, a perceptible quantity of which was found ;
thus appearing to prove, in opposition to Prof. Morren's view,
that the leaf does actually absorb and digest. A few experi-
ments were tried on Pinguicula lusitanica with the same result.
The plate in this number represents an interesting new lichen,
Stigmatidium dindritictun ; and in that for October the mode of
germination of Chara, to illustrate a translation of De Bary's
important paper on this subject. It also contains a description
of a collection of Chinese ferns gathered by Mr. J, Y. Quekett,
and other shorter papers.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

London
Royal Microscopical Society, Oct. 6. — Mr. II. C.
Sorby, F.R.S., president, in the chair. — A large number of
liresents to the Society were announced, and special atten-
lion was directed by the Secretary to a turn-table by Mr.
Cox, of the U.S. America. — A new microscope was exhibited
by Messrs. Beck and Beck, and a new form of hand magnifier
by Mr. Browning. — Mr. Slack made some observations upon
certain Lepidoptera armed with boring probosces, by which
they were said to pierce oranges and other fruit. A comparison
bttween drawings of an Australian species appeared to show

that it was identical with one originally described by Mr. M'Intire
at the meeting in April 1874.— Mr. Beck exhibited a specimen
of blood discs of the Amphiimta means, which are supposed to
be the largest in existence.— A paper by Dr. R. Piggott, on the
identical characters of spherical and chromatic aberration, was read
by the Secretary.— Dr. C. T. Hudson gave a highly interesting
description of a new Melicertian, for which he proposed the
name of AI. tyro,

Paris

Academy of Sciences, September 27.— M. Fremy in
the chair. — The following papers were read :— Meridional ob-
servations of the minor planets made at the Paris Observa-
lory during the first half of the year 1874, by M. Leverrier.
— On the formation of hail ; reply to a note by M. Renou,
by M. Faye. —Twelfth note on the electric conductivity of
bodies which are imperfect conductors, by M. Th. du Moncel.
— Irregular variation of hybrid plants and deductions which
can be made therefrom, by M. Ch. Naudin.— On the deve-
lopment of the pulmonary gasteropoda, by M. H. Fol.— Trans-
formation of blood into a soluble powder ; chemical, physical,
and alimentary properties of this powder, by M. G. Le Bon. —
Notes towards the history of the genus Phylloxera, by M. Lich-
tenstein. — On the particularities presented by the phenomenon
of the contacts during the observation of the transit of Venus at
Pekin ; note by M. Fleuriais. — On the putrefaction produced by
bacteria in the presence of alkaline nitrates, by M. Mensel. —
Remarks concerning a note by M. F. Glenard on the spon-
taneous coagulation of blood removed from the organism, by
MM. E. Mathieu and V. Urbain. — Quantities of nitrogen and
of ammonia contained in beet-roots, by MM. Champion and H.
Pellet. — On the internal structure of the hailstone and its pro-
bable mode of formation, by M. A. Rosenstiehl. — Extract from
a letter from Colonel Buchwalder on hailstorms, presented by
M. Fayc—Letter from M. E. Solvay to M. E. Becquerel on
the formation of hail, presented by M. Faye.

BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

British.— Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute (Spon).~Thermo-Dyna-
mical Phenomena; or, the Origin and Physical Doctrine of Life : H. A.
Hartley, of Madras (Longmans). — Animal Physiology : E. Tully Newton
(Murby).— Figures of Characteristic British Fossils: \V. H. Baily, F.L.S.,
F.G.S. (Van Voorst).— Proceedings of the Natural History Society of Glas-
gow.— On Improved Dwelhngs : Charles Gatliffe, F.S.S. (Stanford).— Mate-
rialism : J. M. Winn, M.D., M.R.C.P. (Hardwicke).

American.— The Recent Origin of Man: J. C. Southall (Philadelphia,
Lippincott and Co.) — Preliminary Report upon a Reconnaissance through
Southern and South-Eastern Nevada, made in i86g, by Lieutenants Wheeler
and Lockwood.— The .Origin of the Sun's Heat (Troy, U.S., Scribner).—
Daily Weather Reports, December 1872 and December 1873 (Signal Service
U. S. Army, Washington).

Forf;igm. — ResumC- de quelques Observations astronomiques et meteoro-
logiques :J. C. Houzeau (Brussels, F. Hayez).— Materiaux pour servir a
I'etudie de la Faune profonde du la Leman : Dr. F. A. Forel (Lausanne,
Ronge et Dubois). — Die Fortschritte des Darwinismus : T. W. Spengel
(Leipzig, E. H. Mayer).— Culturgeschichte in ihrer Naturlichen Entwick-
lung bis zur Gegenwart : von F. von Hellwald (Augsburg, Lampart et Cie.)
— Charles de I'Escluse, sa Vie et ses Oiuvres : E. Morren (Liege). — Annaes
do Observatorio do Infante D. Luiz Magnetism-j Terrestre, 1870 and 1874
(Lisboa).

CONTENTS Pace

Thk Inauguration of the Yorkshire College of Science . . 509

Burton's "Ultima Thule" .- 509

DuPONT and De La Grye's '" Indigenous and Foreign Woods " . 512

Our Book Shelf 513

Letters to the Editor :—

The Sleep of Flowers. — G. S. Boulger 513

Dehiscencepf the Capsules of Coltomia.—ALFRi^D W. Bennett,

F.L.S .'5,4

Oceanic Circulation. — Prof. G. E. Thorte 1514

High Waves with a North-west Wind. — Ralph Abercrombv . . 514

THntoms (ff^iiA/ttusiraiiou).—W W. Wood 514

Tailsof Rats and Mice.— George J. Romanes 515

Nev.'comb on the Uranian and Neptunian Systems 515

Cassowaries. By P. L. Sclater, F.R.S. 516

Another Monstre Refractor 517

The Difference of Thermal Energy Transmitted to the
Earth isy Radiation from Different Parts of the Solar

SvRFACK (lyiiA /ttustraiions). By J. Ericsson 57

Some Lecture ;Notes on ISIeteorites, III. By Prof. N. S.

Maskelyne, F.R.S 520

A City OF Health. By Dr. B. W. Richardson, F.R.S 523

Notes 525

Scientific Serials 5i;8

Societies and Academies 328

Books and Pamphlets JIbcsived 528

NATURE

529

THURSDAY, OCTOBER 21, 1875

BANCROFTS ''RACES OF THE PACIFIC
STATES"
The Native Races of the Pacific States of N'orth America.
By Hubert Howe Bancroft. Vol. ii. Civilised Nations.
Vol. iii. Myths and Languages. (London : Longmans
and Co., 1875.)

THE publication of this great anthropological work
gees' on rapidly, and no doubt the two remaining
volumes will be out in a few months. Every reader must
be glad that the author departs more and more from his
original plan of making his book a mere museum of com-
piled information, and now makes some attempt towards
interpreting the mythical and religious puzzles of Mexico
and Central America. The introductory essays on the phi-
losophy of civilisation and religion may not be of startling
originality, but at any rate they are the deliberately
adopted conclusions of a writer with an unusually large
knowledge of the facts. Mr. Bancroft has evidently
come, like so many thinkers of this generation, under the
genial influence of Emerson. To his mind, the world
seems animated by a " Soul of Progress," individual men
•working on unknowingly, and often against their will,
towards a mysterious end which is the goal of civilisation.
The two apparently oppugnant agencies of good and evil
tend together toward one end ; " Night or day, love or
crime, leads all souls to the good." At one stage of civili-
sation blind faith is essential to give strength to man's
belief, till at another stage scepticism has to come in and
destroy the scaffolding of superstition, leaving the mental
fabric which has been reared by its means. War and
tyranny do the work of consolidating nations and founding
political institutions, till the time comes when, having done
their work in promoting good, they may themselves be
cast out for being evil. Institutions which were at first
the essentials of civihsation become, as man advances, a
drag on his progress, and have to be abolished. The
union of Church and State, of superstition and despotism^
a union still necessarily kept up in iome of the more
backward civilisations, was in barbarous ages a real
means of moral and intellectual advance from a wilder
and lower state. Thus we see in every phase of develop-
ment the result of a social evolution, but where it is to
end, whither it is tending, we cannot tell as yet, nor can
we yet fully understand its guiding laws, for "like all
other progressional phenomena, they wait not upon man ;
they are self- creative, and force themselves upon the mind
age after age, slowly but surely, as the intellect is able to
receive them."

One really stands in need of some such hopeful theory
of social evolution, in reading the details of Mexican
religion. The chapter on Public Festivals is a sickening
catalogue of horrors. It begins mildly with the priests
scarifying and mutilating themselves, especially by boring
holes in their tongues to pass sticks through. Then
comes the sacrifice of a number of sucking infants, who
were carried in procession on gorgeous litters to be slain
on the mountains and in the lake, some of the bodies
being brought back as a delicacy for the priests and
nobles. Then an account of a festival, where the
Jiuman victims, having had their hearts cut out in the
Vol. XII.— No. 312

usual way on the sacrificial stone, were then flayed ; their
flesh was eaten at a banquet, and the lads of the colleges
dressed up in their skins and went about singing, dancing,
and asking for contributions : " those who refused to give
anything received a stroke in the face from the dangling
arm." A liltle later comes the feast of the Fire-god,
where the priests carried captives naked and bound, on
their shoulders up to the top of the temple, and pitched
them into a huge fire of glowing coals, where they watched
them writhe and crackle till it was time to rake the almost
dead bodies out and cut them open ; the proceedings
ended with a dance and climbing a maypole. Even at
the harvest festival, an occasion of jollity, when every-
body danced and feasted, these sanguinary religionists
brought out a criminal, put him between two immense
stones balanced opposite each other, and let them fall
together so as to smash him.

It is not easy, in the present condition of Sociology, to
account for this monstrous development of cruelly in the
Mexican religion. The people seem not to have been
either wicked or hard-hearted in their private life, but to
have been the same mild and rather stolid people that
their descendants still remain. The Aztec criminal code
was indeed of the severest, and even Draco might have
scrupled to have a man beaten to death with clubs for
getting drunk, or to make stealing a tobacco-pouch a
capital crime. But there is nothing extraordinary in a
barbarous government trying to stamp out even small
offences by ferocious punishments. That these lose
much of their effect by the public mind becoming too
habituated to them, is a discovery which comes at a
higher stage of statecraft. The state of civil society in
ancient Mexico was on the whole like that of many other
half-civilised communities. It was their religion which was
exceptional, in the enormous frequency of human sacrifice
combined with cannibalism, it being the ordinary motive
for war to obtain a supply of captives for victims.
The nearest parallel is to be found in nations of
West Africa, where human sacrifice and cannibalism
form a great part of the religious observances. The
Dahoman custom of dividing the human victim, the
blood for the fetish, the head for the king, the body for
the people, reminds us of similar arrangements described
by Mr. Bancroft in Central America. On the other hand,
the rehgion of Mexico, unlike those of West Africa, was
one in which asceticism and self-torture prevailed both
among priests and people. They fasted long and severely
in their religious rites, and were everlastingly drawing
blood from their bodies with aloe- thorns and obsidian
knives, piercing their tongues as a penance for evil speak-
ing, and other pnrts of their bodies for appropriate sins.
This religious ordinance is almost peculiar to the group
of connected nations of Mexico and Central America,
and thus has a certain ethnological interest. The Mexi-
can combination of religious austerity and cruelty may be
instructively compared with that which developed itself
in mediaeval Europe.

Mr. Bancroft is inclined to think that the civilisation of
Mexico and Central America had sunk somewhat from its
highest point at the time of the Spanish discovery. He
believes in the high culture of the famous traditional Tol-
tecs, who were of the same stock with their successors
the Aztecs, both belongy;»g to the wide Mexican race to

cc

530

NA TURE

\Oct. 21, 1875

which modern writers apply the old designation of
Nahua (Nahuatl). But his description of the Aztec civi-
lisation at the time of the Spanish Conquest scarcely
suggests a state of decay. The handicrafts of the stone-
cutter, the weaver, and the goldsmith, the elaborate orga-
nisation of the priesthood and the army, of the colleges
for training boys'and girls, and of the guilds of merchants,
were found by the Europeans in full vigour. The Mexi-
cans not only had a system of picture-writing and kept
their chronicles in it, but King Nezahualcoyotl is said to
have made a law prescribing the penalty of death on
historians who should record fictitious events. This same
king made severe forest-laws to prevent the supply of
wood in the country being exhausted, so that the people
did not dare even to pick up the fallen wood. Such a
state of things [may indicate a certain stiffness and arti-
ficiality of law and custom, but hardly a fall from an
earlier higher state. In any new discussion of the problem
of American civilisation, for which these volumes afford
the first ample collection of materials, we should prefer
reasoning on Aztec life as Cortes saw it, to speculating on
the institutions of the half mythical Toltecs of tradition.

In looking through the present volumes two obser-
vations suggest themselves. Mr. Bancroft has drawn up
descriptions of the languages of the Pacific district which
are of some use in defining the general structure of each,
and justifying the class-arrangement which he adopts.
But he only gives a few specimen words of each lan-
guage, such as pronouns, numerals, incomplete parts of a
verb, and perhaps a Lord's Prayer. We wish, consider-
ing the space he has spared for native myths, that he had
found room for a series of concise grammars. The exist-
ing grammars and dictionaries of many of these lan-
guages, even such as Aztec and Maya, which are the
spoken languages of large populations, are so scarce and
costly as to be out of the reach of ordinary philologists.
For instance, it is difficult to get sufficient information as
to one of the most curious languages of Mexico, the
Otomi, described by several writers as a real mono-
syllabic language imbedded among languages like the
Aztec, whose formation is polysyllabic-agglutinative in the
extreme. This is a most interesting phenomenon in philo-
logy, and we looked to Mr. Bancroft at least to settle the
disputed point whether the Otomi tongue is really mono-
syllabic. There are plenty of polysyllables in it, such as
tayo, dog ; nxuyo, bitch ; mahetst, heaven ; nuga, I. But
the question is whether the statement is fully borne out,
that " in words compounded of more than one syllable,
each syllable preserves its original meaning." In the first
two instances this is evidently true, ta-yo, nxu-yo being
decomposable as "male dog," " female dog." Whether
the other two words can be analysed we do not know.
So interesting is the Otomi tongue for its bearing on the
theory of the monosyllabic origin of language, that it
would be worth while to collect and reprint everything
that is known about it. For one thing thanks are due to
Mr. Bancroft, that he insists on the merely accidental
character of such resemblances as exist between Otomi
and Chinese. Naxera's baseless theory of a connection
between these two languages had publicity given to it by
Prescott, and is not yet forgotten.

The collection of cosmogonic traditions in the third
volume is remarkable, and may lead us to expect valuable

results to science when the creation-myths of all tribes and
nations of the world shall be put together and carefully
analysed. Many of them are of course mere products of
childish fancy. In Central California the story is that in
the beginning the world was dark, so that men and beasts
and birds were always stumbling and dashing against one
another. The Hawk happening to fly in the face of the
Coyote (Prairie-wolf), they mutually apologised, and set to
improve things. The Coyote made balls of reeds and gave
them with some pieces of flint to the Hawk, who flew up
into the sky with them and set them alight. The sun-ball
still glows red and fierce, but the moon-ball was damp,
and has always burnt in a feeble, uncertain way. The
Southern "^CaHfornians, on the other hand, believe that
the sun and moon were the first man and woman ;
women, descendants of the moon, are fair but fickle, for
as she changes so they all change, say these savage
philosophers. Such mythical fancies, of which there are
numbers in this one district, fall withan the province of
the pure mythologist. But it is an interesting question
whether, among the legends of catastrophes which
altered the face of the earth and destroyed its inhabi-
tants, there may be any dim recollections of actual events;
recognisable by the antiquary or the naturalist. To take
another example from California, the natives about Lake
Tahoe ascribe its origin to a great natural convulsion.
Their story is that their ancestors were once numerous
and rich, but a stronger people rose up who defeated and
enslaved them. Then the Great Spirit sent an immense
wave across the continent from the sea, which engulfed
both oppressors and oppressed, all but a small remnant.
Those who remained of the ruling caste made the people
build a great temple for refuge in case of another flood?
and on the top of this the masters worshipped a perpetual
fire. Soon, however, the earth was troubled again, this
time with strong convulsions and thunders. The masters
took refuge in their great tower, shutting out the slaves,
who fled to the Humboldt River, and paddled for their
lives, for the land was tossing like a troubled sea, casting
up fire, smoke, and ashes. The Sierra was mounded up
from the bosom of the earth, while the place where the
great fort stood sank, leaving only the dome at the top
exposed above the waters of Lake Tahoe.

Such is the local story, remarkable for its good descrip-
tions of an earthquake-wave, an eruption, and a volcanic
upheaval and subsidence. Whether it is founded on
some fragmentary reminiscences of a real local cata-
strophe is a question which we leave to be answered by
some geologist who has examined the district.

HUXLEY AND MARTIN'S ''ELEMENTARY
BIOLOGY''

A Course of Practical Instruction in Elementary Bio-
logy. By T. H. Huxley, LL.D., Sec. R. S., assisted by
H. N. Martin, B.A., D.Sc. (London : Macmillan and
Co., 1875.)

IN the preface to this work. Prof. Huxley tells that the
object of his book is to serve as a laboratory guide
to those who are incHned to study the principles of
Biology as a single science, and not asone divided, except
for the sake of convenience, into the two " disciplines,"
Zoology and Botany. To accomplish this end a certain

Oct. 21, 1875]

NATURE

531

number of readily obtainable plants and animals have
been selected for minute description, in which the most
important types of vegetable and animal organisation are
capable of being demonstrated. With reference to each
species selected, an account of its anatomy is given, which
is followed by laboratory instructions as to the manipu-
latory detail necessary for its complete verification. The
types selected include Yeast, Protococcus, the Proteus
Animalcule, Bacteria, Moulds, Stoneworts, the Bracken
Fern, the.Bean Plant, the Bell Animalcule, the freshwater
Polype and Mussel, the Crayfish and Lobster, and the
Frog. As an illustration of the form in which che labora-
tory directions are given, the following quotation from a
portion of the dissection of the Frog will serve as a fair
example : —

"Dissection of the Viscera in the Ventral
Cavity.
" I. Lay a frog, which has been killed with chloroform,
on its back, and pin it out on a layer of paraffin or bees-
wax, under water ; divide the skin along the abdominal
median hne from the pelvis to the front of the lower jaw ;
next make a transverse incision at each end of the longi-
tudinal one, and then throw outwards the two flaps of
skin thus marked out. The following points may now be
noted : —

"^. A great vein iimisculo-cntaneous) on the under
surface of each flap of skin, about the level of the
shoulder.
" b. Some of the muscles of the abdominal wall, covered
by a thin aponeurosis ; through this latter can be
seen —

" a. The rectus abdominis, running from pelvis to
sternum, close to the middle line, and divided
into a number of bellies by transverse tendinous
intersections.
"^. Other muscles outside the rectus on each
side.
" c. The pectoral region : part of its hard parts in
the middle line, only covered by tendinous tissue ;
external to this, muscles running towards the
shoulder-joint.
" d. The muscles of the throat : small and with a
general direction from the lower jaw towards the
sternum and shoulder-girdle.
" 2. Raise the tissues of the body-wall with a pair of
forceps, and carefully divide them, a little to |the right of
the median line," &c.

From what has been said above it is evident that there
are two features in this volume of Prof. Huxley's which
call for special notice on account of their novelty. The
first of these is that Botany and Zoology are taught in
combination, as parts of the science of living organisa-
tions—Biology. The second is that the subject is taught
practically ; in other words, with full information on how
to observe the features described.

Most amateur students of so-called science, or col-
lectors, run in a single groove of thought. They learn
to recognise specific differences in those groups of ani-
mals, fossils, or plants which they honour with their
patronage ; they discover minute variations in individual
specimens, and frequently attempt to load nomenclature
with fresh names, which may or may not have to be
swamped in the mass of synonyms — ahcady but too large
— according to their knowledge of the literature of the
subject they affect. In the scale of scientific investigators
these stand lowest. They do good ; their work is indis-
pensable ; the mental effort required for its production is.

however, small, and is generally associated with a want
of power to grasp general principles which is frequently
quite surprising. The opportunity of seeing, or, better
still, possessing " type " specimens is their highest grati-
fication ; and their opinion on any point involving more
than generic differences is unreliable.

A second class of student advances further. Collec-
tion of familiar forms is not the object kept in view by
them. They study the literature of their subject, having
previously received a sound educational foundation.
They do not make fresh and independent observations
themselves, but delight in verifying those of others. New
facts they absorb ; and by engrafting them upon their
previous ideas, modify the latter — generally prematurely
— in a direction which they prophesy to be the science of
the future. They draw extreme deductions on insufficient
evidence, and are apt to fall whilst attempting to sub-
stantiate them. These are not to be trusted in the defini-
tion of a sub-kingdom.

A third class investigate on their own account. They
study the works of others ; and by thoroughly digesting
the new and old facts at their disposal, are in a position
to modify generally accepted views on important ques-
tions by the publication of arguments as cogent as they
are reliable. These original investigators have their inde-
pendent views on the most general principles.

Such being the case, we may employ the scale of biolo-
gical relationships as ^a rough standard of the mental
capacities of working students. It leads us to look upon
everything which tends to inclusiveness as an advance in
the right direction, and everything in the opposite direc-
tion as retrograde. All biologists must therefore thank
Prof. Huxley for having introduced into the preliminary
training of students of Natural History the conception of
the complete unity of plant- and animal-life, and of the
comparative insignificance of the gulf between the two.

Prof. Huxley teaches Biology ■practically. The pupil
has to see with his own eyes all that he reads about ; and
what is more, he has to find what he is to see. Practical
education is a praiseworthy characteristic of the present
age. Numbers of laboratories, in this country and on the
Continent, have been recently established for the teaching
of Physics, Physiology, and lastly Biology. That this prac-
tical phase must be generally adopted in scientific educa-
tion becomes more certain as the scientific training itself
becomes more and more a part of the preliminary educa-
tion. The tendency in recent times to estimate classics at
a lower value as a discipline than formerly, is one which
necessitates the introduction of a substitute ; of a means by
which a training in the method of work shall be the mental
exercise, whilst mere facts shall not have the prominence
generally given them in the scientific lecture-room. As a
training, practical biology offers all the requirements, at the
same time that it leaves those who have pursued it, after
they have finished their education, in a position peculiarly
favourable for the prosecution of original investigation on
their own account. From this view of the; subject we have
also therefore to thank Prof. Huxley for having added
Biology to the list of those sciences which are taught
practically as well as theoretically.

It has also special advantages in this direction. No
expensive outlay is necessary for the purchase of appa-
ratus ; a well-lighted room, together with a microscope,

532

NATURE

\Oct. 21, 1875

scalpels, forceps, and scissors, being nearly all that is
essential to a biological laboratory. These can be pro-
cured by anyone ; and the student when thus equipped
with Huxley and Martin's " Practical Biology " in his
hands, need only look around for some of the most
easily obtainable animals, upon getting which he can
start work in good earnest.

In the descriptive portion of the work there is one
point to which we cannot help referring, which is in con-
nection with the circulation of the blood. It is an expla-
nation, originally given by Briicke, we believe, of the
manner in which the mixed arterial and venous blood in
the single ventricle of the frog is distributed in such a
manner that the venous blood mostly enters the lungs. " It
fills (during the systole) the'^conus^arteriosus, and, finding
least resistance in the short and wide pulmonary vessels,
passes along the left side of the median valve into them.
But as they become distended and less resistance is offered
elsewhere, the next portion passes on the light side of the
longitudinal valve into the aortic arches," The words
italicised by us are those which it is difficult to compre-
hend, for it is evident that if the pulmonary artery offers
less resistance at the commencement of the systole, it
will do so all through the revolution in proportion to the
relative calibre of its capillaries and those of the system
generally ; and then there is no reason why the valve
should flap back.

OUR BOOK SHELF

Rolotnahana, and the Boiling Springs of New Zealand.
A Photographic Series of Sixteen Views, by D. L.
Mundy. With descriptive notes by Ferdinand von
Hochstetter, Professor of the Polytechnic Institution of
A'^ienna. (London : Sampson Low and Co., 1875.)

The autotype illustrations which form the main feature
of this handsome volume are triumphs of the photo-
graphic art, and reflect the highest credit upon their
author, Mr. Mundy. The photographs are on a scale
quite large enough to give one a satisfactory idea of the
main features of the various scenes intended to be por-
trayed ; and by the judicious introduction into most of
the views of the human figure, a good idea of the scale of
the photographs is at once afforded.

The remarkable region illustrated by Mr. Mundy's
series of photographs lies just about the centre of the
North Island of New Zealand, in the south of the pro-
vince of Auckland. The culminating or rather origi-
nating point of the phenomena described. Prof. Hoch-
stetter regards as the still active volcano Tongariro, in
the north of the province of Wellington. From this
volcano three lines of volcanic action are supposed to
proceed in a north-easterly direction by Lake Taupo to
Lakes Rotorua, Rotoiti, and Rotomahana respectively, the
last-mentioned line proceeding inwards as far as the marine
volcano Whakari, in the Bay of Plenty; this line also,
near its source, includes the hot springs at the head of
Lake Taupo, about forty miles to the north of Ton-
gariro. Another line, which follows to some length the
outflow of the river Waikato'from Lake Taupo, is marked
by the hot springs and steam jets of Otumaheke and
Orakeikorako, on the river's banks, and those of the
Pairoa mountain range. The third line of action forming
eruptions of this kind is exhibited in the hot springs of
Rotorua and the solfataras of Rotoiti, which terminate
these specimens of volcanic action on land, being situated
near the sea- coast. While all along these three lines
evidences of volcanic action are visible in the shape of
hot springs, solfataras, geysers, mud-lakes, &c., the chief

interest centres in Rotomahana, where the most beautiful
and marvellous effects of this action are displayed.
Though on a much smaller scale, the phenomena greatly
resemble those which are seen in such profusion in the
Yellowstone region of North America.

Mr. Mundy devotes most of his photographic views to
the illustration of the phenomena to be witnessed in and
around Rotomahana. This is one of the smallest lakes in
the region, being scarcely a mile in length and a quarter
of a mile in breadth ; it is 1,088 feet above the sea, and
the temperature of the lake itself varies from 60° to 100''
Fahr. On the margin of the lake are many boiling springs,
and around it are a great variety of phenomena similar
to those which are witnessed in Iceland and in North
America. It is impossible in a few words to give any
adequate idea of these phenomena, and we must there-
fore refer our readers to Mr. Mundy's beautiful illustra-
tions, and Prof. Hochstetter's brief but clear descriptions.
One of the photographs gives a fine view of Lake Rotorua,
about twelve miles north of Rotomahana, and the last
four are devoted to the illustration of Lake Taupo and the
phenomena to be seen in its neighbourhood. Roto-
mahana, we may state, is about forty- five miles N.N.E. of
Lake Taupo, and about double that distance from Mount
Tongariro.

Lake Taupo lies at 'a height of 1,250 feet above the
sea, and no bottom has been found at-a depth of 200
fathoms. Prof. Hochstetter conjectures that its waters,
which have only one visible outlet, the Waikato, but many
tributary streams, has a subterranean outlet to the north.
It is this, he believes, which gives rise to the curious phe-
nomena which abound in the region to which Mr. Mundy's
photographs refer ; the water, after being heated by under-
ground volcanic fires, generates high-pressure steam that
forces its way to the surface, bearing the characteristics
of the rocks v/ith which it has come into contact : the
New Zealand springs, we should say, are divided into two
distinct classes, the one alkaline, 'and the other acid.
Whatever may be the value of Prof. Hochstetter's expla-
nation of the phenomena, there is no doubt about the
value of Mr. Mundy's illustrations of a district which
seems to be all that now remains of a once extensive
active volcanic region. While as a collection of well-
executed views of great interest the work deserves a wide
circulation, to the student of geology it is of great value,
as affording a far more satisfactory idea of an important
feature of the physical geography of New Zealand than
any mere description can convey.

Elementary Lessons in Botanical Geography. By J. G.
Baker, F.L.S., Assistant Curator of the Herbarium at
Kew. (London : L. Reeve and Co., 1875.)

A WANT has long been felt of a small text-book for the use
of lecturers and students dealing with the distribution of
plants on the face of the globe. A work of this kind neces-
sarily contains a large amount of detail and a formidable
anay of plant-names. These features of the present little
volume are less objectionable when its special purpose is
borne in mind, viz., the instruction of gardeners ; the
various chapters into which it is divided being in fact the
substance of a series of lectures delivered to the gardeners
at Kew. A reference to these details would be out cf
place in a short notice ; and the best idea will be con-
veyed by giving the author's final summing up, viz : — That
each species has originated from a single centre ; that
species have originated in different parts of the world,
and that the flora of any given tract depends largely on
its geographical position ; that a large portion of the
present genera (or types which agree in structure down
to minute detail) were in existence before the end of the
Secondary period, and have passed through the very great
changes in climate and the relative positions of sea and
land that have occurred during the Tertiary period ; and
that species (or types which accord not in structure only.

Oct. 21, 1875]

NATURE

533

but in vegetative characters— such as shape of leaves and
arrangement of flowers) were dispersed in broad outline
as at present, before present islands were insulated and
the present general dispersion of sea and land worked
out. The reader will find in the volume a very large
amount of information on these subjects compressed into
a small space.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[ TTic Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return^
or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.~[
Ocean Circulation

Having carefully read Mr. Croll's papers in the Philosophical
Magazine for September and October, I find in them the full
confirmation of my statement that his " crucial-test " argument
is based on the assumption of an equilibrium between the Equa-
torial and the North Atlantic columns; the words "to be in
equilibrium" or " in order to equilibrium " being used over and
over again to fix this as the essential condition of the compu-
tation by which the North Atlantic column is made out to
be 2>\ feet higher than the Equatorial.

No reference to other passages in Mr. Croll's writings can
countervail this fact. I pointed out at Bristol the fallacy it in-
volves, which was at once recognised by Sir William Thomson,
General Strachey, and other competent authorities. This fal-
lacy becomes obvious in the following parallel case : —

The specific gravity of /Egean water being to that of Black
Sea water as (say) 1029 to 1013, a column of Black Sea
water 1,029 feet high would be required to balance a column of
i^gean water 1,013 feet high ; therefore (on Mr. Croll's assump-
tion of an equilibrium) the level of the Black Sea must be above
that of the /Egean in the proportion of 16 feet to 1,013 feet of
depth. But that there is not an equilibrium between the two
columns, is conclusively proved by the deep inflow of /Egean
water which always accompanies the surface-outflow of Black
Sea water, showing the ^gean column to be the heavfer.

Now Mr, CroU has obviously no more right to assume an
equilibrium between the North Atlantic and the Equatorial
columns, and thereby to deduce from their relative tempera-
tures the higher level of the fonner, and the consequent impos-
.sibilily of the thermal circulation as making the poleward upper
flow run uphill, than he would have to deduce the excess of
level of the Black Sea from its lower salinity, and to assert that
an inward underflow of ^gean water is impossil^le, as tending
to raise that level yet higher.

But there is yet another serious error in Mr. Croll's compu-
tation, which, even admitting his fundamental assumption, com-
pletely invalidates his conclusion. He has entirely omitted the
consideration of the inferior salinity of the Equatorial column ;
which, as it shows itself alike at the surface and at the bottom,
may be fairly taken as characterising its entire height. This
will make a difference in the opposite direction of about one foot
in 1,026; sufficient, therefore, if the excess in the North At-
lantic column extends to a depth of no more than 600 fathoms,
to neutralise the whole 3^ feet of elevation which Mr. Croll
deduces from relative temperatures.

Mr. Croll is unable to see what the "viscosity" of water has
to do with the question. Just this — that it affects his whole doc-
trine of "gradients." The nearer water is to a "perfect fluid,"
the less is the gradient required to give it horizontal motion.

If a viscous fluid be drawn from the bottom of one end,/^, of a
long trough A—B, its level at i? will be lowered more slowly than
at A, and will remain appreciably higher so long as the outflow
continues. But in the case of a "perfect fluid" and a slow
outflow, the level will practically fall simultaneously along the
whole length of the trough A — B. I am quite aware that, mathe-
matically speaking, the level must be always lower at A than at
B ; since there can be no movement of any particle from B
towards A, unless room has been previously made for it.
But if the time required for the replacement of each particle by
the one next adjacent to it be infinitely small, the excess of re-
duction at A will also be infinitely small.

Now, according to the authorities I previously cited, water

approaches so nearly to the condition of a "perfect fluid," that

very small differences in its density will suffice (if constantly re-

ewed) to maintain a vertical circulation, without any appreciable

difference in let'el. And my position is, that the void created by
the slow descent of water chilled by the surface-cold of the Polar
area will be so speedily replaced by the inflow of water from die
circumpolar area, and this again by inflow from the temperate
region, as to produce a continual upper-flow of equatorial water
towards the pole, without the gradient which Mr. Croll per-
sistently asserts to be necessary.

I now leave it in the hands, not of Mr. Croll, but of com-
petent authorities in Physics, to decide (i) whether his " crucial
test " has the value he himself assigns to it, and (2) whether his
doctrine of "gradients" can stand examination by the light now
thrown upon it by Mr. Froude's researches. Until some physicist
of equal weight with Sir George Airy and Sir William Thom-
son shall pronounce the doctrine I advocate to be untenable, I
shall continue to believe, with Lenz, Arago, and Pouillet, that
it is the only one which can account for the phenomena of Deep-
sea temperature.

That the temperature of the upper stratum of the ocean is
often affected by the Wind-circulation, and is especially thus
modified in the North Atlantic, I have repeatedly pointed out.
Audit is scarcely fair in Mr. Croll, therefore, to continue speaking
of the " wind-theory " and the "gravitation-theory" of Ocean
Circulation as if they were antagonistic, insteadof being not only
compatible, but mutually complementary — the wind-circulation
being horizontal, and the thermal circulation vertical.

As, however, Mr. Croll has now advanced so far as to admit
that "physicists may diflfer from him in regard to whether or
not the present difierence of temperature between the ocean in
equatorial and polar regions is sufficient to produce circulation,"
I am not without hope that in another year or two he may come
to accept the Thermal-circulation as a " great fact ; " and that he
may then make good use of his knowledge and ability in eluci-
dating the shares which are taken by the Wind-ciiculation and
the Thermal-circulation respectively, in the distribution of ter-
restrial heat. William B. Carpenter

The Sliding Seat

Most problems in animal mechanics are of so complicated a
character as to be generally referred to direct experiment rather
than to mathematical analysis.

In Mr. Wagstaffe's remarks (vol. xii. p. 3^9) on the analogy
which exists between the movements at the sterno-clavicular
articulation in rowing, and those permitted by the sliding seat,
we have an argument in favour of the latter arrangement. But
when the subject is regarded from the point of view assumed by
a practical oarsman, the question of actual^ advantage still re-
mains unanswered.

There are certain preliminaries which must be considered
before we can commence to solve the problem, leading to its
subdivision into several distinct problems, some of which will
prove interesting to the anatomist, some to the mechanician,
some to the physiologist In the following remarks I shall
attempt to indicate the preliminaries referred to.

LFic. a.

Fig. I represents the position of the vertebral axis, v A, the
thigh, TH, and the leg, H L, when the point a cr the seat is
fixed.

Fig. 2 exhibits the same parts when a' is movable. In both
there is the same position for the outstretched arms, that is,
m n = m' n'.

It is clear that in i the weight, w, will be raised by such
forces as tend to move v a towards the vertical position ; while
in 2 the same result is obtained by changing v'a' without
alteration of the angle of inclinatioi^ We thus see that the
angles a and (^ will vaiy in definite inverse ratio, while the varia-

534

NATURE

[Oct. 2 1, 1875

tion of (/)' has almost entirely to be considered in 2. It is this
which constitutes the chief difference between the sliding and
the fixed seat, and which accounts for the sense of fatigue expe-
rienced in the legs in the former system.

If we examine the problems which arise from the considera-
tion of Fig. I we shall find that in using the term " fixed seat "
we are speaking incorrectly ; that is to say, as far as there exists
a force to hold A in position we have none but friction ; and
that practically the position of A with regard to L is determined
by muscular action.

Thus in Fig. 2 the seat is really more fixed than in Fig. I, or
there is less muscular action round t' than round T.

The advantages of the system 2 over i are however not
simply mechanical, but the constancy of the angle «' affords
gi-eater space for the respiratory movements, and thus physio-
logically there is an explanation for the difference in disturbance
of circulation and respiration generally experienced when com-
paring the two systems. R. J. Lee

St. George's Hospital

History of the Numerals

On reading the letter on the " Origin of the Numerals " (vol.
xii. p. 476) 1 was reminded of some portions of their history
which I had before noted down, and which are essential to any
consideration of their origin.

The earliest forms which I have seen are those of the Abacus
(Jour. Archceol. Assoc, vol. ii.), from which our later forms are
mainly, if not entirely, derived. The intermediate forms are to
be seen in arithmetical treatises and calendars of the thirteenth
to sixteenth century, and on sundry quadrants, &c., of the four-
teenth to sixteenth century, in the British Museum.

In the following table the earliest form of each letter and of

Abacus 12S0 J3S0 MiSO

1 V % 1
T^ ^ 1 2, 2.

tM 5 f

1^^ 1V75

^ X 4- A

^ - 14/74! jr>rd

is (} 6

XS30 M70 ISSi

V A. H A 7

JS30 13.99

S 8 ^ %

1339 liSO

^99^

each variation is entered, with the corresponding date ; the
years 1280, 1320, 1420, and 1450 are only approximately
stated. •

Now, with respect to the primitive forms suggested by Mr.
Donnisthorpe, the 2 would seem to have been two strokes at
right angles (not parallel), the lower stroke of our form being
only a tail, like that of many medial forms of Hebrew letters.
The 3 may have been originally three vertical strokes, which
were set horizontal in early times ; the flat top, however, does
not appear till 1574, and then only in English examples appa-
rently. The 4 ot the Abacus seems to have been deserted for
cross lines connected, which are always placed diagonal till about
1474, when the first turn to the present position occurs : perhaps
four strokes were intended, as we call cross-roads *' four roads
meet." 5 seems to have been inverted from the Abacus, and
then about 1550 the straight tail was curved towards the previous
figure, and the head elongated to lead to the next mark. It
often occurs as a perfect though very straightened S in the six-
teenth century, as it is now made in Belgium and other coun-
tries. Its form ill 1280 reminds one of the Roman V written
as U. 6 in the Abacus consists of six strokes ; but this, from
their cumbrous collocation, is probably merely a scribe's fancy.
7 has been apparently inverted (like 5) from the Abacus; its
transitions are easily traced, but its origin is not so clear ; some
mij^ht see a trace in the Greek Z = 7. 8 has always been very
near its present form, and the two squares is an explanation the
character of which can only be objected to on the grounds of its
inapplicability elsewhere. 9 has always had a straight tiil,
though it has been inverted since the Abacus form (as 5 and 7
seem changed) : its origin might be looked for in the Greek 0
possibly, as that letter has varied more in form than any other ;
or, more likely, in the Arabic Ta, or Tha ( = 9), which in the
Abacus it closely resembles ; and it is even more similar to the
Syriac Teth, a twin form to that of the Arabic. Perhaps the
ancient Arabic alphabet (in its nearer approximation to its
Hebrew- and Samaritan-like original) would show the origin of
more of these forms, and even the simple i is exactly the Arabic
Elif= I, for their alphabetic origin is rendered highly probable
from the fact that the numerical systems of the Greeks and of
the Semitic nations (from whom our Arabic numerals probably
came) were in very early times derived from the alphabet ; not,
like the Egyptian and Roman systems, wholly separate arrange-
ments.

The apparent, though historically untrue, applicability of the
line + line origin of all the forms of our numerals, is an interest-
ing example of the fallibility of any theory which only looks to
present conditions, apart from past facts and history.

Bromley, Kent W. M. Flinders Petrie

Scarcity of Birds

I QUITE agree with Mr. Barrington, who writes in Nature
(vol. xii. p. 213) concerning the scarcity of birds. I find, by
comparing my last year's ornithological diary with the present
year's one, that I have only found about three-fourths of the
numberof Blackbirds' {Turdus merula). Thrushes' {Tttrdus mttsi-
cus), Blue Titmouses' (jParus ccc7-iileus), Pied Wagtails' {Motacilla
alba), Greenfinches' (Coccothraustes cloris). Linnets' (Linofa can-
nabina) nests that I found last year. The Hirundinidse have
been far less plentiful than usual ; but the Goldfinch {Carduelis
elegans) was the rarest bird here this summer. I did not succeed
in finding a single nest, although our yearly average is fifteen.
Other birds, as the Charadriidae and the Mussel Thrush {Turdus
viscivorus), have been very plentiful, and I found the Mountain
Linnet's {Linda viontium) nest for the first time I have ever met
with it on the lowland south of the Humber. Will not the hard
frost of last winter account for the scarcity of our native birds in
some measure? Adrian Peacock

Bottesford Manor, Brigg.

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN

H CassiopejE and Vicinity.— Smyth (Cycle ii. p. 25)
has the following remark with respect to stars near fi
Cassiope^E : — "Just 18' south of /^ is a star which, though
of the 6th magnitude, is not in Piazzi. It is followed
nearly on the parallel, about 1 1= off, by a 9th magnitude,
and both are remarkable from being red, of a decided
but not deep tint." There is no star of the 6th magnitude
near this position at the present time, nor so far as we
know is there any record of such an object having been
visible since the epoch of Smyth's observations, 1832 71.

Oct.

1875J

NATURE

535

It may, however, prove to be a variaWe star of long period,
like the 8th magnitude orange-coloured star remarked by
the same observer near Procyon in the autumn of 1833,
the existence of which is supported by the observation of
Mr. Isaac Fletcher, as described in Smyth's Sidereal
Chromatics and elsewhere, and we believe by the experi-
ence of the Rev. T. W. Webb. There is now a star of
the 9th magnitude, following /x Cassiopea?, 17' 2 and 15' 38"
south ; this is clearly Argelander's star -f 53°, No. 228 of
the " Durchmustcrung," there estimated 9-5, a consider-
ably fainter object than an average 9th m:;gnitude in
Bessel's scale ; its place would appear to correspond
better with that of Smyth's star following his 6th magni-
tude, nearly on the parallel, than with that of the missing
one. Probably this small star may be variable also ; its
place for the beginning of the present year is R.A.
oh. S9m. 58'3s. ; N.P.D., 35° 41' 27".

Smyth thought his 6th magnitude star, omitted by
Piazzi, might have had " something to do with the mis-
takes of Flamsteed respecting /^, alluded to by Mr. Baily."
These mistakes seem rather to have originated in the
confusion of the stars 6 and \i, and although Baily
doubted if the place of the latter, which he gives from
Halley's edition of 17 12, could be depended upon, it will
be found to agree very well with that of \i carried back
from the position in the Greopwich Catalogue of i860,
with Madler's proper motions^.

Should any reader of this'^lunin have had the curi-
osity to look for Smyth's reddish stars, perhaps he will
communicate the result of his examination of their
neighbourhood.

The Double Star 2 2120. — Mr. J. M. Wilson has
favoured us with the following measures of this star,
made at the Temple Observatory, Rugby, by himself and
assistants : —

1872-48 Pes, 262° -9 Obs. 4 Dist. 3" 78 Obs. 2
73-50 ,, 26i°-7 „ 6 „ 3"-65 „ 2
74-62 „ 258°-5 „ 4 „ 4"-2 „ 2
Comparing these measures with the formula; for recti-
linear motion already given in Nature, the following
differences are shown : —

1872-48 Pes. (^ - 0) ~o^-\ Dist. (c - 0) + o"-6s
73*50 ,. - o°"3 .. + o''9i

74-62 „ + i°-8 „ + o"-5i

Mr. Wilson has had a suspicion of variation in the
magnitude of the companion, but thinks this may be
owing to atmospheric circumstances.

The Minor Planets.— It is notified from Berlin, in
M. Leverriei-'s Bulletin International, that the small
rjlanet detected by M. Perrotin at the Observatory of
Toulouse, on the evening of Sept, 21, in R.A. 23h. i6m. 8s.
and N.P.D. 95° 12', is a new one, and will therefore be
No. 149. The brighter members of this group now near
opposition are Bellona, Clotho, and Thyra. Clotho will
be between the 8th and 9th magnitude ; the calculated
places are, for Green <vich midnight, as follows : —

h. m. s. 0 '

Oct. 23 ... R.A. 3 34 47 ••• N.P.D. 90 36-0

„ 27 ... ,, 3 32 50 ••■ M 91 170

„ 31 ••• .. 3 30 30 ... „ 91 55'8

Nov. 4 ■•• .. 3 27 51 ••• .. 92 3J'6

„ 8 ... „ 3 25 o ... „ 93 3'4

Transit of Comet 1826 (V.) over the Sun's Disc.
— It was remarked by Gambartthat the comet discovered
by Pons on the 22nd of October, 1826, the " comet in
Bootes," as it was called at the time, must pass over the
sun's disc on the morning of November 18, and he was
at some pains in correcting the elements of the orbit, with
the view of deciding whether the comet had left the disc,
before it was examined by himself and Flaugergues, the
only two observers who were at stations partially free
from clcud on the morning of the transit. A letter from
Gambart addressed to Sir John Hcrschel, at that time

president of the Royal Astronomical Society, conveying
an intimation of the expected phenomenon, arrived in
London on the evening previous to the transit, and, as
stated in vol. iii. of the Memoirs of the Society, " the
news of so rare a phenomenon was immediately spread,
and fcyv astronomers in or near the metropolis failed to
be prepared for it ;" the sun, however, was totally ob-
scured at rising, and for the whole day, by clouds and
rain. A dense fog appears to have prevailed very gene-
rally over the continent of Europe, so that, as mentioned
above, Gambart at Marseilles and Flaugergues at Viviers
alone obtained a view of the disc during the interval in
which it was expected the transit would take place.

The following particulars of the transit founded upon
a new calculation from the corrected elements of
Gambart, closely representing the observations between
Oct. 26 and Dec. 11, may possess interest for the astro-
nomical reader.

The comet's true geocentric positions, for Greenwich
mean time, were : —

R.A. N P.D.

Nov. 17. I7h. ... 233 75 ... 108 51 48

„ 19^1- ••• 233 7 52 ... 109 II 50

„ 2ih. ... 233 8 38 ... 109 31 26

Whence, correcting for aberration and taking the sun's

places from Carlini's tables, the following differences of

R.A. and N.P.D, of comet and sun's centre result : —

h, , „ , „

Nov. 17.. 17 Diff. R.A. +531 Diff. N.P.D. - 1648

18 ,, + 3 19 „ - 7 19

,, 19 M •*■ 1 7 „ -H 2 2

,,20 ,, - I 6 „ + II 17

,, 21 ,, - 3 19 ,, + 20 26

And as referred to the centre of the earth, we find : —

h. m.
Ingress Nov. 17 at 16 59*9 at 19° from sun's N. point towards E
Egress ,, 20 22-5 at 184° ,, ,, „ '

At Marseilles, the egress would take place at 2oh. 59m.
apparent time, the equation of time being 14m. 43s. addi-
tive to mean time.

As is well known, neither Gambart nor Flaugergues
were successful in detecting this comet upon the sun's
disc, but though visible at one time to the naked
eye, it was not of any considerable degree of bright-
ness.

FA YE ON THE LA WS OF STORMS*

Mechanical Theory of Whirling Movements. — Before
we enter on the mechanics of these phenomena, it is
necessary to clear the way by the removal of certain
ideas which constantly recur to the mind of the reader,
and by distracting his attention render any clear un-
biassed perception of the subject altogether impossible.
This preliminary discussion will embrace the three fol-
lowing points : the part played by electricity in the forma-
tion of whirlwinds and cyclones, the significance to be
attached to the indications of the barometer, and the part
played by currents of aspiration in the modern theory of
the trade winds.

I. Part played by Electricity.— Certain physicists, dissa-
tisfied with the views we are about to refute, and struck
with the electrical phenomena which so often accompany
hurricanes, typhoons, &c., have supposed that electricity
is the determining cause. We shall perhaps give a clear
idea of this theory by reverting to the electrical expla-
nation of hail, the phenomena of hail being intimately
bound up with thatof whirling movements. It is well known
that hailstones are composed of layers of ice alternately
opaque and transparent ; in breaking them we see in
their texture the evidence of successive and alternate

* Continued from p. 501.

536

NATURE

\Oct, 2 1, 1875

actions to which they have been subjected. Hence, it is
argued, they must have been suspended in the air by
some force to allow time for these alternate actions to
take effect. Is the force in question not that of elec-
tricity? Let us suppose two clouds, superimposed the
one above the other, to be charged with opposite electri-
cities ; if the crystals of ice which are often to be met with
in the upper regions of the atmosphere happen to be in
the interval between the two clouds, they will be attracted
by the nearest, and thereafter repelled as soon as they
have received by contact the electricity with which it is
charged. Instantly being attracted by the other cloud,
they rush towards it and. are immediately charged with
the opposite electricity ; and this alternate play, during
Avhich the hailstones receive successive accretions from
the vapour abstracted Irom the clouds and congealed by
the cold of the original hailstone or of the space inter-
vening, will go on till the hailstones acquire a weight too
great for them to be any longer suspended, or till an elec-
tric discharge has destroyed the opposite electricities
which have accumulated on the surfaces of the clouds.
At this instant the hailstones fall to the ground by the
simple effect of their own weight.

To the same cause the formation of waterspouts has
been attributed. Let us suppose a low cloud highly
charged with electricity and producing by induction on
the water of the sea a powerful accumulation of statical
electricity of the opposite sign on its surface. The mu-
tual attraction of these two electricities, the cloud on the
one hand, the sea on the other, while powerless to pro-
duce contact, will nevertheless give rise to two opposing
protuberances in the oppositely electrified bodies. At
that point the electricities will acquire a tension the
greater as the protuberances continue to assume forms
more elongated. As the attractive action goes on increasing,
these two protuberances will gradually approach each
other between the sky and the earth, and will ultimately
unite, the protuberance descending from the sky passing
over a greater space than the other. Then, by the con-
ductor thus quickly formed of water and an elongated
fragment of cloud, the electricity of the upper regions
will escape into the ground, exerting a destructive action
over all obstacles in its way. It is also to be noted that
the instant when the waterspout is thus completed,
thunder ceases to roll in the clouds, the reason being
that the electricity has found a silent mode of escape.
M. Peltier, the accomplished physicist to whom science
is indebted for many ingenious researches on atmospheric
electricity, endeavoured to reproduce in miniature the
phenomenon thus described ; but in bringing a highly
electrified conductor close to the surface of a sheet of
water, he was unable to show any other sensible mechani-
cal effect than a more rapid evaporation.

We shall not, however, insist on the electrical theory of
waterspouts. The theory is now rejected, equally with
the electrical theory of hail, because if a few waterspouts
have exhibited traces of an electrical action, the greater
part of the observed facts show nothing of it. Water-
spouts and typhoons are mechanical phenomena, in which
electricity plays not the principal part, but a part alto-
gether subordinate. There was a time when the tendency
was to explain everything in meteorology by electricity.
Whenever any question became obscure, electricity was
resorted to as a convenient explanation, and any difficult
point was considered as cleared up by an adroit appeal to
some laboratory experiment — such as the explanation of
the theory of hail from the dance executed by pith-balls
between two brass plates. It came, however, to lie recog-
nised that, in seeking to identify meteorological phenomena
w-ith laboratory experiments, the risk was run of losing
sight of the real circumstances of nature and putting in
their stead those of the laboratory. The clouds of Volta
are real plates of brass, and the spark of the induced
conductors, as they are brought near each other, always

forgets to manifest itself when the two fragments of water-
spouts unite together.

2. Barometer. — The question of the barometer is more
difficult. The diminution of pressure which precedes
and accompanies cyclones has always been considered as
a proof of aspiration. It is certain that the continual
lowering of the barometric column — a lowering the maxi-
mum of which occurs in the very centre of the hurricane —
is a phenomenon so constant as to serve as an infallible
warning to sailors. In certain seas and at certain times
of the year, the sailor ought to keep his eye on the baro-
meter as much as the compass. But what is the signifi-
cance of this diminution of pressure ? Does it prove
that the air over our heads is rarefied.? If a vertical
column of air was rarefied, the equilibrium would be re-
established not at its lower part only, that is to say at
the expense of the lower stratum ; to effect this, a solid
envelope would be necessary to isolate the column through
its entire length, leaving only a free opening at its base.
But the column, on the contrary, being everywhere in
communication with the atmosphere, the equilibrium
would be quickly restored by a simultaneous afflux of the
strata at all heights, and not merely by the afflux of the
lower stratum alone. This, however, is not how things
take place. The diminution of the barometer does not
indicate a vacuum in the upper regions, but is the result
of a movement. Involuntarily, when we speak of the
barometer, we always regard pressure in the statical con-
dition, as if the atmosphere was constantly in equilibrium,
whilst in reality it is in continual motion. If there was
reason to believe that the different layers of air do not
mix in crossing each other, it could not be denied that the
aqueous vapour in its continual ascent from the ground
and the sea does not traverse the successive strata on its
way to the more elevated regions of the atmosphere, to
be there condensed into minute crystals of ice. And when
under the action of other causes, the whole strata of the
atmosphere flow almost horizontally, like vast rivers,
between strata absolutely immoveable, producing every-
where condensation of vapour and heavy rains, it is
doubtful if even the statical principle of the equality of
pressure could in every sense be employed ; the baro-
metric pressure and its variations ought no longer to be
interpreted from the statical point of view only, especially
if it arises from gyratory movements on a vast scale.
There is here a question belonging to the dynamics of
fluids which mathematicians have not yet explained ; but
in the meantime we ought not to forget the essential dis-
tinction between dynamical and statical pressure so as to
suppose that every rapid fall of the barometer indicates a
sudden rarefaction of air overhead, and consequently
aspiration from above downwards.

3. Trade Winds. — The question of the trade winds is
connected with the preceding subject. If the air be con-
sidered only by itself, it will arrange itself in a state of
equilibrium, in homogeneous layers of varying densities,
which decrease with the height. These layers will be
bounded by ideal level surfaces enveloping the globe, and
which may here be regarded as spheres. If the action of
the sun, whose heat-rays are specially absorbed by the
lowest strata and by the aqueous vapour, is felt more
energetically over the torrid zone than in higher latitudes,
the inferior strata will expand, and pressing upv/ards will
raise the upper strata to a higher level. The equilibrium
being thus disturbed, it will tend to re-establish itself by
a general flow towards the coldest regions after the
manner of ocean currents, or like immense rivers which
have for their beds level surfaces, of which we are about
to speak.

On the other hand, the temperate and cold zones re-
ceiving this overplus of air, their lower strata taking
a movement inverse to the above, set in towards the
large space of the equatorial regions where the density of
the air is less ; and leaving out of view the effects of the

Oct, 21. 1875J

NATURE

537

earth's rotation, which diverts these currents from the
direction of the meridians, we have there the true cause
of the trade winds of the high regions, of which the
lower trade winds are only the counterpart and the
result. The lower trade winds are ordinarily attri-
buted to an equatorial rarefaction and to the indraught
which results from it. On this account, the indraught
being direct and ceasing with the day, the lower trade
winds ought to show, just as sea and land breezes, an
alternation from day to night, of which there exists no
trace. In considering the trade winds, on the contrary,
as the indirect result of the draining effected in the region
of the upper strata, we see that the intermediate mass
plays the part of the air receiver of a hydraulic machine,
which, by annihilating differences of velocity, produces a
steady flow, but which placed under the direct action of
the motive power would have been intermittent.

The theory of indraught or aspiration represents, on
the contrary, vast regular currents of the atmosphere as
shown by Fig. 12. We here see at the equator a sort of

chimney towards which the air is drawn, and up which it
ascends, and thereafter takes a course to north and to
south. The proof that matters do not take place alto-
gether in this way, and that the expansion of the air on
all sides in the zone most highly heated by the sun does
not there upset the order and the statical superposition of
the strata, is astronomical refraction, whose laws are the
same at the equator as in temperate regions ; there is in
addition the perfect regularity and the smallness of the
barometric oscillations — conditions little compatible with
those of a colossal updraught, or even with the behaviour
of the trade winds, which no one has ever seen at the
confines of the zone of calms begin to assume a vertical
direction.

If we have at length succeeded in dispelling the idea of
vertical aspiration from which has been deduced the direct
cause of all aiirial currents and all tempests, and the idea
of electricity considered as the chief agent in the mecha-
nics of the atmosphere, and lastly the confounding, so
frequently, of statical pressure in a fluid mass in repose
with dynamical pressure in a medium traversed through-
out by movements the most capricious, we shall have no
difficulty in accepting the following considerations, for
the subject being in this way simplified, the result is a
simple question of pure mechanics.

Vortices or Eddies with their Axes vertical to the Current
of Water. — If the question exclusively concerned pure
mechanics or mathematics, we should be stopped at the
very threshold of the inquiry, because mechanics does
not yet embrace the study of gyratory movements in
liquids or fluids. We have not up to the present moment
succeeded in submitting to analysis exact problems of
hydrodynamics, unless in very special cases in which
we may consider fluids as composed of elements of
volume containing always the same molecules, of such
sort that their masses are invariable and that the mole-
cules situated at the surface or on any of the sides will
always remain at the surface or at the same side. Be-
sides, the trajectories of the liquid filaments ought never
to present those re-entering or spiral-like curves which we,
however, so frequently remark. If we set out with these
restrictive hypotheses, the question cannot be attacked

by analysis. In other words, we are forced absolutely to
exclude all that relates to the movements with which we
are now dealing.

But where analysis is still powerless, experiment and
observation remain for our guidance. Whirling move-
ments make their appearance not only in gases ; they are
equally found in liquids, where they are more manageable,
since they can be followed by the eye and even produced
at pleasure. We shall therefore commence with the
movements which are observed in liquids after we have
drawn a vital distinction between tlie different whirling
movements with which we are dealing. Air and water
present in fact very complicated gyrations, some ebullient
transitory, and without any stability of figure, others'
perfectly regular and persistent. They are distinguished
by a very simple geometrical figure : the second class
have their axis always vertical ; the others turn round
axes diversely inclined. A moment's reflection will enable
us to account for the difference. In the case of a hori-
zontal gyration the spires keep clear of the surround-
ing layers past which they whirl, or only very slightly
graze them in their course. In the first case all motion of
the layers disappears ; that of the surface even no more
exists ; because at the surface of separation between the
water and the air the eddying spires issue from the liquid
mass and cut through or carry away to the interior the air
placed above so as to produce the phenomena of spray,
froth, foam, and emulsion.

Let us then confine ourselves to whirling movements
round a vertical axis, which the student of hydraulics
knows and observes, and which can be reproduced at will
and studied experimentally. These are, in truth, regular
persistent movements which obey laws very simple and
precise. The general law which embraces all these phe-
nomena is as follows : — When there exists in a current of
water differences of velocity between the filaments in
lateral juxtaposition, there tends to be generated, by
reason of these inequalities, a regular gyratory move-
ment round a vertical axis. The spires described by the
molecules are sensibly circular, with their centres about
the axis. These are, speaking more exactly, the spires of
a helix, slightly conical and descending, so that in follow-
ing a molecule in its movements it is seen to turn rapidly
in a circle round the axis, which it imperceptibly ap-
proaches, descending with a velocity very much less than
the linear velocity of rotation. Evidently the centrifugal
force which results from this gyratory movement must be
everywhere counterbalanced by the pressure of the sur-
rounding liquid ; there is then inside these eddying spires,
at least at their upper orifice, a slight lowering of the
pressure which discloses itself at the surface of the liquid
by a feeble conical depression centered about the axis of
rotation.

The two following characteristic properties are demon-
strated by analysis : — (i) The entire whirl may be regarded
as separated from the surrounding fluid, which remains
immoveable, by a surface of revolution whose meridian
curve has its concavity turned downwards. In other words,
the exterior figure of the whirling mass is in the form
of an inverted cone pointing downwards. (2) The angular
velocity of a molecule increases in proportion as it ap-
proaches the axis ; it is inversely proportional to the square
of its distance from the vertical axis. Hence the linear velo-
city increases in simple inverse proportion to its distance
from the axis. If we consider how great the breadth of
the whirling cone in the current of the water occasionally
is, relatively to the size of the lower orifice, we shall
understand how a gyration which appears sluggish at the
surface and at the circumference becomes violent at the
base of the funnel-shaped eddy.

These two laws, it must be here observed, are appli-
cable not only to liquids but also to gases. They are
easily verified by the experiment of throwing a little dust
into water in which an eddy has been formed, when the

538

NATURE

[Oct. 2 1, 1875

funnel-shaped figure and circulatory movement of the
entire mass and the increase of velocity towards the
centre will be at once seen.

The descending movement of these whirls may be
examined by the preceding analysis, but observation has
long since placed the matter beyond doubt. Everyone
knows how much eddies in the current of a river are
dreaded by bathers ; when a swimmer has the misfor-
tune to be caught in one he is drawn down by a rapid
rotation even to the bottom of the water. There, the
expert swimmer, knowing how to reserve his strength in
place of expending it in useless efforts, extricates himself
by resting on the bottom, and, disengaging himself from
the eddy, rises quickly to the surface. Not only may men
be thus engulphed, but masses of floating ice, or even
small vessels, are drawn to the bottom by whirlpools, and
thereafter are extricated and rise to the surface only by
the obstacle afforded by the bottom, and by the contrac-
tion downwards, more and more marked, of the whirling
mass of water.

These phenomena can be artificially produced in a
large mass of still water, at a part where a rapid move-
ment of gyration is communicated by a suitable mechani-
cal appliance.* If we strew dust on the surface, in order
to render the phenomena visible, it is ,seen that gyration
is propagated in the form of a cone from above down-
wards, even to the bottom of the vessel, drawing the dust
along with it. Count Xavier de Maistre, who has pub-
lished in the Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneve some
interesting experiments on this subject, has shown that a
layer of oil placed over the water of the funnel-shaped
eddy is drawn towards the bottom by a gyratory move-
ment ; then, when it comes in contact with the obstacle
presented by the base, the oil reascends in globules all
round the eddy which it has quitted. There is thus here
a double vertical movement — the first regularly descending
along the spires of a conical helix, the second ascending
and exhibiting in its ascent no geometrical figure, but
rising to the surface irregularly round about the eddy. It
is natural that the liquid thus drawn to the bottom should
thereafter ascend more or less, not, be it noted, in the eddy
down which it had been carried, but outside it, through
the surrounding liquid.

This gyratory movement, which thus concentrates
towards the point of the eddy the sum of the moving
forces which the funnel-shaped whirl embraces in its vast
expanse, ought to produce at its base a certain amount of
mechanical work, and observation confirms this idea.
The powerful whirlpools of our rivers plough up their
beds and thus expend on the soil the force which they
have acquired near the surface at the expense of the
inequalities of velocity of the general current. And as all
currents of water possessing some little depth present like
inequalities of velocity among their lateral filaments, on
account of the friction of the water against the banks,
numerous whirlpools are constantly found whose action
consists in finally absorbing these inequalities and regu-
lating the flow of the water, so that the general velocity
of the river is perceptibly reduced.

Vortices or Eddies with Vertical Axes in Gases. — All
these phenomena arc found in gaseous masses traversed
by horizontal currents. In currents of this sort, inequali-
ties of velocity will equally give rise to whirling move-
ments round a vertical axis, and, as may be constantly
observed, these gyrations will still assume the figure of a
truncated cone in an inverted position, which becomes
visible when any circumstance occurs to interfere with
the transparency of the air. Equally as in the case of

* These experiments must not be confounded with the experiment of
water poured into a vessel to which a movement of rotation round a ver-
tical axis has been communicated. In this case the free surface becomes
hollow whilst the water rises along the sides of the vessel. A condition of
equilibrium is soon established totally different from the dynamical pheno-
mena we are here discussing. Thus the central depression is parabolical
and not conical, and the angular velocity of the fluid molecules is constant,
whereas it varies in the movements of eddies in the inverse proportion of
he distance from the axis of rotation.

water, the gyration of a molecule will be the more rapid
the nearer it approaches the centre. The analysis which
confirms, or rather explains these phenomena is as appli-
cable to gases as to Hquids. Need it be said that water-
spouts, from their appearance alone, range themselves in
this category ? The mechanical identity of whirls formed
whether in liquids or in gases is found in all the details —
such as the descending movement of waterspouts whose
point is seen gradually approaching the earth, and in the
abrading force which whirlwinds thus exert on the
ground in breaking and beating down objects which
obstruct their course— acting thus like a plate fixed perpen-
dicularly at the end of a vertical axis whirling rapidly
round. This action evidently ceases when the lower
orifice of the waterspout rises a little ; it recommences
with energy each time that the whirling cone is lowered so
as to be brought into contact with any opposing object.

We have only further to prove another characteristic of
eddies in a stream of water not less general, in order to
complete the study of the analogous phenomena in fluids.
At the instant when there is formed in a moving mass of
water one of these gyrations which are solely due to in-
equalities in the general current, it is evident that the
eddy thus formed and isolated by an invisible sheath, so
to speak, will follow the mean velocity of the current, be-
cause nothing can bear away the chief part of the velocity
to the molecules which compose the eddy. We shall see it
follow the line of the stream, preserving its axis in a
vertical position and continuing a longer or a shorter time,
or until resistances of every sort have exhausted its force.
It will follow the same hne of the stream as that taken by
a floating object without losing its circular form, and
without ceasing to act on the bottom, if it extend so far
down, as long as its store of energy is inexhausted.

A distinction must be made between these travelling
eddies and the great eddies in deep still water which are
ceaselessly formed and re-formed at a post fixed at the
turning of narrows of a river. When in such places the
current makes itself felt it incessantly bears away with it
the spires thus formed ; the phenomenon is unceasingly
renewed, giving rise to those stationary eddies in rivers
which have no analogy to those of the atmosphere, and
which appeared to play an important part in deepening
the beds of rivers.

{To be continued.)

THE LARGE REFLECTOR OF THE PARIS
OBSERVATORY

MWALLON, the French Minister of Pubhc Instruc-
• tion, presided on the 7th inst. at the sitting of the
Council of the Observatory, and at the end of the seance he
made an official inspection of the large refractor. On
the 9th the representatives of many of the Parisian papers
were present at the Observatory by invitation of M. Le-
verrier ; the weather, unfortunately, was very tempestuous.

The telescope was left under its iron house, but every
detail was carefully explained by M. Leverrier, assisted
by M. Wolff, the chief astronomer for physical observa-
tions. M. Leverrier praised very highly the skill dis-
played by the constructors, MM. Eichens and Martin.

The weight of the moveable part is nine tons ; the
mirror is 120 centimetres in diameter, with a focal distance
of 6'8o metres. The weight of the mirror is only half a ton,
instead of four tons, which would be necessary for a
metallic one ; its cost amounts to 2,000/.

The telescope is suspended like a refractor in an ordi-
nary equatorial. The ocular is placed in front.

On the 8th minute stars were observed by M. Wolff
with a magnifying power of 500, which has been found
to answer excellently. An ocular multiplying 1,200 times,
and perhaps another, 2,400, will be constructed. A micro-
meter is being made.

The seeker is in front, and can be rotated with the

Od. 2 1, 1875I

NATURE

539

ocular and the small plane mirror round the axis of the
tube by a very simple process. The reason of this arrange-
ment is to facilitate the use of the large iron winding
staircase. This enormous metallic structure is moved by
special machinery on two circular iron rails. It is always
placed on the same side of the tube as the counterpoise,
which would render observations impossible if the'ocular
and seeker were not rotated round the axis of the tube.
The height of the iron staircase is about twelve metres,
and its weight six tons. The observations are made in
open air, and when the weather is propitious the cabin
protecting the apparatus is removed by machinery. It is
an iron casement (weight twelve tons), moveable on rails.
In less than a quarter of an hour the telescope can be
directed on any object, however minute.

The clock is finished, but not adjusted. The machinery
for moving in right ascension is finished and works ad-
mirably. The handle and screws for minute motions in
declination are finished and working most nicely. So
does the gear for connecting and disconnecting the tube
with the clock.

The cost of the reflector is 8,000/. It was built in six
years, but the work was interrupted several times, first by
the dismissal of M. Leverrier, secondly by the war and
the Commune.

M. Leverrier is justly proud of having completed the
large refractor, to which a very few details only are
wanting — the adjustment of the clock, the handles for
slight equatorial motions, and the machinery for large
declination motions. He asked M. Wallon to give orders
for the construction of the large refractor, and it was
granted at once. A sum of 8,000/. has been already voted
by the National Assembly for that purpose. It will be
seventeen metres in length, and the construction will be
completed in three years, if the work is not interrupted
by any political or other commotion.

LIEUT. WEYPRECHT ON ARCTIC EXPLORA-
TION
WE have already (vol. xii. p. 460) referred to Lieut.
Weyprecht's paper on the Principles of Arctic
Exploration, read at the German Scientific and Medical
Association. A full report of the paper has now come to
hand. Lieut. Weyprecht rightly maintains that the polar
regions offer, in certain important respects, greater advan-
tages than any other part of the globe for the observations of
natural phenomena— magnetism, the aurora, meteorology,
geology, zoology, and botany. He shows that hitherto
immense sums have been spent and much hardship suf-
fered for the mere purpose of extending geographical and
topographical knowledge, while strictly scientific observa-
tions were regarded as holding only a secondary place.
While admitting the importance of geographical discover}',
he maintains that the main purpose of future Arctic expe-
ditions should be the extension of our knowledge of the
various natural phenomena which may be studied with
so great advantage in these regions.

After showing in some detail the kind of observations
which would yield valuable results, Lieut. Weyprecht lays
down the following general propositions : — i. Arctic
exploration is of the highest importance to a knowledge
of the laws of nature. 2. Geographical discovery in these
regions is of superior importance only in so far as it
extends the field for scientific investigation in its strict
sense. 3. Minute Arctic topography is of secondary
importance. 4. The geographical pole has for science
no greater significance than any other point in high lati-
tude. 5. Observation-stations are to be selected without
reference to the latitude, on account of the advantages
they offer for the investigation of the phenomena to be
studied. 6. Interrupted series of observations have only a
relative value.

Suppose that stations were established at Novaya

Zemlya, 76° ; Spitzbergen, 80° ; West or East Greenland,
76°-8o'' ; N. America east of Behring Strait, 70" ; Siberia
at the mouth of the Laia, 70°, there would thus be a
girdle of observatories around the entire Arctic region.
A station in the neighbourhood of the centre of magnetic
intensity is much to be desired. By means of the stations
already existing in the neighbourhood of the polar circle,
a connection would be established with our own region.
The cost of one geographical exploring expedition would
supply the means of keeping up these stations for a year.
The object of these expeditions would be, with similar
instruments and according to similar instructions, to
record simultaneous observations as far as possible
throughout a year. In the first line would be placed the
various branches of Physics and Meteorology, as also
Botany, Zoology, and Geology ; and first in the second
line, detailed geographical exploration. Were it possible
to establish stations for simultaneous observation in the
Antarctic regions, results of much higher value might be
expected. Were the cost of these yearly expeditions
divided among various countries, it would fall very lightly
upon each.

While we think the curiosity of a healthy kind which
seeks to know the configuration of the entire surface of
our globe, we are sure every man of science will admit
the value of Lieut. Weyprecht's propositions. There has,
without doubt, been hitherto too much weight attached to
merely reaching a high latitude, and too Httle provision
made for strictly scientific observation. Lieut. Wey-
precht's suggestions deserve the serious consideration of
all civilised countries ; were they adopted as a ground for
action, a new era in polar exploration would be begun,
and results of far higher value than any hitherto obtained
might with certainty be expected.

NOTES

It is rather difappoinling that Capt. Young's Arctic Expedi-
tion in the Pandora, which arrived at Portsmouth on Saturday,
should have returned home prematurely without accomplishing
any part of the work for which it was organised — the discovery
of additional Franklin relics and the complete navigation of the
North-west Passage. Under the circumstances, however, Capt.
Young has adopted the wisest possible course . Better that the ex-
pedition should spend a comfortable winter at home, and set out
early next year to renew the attempt in which they have just been
bafHed. Disco was re.iched on August 7, Upernivik on the 13th,
and Cape York on the i6th, after a splendid passage through
the much-dreaded Melville Bay. Carey Islands were visited to
deposit letters for the Alert and Discovery and to obtain a
despatch from Capt. Nares, as previously agreed on. The
despatch, however, was not discovered till the return voyage.
From Carey Islands the Pandora proceeded up Lancaster Sound
to Beechey Island, which was reached on the 26th. Here Capt.
Young inspected " Northumberland House," which was built as
a storehouse by the North Star (Capt. Saunders) in 1850. It
was found that the house had been broken into by bears, and
many of the stores damaged, but those in casks and barrels had
sustained scarcely any injury. The yacht Mary and two life-
boats left by Sir John Ross were in such good condition that,
with a few repairs, they could still be made seaworthy. After
putting the stores in order, Capt. Young proceeded up Peel
Strait '"or the purpose of reaching King William Land. After
considerable manoeuvring with the ice, and some difliculties
arising from the uselessness of the compasses so near the mag-
netic pole, La Roquette Island, near Bellot Strait, was reached
on August 30. The ground thus far gone over was pretty well
known from the explorations of previous expeditions, and Capt.
Young was close to his former encampments when travelling from
the Fox in 1859. But now an impenetrable pack of ice across the
channel barred all further progress, and after vainly trying to find a

540

NATURE

[Oct 21, 1875

I^assage, Capt. Young prudently determined to retreat, which he
did on Sept. 3. Carey Islands were reached on Sept. 11, and
Capt. Nares' record discovered. The Pandora arrived at
Disco on the 20th, passed Cape Farewell on Oct. 2, and, as
we have said, reached Portsmouth on Saturday. Both on the
outward and return voyage very rough weather was encoun-
tered, although after leaving Disco until Bellot Strait was
reached, the weather was on the whole very favourable. The
following is Capt. Nares' record referred to : — ".H.M.S. Alert, at
Carey Islands, 3 a.m., 27th July, 1875. — Alert and Discovery
arrived here at midnight, and will leave at 6 A.M. for Smith's
Sound, after depositing a depot of provisions and a boat. We
left Upernivik on the evening of the 22nd inst. , and Brown
Islands on the evening of the 23rd. Passing through the middle
ice during a calm, we arrived at Cape York on the 25 th inst.
The season is a very open one, and we have every prospect of
attaining a high latitude. All are well on board each ship."
Thus the latest news from our Arctic Expedition is entirely
favourable.

Two long letters from Mr, Stanley, the leader of the Daily
Telegraph and New York Herald African Expedition, appear
in the Telegraph of Friday and Monday last. As might be
expected, they are full of interest, and contain many geographical
details, too summarily stated, however, to be condensed intelli-
gibly, or appreciated without a special map. Such a map Mr.
Stanley seems to have sent home, and we hope it will be pub-
lished as soon as practicable. Both letters are written from the
" village of Kagehyi, district of Uchambi, country of Usukuma,
on the Victoria Niyanza " (so he spells the name), dated March i
and May 15 respectively. An intervening letter has not come
to hand. The lake was reached after a march of 720 miles from
the coast, in 103 days. That the expedition has had to encounter
more than the usual difficulties and hardships of African explo-
ration may be inferred from the fact that Stanley has lost con.
siderably more than half his men, including two of his white
companions, Frederick Barker and Edward Pocock. Disease
carried off the greater number, though many were lost in a fierce
fight with the Waturu, a people o f the Leewumbu Valley. The
principal additions to our knowledge made so far by the deter-
mined leader of the expedition is a pretty full account of the
country and the people from Western Ugogo northwards to
Nyanza, and a survey of over i,oco miles of the shores of the
lake, which apparently is studded with islands. The Shemeeyu
River, known by other names in the upper part of its course,
which Stanley seems mainly to have followed, and which he
regards as the chief tributary of the Nyanza, enters the lake at
the village of Kagehyi. Stanley calculates its length roughly at
350 miles. At 400 miles from the coast he came upon the base
of the watershed of a number of streams which feed the river, and
which he evidently regards- as at least one of the Nile sources.
According to Stanley's observations, and they seem to have been
carefully made, as computed by Capt. George, the height of the
Nyanza above sea-level is 3, 740 feet— 68 feet higher than Speke
made it out to be. He has made some other corrections on
Speke's observations, especially in the matter of latitude.
Speke he makes out to be fourteen miles wrong in his latitude
along the whole of the coast of Uganda. The mouth of the
Katonga, for example, which in his map is a little south of the
equator, Stanley makes by meridian altitude to be in N. lat.
0° 16'. We sincerely hope the indomitable leader of this ex-
pedition will be able successfully to accomplish the large task
he has set before him — the exploration of the whole of the lake
region of Central Africa.

Prof. Fawcett's address at the opening of the winter
session of the Birmingham and Midland Institute on Monday
was, as might be expected, instructive and impressive. The tone
of it was mainly that of our article last week on the Yorkshire

College of Science, that the object of education should be to
develop an intelUgence which will be cultured all round, and which
maybe applied to any work in life. Prof. Fawcett spol< e mainly of
elementary education and of the education which the working
classes may obtain in such an institution as the Birmingham and
INIidland. He advocated the study of botany and political
economy from a disciplinary and 'practical point of view, and
very properly discouraged the notion that a good education
ought necessarily to make anyone discontented with his position ;
it would simply dignify labour of all kinds, and make the life
of the artisan brighter and nobler. A somewhat similar tone as
to what middle-class education should be, and what a college or
middle-class school should be, pervaded the address of the Dean
of Durham at the opening of the fifth session of the Newcastle
College of Science. In an efficient curriculum science will find
its proper place, withal a place of the highest importance.

The Organising Committee for the International Exhibition
of Electricity has held its first general meeting at the Palais de
rindustrie, Paris, under the presidency of Colonel Laussedat,
one of the delegates appointed by the French Minister of War.
The committee approved the regulations proposed by Count
Halley d'Arroz, the originator of the scheme, appointed him
general director, and divided the exhibition into eighteen groups.
Amongst these are the History of Electricity, a section in which
will be collected, as far as possible, the instruments which were
used by Davy, Faraday, Volta, Arago, Ohm, Oerstedt, Ampere,
and others, in making their discoveries. The eighteenth group
will be Bibliographical ; a library as complete as possible will be
formed of all the books and papers published in the Transactions
of the several Academies, and scientific periodicals relating to
electricity. A requisition will be sent to the administration of
the National Library, asking them to offer, for 1877, their Sys-
tematic Catalogue of Electricity. The President of the French
Republic will be the head of the Committee of Patronage, and a
sub-committee has received instructions to open negotiations with
foreign savants and Governments.

The catalogues of the various departments under the Science
and Art Department at South Kensington have long been noted
both for the extent and accuracy of the information contained in
them, as well as for the low price at which they may be ob-
tained. It is with pleasure we note that the catalogues of the
contents of the Bethnal Green branch are not behind those of
the mother institution in point of detail and careful working out.
That relating to the special collection ef waste products brought
together by Mr. P. L. Simmonds is before us, and we recom-
mend all those who are interested in the subject to obtain this
little book, which costs only threepence and contains a fund of
information on various matters connected with products of the
vegetable, animal, and mineral kingdoms. The usual sequence
of the three kingdoms of nature is somewhat altered here, the
vegetable products being placed first, and for this reason, that
" vegetable products have given more extensive and profitable
employment and results, in the utilisation of formerly wasted
substances and the recovery of residues from manufactures, than
either animal or mineral substances. " Nothing is too small or
unimportant to rescue from simple destruction if it can be turned
in any way to serve the purpose of man. As an illustration we
may mention the fact of the apphcation as fire-lighters of the
central portion of the ear of the Indian corn after the seeds have
been taken out ; also of the cones of the Scotch Fir {Pinus syl-
vestris), which are sold in France under the name of Allumettes
des Landes. These are novel applications of what would other-
wise be pure waste substances ; but there are others which,
though waste from one manufacture, are used to adulterate others.
From vegetable marrow, melon, and other cucurbitaceous seeds,
many of the so-called sugared almonds of the confectioners are
made. In China, the seeds of the water-melon are very largely

Oct. 21, 1875]

JNATURE

54'

used as food ; they are carried from place'to place in junks laden
entirely with them ; they contain a quantity of oil of a sweet or
bland nature. In the manufacture of olive oil, much more eco-
nomy is exercised than was formerly the case. In the olive-
growing countries the pulpy portion of the fruit, which was
formerly tin-own away aftei being pressed, is now bought up at
the rate of from thirteen to sixteen shillings per ton, and sub-
mitted to chemical action and powerful steam pressure, by which
means about twenty per cent, more oil is obtained. This oil is
of course of an inferior quality to that obtained from the first
expression. After this remaining oil is extracted, the seeds,
which are crushed in the process, are finally burnt as fuel or used
as manure. The foregoing notes will show the kind of matter
dealt with in the Official Catalogue of Waste products.

From the Report, dated June 1875, of Mr. George King,
Superintendent of the Calcutta Botanical Gardens, we see that
during the past year many important improvements have been
effected in the Gardens. Among other things a fine raised terrace
has been constructed, on which a large new plant-house is now
being erected. This noble conservatory, when finished, will, it
is expected, be the greatest addition to the Garden which has been
made for years, and will give facilities for the cultivation of deli-
cate plants hitherto unknown in Calcutta. This building is 200
feet in length by 66 feet broad. The collections in the two
orchid houses and in the other conservatories have been much
increased during the year, considerab';e additions having been
received from Sikkim, the Khasi Hills, the Andaman?, and
Burmah, also a few plants from the Neilgherries. A number of
plants were also sent to the Garden by Mr. Lister, the second
gardener, who accompanied the Dufila field-force as a botanical
collector. " But," Mr. King justly remarks, in reference to this,
" when the floral weaUh of Assam, of Eastern Bengal, and of
Burmah is considered, not to mention the west and south of
India, the collection in this Garden appears miserably small. In
an imperial institution such as this, the natural productions of
the whole Indian empire should, as far as the climate will per-
mit, be represented. I see no way of forming such a typical
collection until a good trained European col'ector be attached
permanently to the establishment. At present I have to rely for
supplies of plants from distant parts of India on correspondence
with private parties, who, although usually very willing to help,
are unfortunately often unskilled in botany or gardening, and
neither know what plants to send nor how to pack them safely
for transit. The only experts, not employed in the Garden,
whose services I can command for collecting, are the manager of
the Cinchona plantation and his assistants, and their efforts are
of course confined to Sikkim. Had I a collector as one of the
regular garden staff, I could send him about to distant districts
of which the flora is little known or poorly represented in the
Garden, and the result would be that in a few years a very fine
collection might be got together both of living plants in cultiva-
tion and of dried specimens in the Herbarium. Another great
advantage would be that this Garden would be put in a position
such as it has not hitherto occupied for exchanging plants with
similar institutions all over the worid. The cost of maintaining
such a collector would not be great, and the extremely liberal
manner in which the Gardens have been' supported by Govern-
ment during the past year leads me to hope that this desideratum
will soon be supplied."

There is being printed for the National Library of Paris two
volumes of catalogues of French History. The series will be
completed in fourteen volumes. There are also being printed
two new volumes of the catalogue of Medicine, containing all the
theses supported before the several French schools for a number
of years. These two volumes will make the catalogue of Medi-
cine complete in four volumes.

We learn from the Journal of Botany that Prof. Kcrncr, o
Innsbriick— to whose valuable contributions to botanical literature
we have frequently called attention, especially relating to the
distribution of plants as aFocted l)y climatal and geological con-
ditions—will shortly succeed the venerable Fenzl as Professor of
Botany at the University of Vienna.

A PAPER by Dr. T. Spencer Cobbold has been reprinted from
the VeUrinarian of this month, on the destruction of elephants
by parasites, with remarks on two new species of entozoa, and
on the so-called earth- eating habits of elephants and horses in
India.

Mr. Sct-ATER has issued an appendix to his " Revised List of
the Vertebrated Animals in the Zoological Gardens," containing
the names of the additions since the year 1871, among the most
important of which are the superb series of Rhinoceroses, five
species in all; the Chinese Water Deer of Swinhoe; the
Mourning Kangaroo ; the Red Oven-bird ; Bouquet's Amazon,
and three fresh species of Cassowary.

The principal papers in this month's part of Petermann's
Miitheilungen are : An account of a journey to Patagonia, by
Dr. Karl Berg, of the Public Museum of Buenos Ayres, in
which particular attention is given to the natural history of
the country ; " Chinese Travellers of the Middle Ages to Western
Asia," by Dr. E. Bretschneider, of Pekin ; "Travels on the
Araguaya, Brazil, in January 1865," by Dr. Conto de Magalhaes ;
" Contributions to a Knowledge of the Oasis El-Chargeh," with
a map, by Dr. G. Scliweinfurth ; and a short paper, with map,
on Weyprecht's survey of the North Coast cf Novaya Zcmlya in
September and October 1872.

The BuUelin of the French Geographical Society for Sep-
tember contains a careful paper by M. Jules Girard on the Ele-
vations and Depressions which have been observed along the
coast of France. This part also contains the conclusion of the
Abbe Pelitot's valuable contribution to the Geography of the
Athabaskaw-Mackenzie region of North America, and a paper
by M. E. Allain on the Statistics of Brazil.

The French Government is sending to China a doctor, M.
Durand Fardel, in order to study the important question of con-
tagious diseases, and to elucidate the so much vexed question of
quarantines.

In the Health Section of the Social Science Congress, Prof.
Wanklyn read a paper on the waters of the Nile, showing the
amounts of chlorine and of hardness at different periods. The
rise of the Nile commences at the end of May, and lasts through
June, July, and August, up to about the [middle of September,
when the decrease continues till Christmas. From Christmas
till May the amount is tolerably constant. Just at the time of
the beginning of the rise of the waters the chlorine is i "8 grains
per gallon, but at the time when the Nile has attained its greatest
size it is onlyO"3gr., and it remains very little above that pro-
portion to the end of the year. In marked contrast with the
variableness of the chlorine is the constancy of the hardness.
Prof. Wanklyn's explanation is that the storm-water which adds
so much to the bulk of the Nile sweeps over the country without
penetrating far below the surface, and such water passing over a
country long ago denuded of salt could convey but little chlorine.
He thinks that the debris carried down mechanically by the flood-
water contains abundance of finely divided carbonate of lime, so
that the storm-water would always be saturated by carbonate of
lime. Hence the constant hardness. The water which feeds
the Nile, apart from the storm- water, contains I'S grains per
gallon ; and it is the accession of storm-',vatcr with chlorine that
causes the relative reduction. Similar features will probably be
found in other large rivers which have a fl loJ period.

542

NA TURE

[Oct. 2 1, 1875

During the meeting of the Social Science Congress at
Brighton, Mr. Booth threw open for three days his private mu-
seum which is in the course of arrangement. He has built on
the Dyke Road a spacious^ hall of brick, lighted entirely from
above, and around this are being placed 306 cases which contain
groups of birds shot by himself and Mrs. Booth in Britain.
There is one point about the fixing of the cases worth mention-
ing. A framework is constructed about three feet from the wall
into which the glazed cases fit. This prevents any damp from the
walls, too frequent in museums, and allows of the easy moving
of the cases if needed. As these cases are arranged in three
tiers only and there is abundance of light, every bird can be well
seen, and the width of the hall is sufficient to admit of viewing
the groups from different positions. The most important feature
next perhaps to the careful stuffing of the birds, is the fidelity with
which the characters of the habitat are reproduced. With birds
which change their plumage during the year, two, and where
needed, three illustrations are given each with the proper
entourage. As a collection illustrating our British birds in their
native haunts, this is probably unique. There is no attempt at
zoological classification, however, since the position of the cases
is influenced rather by their relative size and the general
picturesque effect of the hall. Whoever the taxidermist is, the
collection does him great credit. It is stated that when com-
plete the collection will be throvm open to the public lor the
benefit of the local charities.

The observations obtained by Prof. VioUe (referred to last
week, p. 527) in reference to the solar temperature, were
obtained not by ballooning, but by the actual ascent of the Alps.

Under date Oct. 19, the Tit'wfj Paris correspondent states that
an eartliquake which lasted several seconds is reported as having
been felt at Moutiers-et-Brides-Ies-Bains, near Chambery. This
phenomenon coincided with great barometrical depression.
Snow has fallen on the mountains of the Puy de Dome.

Dr. Pietre SANCTAhas just started a new French periodical,
the Journal d'Hygiine, with the object of realising, as far as
possible, in France the ideal of a " city of health." The journal
also treats of climatology, mineral waters, wintering and sea-
side resorts, and kindred subjects.

The pair of Sea-lions which arrived at Brighton last week are,
we are informed, specimens of Steller's Sea-lion, about six feet
long. The species, which was originally described by G. W.
Steller in a work which also contains the account of the huge
extinct Manatee-like Rhytina, attains a length of sixteen feet,
and has long hair surrounding the neck of the adult male, whence
its name. Its under-fur is very little in quantity, so that the
skin is of no use for "sealskin."

On Monday the New Ladies' College, known as Newnham
Hall, at the back of the Colleges at Cambridge, was formally
opened and received into its rooms twenty-seven students. Tlie
resident mistress is Miss Clough, the sister of the poet.

A letter in Tuesday's Times describes a terrible hurricane
and rain and thunder-storm which swept over the island of St.
Vincent and other West India islands on the 9th September.
In twelve hours the almost incredible quantity of nearly nine-
teen inches of rain fell.

A COURSE of twelve Gilchrist Lectures, on the Principles of
Physical Geography, in connection with the School Teachers'
Science Association, is being given at the Foresters' Hall, Wil-
derness Row, on alternate Friday evenings. The first lecture
was given on the 8th inst, and the' next will take place to-
morrow. The lecturers are Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S., Mr.
J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S., and Prof. Martin Duncan, F.R.S.

The evening lectures last session in connection with the
Yorkshire College of Science were largely attended, and we are

glad to see they are to be continued this session. Professors
Rucker, Thorpe, and Green are to lecture on special depart-
ments of Physics, Chemistry, and Geology respectively, and
Mr. L. C. Miall on "The Principal Forms of Animal Life."

The following' is the programme of the Glasgow Science
Lectures Association for the coming Session : — Nov. 11, " Navi-
gation," by Sir Wm. Thomson, F.R.S. ; Nov. 24, " Coals and
Coal Plants," by Prof. W. C. Williamson, r.R.S. ; Dec. 8,
" Recent Researches into the Chemical Constitution of the
Sun," by J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S. ; Dec. 22, "Kent's
Cavern — its testimony to the Antiquity of Man," by Wm. Pen-
gelly, F.R.S.; Jan. 27, "Mountain Architecture," by Prof.
Geikie, F.R.S.; Feb. 16, a lecture by Prof. Huxley, F.R.S.,
subject not yet announced.

From the thirteenth quarterly report of the Sub-Wealden Ex-
ploration, it appears that another effort is to be made to reach a
depth of 2,oco feet. The engineer has reported favourably on
the possibility of completing that distance by attaching a crown
to the 3-inch tubes, and, after boring to 1,824 feet, to recom-
mence with a 2 1 -inch crown.

The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the
past week include two Persian Gazelles {Gazella siibgitttnrosd)
from Persia, presented by Mr. Archibald Gray ; a Ruddy
Ichneumon {Herpestes sntithii) from India, presented by Mr. W.
R. Best; a Common Kestrel {Tinnunculus alaudarius), Euro-
pean, presented by Mr. J. H. W^illmore ; a Golden-crowned
Conure (Conurus aureus) from S.E. Brazil, presented by Col.
McArthur ; two Crested Porcupines (ITystrix cristaia), two Ser-
vals {Felis servaT) from S. Africa, a Scarlet Ibis {Ibis rubra)
from Para, a Common Boa {Boa constrictor) from S. America,
deposited ; a Derbian Wallaby {Halniaturus derbianns) born in
the Gardens.

A CITY OF HEALTH*
II.
'T*HE warming and ventilation of the houses is carried out by
-*■ a common and simple plan. The cheerfulness of the fire-
side is not sacrificed ; there is still the open grate in every room,
but at the back of the fire-stove there is an air-box or case whicli,
distinct from the chimney, communicates by an opening with the
outer air, and by another opening with the room. When the
fire in the room heats the iron receptacle, fresh air is brought in
from without, and is diffused into the room at the upper part on
a plan similar to that devised by Capt. Galton.

As each house is complete within itself in all its arrangements,
those disfigurements called back premises are not required.
There is a wide space consequently between the back fronts of
all houses, which space is, in every instance, turned iato a
garden square, kept in neat order, ornamented with flowers
and trees, and furnished with playgrounds for children, youn^;
and old.

The houses being built on arched subways, great convenience
exists for conveying sewage from, and for conducting water and
gas into, the different domiciles. All pipes are conveyed along
the subways, and enter each house from beneath. Thus the
mains of the water-pipe and the mains of the gas are within
instant control on the first floor of the building, and a leakage
from either can be immediately prevented. The officers who
supply the commodities of gas and water have admission to the
subways, and find it most easy and economical to keep all that
is under their charge in perfect repair. The sewers of the houses
run along the floors of the subways, and are built in brick.
They empty into three cross main sewers. They are trapped
for each house, and as the water supply is continuous, they are
kept well flushed. In addition to the house flushings there are
special openings into the sewers by which, at any time, under
the direction of the sanitary officer, an independent flushing can
be carried out. The sewers are ventilated into tall shafts from the
mains by means of a pneumatic engine.

* An Address by Dr. B W. Richardson, F.R.S., at the Brighton meeting
of the Social bcience Association. Revised by the author. Concluded from
P- .';2S-

Oct. 21, 1875 J

NATURE

543

The water-closets in the houses are situated on the middle and
basement floors. The continuous water supply flushes them
without danger of charging the drinking water with gases
emanating from the closet ; a danger so imminent in the pre-
sent method of cisterns, which supply drinking as well as flushing
water.

As we walk the streets of our model city, we notice first an
absence of places for the public sale of spirituous liquors.
Whether this he a voluntary purgation in goodly imitation of
the National Temperance League, the effect of Sir Wilfred
Lawson's Permissive Bill and most permissive wit and wisdom,
or the work of the Good Templars, we need not stay to inquire.
We look at the fact only. To this city, as to the town of St.
Johnsbury, in Vermont^ which Mr. Hepworth Dixon has so
graphically described, we may apply the description Mr. Dixon
has written: "No bar, no dram shop, no saloon defiles the
place. Nor is there a single gaming hell or house of ill-repute. "
Through all the workshops into which we pass, in whatever
labour the men or women may be occupied — ^and the place is
noted for its manufacturing industry — at whatever degree of
heat or cold, strong drink is unknown. Practically, we are in
a total abstainers' town, and a man seen intoxicated would be
so avoided by the whole community, he would have no peace to
remain.

And, as smoking and drinking go largely together, as the two
practices were, indeed, original exchanges of social degradations
between the civilised man and the savage, the savage getting
very much the worst of the bargain, so the practices largely dis-
appear together. Pipe and glass, cigar and sherry-cobbler, like
the Siamese twins, who could only live connected, have both
died in our model city. Tobacco, by far the most innocent
partner of the firm, lived, as it perhaps deserved to do, a little
the longest ; but it passed away, and the tobacconist's counter,
like the dram counter, has disappeared.

The streets of our city, though sufficiently filled with busy
people, are comparatively silent. The subways relieve the
heavy traffic, and the factories are all at short distances from
the town, except those in which the work that is carried on is
silent and free from nuisance. This brings me to speak of
some of the public buildings which have relation to our present
studies.

It has been found in our towns, generally, that men and
women who are engaged in industrial callings, such as tailoring,
shoe-making, dress-making, lace-work and the like, work at their
own homes amongst their children. That this is a common
cause of disease is well understood. I have myself seen the
half-made riding-habit that was ultimately to clothe some wealthy
damsel rejoicing in her morning ride, act as the coverlet of a poor
tailor's child stricken with malignant scarlet-fever. These things
must be in the ordinary course of events, under our present bad
ordinary system. In the model city we have in our mind's eye,
these dangers are met by the simple provision of workmen's
offices or workrooms. In convenient parts of the town there are
blocks of buildings, designed mainly after the manner of the
houses, in which each workman can have a work-room on pay-
ment of a moderate sum per week. Here he may work as
many hours as he pleases, but he may not transform the room
into a home. Each block is under the charge of a superin-
tendent, and also under the observation of the sanitary authori-
ties. The family is thus separated from the work, and the
working man is secured the same advantages as the lawyer, the
merchant, the banker now possesses : or, to make the parallel
more correct, he has the same advantage as the man or woman
who works in a factory and goes home to eat and to sleep.

In most towns throughout the kingdom the laundry system is
dangerous in the extreme. For anything the healthy house-
holder knows, the clothes he and his children wear have been
mixed before, during, and after the process of washing, with the
clothes that have come from the bed or the body of some suf-
ferer from a contagious malady. Some of the most fatal out-
breaks of disease 1 have met with have been communicated in
this manner. In our model community this danger is entirely
avoided by the establishment of public laundries, under mu-
nicipal direction. No person is obliged to send any article of
clothing to be washed at the public laundry ; but if he does not
send there he must have the washing done at home. Private
laundries that do not come under the inspection of the sanitary
officer are absolutely forbidden. It is incumbent on all who send
clothes to the public laundry from an infected house to state the
fact. The clothes thus received are passed for special cleansing
into the disinfecting rooms. They are specially washed, dried,

and prepared for future wear. The laundries are placed in con-
venient positions, a little outside the town ; they have extensive
drying grounds, and, practically, they are worked so econo-
mically, that home-washing days, those invaders of domestic
comfort, are abolished.

Passing along the main streets of the city we see in twenty
places, equally distant, a separate building surrounded by its
own grounds — a model hospital for the sick. To make these
institutions the best of their kind, no expense is spared. Several
elements contribute to their success. They are small, and
are readily removeable. The old idea of warehousing diseases
on the largest possible scale, and of making it the boast of an
institution that it contains so many hundred beds, is abandoned
here. The old idea of building an institution so that it shall
stand for centuries, like a Norman castle, but, unlike the castle,
still retain its original character as a shelter for the afflicted, is
abandoned. The still more absurd idea of building hospitals for
the treatment of special organs of the body, as if the different
organs could walk out of the body and present themselves for
treatment, is also abandoned.

It will repay us a minute of time to look at one of these model
hospitals. One is the fac simile of the other, and is devoted to
the service of every five thousand of the population. Like every
building in the place, it is erected on a subway. There is a wide
central entrance, to which there is no ascent, and into which a
carriage, cab, or ambulance can drive direct. On each side the
gateway are the houses of the resident medical officer and of the
matron. Passing down the centre, which is lofty and covered in
with glass, we arrive at two side-wings running right and left from
the centre, and forming cross-corridors. These are the wards :
twelve on one hand for male, twelve on the other for female
patients. The cross-corridors are twelve feet wide and twenty
feet high, and are roofed with glass. The corridor on each side
is a framework of walls of glazed brick, arched over head, and
divided into six segments. In each segment is a separate, light,
elegant removable ward, constructed of glass and iron, twelve
feet high, fourteen feet long, and ten feet wide. The cubic
capacity of each ward is 1,680 feet. Each patient who is ill
enough to require constant attendance has one of these wards
entirely to himself, so that the injurious influences on the sick,
which are created by mixing up, in one large room, the living
and the dying ; those who could sleep, were they at rest, with
those who cannot sleep because they are racked with pain ;
those who are too nervous or sensitive to move, or cough, or
speak, lest they should disturb others ; and those who do what-
ever pleases them ; these bad influences are absent.

The wards are fitted up neatly and elegantly. At one end
they open into the corridor, at the other towards a verandah
which leads to a garden. In bright weather those sick, who even
are confined to bed, can, under the direction of the doctor, be
wheeled in their beds out into the gardens without leaving the
level floor. The wards are warmed by a current of air made to
circulate through them by the action of a steam-engine, with
which every hospital is supplied, and which performs such a
number of useful purposes, that the wonder is how hospital ma-
nagement could go on without this assistance.

If at any time a ward becomes infectious, it is removed from
its position, and replaced by a new ward. It is then taken to
pieces, disinfected, and kid by ready to replace another that
may require temporary ejection.

The hospital is supplied on each side with ordinary baths,
hot-air batlis, vapour baths, and saline baths.

A day sitting-room is attached to each wing, and every reason-
able method is taken for engaging the minds of the sick in agree-
able and harmless pastimes.

Two trained nurses attend to each corridor, and connected
with the hospital is a school for nurses, under the direction of
the medical superintendent and the matron. From this school
nurses are provided for the town ; they are not merely efficient
for any duty in the vocation in which they are always engaged,
either within the hospital or out of it, but from the care with
which they attend to their own personal cleanliness, and the plan
they pursue of changing every garment on leaving an infectious
case, they fail to be the bearers of any communicable disease.
To an hospital four medical officers are appointed, each of
whom, therefore, has six resident patients under his care. The
officers are called simply medical officers ; the distinction, now
altogether obsolete, between physicians and surgeons being
discarded.

The hospital is brought, by an electrical wire, into communica-
tion with all the fire-stations, factories, mills, theatres, and other

544

NATURE

\OcL 21, 1875

important public places. It has an ambulance always ready to
be sent out to bring any injured persons to the institution. The
ambulance drives straight into the hospital, where a bed of the
same height on silent wheels, so that it can be moved without
vibration into a ward, receives the patient.

The kitchens, laundries, and laboratories are in a separate
block at the back of the institution, but are connected with it by
the central corridor. The kitchen and laundries are at the top
of this building, the laboratories below. The disinfecting-room
is close to the engine-room, and superheated steam, which the
engine supplies, is used for disinfection.

The out-patient department, which is apart from the body of
the hospital, resembles that of the Queen's Hospital, Birming-
ham : the first out-patient department, as far as I am aware, that
ever deserved to be seen by a generous public. The patients
waiting for advice are seated in a large hall, warmed at all
seasons to a proper heat, lighted from the top through a glass
roof, and perlectly ventilated. The infectious cases are separated
carefully from the rest. The consulting rooms of the medical
staff are comfortably fitted, the dispensary is thoroughly officered,
and the order that prevails is so effective that a sick person, who
is punctual to time, has never to wait.

The medical officers attached to the hospital in our model
city are allowed to hold but one appointment at the same time,
and that for a limited period. Thus every medical m:'>n in the
city obtains the equal advantage of hospital practice, and the
value of the best medical and surgical skill is fairly equalised
through the whole community.

In addition to the hospital building is a separate block, fur-
nished with wards, constructed in the same way as the general
wards, for the reception of children suffering from any of the
infectious diseases. These wards are so planned that the people,
generally, send sick members of their own family into them for
treatment, and pay for the privilege.

Supplementary to the hospital are certain other institutions of
a kindred character. To check the terrible course of infantile
mortality of other large cities — the 76 in the 1,000 of mortality
under five years of age, homes for little children arc abundant.
In these the destitute young are carefully tended by intelligent
nurses ; and mothers, while following their daily callings, are
enabled to leave their children under efficient care.

In a city from which that grand source of wild mirth, hope-
less sorrow and confirmed madness, alcohol, has been expelled,
it could hardly be expected that much insanity would be found .
The few who are insane are placed in houses licensed as asylums,
but not different in appearance to other houses in the city. Here
they live, in small communities, under proper medical super-
vision, with their own gardens and pastimes.

The houses of the helpless and aged are, like the asylums, the
same as the houses of the rest of the town. No large building
for the poor of pretentious style uprears itself ; no men badged
and badgered as paupers walk the place. Those poor who are
really, from physical causes, unable to work, are maintained in a
manner showing that they possess yet the dignity of human
kind ; that, being worth preservation, they are therefore worthy
of respectful tenderness. The rest, those who can work, are
employed in useful labours which pay for their board. If they
cannot find work, and are deserving, they may lodge in the
house and earn their subsistence ; or they may live from the
house and receive pay for work done. If they will not work,
they, as vagrants, find a home in prison, where they are com-
pelled to share the common lot of mankind.

Our model city is of course well furnished with baths, swim-
ming baths, Turkish baths, playgrounds, gymnasia, libraries,
board schools, fine art schools, lecture halls, and places of in-
structive amusement In every board school drill forms part of
the programme. I need not dwell on these subjects, but must
pass to the sanitary officers and offices.

There is in the city one principal sanitary officer, a duly
qualified medical man elected by the Municipal Council, whose
sole duty it is to watch over the sanitary welfare of the place.
Under him as sanitary officers are all the medical men who
form the poor-law medical staff. To him these make their re-
ports on vaccination and every matter of htalth pertaining to
their respective districts ; to him every registrar of births and
deaths forwards copies of his registration returns ; and to his
office are sent, by the medical men generally, registered returns
of the cases of sickness prevailing in the district. His in-
spectors likewise make careful returns of all the known pre-
vaiUng diseases of the lower animals and of plants. To his
office are forwarded, for examination and analysis, specimens of

foods and drinks suspected to be adulterated, impure, or other-
wise unfitted for use. For the conduction of these researches
the sanitary superintendent is allowed a competent chemical
staff. Thus, under this central supervision, every death and
every disease of the living world in that district, and every
assumable cause of disease, comes to light and is subjected, if
need be, to inquiry.

At a distance from the town are the sanitary works, the
sewage pumping works, the water and gas works, the slaughter-
houses and the public laboratories. The sewage, which is
brought from the town partly by its own flow and partly by
pumping apparatus, is conveyed away to well-drained sewage
farms belonging to the city, but at a distance from it, where it
is utilised on Mr. Hope's plan.

The water supply, derived from a river which flows to the
south-west of the city, is unpolluted by sewage or other refuse,
is carefully filtered, is tested twice dail}', and if found unsatis-
factory is supplied through a reserve tank, in which it can be
made to undergo forther purification. It is carried through
the city everywhere by iron pipes. Leaden pipes are forbidden.

In the sanitary establishment are disinfecting rooms, a
mortuary, and ambulances for the conveyance of persons suffer-
ing from contagious disease. These are at all times open to
the use of the public, subject to the few and simple rules of the
management.

The gas, like the water, is submitted to regular analysis by the
staff of the sanitary officer, and any fault he may detect which
indicates a departure from the standard of purity framed by the
Municipal Council is immediately remedied, both gas and water
being exclusively under the control of the local authority.

The inspectors of the sanitary officer have under them a body
of scavengers. These each day, in the early morning, pass
through the various districts allotted to them, and remove all
refuse in clo-ed vans. Every portion of manure from stables,
streets, and yards, is in this way removed daily and transported
to the city farms for utilisation.

Two additional conveniences are'supplied by the sanitary
scientific work of this establishment. PVom steam-works steam
is condensed, and a large supply of distilled water is obtained
and preserved in a separate tank. This is conveyed by a small
main into the city, and at a moderate cost distilled water can be
supplied for those domestic purposes for which hard water is
objectionable. The second sanitary convenience is a large ozone
generator. By this apparatus ozone can be produced in any
required quantity, and is made to play many useful purposes.
It is passed through the drinking water in the reserve reservoir
whenever the water shows excess of organic impurity, and it is
conveyed into the city for diffusion into private houses for pur-
poses of disinfection.

The slaughter-houses of the city are all public, and are sepa-
rated by a distance of a quarter of a mile from the city. They
are easily removable edifices, and are under the supervision
of the sanitary staff. The Jewish system of inspecting every
carcase that is killed is rigorously carried out, with this im-
provement, that the inspector is a man of scientific knowledge.

All animals used for food — cattle, fowls, swine, rabbits — are
subjected to examination in the slaughter-house, or in the
market, if they be brought into the city from other depots.
The slaughter-houses are so constructed that the animals killed
are relieved from the pain of death. They pass through a
narcotic chamber, and are brought to the slaughterer oblivious of
their fate. The slaughter-houses drain into the sewers of the
city, and their complete purification daily, from all offal and
refuse, is rigidly enforced.

The buildings, sheds, and styes for domestic food-producing
animals, are removed a short distance from the city, and are
also under the supervision of the sanitary officer ; the food
and water supplied for these animals comes equally with human
food under proper inspection.

One other subject only remains to be noticed in connection
with the arrangements of our model city, and that is the mode
of the disposal of the dead. The questions of cremation and
of burial in the earth have been considered, and there are some
who advocate cremation. For various reasons the process of
burial is still retained : firstly, because the cremation process
is open to serious medico-legal objections ; secondly, because,
by the complete resolution of the body into its elementary and
inodorous gases in the cremation furnace, that intervening
chemical link between the organic and inorganic worlds, the
ammonia, is destroyed, and the economy of nature is thereby
dangerously disturbed ; thirdly, because tire natural tendencies

Oct. 21, 1875]

NATURE

545

of the people lead them still to the earth, as the most fitting
resting-place into which, when lifeless, they should be drawn.

Thus the cemetery holds its place in our city, but in a form
much modi^.ed from the ordinary cemetery. The burial-ground
is artificially made of a fine carboniferous earth. Vegetation of
rapid growth is cultivated over it. The dead are placed in the
earth from the bier, either in basket-work or simply in the
shroud ; and the monumental slab, instead of being set over
or at the head or foot of a raised grave, is placed in a spacious
covered hall or temple, and records simply the fact that the per-
son commemorated was recommitted to earth in those grounds.
In a few months, indeed, no monument would indicate the
remains of any dead. In that rapidly-resolving soil the trans-
formation of dust into dust is too perfect to leave a trace of
residuum. The natural circle of transmutation is harmlessly
completed, and the economy of nature conserved.

Results.

Omitting, necessarily, many minor but yet important details,
I close the description of the imaginary health city. I have yet
to indicate what are the results that might be fairly predicted
in respect to the disease and mortality presented under the con-
ditions specified.

Two kinds of observation guide me in this essay : one derived
from statistical and sanitary work, the other from experience,
extended now over thirty years, of disease, its phenomena, its
origins, its causes, its terminations.

I infer, then, that in our model city certain forms of disease
would find no possible home, or, at the worst, a home so transient
as not to affect the mortality in any serious degree. The infan-
tile diseases, infantile and remittent fevers, convulsions, diarrhcea,
. croup, marasmus, dysentery, would, I calculate, be almost
unknown. Typhus and typhoid fevers and cholera could not, I
believe, exist in the city except temporarily and by pure acci-
dent ; small-pox would be kept under entire control ; puerperal
fever and hospital fever would probably cease altogether ; rheu-
matic fever, induced by residence in damp houses, and the heart
disease subsequent upon it, would be removed ; death from
privation and from puerpera and scurvy would certainly cease ;
delirium tremens, liver disease, alcoholic phthisis, alcoholic
degeneration of kidney, and all the varied forms of paralysis,
insanity, and other affections due to alcohol, would be ccmpletely
effaced. The parasitic diseases arising from the introduction into
the body, through food, of the larva- of the entozoa, would
cease, and that large class of deaths from pulmonary consump-
tion, induced in less-favoured cities by exposure to impure air
and badly-ventilated rooms, would, I believe, be reduced so as
to bring down the mortality of this signally fatal malady one-
third at least.

Some diseases, pre-eminently those which arise from uncon-
trollable causes, from sudden fluctuations of temperature, electri-
cal storms, and similar great variations of nature, would remain
as active as ever ; and pneumonia, bronchitis, congestion of the
lungs, and summer cholera would still hold their sway. Cancer,
also, and allied constitutional diseases of strong hereditary cha-
racter would yet, as far ?s we can see, prevail. I fear, more-
over, it must be admitted that two or three of the epidemic
diseases, notably scarlet fever, measles, and whooping-cough,
would assert themselves, and, though limited in their diffusion
by the sanitary provisions for arresting their progress, fvould
claim a considerable number of victims.

With these facts clearly in view, I must be careful not to claim
for my model city more than it deserves ; but calculating the
mortality which would be saved, and comparing the result with
the mortality which now prevails in the most favoured of our
large English towns, I conclude that an average mortality of
eight per thousand would be the maximum in the first generation
living under this salutary rcLiitiie. That in a succeeding genera-
tion Mr. Chadwick's estimate of a jiossible mortality of five per
thousand would be realised, I have no reasonable doubt, since
the almost unrecognised though potent influence of heredity in
disease would immediately lessen in intensity, and the healthier
parents would bring forth the healthier offspring.

As my voice ceases to dwell on this theme of a yet unknown
city of health, do not, I pray you, wake as from a mere dream.
The details of the city exist. They have been worked out by
those pioneers of sanitary science, so many of whom surround
me to-day, and specially by him whose hopeful thought has
suggested my design. I am, therefore, but as a draughtsman,
who, knowing somewhat your desires and aspirations, have
drawn a plan, which you in your wisdom can modify, improve,

perfect. In this I know we are of one mind, that though the
ideal we all of us hold be never reached during our lives, we
shall continue to work successfully for its realisation. Utopia
itself is but another word for time ; and some day the masses,
who now heed us not, or smile incredulously at our proceedings,
will awake to our conceptions. Then our knowledge, like light
rapidly conveyed from one torch to another, will bury us in its
brightness.

By swift degrees the love of Nature works

And warms the bosom, till at last, sublim'd

'J'o rapture and enthusiastic heat.

We ftel the present Deity, and taste

The joy of God to see a happy world !

THE INTERNAL HEAT OF THE EARTH

pROF. MOIIR, of Bonn, has contributed to the A^eues Jahr-
■*• buchfiir Mineralo^ie, &c. (1875, Heft 4), a very important
paper on the causes of the internal heat of the earth. After
indicating some of the objections which may be urged against
the Plutonistic theory of the origin of the earth's internal heat,
he discusses the data obtained by the thermometric investigation
of a boring about 4,000 feet deep, through pure rock salt," at
Speremberg, near Berlin.

The proposition from which he 'starts is as follows : — If the
interior of the earth is still fused, then with every increase in depth,
as we approach this furnace, a less space must be necessary to
produce the same increase of heat. The heat passes outwards
by conduction from a smaller into a constantly enlarging sphere,
and supposing the conductivity of the materials to be uniform,
the temperature of the outer coats of the sphere must gradually
diminish in proportion as their volume increases ; or, in other
words, the increase of heat per 100 feet must become greater and
greater in proportion as we descend.

Now the results of the thermometric investigation of the

Speremberg boring give the following numbers : —

,, J I r Increase per

for a depth of 100 feet

700 feet 15654° R —

900 ,, i7'849 „ i'097

I roc „ 19-943 .. I '047

1300 ,, 21-039 ,, 0-997

1500 ,, 23830 ,, o 946

1700 ,, 25-623 ,, 0-896

1900 ,, 27-315 ,, 0-846

2100 ,, 28-906 ,, 0-795

3390 .. 36 756 ,, 0-608

The third column is a diminishing arithmetical series of the first
order, showing equal differences of 0050° or tjV 1^- fo"^ every
lOO feet By applying this principle to the gaps left above 700
feet and between 2,100 and 3,390 feet. Prof. Mohr gets the fol-
lowing table of increase of heat for the whole depth :—

Depth.

100 to 200 feet

200 „ 3C0 „

300 „ 400 „

400 „ 500 „

500 „ 600 „

600 „ 700 „

700 „ 900 „

900 „ I ICO „

1 100 „ 1300 „

1300 „ I 500 „

1500 „ 17CO „

1700 „ 1900 „

1900 „ 2100 ,.

2100 „ 2300 „

2300 „ 2500 „

2500 „ 2700 „

2700 „ 2900 „

2900 „ 3 ICO „

3100 „ 3300 „

3300 „ 3390 „

Increase per
100 feet ill depth.

... 1-35 " K.

... 130 „

... 125 „

... 120 ,,

... I-I5 M

... i-io ,,

... 1-097 „

... 1-047 M

... 0-997 M

... 0-946 ,,

... 0-896 „

... 0846 ,,

.•• 0-795 „

• •■ 0745 „

• •• 0-695 ..
... 0-645 ..
... 0-595 „
... 0-545 „
... 0-495 ,.

... 0-445 M

and from this series he concludes that at a depth of 5,170 feet
the increase will be ////, because, as he says, " the end of the
increase will come when the last increase of 0-445'' R. is ab-
sorbed by the deduction of 0-05° R., therefore after —^ or 8-9
strata of 200 feet, and therefore 1,780 feet deeper than 3,390

54^

NATURE

\Oct. 21, 1875

feet,* and he adds that even if the diminution of the increase of
heat with depth took place at the rate of only ^^° R. instead
of ^|tr° R., the region of constant temperature would be reached
at 13,500 feet,

A similar diminution of the increase of heat with depth was
observed in the case of the boring at Crenelle ; but here the
depth reached was far less, and the diverse character of the rocks
passed through caused doubts to be entertained as to the accu-
racy of the result, t

In these results Prof. Mohr finds a strong confirmation of all
the objections that have been urged from other sides against the
Plutonistic theory. "The cause of the increasing heat in the
interior of the earth, " he says, ' ' must lie in the upper strata of
the earth's crust. . . . The theory of volcanoes must of course
adapt itself to the above results, and the fluidity of the lavas is
not a part of the incandescence (no longer) present in the earth,
but a local evolution of heat by sinkings which have always been
produced by the sea and its action upon solid rocks, as indeed all
volcanoes are situated in or near the sea. This local superheating
of the volcanic foci contributes greatly to the internal heat of the
earth. For the internal nucleus of the earth can lose but little heat
outwards on account of the bad conductivity of the siliceous and
calcareous rocks, whilst, in the lapse of ages, it must propagate
uniformly all the heat-effects of the volcanoes, and thus a constant
elevated temperature must prevail in the interior, and therefore
we come to the conclusion that increase of heat in the interior of
the earth which is everywhere met with is the result of all pre-
ceding heat-actions, uniformly diffused by conduction in the
internal nucleus of the earth. " Further causes of terrestrial heat
are, according to Prof. Mohr, the formation of new crystalline
rocks from sun-warmed, infiltrated fluids, and also chemical
processes such as the evolution of carbonic acid by the contact
of oxide of iron with the remains of organisms, the formation of
pyrites and blendes by the reduction of sulphates in contact with
organic mattei-s, the decomposition of lignite and coal, &c.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

The yournal of Anatomy and Physiology, which in future will
appear quarterly instead of twice a year, and has two additional
editors, both physiologists. Dr. Foster and Dr. Rutherford, con-
tains several important memoirs. The first is by Mr. Frank
Darwin, on the primary vasculai dilatation in acute inflamma-
tion, in which, from a study of the effect of irritants on the web
of the frog's foot, he concludes, in opposition to Cohnheim, and
in accordance with Schiff, that local irritants produce these
effects on vessels by acting on the peripheral terminations of the
vaso-motor nerves ; that they do not cause dilatation by direct
paralysis of the tissues of the arteries, and that when the vaso-
motor nerves include both inhibitory and constrictor fibres, both
are stimulated by them, the attendant alteration in the calibre of
the vessel being the result of the victory of the one set over the
other. — Mr. F. M. Balfour has an important article on the origin
and history of the urinogenital organs of Vertebrates, in which
the independent discovery by Semper and himself of the seg-
mental-organ condition of the primitive Wolffian bodies and
kidneys in Elasmobranchiata is fully described, and the mode of
development of the Mullerian duct explained. The way in
which the segmental organs, opening externally in Annehds, have
a ductal termination in Vertebrates is discussed. It is analogous
to the manner in which the gill-sacs of Petromyzon, opening
externally ; those of Myxine have a single external orifice. The
paper deserves careful perusal. — Dr. Ogston writes on articular
cartilage, and illustrates his observations with six plates. After
a description of healthy cartilage, the changes developed in
scrofulous arthritis and chronic rheumatoid arthritis are discussed.
The paper is more pathological than physiological. — Mr. W.
II. Jackson and Mr. W. B. Clarke describe elaborately the
brain and cranial nerves of the Shark Echhiorhinus spinosus,
from two specimens transmitted from Penzance to the Oxford
Museum, to which are appended accounts of the digestive and
urogenital organs. — Mr. J. Priestley demonstrates that the so-
called corneal cells described by Dr. Thin as being brought into
view by the action of saturated caustjc potash solution at 1 10° F.
are, in reality, those of the corneal epithelium. — Mr. E. C.

* In this calculation Prof. Mohr seems to have made a slight slip. If the
increase of heat diminiskes at the rate of o'o5° R. per loo feet, it is hard to
see why strata of 200 feet should be taken as the units in the calculation.
Taking too feet as the unit of space, the zero point should be reached at
4,280 feet.

t See Vogt's " Lehrbuch der Geologie," Bd. I. p. 2g.

Baber repeats Tillmann's observations on the fibrillar nature of
the matrix of hyaline cartilage, confirming them, but differing
as to the reagents which best demonstrate them. — Prof. Turner
has an important memoir on the structure of the diffused, the
polycotyledonary, and the zonary forms of placenta, which con-
tains the substance of his course of lectures on that subject at the
Royal College of Surgeons last summer. — Prof. Rutherford
replies to Mr. Lawson Tail's comments on his freezing micro-
tome, satisfactorily demonstrating the value of the instrument,
— Dr. Stirling describes his way of preparing skin for his-
tological examination by the rather crude method of partial
artificial digestion. — Finally, Mr. J. N. Langley writes on the
action of Jaborandi on the heart, discussing its slowing action,
which he was the first to determine. — Dr. Stirling's Report on
Physiology concludes the number.

The current number of the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical
Science commences with an illustrated memoir, by Mr. D. J.
Hamilton, " On Myelitis, being an experimental inquiry into
the pathological appearances of the same," in which the effect
of traumatic injury of the cord is investigated microscopically. —
The second paper is an abridged translation by Dr. W'. R,
M'Nab, of a paper by Dr. Oscar Brefeld, from his " Botanische
Untersuchungen liber Schimmelpilze," Heft. II., on the life-
history of Penicillium. — This is followed by an article "On the
Resting-Spores of Peronospora infestans, Mont, by Mr. Worth-
ington Smith, with photographic illustrations. — After this Dr.
Klein describes the Structure of the Spleen. He finds "that
the pulp of the spleen of the rat and the cat is similar to that of
the dog, whereas that of the monkey is similar to that of man ;
also that in the pulp the matrix, instead of being composed of
fine fibres, has the appearance of honey-combed membranes,
which only when seen in profile have the appearance of fibres. All
the author's observations support the view of the splenic circu-
lation adopted by W. Midler, Frey, and others, that the venous
radicles represent merely a labyrinth of spaces in the splenic
parenchyma. He agrees with those who find that there is a
gradual passage from the matrix of the pulp to that of the
adenoid tissue of the arterial sheaths and the Malpighian cor-
puscles.— Mr. C. H. Golding-Bird describes a simple differential
warm stage by which a fairly uniform temperature may be main-
tained for a long time. To the central copper stage proper are
fixed a tongue of copper and an iron wire, round both of which,
for part of their extent, bell-wire is wound. — Mr. W. H. Poole
describes the effect of the double-staining of tissues with ha;ma-
toxylin and aniline. The nuclei stained by hematoxylin are
made of a richer colour by the second reagent, whilst the proto-
plasm surrounding them is much bluer than the nuclei them-
selves.— Mr. J. M'Carthy makes some remarks on Spinal Gan-
glia and Nerve-fibres. — Dr. Klein has a note on a Pink-coloured
Spirillum [Spirillum rosaceum). — The last paper is by Mr. Frank
Darwin, on the Structure of the Proboscis of Ophideres fuUo-
nica, an orange-sucking moth, in which the peculiar confor-
mation of the apex of that organ is described and figured, as is
the interlocking of the two halves of its component maxilla:. —
Notes, chronicle, and proceedings of Societies complete the
number.

The Transactions of the Linncan Society of London will in
future be published, like the Journal, in two series. Zoological
and Botanical. Three parts have recently been issued. The
third and concluding part of vol. xxix. completes the accovint of
the Botany of the Speke and Grant Expedition, by Prof. Oliver
and Mr. J. G. Baker, and is illustrated by sixty-four plates,
making 136 for the whole volume. The first part of the first
volume of the second series (Zoology) includes Mr. W. K. Par-
ker's paper On the Skull of the Woodpeckers ; Dr. Willemoes-
Suhm's, On the Crustacea of the Challenger Expedition ; and
Prof Allman's, On the structure and systematic posit on of
Stephanoscyphus mirabilis, the type of a new order of Hydrozoa :
and the first part of the new Botanical series is occupied by Mr.
Miers's papers on Napoleona, Omphalocarpum, Asteranthos,
and on the Auxemneas. An account of all these papers was
given at the time of their delivery before the Society.

The Geological Magazine, Nos. 133, 134, 135. — The prin-
cipal original articles are instalments of long articles on volcanoes,
by Mr. Judd ; on Cretaceous aperrhdtda:, by Mr. Starkie
Gardner ; on meteorites, by Dr. Walter Flight. Carl Pettersen
contributes a sketch of the geology of Northern Norway, in No.
135. A list of previous writers is given. Five groups of stratified
rocks are recognised: i. The primitive ; 2. The Tromso mica
slate group, probably the equivalent of the Cambrian ; 3. Slates

Oct. 2 1, 1875]

NATURE

547

of Balsfjord, age very uncertain, perhaps late Cambrian ; 4.
Alten group, regarded as Siliurian ; 5. Golda group, Devonian.
The groups of the Secondary period arc quite unrepresented.
Throughout the (Quaternary period the land has been subjected to
an upheaving of about 120 metres, and this elevation has been
continued down to the historic time. As to whether the land is
still rising, there is no positive evidence existing. In any case it
is certain the elevation during the last thousand years has been
insignificant. When it is stated in so many quarters as a geolo-
gical fact that the northern part of I^orway rises about one-third
of a metre in a century, this rate is evidently much too great.
The unstratified rocks met with are also described. To No. 135
there is a supplement of forty-four pages, containing a report
with plates of Mr. Tylor's lecture to the Geologists' Association
on denuding agencies.

The Ptoccedings oj the Natural History Society of Glasgow,
vol. ii. Part I. contains among the most interesting of its
articles a paper by Mr. John A. Harvie Brown on the birds
found breeding in Sutherlandshire, and another by the same
author in conjunction with Mr. E, R. Alston, F.Z.S., on the
mammals and reptiles of the same county. These form an
excellent addition to Mr. Selby's on the same subjects.— Mr. J.
Gilmour writes on the introduction of the Wild Turkey (Meleagris
gallipavo) into Argyllsliire ; as does Mr. D. Robertson on the
Sea Anemonies of the shores of the Cumbraes, &c.— Mr. J. Coutts
describes the post-tertiary clay-beds at Kilchattan Bay, Isle of

Bute. Mr. R. Gray notes points in the distribution of the

Capercailli'e in Scotland ; on the occurrence of the Crane in
Rossshire ; on the Wood Pigeon, &c.— Lord Binning gives notes
on the food of the Wood Pigeon.— Capt. H. W. Fielden, now
naturalist to the Arctic Expedition, writes on the Gaur or Indian
Bison, and gives notes on a tour through the Outer Hebrides.—
Mr. J. S. Dixon gives notes on the discovery of an ancient
canoe at Little Hill, Cadder Moor.— Dr. Grieve records
dredging notes from the Bay of Rothesay.— There are other
short papers by Mr, W. Gait, Mr. J. Young, Dr. D. Dewer,
Prof. A. Dickinson, Mr. J, Ramsey, Mr. D. Robertson, Rev.
J. L. Somerville, &c.

Zeitschrift der Oesterreichischen Gesellschaft fUr Meteorologie,
Sept, I, — Mr, Blanford's researches on solar radiation and spots,
described in a former number of Nature, form the subject of
the first paper.— In the concludmg part of Dr. Theorell's
description of his printing meteorograph, he states that, with
certain precautions, the instrument may be kept for a long
period in good working order. One has been in use at Upsala
during the last three years and a half, and has lost nothing of its
original precision. In a note appended to the inventor's descrip-
tion, Herr Osnaghi mentions some alterations which have been
mad'e in the Vienna instrument ; thus the power to register great
velocities of wind, in which it was formerly wanting, has been
conferred upon it. Since the completion of these alterations the
meteorograph has worked constantly and regiUarly.— In the
" Kleinere Mittheilungen " we have an mterestmg extract from
a letter written by Director Hoffraeyer, on the causes of the
cold weather in May 1874. Up to the 2ist of the month the
synoptic charts show a maximum of pressure over N.W. and W.
Europe, stretching like a great screen between the Atlantic and
Central Europe, Irom Spitzbergen almost to Algiers, the mmima
coming partly from the Arctic seas, partly from the Western
Mediterranean, with gradients steep towards N. and W. Such
a distribution of pressure must give rise to a cold Polar stream
flowing over the greater part of Europe. In Vienna the cold was
greatest between the i6th and the i8th, and then the high pres-
sure began to travel eastwards. This movement of the maximum
produced a great change. The Atlantic minima, instead of
moving northwards along the west coast of Greenland as
hitherto, now pressed eastwards, reached Iceland and the Azores,
and soon the pressure was lowest in the very district where a few
days before the maximum existed. At the same time tempe-
rature rises in Central Europe. In June a similar succession of
barometric changes occurred, and the maximum of pressure in
the N. W. was again attended with cold at Vienna. Herr HofT-
meyer observes that areas of high pressure are much more quiet
and longer lasting than minima, \\hich travel rapidly, change
their shapes, and throw off secondary disturbances.^ He thinks
the present system of averages insufficient for the^purposes of
generalisation, and regards the researches of Koppen on the pro-
perties of winds in different conditioiis of atmospheric distri-
bution as a step in the right direction.
The July number oi^Haii Bulletin Memuelde la SocUti d' AcclU

matation de Paris, which is always more than a month behind
date, opens with the Secretary's Annual Report on the proceed-
ings of the Society in 1874. — Special attention has been given to
the training of wild animals, such as zebras, for domestic pur-
poses, and to the breeding of hybrids, such as those between the
horse and zebra, ass and zebra, &c. Complete success is said to
have attended the attempts to tame the zebras in the Gardens
of the Society. The efforts of the Society are largely assisted
by the experiments carried out by such gentlemen as M. Cornely,
M. Mairet, M. Moreau, and others, who have succeeded in rear-
ing many of the rarer forms of foreign animal life,- and useiul
plants.— New Caledonia is the subject of a lengthy paper by
M. Germain, who considers that that country would easily sup-
port many useful animals which do not exist there. By their in-
troduction the country would be greatly benefited, while its im-
portance would also be increased by additional facilities being
given for utilising its indigenous produce. It is peculiarly rich
in timber, which affords shelter to many kinds of useful birds. —
The cultivation of the Alfa Plant (Stipes tenacissivia), which
grows wild in Algeria, is strongly recommended in the South of
France, where there are large tracts of land well suited to its
growth. — The cultivation of new varieties of silkworms is
steadily progressing in France, and the improved breeds which
have been introduced have greatly assisted in remedying the
evils of the silkworm disease.

The Schriften der Natiirforschenden Gesellschaft in Danzig
(vol. iii. belt 3). — From this publication we notice the following
papers : — Researches on the Prehistoric Times of West Prussia,
by Dr. Lissauer, — On the Petrefacts found in the Diluvial De-
posits near Danzig, by Herr Conventz. — On the Culture of the
Caterpillars of Gastropaeha pini, by G. Brischke. — On a Hum-
ming Acilius sulcatus, by the same. — Report on the investiga-
tions of Antiquities made in the neighbomhood of Neustettin
during 1873, by Major Kasiski. — On the Spiders of Prussia,
(seventh treatise), by A. Menge, with tables. This paper is the
most valuable one in the pubhcation, and gives proof of the won-
derful diligence and energy of its author.

La Belgique Horticole, September and October, — In the cur-
rent number of this magazine, usually devoted almost entirely to
horticulture, are several articles of more than common interest.
The paper of De Candolle's is reprinted entire which has attracted
a good deal of attention, on the different effects on the growth of
the same species of the same temperature in different latitudes.
Prof. E. Morren, the editor, has two articles on the " carnivo-
rous " habits of Pingtiicula and Drosera. Following Mr. Dar-
win's lead in a careful series of experiments on two Alpine
species of the former genus, P. alpina and longifolia, and the
common D. rotundifolia of the latter genus, he finds the same
results as regards the secretion of a fluid which causes rapid decay
of the substances in contact with it, but is not prepared to admit
any process of actual digestion or assimilation on the part of the
plant. M, Ch, Royer has also an interesting note on the cause
of the sleep of plants.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

Leeds
Naturalists' Field Club and Scientific Association,
September 15. — Mr. Henry Pocklington, F.R.M.S,, in the
chair, — Mr, James Abbott exhibited a number of interesting
plants collected in the West Riding, includhig Potentilla nor-
vegica, which grows abundantly on the banks of the Leeds and
Liverpool Canal between Armley and Kirkstall, and appears to
have been thoroughly naturalised. It was first gathered about
i860, by Mr, Wm, Kirkley, but not satisfactorily determined at
the time. In 1868 it was found, also apparently native, in Bur-
well Fen, Cambridgeshire, by Mr, G. S. Gibson, and recorded
by him in the Journal of Botany for that year (vol. vi., p.
302 ; also see " Babington's Manual," seventh edition). In
1874 Mr. Abbott noticed it in great abundance, and in 1875 it
was sent to Kew to be named. It turned out to be a Scandi-
navian form, though in what manner it reached the Leeds district
is as yet unaccounted for, Mr, C, P. Ilobkirk, of Iludders-
field, reports that it grows on the canal banks in his neigh-
bourhood, where he found it in 1873. Mr. Abbott also reported
the capture of the Clouded Yellow Butterfly {Colias cdusa) near
Adel Dam, six miles north of Leeds, on the 5th September.
This ordinarily southern form seems this year to have extended
its range far to the nortliward, Vanessa antiopa, also recorded
from Kirkstall Road, Leed& in September,

548

NATURE

\Oct. 21, 1875

Paris

Academy of Sciences, Oct. 4— M. Fremy in the chair.
The following papers were read :— On the Observatory of the
Office of Longitudes at Montsouris, by M. Mouchez. — On the
dredging of the roadstead of Port Said, second note by M. de
Lesseps. — New researches on beats of the heart in the abnormal
state, and on the registration of these beats and of those of the
arteries, by M. Bouillaud. — On disordered variation of hybrid
plants, and deductions which may be made from it, by M. Nau-
din. — On the carpellary theory, according to the Irideae, by M.
Trecul. — Results of observations of solar protuberances and
spots, from 23rd April to 28lh June, 1875 (fifty-five rotations),
by P. Secchi. Four tables are given; deductions to follow. —
On the Hemisepius, nev/ genus of the family of Sepians, with
some remarks on species of the genus Sepia in general, by M.
Steenstrup. — Results obtained from attempts at industrial appli-
cations of solar heat, by M. Mouchot. The apparatus (in
work at Tours) consists of a silver plate mirror, in form of
a truncated cone, turning with the sun ; a cylindrical annular
boiler at focus, with blackened surface ; and a glass envelope
admitting the sun's rays, but preventing their exit when trans-
formed into obscure rays. One very hot day, five litres of
water were vaporised in the hour, representing 140 litres of
steam per minute. — On the mechanical properties of different
vapours at saturation in a vacuum, by M. Antoine. — On the dif-
ferent quantities of heat produced by the mixture of olive oil
with concentrated sulphuric acid, according as the boiling of the
acid is more or less recent, by M. Maumene.— On the existence
of ferruginous and magnetic corpuscles in atmospheric dust, by
M. Tissandier. Drawings are given. — On the formation of
clouds, by M. Hureau de Villeneuve. — On sexualised Phyllox-
era and the winter egg, by M, Balbiani, — MM. Chablaix, Cor-
teggiani, and Pourcherol, also presented notes on Phylloxera.- —
M. Marsanne submitted a memoir on " Process and apparatus
for production of signals, fires, and electric lights." — M. Males-
sart presented a second note on the problem of aviation. — M.
Tellicr called attention to an experimental voyage about to be
made to La Plata for transport of meat preserved by cold.
— M. Petit presented a note relative to the transformation of
starch by diastase, and the production of a new saccharine
matter. — The Secretary notified a brochure by M. Cossa, on the
syenite of Biellese. — On the eclipse of the sun of 28-29 Sept.
1875, by M. Angot. — On the reduction of a ternary cubic form
to its canonic form, by M. Brioschi. — On the value of the co-
efficient of expansion of steam from superheated water, by M.
CrouUebois. — Influence of stripping off the leaves on the vege-
tation of the beet, by M. Violette. It diminishes the root's
weight and yield of sugar, increasing the proportion of other
matters. — On two new meteorites of the desert of Atacama, and
on the meteorites found hitherto in this region of South America,
by M. Domeyko. — On clouds of ribbon-form, by M. de Fon-
vielle. — Observations of a bolide at Couiza (Aude) on the night
of 30th Sept. 1875, by M. Amigues.— The thunderstorms of
1S75, by M. d'Arbaud-Blonzac.

Oct. II. — The following papers were read : — Results of obser-
vations of solar protuberances and spots from April 23 to June
28, 1875 (55 rotations) concluded, by P. Secchi. I'he daily
number of protuberances and surface of spots steadily diminished.
The great metallic eruptions ceased when the large spots dis-
appeared. Two maxima of protubeiances in each hemisphere
disappeared, leaving only the minima of the equatorial zones.
Protuberances diminished in height. Faculse disappeared from
round the poles and were confined to the zone of spots and protu-
berances.— M . Girardin presented a new edition of his work, " On
Dung and other Animal Manures." — M. Favre gave an extract
from his memoirs "On the transformation and equivalence of
chemical forces." — On the rotatory polarisation of quartz, by
MM.Soret and Sarazin.— New note on the processes of magne-
tisation, by M. Gaugam. — On the formation of hail, by M. Plante.
Electricity suddenly brings the water of clouds to a state oi
extreme division, facilitating congelation in a medium of low
temperature. Terrestrial magnetism, or the permanent electric
current of the globe, causes the gyratory movement of electrified
cloud masses. — Researches on the ammonia contained in sea-
water, and in tliat of salt marshes in the neighbourhood of Mont-
pellier, by M. Andoynaud. — On commercial analysis of sugars,
and the influence of salts and glucose on crystallisation of sugar,
by M. Durin. —On the hypsometric distribution of living mol-
luscs in the Central Pyrenees, by M. Fischer.— On the necessity
of ?5urrounding the lower part of vine-stocks with coal-tarred

powders, by M. Girard. — Five other communications relative to
Phylloxera. — M. Lehmann presented a further note on a system
of propulsion for steamships. — M. Le Breton submitted to the
judgment of the Academy various apparatuses for the ascension
of liquids. — M. Llolzner showed specimens of carrot-roots, bear-
ing pucerons apparently of a new species. — The Director-General
of Customs presented a general tableau of the commerce of France
with its colonies and foreign powers^during 1874. — The Secretary
called attention to a memoir by MM. Nobel and Abel on exj)lo-
sives, and one by M. Volpicelli, defending Mellom's electro-
statical theory. — Remarks on the use made, in antiquity, of solar
heat,'on occasion of M. Mouchot's recent note, by M. Buch-
walder. — On the electric conductivity, of pyrites, by M. Dufet.
This is true metallic conductivity very variable with the physical
structure of the specimen, but in a given crystal, depending
neither on the direction, the intensity, nor the duration of the
current.— On the toxical effects of alcohols of the series

C "h'" "O, by M. Rubuteau.— On the new tellurised minerals
lately discovered in ^Chili, by M. Domeyko. — Perforation of a
quartzous grit by the roots of trees, by M. Meimier.

BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED

British. — Report of the Meteorological Commission of the Royal Society.
— Ganot's Elementary Treatise on Physics. Seventh Edition, Revised and
Enlarged. Translated by K. Atkinson, Ph.D., F.C.S. (Longmans).—
Ultima Thule ; or, a Summer in Iceland : R F. Burton (Nimmo). — Proceed-
ings of the Bath Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club. Vol. iii.
No. 2. — Elementary Lessons in Botanical Geography: J. G. Baker, F.L.S.
(Reeve). — Numerical Examples in Heat : R. E. Day, M.A. (Longmans]. —
/^oology for Students: C.Carter Blake, D.Sc, with Preface by Richard
Owen, C.B., F.R.S. (Daldy, Isbister).— Pollution of Rivers: Wm. Hope,
V,C. — Food Manufacture versus River Pollution: Wm. Hope, V.C.— The
Challenger' s Crucial Test of the Wind and Gravitation Theories of Oceanic
Circulation : Jas. CroU. — Notes on some Comparative Microscopic Rock-
Structure of some Ancient and Modern Volcanic Rocks : J. Clifton Ward,
Assoc. R.S.M., F.G..S. (Taylor and Francis). — A Series of Twelve Maps for
Drawing and Examination : Charles Bird, R. A., F.R A.S. (Stanford).—
Revised List of the Vertebrated Animals in the Zoological Society's Gardens.
Supplement,— Medicinal Plants: R. Bentley, F'.L.S., and Henry Trimen,
M. B., F.L.S. P,art L (Churchill).- Nebraska ; its Advantages, Resources,
and Drawbacks : Edwin A. Curley (Low, Marston and Co.)— The Dawn of
Life : J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S. (HoJder and Stoughton).— Elementary
Analytical Geometry: T. G. Vyvyan, M.A. (Geo. Bell and Sons). — The
Botanical Locality Record Club. Report for 1874 (E. Newman). — Ele-
mentary Biology : Prof T. H. Huxley, F.R.S., &c., and H.N. Martin
(Macmillan and Co.)

Colonial.— Hybridity and Absorption : Daniel Wilson, LL.D., F.R.S.E.
(from the Canadiaji Journal). — Mineral Statistics of Victoria, Australia, for
1874. — Report of the Geology and Resources of the Region and Vicinity of
the Forty-ninth Parallel: G. M. Dawson, Assoc. R.S.M., F.G.S.— Trans-
actions of the Royal Society of New South Wales for 1874. — Report on
Deep-sea Dredging Operations in the Gulf of St. Lawrence : J. F. Whiteaves.
— Reasons suggestive of Mining on Physical Principles for Gold and Coal :
J. Wood Beilby (Melbourne : Walker, May and Co.)— Transactions of the
Literary and Historical Society of Quebec. New Series, Part II.

American. — Tinnitus Aurium : S. Theobald, M.D. (B.iltimore, Innes and
Co.)— Bulletin of the Bussey Institution, Boston, U.S. Parts II., III.; IV.
— Iowa Weather Review, No. i : Dr. Gustavus Hinrichs. — Report of the
Director of the Menagerie, New York.

Foreign. — Boletin de la Academia Nacionalde Ciencias Exactas existente
en la Universidad de Cordova. Part IV. (Buenos Aires). — De la Nature
des Elements de la Chimie, par J. A. Groshaus (Haarlem, Les Heritiers
Loosjes). — N. Sewerzow's Erforschung des Thian-Schan-Gebirgs-Systems,
1867, &c., von A. Petermann(Gotha, Justus Perthes).

CONTENTS Page

Bancroft's "Races OF THE Pacific States" 529

Huxley AND Martin's "Elhmentarv Biology" 530

Our Book Shelf :—

Mundv's "Boiling Springs of New Zealand" 532

Baker's " Botanical Geography " 532

Letters to the Editor :—

Ocean Circulation.— Dr. William B. Carpenter, F.R.S. . . , 533
'The Sliding Seat. —Dr. R. J. LHE(/^/V/j///?«/'ra/w«) . . . . 533
History of the Numerals.— W. M. Flinders Vktrik (IVit/i Illus-
tration) . . . . • ^3^

Scarcity of Birds.— Adrian Peacock 534

Our Astronomical Column : —

IX Cassiopeae and Vicinity 534

The Double Star 2 2120 535

The Minor Planets 535

Transit of Comet 1826 (V.) over the Sun's Disc -535

V A\Komiiv. 'Laws ov Storms {IViih Illusiration) 535

The Large Reflector of the Paris Observatory 538

Lieut. Wevprecht on Arctic Exploration 539

Notes 53^

A City of Health, II. By Dr. B. W. Richardson, F.R.S. . . . 542

"I'he Internal Heat OF the Earth. By Prof Mohr 545

Scientific Serials 546

Societies and Academies 547

BooKS,AND Pamphlets Received ........ o ... 548

NATURE

549

THURSDAY, OCTOBER 28, 187S

SIXTH REPORT OF THE SCIENCE
. COMMISSION

TH REE times within the last twelve years a Royal
Commission has reported on the science teaching
of our higher schools. In 1864 the Public Schools Com-
mission announced that from the largest and most famous
schools of all it was practically excluded. In 1868 the
Endowed Schools Commission declared that the majority
of school teachers had accepted it as part of their school
work. The Science Commissioners of 1875, in their
Sixth Report, on Science Teaching in Schools, testing this
statement by inquiry, reports that of 128 endowed schools
examined by them not one-half has even attempted to
introduce it, while of these only 13 possess a laboratory,
and only 10 give to the subject as much as four hours a
week. And this statement is curiously illustrated by the
statistics of the recent Oxford and Cambridge School
Examination, which show that out of 461 candidates for
certificates from 40 first-class schools, while 438 boys
took up Latin, 433 Greek, 455 Elementary Mathematics,
305 History ; only 21 took up Mechanics, 28 Chemistry,
6 Botany, 15 Physical Geography.

In a volume whose research and condensation make it
not only a monument of conscientious toil, but an invalu-
able handbook to all who arc labouring to work out prac-
tically the great problem of which it treats, the Commis-
sioners investigate the obstacles which have caused the
endowed schools to defy the weighty recommendations of
former Commissions, the unanimous verdict of educa-
tional authorities outside the scholastic profession, and
the increasingly urgent demands of English public
opinion. They find the schoolmasters' excuses to be
threefold ; absence of funds, want of time, and scepticism
as to the educational value of science in comparison with
other subjects. A large portion of the Appendix is de-
voted to the consideration of these difficulties ; to sifting
the allegations on which they rest, and to balancing
against them the experience of those teachers who have
faced and successfully met them. Showing in detail the
comparatively trifling cost at which indispensable appa-
ratus can be obtained, the Commissioners nevertheless
admit the 'rarity, in the present state of Enghsh culture,
either of independent science teachers suited to the larger
schools, or of men, such as poorer schools desiderate,
combining literary with scientific knowledge. This, how-
ever, is an evil of the past rather than of the future, since
not the least amongst the advantages expected from a
reformed system of school teaching is the creation of a
race of able teachers, general as well as special. The
relative value of science as an implement of mental train-
ing is next discussed. Its peculiar excellence is briefly
vindicated, as cultivating in a way attainable by no other
means the habits of observation and experiment, of clas-
sification, arrangement, method, judgment ; and its suita-
bility to the capacities of the very youngest boys is
testified to by Faraday, Hooker, Rolleston, Carpen-
ter, and Sir W. Thomson. Lastly, it is shown that,
if this be so, the argument from want of time is no argu-
ment at all ; that the hours are already wasted which
condemn the half of a boy's faculties to stagnation and
Vol. xii.— No, 313

render education one-sided and incomplete ; and that
the claims of different branches of instruction may be
easily adjusted by economy of time, improvement in
methods, and excision of superfluous studies.

On a review of all these objections and of the answers
offered to them, and taking into account the dicta of
former Commissioners and the practice of other countries,
the Report advises that literature, mathematics, and
science should be the accepted subjects of education up
to the time at which boys leave school, and should all
three be made compulsory in any School Leaving-Exa-
mination or University Matriculation ; but that after
entering the University students should be left to choose
for themselves amongst these lines of study, and need
pass no subsequent examination in subjects other than
the one which they select. As regards the teaching of
science, they recommend that it should commence with
the beginning of the school career ; that not less than six
hours a week should be devoted to it, and that in all
school examinations as much as one-sixth of the marks
should be allotted to it.

These recommendations possess the two great excel-
lences of authoritativeness and clearness. They are sup-
ported by a host of experienced witnesses, as well as by
the eminent names whose signatures follow them. Their
ideal of school education is simplicity itself. The supre-
macy of Classics is to be dethroned ; the artifices of
stratification and bifurcation are to be discarded ; litera-
ture, mathematics, and science are to share a boy's intel-
lect between them from the very first, until a leaving-
examination which shows his progress to have been
satisfactory in all three sets him free to follow his in-
clination by pursuing exclusively the subject which suits
him best ; happy since eminence in that one will not have
been purchased by entire ignorance of all the others.
Unfortunately, though most necessarily — for this Report
concerns schools only — the curtain drops upon this interest-
ing moment of transition, shutting out of view the influence
which University Scholarships and Exhibitions exercise
upon school work, and thus ignoring an obstacle to the
realisation of the programme far greater than want of
money, want of time, or want of appreciation, in the
schools themselves.

What is the avowed object and purpose of the higher
English school education 1 Is it the even and progressive
development of young minds? the strengthening in equal
proportion of the faculties of imagination, memory, reason,
observation ? the opening doors of knowledge in the plastic
time of youth, which if not opened then will be fast closed
in later years by the pressure of active work, or habitual
exclusiveness, or energies paralysed through disuse "i
Nothing of the kind. It is constructed entirely with the
aim of winning certain prizes ; for scholarships with
which a costly University bribes men to come to it for
education ; for class-lists leading up to College Fellow-
ships ; for the lucrative posts of military and civil service.
In all these, but most of all where the Universities can
determine the ordeal, one principle of success has been
established, and that principle is one-sidedness. The
candidate for India, for Woolwich, for Cooper's Hill, must
at an early age select certain subjects and throw over-
board all the rest. The childish aspirant to the entrance
scholarships of a public fchool is placed in the hands

DD

550

NATURE

\Oct. 28, 1875

of a crammer at eight years old, that at thirteen he may
turn out Latin verses as a Buddhist prayer-mill turns out
prayers, and may manifest, as a distinguished head-
master has lately said, to the eye of a teacher searching
for intelligence, thoughtfulness, promise, intenseness, " a
stupidity which is absolutely appalling." His scholarship
won, he is pledged to pursue a course whose benefits are
tangible and its evil consequences remote. The Univer-
sities have stamped upon all the schools one deep cer-
tainty, that for a boy to be " all round," as it is called, is
the irremissible sin ; that a schoolmaster who teaches
with reference to intellectual growth and width of culture
sacrifices thereby all hope of the distinctions which make
a school famous and increase its numbers. If a classical
scholarship is desired, science and mathematics are
abandoned : nay, the palm of literary excellence
is conceded even to men ignorant of the noblest
literature in the world, their own birthright and in-
heritance, and knowing less of the history and structure
of the English language than a fourth form boy knows
of Greek. If mathematical success is aimed at, Hterature
and science are ignored ; if the few science scholarships
existing tempt candidates from any of "the thirteen schools
which possess a laboratory," mathematics in part and
literature altogether must be given up. It would be waste
of words to point out the fatal tendency of this separative
process ; to show how mere linguistic training needs the
rationalising aid of scientific study, or how exclusive
science hardens and materialises without the refining
society of literature ; yet such divorce is inevitably due
not to the convictions of schoolmasters, not to the in-
fluence of parents, not to the prepossessions of the public,
but to the irresistible force of the University system, which
makes nairowness of intelligence and imperfect knowledge
the only avenues to distinction or to profit.

It is true that an attempt to alter this involves little
short of a revolution ; but by all accounts a revolution is
at hand. It is not for nothing that a parliamentary in-
vestigation into the expenditure of college endowments
should have been supported by members of the colleges
themselves, or that a proposal to distribute college scholar-
ships and exhibitions by a central authority in accordance
with the results of the leaving-examination should have
emanated from eminent university teachers. For it
cannot be too strongly urged that college scholarships
stand on very different ground from university prizes or
degrees. It is easy for Parliament to lay down rules
which shall control the latter once for all ; it is not easy
to bind the actions of some forty different foundations,
each electing its own scholars according to its own
idiosyncrasies, or in obedience to the changing wills of
bodies in a perpetual state of flux. It may still be
audacious, but it is no longer novel, to suggest that,
supposing future legislation to retain the college scholar-
ships at all, they should be awarded by the authority of
Government, in strict connection with leaving-exami-
nations which Government shall conduct, and in reward
not of special but of general proficiency. For this the
scheme of the Commissioners virtually contends ; into
regions beyond this the Report before us necessarily does
not enter.

It will be seen that we accept, and recommend all
teachers to accept, the scheme of the Commissioners

unreservedly as a working basis of educational improve-
ment. It may not be ideally perfect ; it may invite oppo-
sition on points of detail ; but it is the resultant of all the
intellectual forces which have hitherto been brought to
bear upon the subject ; and while agreeing with all its
witnesses on the principle that wide general training
should precede specialisation of study, it attains extreme
simplicity of arrangement by allotting the first of these
to the Schools and the'lastjto the Universities. Do not let
us forget that the cry which has arisen hitherto from all
the head-masters on the point of scientific teaching has
been a cry for [guidance ; for commanding and intelligent
leadership; for authoritative enlightenment as to the
relative value and the judicious sequence of scientific sub-
jects ; for information as to text-books, apparatus, teachers.
For the 'first time this cry is met by an oracle whose
authority no one will question, and whose completeness of
delivery all who study its utterances will appreciate.
Schoolmasters anxious to teach science, and doubtful how
to set about it, will meet all the facts which can enlighten
them in the Appendices to the Report. They will find
lists of accredited text-books, specimens cf examination
papers, varieties of school time-tables, priced catalogues
of apparatus, syllabi of lectures and experiments, bota-
nical schedules and tables, plans and descriptions of
laboratories, workshops, m.useums, botanic gardens ; pro-
grammes and reports of school scientific and natural
history societies. They will learn how costly a temple
could be built to Science at Rugby, and how modestly
it could be housed at Taunton. They will see how
Mr. Foster teaches physics, how Mr. Hale teaches
geography, how Mr. Wihon teaches Erdkiinde. And they
will accept all this as coming from men who have a right
to speak, and who wield an experience such as has not
been amassed before. On any legislative change which
impends over the system and the endowments of the
higher English education, the body of scientific opinion
is strong enough, if united, to impress its own convic-
tions ; disunion alone can paralyse it. All who feel the
discredit of past neglect, its injury to our national intel-
lect, and its danger to our national prosperity, will do well
to support by unqualified adhesion the first attempt that
has been made to probe its causes, and the first consistent
and well-considered scheme that has been put forth for its
removal, W. TucKWELL

DREW'S "yUMMOO AND KASHMIR"
The Jwnmoo and Kashmir Territories. A GeoQ^raphical
Account. By Frederick Drew, F.R.G.S., F.G.S., Asso-
ciate of the Royal School of Mines. (London : Stan-
ford, 1 87s.)
THE author of this work was for ten years, from 1862?
in the service of the Maharaja of Kashmir,
his primary duty apparently being the investigation
of the mineral resources of the territory. During this
period his duties led him to visit many parts of the
Maharaja's dominions, and thus he had unusual oppor-
tunities of becoming well acquainted with the various
districts and peoples under the sway of that ruler. Mr.
Drew's previous training had quahfied him to take intelli-
gent advantage of his position and opportunities, and
the result is the present bulky work, occupying 550 pages,

OcL 28, 1875]

JMATURE

551

It is a perfect mine of information about the Kashmirian
territories, more especially about their physical and
political geoj^aphy and their ethnology, while occasional
details are introduced as to their zoology and botany. Mr.
Drew delivers a " plain unvarnished tale," and has made
no attempt to work his materials up into'a merely popular
book. Indeed, it might have been an advantage had he
exercised a little more skill in arrangement ; but with this
defect we are not disposed to find serious fault, as every
page of the work contains valuable information, which,
by means of contents and index, is, after all, easily got
at. Mr. Drew has made a substantial contribution to
our knowledge of one of the most interesting regions of
the globe.

Most Europeans, we suspect, have but a vague notion
of how much is included under the name Kashmir.
After all, Jummoo has a better title to give a name to the
dominions of the Maharaja, as it is in the capital of this
district that he resides. Jummoo is quite near the
southern boundary of the Kashmirian territories, on a

branch of the Chinab river, and hence must arise many
inconveniences in the government of the country.

The territory included under the sw?.y of the Maharaja
is somewhat extensive, and of great variety in climate,
physical characteristics, and races, extending from the
broiling plains of the Panjab to the immense glaciers and
eternal snows of the highest Himalayas, and including
peoples both of Aryan and Turanian affinities, and of
Mohammedan, Buddhist, and Brahman faiths. Looking
down, however, upon the general map which accompanies
Mr. Drew's volume, it is seen that the great mass of the
territory is distinctly mountainous, and that to such an
extent that one wonders where there can be any room for
a population at all. Besides Jummoo arid Kashmir, the
countries of Ladakh, Baltistan, and Gilgit are included in
the Maharaja's territories, whose entire area is estimated
at 68,000 square miles.

Mr. Drew's plan is first in an introduction to present a
general view of the Kashmirian territories, and then in
succeeding chapters to treat of the various districts. The

High Himalayan peaks east of Nubra.

main characteristics of each district and its inhabitants
are described in some detail, after which Mr. Drew takes
the reader along a particular route which he himself has
traversed, pointing out with great minuteness all that is
worthy of note by the way. As Mr. Drew records mainly
his own experiences, and as he is seldom tempted aside
from the record of facts, it will be seen that the work is
well adapted to afford the reader a clear and full idea of
a region that is well worth becoming intimately acquainted
with.

Mr. Drew divides the entire territory from a physical
point of view into three regions, commencing at the plain
of the Panjab and proceeding northwards. These are,
first, the region of the Outer Hills, composed of moun-
tains averaging from 2,000 to 4,000 feet above sea-level ;
second, the Middle Mountains, averaging between 8,000
and 10,000 feet ; and lastly, the region of the lofty Hima-
layas, the mountains in which vary in height from 15,000
to 27,000 feet. There are many points in Mr. Drew's
descriptions into which we wish we could enter in some

detail, many observations concerning the country and the
people we should like to lay before our readers, but this
is impossible ; a mere enumeration of the contents of the
work would occupy most of the space at our command.

Of the inhabitants especially of this curious region, so
near the supposed cradle of the Aryan race, and where
the Aryans and Turanians meet, and sometimes inter-
mingle, Mr. Drew has much to say that will no doubt
command the attention of ethnologists. He observed
carefully and records faithfully the characteristics and
ways of the varied peoples, and although these have been
observed by previous travellers, still it will be found, we
are sure, that Mr. Drew has made an important contribu-
tion to the ethnology of the region. The Aryan people
of Kashmir he divides into five principal races : the
Dogra, Chibah, Pahari, Kashmiri, and Dard ; and the
Turanian, which belong to the Tibetan section of that
group, into Balti, Ladakhi, and Champa. As might be
expected, Mr. Drew gives much information concerning
the castes of the Aryan races, and what he tells us is full

552

NATURE

\pct, 28, 1875

of interest. He throws some light also on the probable
origin of castes, and especially of the distinction between
the superior and inferior castes, and produces some very
good reasons for believing that they are a result of the
conquest of an inferior by a superior race. Mr. Drew
was governor of Ladakh for a period, and thus had a
splendid opportunity of becoming acquainted with an in-
teresting region and curious people. He of course refers
to the peculiar marital institution of the Turanians in
the comparatively barren districts of the Himalayas. In
Baltistan the people are of the same race as the Ladakhis,
but having been converted to Mohammedanism, have
eschewed polyandry for polygyny, with the result that
the population has increased beyond the capacity of the
country to support it, rendering emigration necessary.

Mr. Drew presents minute studies of several places in
Ladakh, especially of the salt lake district to the south of
Leh. After carefully observing the geological charac-
teristics of the district, he concludes that at one time, when
glaciers were more universal than now, there must have
been there one extensive and deep lake, Mr, Drew is con-
stantly turning aside to make minute studies in geology
and physical geography of this kind, and as the pheno-
menon investigated is generally of a typical sort, the scien-
tific value of the book is thus much enhanced.

Of course Mr. Drew has a great deal to say about the
Himalayas and their glaciers — glaciers on a scale, as he
says, not to be met with elsewhere beyond the Arctic
regions. Though Mr. Drew's style is unadorned, it has the
merit of being always perfectly clear, so that his descriptions
of glacial and other phenomena convey real and valuable
information. One glacier he examined at Basha, in
Baltistan, was upwards of twenty miles long, and others
are to be met with of much greater extent ; indeed, to
judge from the map, this north-west Himalayan region
is one huge net-work of glaciers. The largest of all is
the Baltoro glacier, thirty-five miles Ion g, which comes
down between two lofty ridges ; the northern ridge rises
in one spot to the height of 28,265 feet, the peak of that
height (K 2 of the Indian Survey) being the second highest
mountain known in the world. And yet these glaciers
are a mere remnant, the evidence seems to show, of the
glacial covering which at one time spread over the
Himalayan region.

One interesting excursion made by Mr. Drew was to
the district in the N.E. of Ladakh, which, in'the form of
a great mountain- surrounded plateau, extends to the
Kuenlun Mountains. This plain is divided into two by a
low range of mountains running east and west, the
southern half being known as the Lingzhithang Plain,
and the northern half is named by Mr. Drew the Kuenlun
Plain. This extensive and almost lifeless plateau has
been crossed before Mr. Drew's journey, by various
travellers— the unfortunate A. Schlagentweit, Mr. W. H.
Johnson of the G. T. Survey, Mr. Haywood, Mr. Shaw,
Dr. Cayley, and the two Yarkand Mission parties. Mr.
Drew discusses the observations of some of these ob-
servers, and from observations made by himself, comes
to the conclusion that the entire plateau must at
one time have been under water, the mountains in the
centre appearing above the surface as islands. His
account of his observations on this journey are of con-
siderable value as supplementary to those of previous ob-

servers— of the mirage, of the capricious lakelets which
are still sometimes seen, of the composition of the surface
of the plateau, of the remains of shingly beaches, salt
deposits, and other features. This great plateau has by
no means been yet fully explored, though it would be
likely to yield to a competent observer important data in
physical geography.

One special chapter is devoted to the various languages
spoken in the territories, and their relationships well
pointed out. In the appendices, also, material is pro-
vided for the comparative philologist in a Dogra grammar,
various vocabularies and phrases.

A characteristic and valuable feature of the work is the
series of maps which enable the reader to follow satis-
factorily all the author's froutes and descriptions. First
of all there is a general map on the scale of sixteen miles
to an inch, sufficiently minute to enable one to recognise
the chief physical features, and in which the various
glaciers are indicated. Then come five maps, constructed
each from a different and special point of view. The
" Snow Map " is coloured, to show the characteristics of

'f^'

.-•-'l-W^^?^-^-^^^'

K 2 of Indian Survey, 28,26s feet, as seen from Turmik.

various regions of the territory in respect of snow, from
the region of " no snow " to that of glaciers. The " Race
Map " shows the distribution of the various peoples which
make up the population of the country, while the " Lan-
guage Map " and the " Faith Map " serve the same pur-
pose for languages and religions respectively. The
" Political Map" shows the various previously indepen-
dent states and rajaships which have been gradually
agglomerated into one dominion under the Maharaja
of Jummoo. Besides the maps there are isometric views
and sections of the principal mountain regions, and a
number of illustrations of places and people. We think
the illustrations, especially in the way of typical photo-
graphic portraits, ought to have been more abundant in a
work otherwise so elaborate and minute ; but this may
be remedied in a second edition.

We have given but a faint idea of the contents of this
thick volume, but perhaps we have said enough to show
that henceforth it must be considered as one of the prin-
cipal authorities on a country of great interest in itself,
and of special interest to English people on account of
its relation to our Indian dominions and government.
Much has already been written on the country and on the
regions which border upon it, and special studies have
been made of particular parts and aspects of it—Mr.
Drew refers with deserved praise to Dr. Leitner's great
work on Dardistan ; — but on the country as a whole, in
all its aspects, political, historical, ethnological, and
physical, Mr. Drew's work must be considered as a per-
manent and trustworthy authority.

Oct. 28, 1875]

NATURE

553

OUR BOOK SHELF

Zoology for Students. By C. Carter Blake, D.Sc.
(Daldy, Isbister, and Co., 1875.)

In this work Dr. C. C, Blake has published, as he tells
us in the preface, the substance of his annual course of
lectures on zoology at Westminster Hospital. Beginning
with the highest form, man, he descends the whole scale of
animal life, ending with the Protozoa, or Acrita. A general
description of each class is followed by a more detailed
account of each of the different orders which compose it.
As a preface, " notes " taken from some of Prof.
Owen's Hunterian Lectures on the principles of zoo-
logical classification, are, with the lecturer's permission,
introduced.

The arrangement adopted is not the most modern. The
Batrachinaand the other Amphibia are retained as orders
of the class Reptilia ; the importance of the different sec-
tions of the Teleostei is considered to be as great as that
of the Ganoidei or Plagiostcmi ; the Cirripedia are sepa-
rated from the Crustacea; the " Bryozoa" are asso-
ciated with the " Radiata," and the Entozoa are retained
among the Articulata. More stress is laid on external
peculiarities than is the custom now-a-days, among bio-
logists, and the importance of embryology is not made
prominent. Theoretical considerations are placed in the
background, and illustrations are but few and far between.
The fossil orders are described in their respective classes,
and some of Prof. Owen's tables of the distribution in
time of their different genera are introduced.

There is, no doubt, some advantage to a student with
time at his disposal commencing the science upon an
antiquated classification, for it enables him afterwards
to more fully comprehend the history of biology, and to
appreciate the rapid strides that have been made. We,
however, fear that it is the object of most who take up the
subject to obtain, as quickly as possible, a clear idea
of its present position ; and such being the case, to com-
mence with a bygone system is only so much loss of
time. The view taken by Dr. Blake will therefore detract
from the value of his otherwise useful work. Another thing
that will diminish its value is a certain want of accuracy
which pervades it. Drawings of the feet of three birds
are given, and they are all wrongly named. A scansorial
foot is adjudged to a passerine bird ; that of a kingfisher
is said to be gallinaceous, whilst that of a steganopod is
termed " foot of duck." More than once the peculiarities
of two closely allied animals are reversed, as when we are
told that among the Proboscidia " in one form, entirely
extinct (Dinotherium), the incisors project in the form of
long tusks from the upper jaw ; in the existing elephants,
from the lower jaw," and when " the articulated group (of
the Brachiopoda are said to) possess an anal aperture,
the non-articulated possess none whatever."

The chapter on the Pisces is much confused. " The
living Ganoids have completely bony skeletons, but the
fossil ones may have had skeletons soft and cartilaginous
like those of the Sturgeons. . . . They have several
holes in the arterial trunks. . . . Their optic nerves do
not decussate, but merely cohere laterally." The external
pares are said to be "simple" in the Rays and Sharks,
or *' double, as in most osseous fishes." The Ammocete
is called the Sandlaunce, and it is described as a separate
genus.

The same character is more than once repeated on the
same or the following page, whilst others equally important
are omitted. On the first page of the section describing
the Reptilia, the two following sentences occur as parts of
the definition of the class : " a heart with two auricles, and
with the ventricle more or less completely divided ; "
" the heart has two auricles ; the ventricle is imperfectly
divided." Pentastoma is retained among the " Entozoa,"
instead of being placed among the Arachnida ; we can
find no reference to Ceratodus, a most important fish

theoretically ; and the brain of the Marsupials is said not
to possess a corpus callosum.

Notwithstanding the imperfections above pointed out,
there is much to be learnt from Dr. Blake's work ; many
of the descriptions are excellent ; nevertheless there are
so many essential facts omitted, that it will be found more
valuable as an adjunct to a work like Prof. Huxley's
" Introduction to the Classification of Animals," than as
an independent source of information.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

[The Editor does not kold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return,
or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts.
■No notice is taken of anonymous covimunicatiotis.\
" Instinct and Acquisition "

In Nature (vol. xii. p. 507) there appears, under the above
heading, a very interesting article, being an epitome of a paper
read by Mr. Spalding at the Bristol meeting of the British Asso-
ciation. Now that the doctrine which is maintained in this
article — a doctrine with which Mr. Spalding's name is associated
as almost its only experimental verifier — has proved itself so
completely victorious in overcoming the counter-doctrine of
"the individual-experience psychology" — and this along the
whole line both of fact and theory — it seems unnecessary for
anyone to adduce additional facts in confirmation of the views
which Mr. Spalding advocates. I shall therefore confine myself
to detailing a few results yielded by experiments which were
designed to illustrate the subordinate doctrine thus alluded to in
Mr. Spalding's article : —

" Though the instincts of animals appear and disappear in
such seasonable correspondence with their own wants and the
wants of their offspring as to be a slanding subject of wonder,
they have by no means the fixed and unalterable character by
which some would distinguish them from the higher faculties of
the human race. They vary in the individuals as does
their physical structure. Animals can learn what they did
not know by instinct and forget the instinctive knowledge
which they never learned, while their instincts will often
accommodate themselves to considerable changes in the order of
external events. Everybody knows it to be a common practice
to hatch ducks' eggs under a common hen, though in such cases
the hen has to sit a week longer than on her own eggs. I tried
an experiment to ascertain how far the time of sitting could be
interfered with in the opposite direction. Two hens became
broody on the same day, and I set them on dummies. On the
third day I put two chicks a day old to one of the hens. She
pecked at them once or twice, seemed rather fidgety, then took
to them, called them to her, and entered on all the cares of
a mother. The other hen was similarly tried, but with a very
different result. She pecked at the chickens viciously, and both
that day and the next stubbornly refused to have anything to do
with them," &c.

It would have been well if Mr. Spalding had stated whether
these two hens belonged to the same breed ; for, as is of
course well known, different breeds exhibit great variations in
the character of the incubatory instinct. Here, for instance, is a
curious case. Spanish hens, as is notorious, scarcely ever sit at
all; but I have one purely-bred one just now that sat on dummies
for three days, after which time her patience became exhausted.
However, she seemed to think that the self-sacrifice she had
undergone during these three days merited some reward, for, on
leaving the nest, she turned foster-mother to all the Spanish
chickens in the yard. These were sixteen in number, and of all
ages, from that at which their own mothers had just left them up
to full-grown chickens. It is remarkable, too, that although
there were Brahma and Hamburg chickens in the same yard,
the Spanish hen only adopted those that were of her own breed.
It is now four weeks since this adoption took place, but the
mother as yet shows no ; igns of wi-shing to cast off her hetero-
geneous brood, notwithstanding some of her adopted chickens
have grown nearly as large as herself.

The following, however, is a better example of what may be
called plasticity of instinct. Three years ago I gave a pea-fowl's
egg to a Brahma hen to hatch. The hen was an old one, and
had previously reared many broods of ordinary chickens with
unusual success even for one of her breed. In order to hatch the

554

NATURE

yod. 28, 1875

pea-chick she had to sit one week longer than is requisit*; to
hatch an ordinary chick, but in this there is nothing very un-
usual, for, as Mr. Spakling observes, the same thing happens
with every hen that hatches out a brood of ducklings. * The
object with which I made this experiment, however, was that of
ascertaining whether the period of maternal care subsequent to
incubation admits, under pecuHar conditions, of being pro-
longed ; for a pea-chick requires such care for a very much
longer time than does an ordinary chick. As the separation
between a hen and her chickens always appears to be due to
the former driving away the latter when they are old enough to
shift for themselves, I scarcely expected the hen in this case to
prolong her period of maternal care, and indeed only tried the
experiment because I thought that if she did so the fact would
be the best one imaginable to show in what a high degree here-
ditary instinct may be modified by peculiar individual expe-
riences. The result was very surprising. For the enormous
period of eighteen months this old Brahma hen remained with
her ever-growing chicken, and throughout the whole of that
time she continued to pay it unremitting attention. She never
laid any eggs during this lengthened period of maternal super-
vision, and if at any time she became accidentally separated
from her charge, the distress of both mother and chicken was
very great. Eventually the separation seemed to take place on
the side of the pea-cock ; but it is remarkable that although the
mother and chicken eventually separated, they never afterwards
forgot each other, as usually appears to be the case with hens
and their chickens. So long as they remained together the
abnormal degree of pride which the mother showed in her won-
derful chicken was most ludicrous ; but I have no space to enter
into details. It may be stated, however, that both before and
after the separation the mother was in the habit of frequently
combing out the top-knot of her son — she standing on a seat, or
other eminence of suitable height, and he bending his head for-
wards with evident satisfaction. This fact is particularly note-
worthy, because the practice of combing out the top-knot of their
chickens is customary among pea-hens. In conclusion I may
observe, that the pea-cock reared by this Brahma hen turned out
a finer bird in every way than did any of his brothers of the same
brood which were reared by their own mother, but that on
repeating the experiment next year with another Brahma hen
and several pea-chickens, the result was different, for the hen
deserted her family at the time when it is natural for ordinary
hens to do so, and in consequence all the pea-chickens miserably
perished.

I have just concluded another experiment which is well worth
recording. A bitch ferret strangled herself by trying to squeeze
through too narrow an opening. She left a very young family
of three orphans. These I gave, in the middle of the day, to a
Brahma hen which had been sitting on dummies for about a
month. She took to them almost immediately, and remained
with them for rather more than a fortnight, at the end of which
time I had to cause a separation, in consequence of the hen
having suffocated one of the ferrets by standing on its neck.
During the whole of the time that the ferrets were left with the hen
the latter had to sit upon the nest ; for the young ferrets, of course,
were not able to follow the hen about as chickens would have
done. The hen, as might be expected, was very much puzzled
at the lethargy of her offspring. Two or three times a day she
used to fly off the nest, calling upon her brood to follow ; but
upon hearing their cries of distress from cold, she always returned
immediately and sat with patience for six or seven hours more.
I should have said that it only took the hen one day to learn the
meaning of these cries of distress ; for after the first day she
would always run in an agitated manner to any place where I
concealed the ferrets, provided that this place was not too far away
from the nest to prevent her from hearing the cries of distress.
Yet I do not think it would be possible to conceive of a greater
contrast than that between the shrill peeping note of a young
chicken and the hoarse growling noise of a young ferret. On
the other hand, I cannot say that the young ferrets ever seemed
to learn the meanings of the hen's clucking. During the whole
of the time that the hen was allowed to sit upon the ferrets she
used to comb out their hair with her bill, in the same way as
hens in general comb out the feathers of their chickens. While
engaged in this process, however, she used frequently to stop and
look with one eye at the wriggling nest-full with an inquiring gaze

* The greatest prolongation of the incubatory period I have ever known
to occur was in the case of a pea-hen which sat very steadily on addled eggs
for a period of four months, and had then to be forced off in order to save
her life.

expressive of astonishment. At other times, also, her family
gave her good reason to be surprised ; for she used often to fly
off the nest suddenly with a loud scream — an action which was
doubtless due to the unaccustomed sensation of being nipped by
the young ferrets in their search for the teats. It is further
worth while to remark that the hen showed so much uneasiness
of mind when the ferrets were taken from her to be fed, that at
one time I thought she was going to desert them altogether.
After this, therefore, the ferrets were always fed in the nest, and
with this arrangement the hen was perfectly satisfied — apparently
because she thought that she then had some share in the feeding
process. At any rate she used to cluck when she saw the milk
coming, and surveyed the feeding with evident satisfaction.

Altogether I consider this a very remarkable instance of the
plasticity of instinct. The hen, it should be said, was a young
one, and had never reared a brood of chickens. A few months
before she reared the young ferrets she had been attacked and
nearly killed by an old ferret which had escaped from his hutch.
The young ferrets were taken from her several days before their
eyes were open.

In conclusion I may add, that a few weeks before trying this
experiment with the hen I tried a similar one with a rabbit. In
this case the ferret was newly born, and I gave it to a white doe
rabbit which had littered six days before. Unlike the hen, how-
ever, she perceived the imposture at once, and attacked the
young ferret so savagely that she broke two of its legs before I
could remove it. To have made this experiment parallel with
the other, however, the two mothers ought to have littered on
the same day. In this case the result would probably have been
different ; for I have heard that under such circumstances even
such an intelligent animal as a bitch may be deceived into rear-
ing a cat, and vice versd* George J. Romanes

Dunskaith, Ross-shire, Oct. 10

Curious Australian and N. American Iirplement
A VERY interesting illustration of the occurrence of the same
specialised implement in widely separated regions is found in the
resemblance between the vermin hooks of the Australians and
the same kind of weapon found among the Ute Indians.
Several of the former were brought home by Wilkes' Expe-
dition, and are found in the National Museum (Fig. i). They

Fig. I. — ^Australian vermin hook.

have highly finished handles, and the bone hook is fastened on
with wrapping and gum. Of the latter, Major Powell, in his
Colorado Report (1875), says, " These Indians all carry canes
with a crooked handle, they say to kill rattlesnakes, and to pull
rabbits from their holes " (Fig. 2).

=^

^

Fig. 2. — Pai-Ute vermin hooks.

The Ute implement is very rude, consisting of a switch
merely, with the bark stripped off, and a nail passed through the
thick end at an acute angle, and firmly lashed with sinew.
Major Powell's Fig. 45, entitled " The Human Pickle," has
two of these hooks (or canes) in his hand. O. T. Mason.

Washington, D.C., Oct. 13

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN
Double Stars, (i)/ Eridani.— In the year 1850 the
late Capt. Jacob calculated two orbits for this binary
system, the second of which represents very fairly his
subsequent measures to the end of 1857, a rather severe
test for elements founded upon the data available in 1850.
We look in vain for measures later than Capt. Jacob's,
though it may be hoped this and other interesting objects

* Apropos to what Mr. Spalding says about the early age at which the
instinctive antipathy of the cat to the dog becomes apparent, I may state
that some months ago I tried an experiment with rabbits and ferrets some-
what similar to that which he describes with cats and dogs. Into an outhouse
which contained a doe rabbit with a very young family I turned a ferret
loose. The doe rabbit left her young ones, and the latter, as soon as they
smelled the ferret, began to crawl about in so energetic a manner as to leave
no doubt that the cause of the commotion was fear, and not merely the dis-

no aouD
I comfort

arising from the temporary absence of the mother.

Oct. 28, 1 875 J

NATURE

555

of the southern heavens have not been entirely neglected
of late years. The public observatories are perhaps too
closely occupied with other work to allow of much being
expected from them in a class of observation peculiarly
suited to the amateur astronomer, but there must be a
grand field of operations for private observers, in southern
double and variable-star astronomy.

Capt. Jacob's last orbit of p Eridani may be written
thus : —

Peri-astron passage 1819-83

Node 110° 40'

Node to peri-astron in directioa of motion ... 285° 50'

Inclination 46° 36'

Excentricity 0*323

Semi-axis 4"'2S

Mean annual motion, —3° "3645, or period of revolution 107 years.
The components are of equal brightness, and hence it is
to be expected some measures maybe registered 180°
different from others ; accordingly, to work the whole
series mto any supposable orbit it is necessary to add
180° to Sir J. Herschel's micrometrical measures (Cape
Obs., p. 276), and indeed it will be seen that he has so
recorded the angles of the 20-feet sweeps, p. 174.
The errors of the above orbit are, for

1835-00 Pos. (c — 0) + 2° '5 Dist. (c - d) o"'oo

i857'96 „ - i°-6 „ -f o"-o3

The following are deduced from the same orbit : —

1875-0 Pos 2i8°-9 Dist 3"-92

76-0 „ 2i6"'-3 3"-89

77-0 „ 2i3°-7 „ 3'-86

As the measures of this star are, so far, scattered in
several volumes, they are collected here for convenience
of reference. Dunlop's angle was evidently registered in
the wrong quadrant, as is pointed out both by Sir J.
Herschel and Capt. Jacob ; the correct reading appears
to be 343° 6'.

Dunlop 1825-96

Pos. 343-1

Dist.

2-5

Herschel 3500

» 302-3

s-b-;

Jacob 45-88

„ 2760

4-16

46-83

» 277-0

4-32

49-82

,, 2700

—

5080

„ 268-73

4-32

5179

„ 266-38

4-,30

5276

M 264-84

4-14

53 99

„ 263-24

4-3t'

56-09

,, 26112

4-70

5796

„ 258-18

4-49

The place of/ Eridani for the commencement of 1876 is
in R.A. ih. 35m. 53., and N.P.D. 146'' 49'-5.

(2) O. 2 387. — Between the epoch of Mr. Otto Struve's
measures in 1844 and Baron Dembowski's in 1868, the
angle in this binary has retrograded 77°, and no doubt if
measures are obtained this year a very considerable
further change will be manifested : yet the distance, if
we except Secchi's estimate in 1856, has been found about
half a second, as long as the star has been under obser-
vation. A first approximation to the elements may soon
be practicable. The place of this object for beginning of
1876 is R.A. I9h. 44m. 6s., and N.P.D. 55° o'-i. The
number applies to the Pulkova Catalogue of 1850.

The Minor Planets.— No. 150 of the group of
small planets has been reached. Prof. Watson, director of
the Observatory of Ann Arbor, Michigan, having detected
another member, apparently on the night of October 18 ;
the place as yet doubtful, the telegrams through the
French and English cables being discordant. It is stated
to be of the 10th magnitude, and is therefore brighter
than the great majority of planets discovered during the
last few years. Considering the close scrutiny which the
ecliptical region of the sky is receiving at the present day,
we must surely soon be in a position to pronounce with
some degree of confidence whether any trans-Neptunian
planet as bright as stars of the 13th magnitude exists

within 2^° or 3° from the ecliptic, and in the event of
greater inclination, the scheme of Prof. Peters, on its
completion, may afford an equally definitive conclusion.
There have been some curious alarms in this direction,
as in the autumn of 1850, during observations of the
minor planet llygeia at Washington, when an apparently
slow moving object was compared with the planet on
more than one evening ; but although sought for dili-
gently on the supposition of its being a distant body, was
not recovered, nor, we believe, has since been seen in the
observed place. The change of position was larger than
could well be attributed to casual errors in micrometric
observations ; but there seems to be no other explanation
of this case, except admitting error of observation and the
existence of a variable star of long period in that spot.

NOTES FROM THE ''CHALLENGER''

pROF. WYVJLLE THOMSON has just sent me from
^ the Challenger an account of certain results of Deep
Sea dredgings in the North Pacific. In these dredgings
was obtained a Gymnoblastic Hydroid of such colossal
dimensions that the largest form hitherto known sinks in
comparison with it into utter insignificance. Prof. Thom-
son has determined the Hydroid as a Monocaulus or
nearly allied form, and a beautiful drawing which accom-
panies his letter confirms this view.

The animal itself has not yet arrived, but the letter
which gives an account of its capture contains so many
points of general interest, that the following extract will,
I feel sure, be acceptable to the readers of Nature :'—
"H.M.S. Challenger, N. Pacific, July 24, 1875.

" On the 17th of June, in the North Pacific, lat. 34° 3/
N., long. 140° 32' E., depth 1,875 fathoms, temperature at
bottom 1° 7 C, bottom grey mud, the trawl brought up
three or four examples of what seems to be a species of
Monocaulus, or something allied to it. The point
which naturally struck us most was that the hydranth in
a specimen measured fresh by Moseley and myself, was
nine inches across from tip to tip of the expanded (non-
retractile) tentacles, and the hydrocaulus was seven feet
four inches high ! On the Sth of July, lat. 37° 41' N.,
long. 177° 4' W., depth 2,900 fathoms, with bottom tempe-
rature the same as before, and a bottom of red clay with
manganese nodules, the trawl, which was torn to pieces
by having taken in too great a weight of nodules of man-
ganese, brought up entangled in its outer netting another
fine specimen of this same form. It was put in weak
picric acid, and then into weak alcohol, and you have it
in the short piece of test-tube among the horsehair. This
specimen was not measured, but the hydranth was care-
fully sketched by Mr. Wild, and I enclose you the sketch.

" These delicate things, drawn up rapidly through the
water from a depth of nearly four statute miles, and
transported into such totally different conditions of tem-
perature, pressure, &c., suffer greatly from the violent
change : they are in fact almost knocked to pieces, and
their finer tissues are in a nearly deliquescent state, so that
our great anxiety is to get them at once into some reagent
which will harden them somewhat. It is wretched to see
them melting away absolutely under one's eyes : when put
into any of our fluids they at once contract out of all form,
but that cannot be helped. I thought it best you should
have them as well preserved as we could manage, so I
only gave them a cursory glance and sent them on.

" The hydrocaulus is enormously extensile — it is of a
pale pink colour, and our specimens, when distended in
the water, were about four feet or so long : one, as I men-
tioned before, which Moseley and I measured, was seven
feet four inches high, but that one was stretched over the
surface of the trawl net, and although it must of course
have been capable in life of cxtendmg to that degree, it
might not have been a normal attitude. When at what

556

NATURE

[Oct, 28, 1875

seems to be its normal state of distension, the diameter of
the hydrocaulus is about half an inch. Its structure you
can make out for yourself. The proximal ends of several
of them were coated with mud when they came up ; the
longitudinal striae were very evident in the soft tissue ;
fluid gravitated down the centre of the hydrocaulus, and
collected in a bladder-like expansion at the base. The
base of this stem was of a darker colour than the rest — a
dull rose— in most of them (not in the one figured by
Wild). As I did not mean to describe the creature I did
not look out for processes or fibrillas at the proximal ex-
tremity ; you may find them in the spirit specimens. The
total length of the hydranth when moderately extended
was \\ inches.

"The proximal range of tentacles number about a hun-
dred, and these are about four inches long — they are almost
transparent in life — of a pale pink colour in most speci-
mens. The sporosacs are in close tufts of a maroon colour
just at the base of the proximal tentacles. The specimen
I looked at was a male, but the tissues were so soft —
almost slimy — that I did not like to tease it too much.
The walls of the body-cavity were yellowish, and seemed
to contain some vertical rolls of glandular matter, and
the hypostome terminates in a fringe of about forty-eight
or fifty extensile tentacles round the mouth. So much for
our gigantic Corymorphoid ! These are the only two
occasions on which we got it, or anything like it. I
should have liked to get a haul or two in Behring's Sea,
for there doubtless we should have had it in shallow
water. I can only tell you one thing more about it — its
associates. On the 17th of June, 1875, in 1,875 fathoms,
itwas associated with many fishes (Ophidoids, Macrurids,
Scopellids — all theusual deep-sea lot), several Gasteropods,
many Crustaceans (Dorippe, Galatea, Caridids, &c., and
a fine Scalpellum), a few Annelids, many Echinoderms
(Brisinga, Phormosoma, Ophiurids, two very fine Holothu-
rids of a new group), species of Isis, Primnoa, Polythoa,
and Actinia. On the 5th of July, in 2,900 fathoms, there
were some worms (Aphroditacean), an Urchin allied to
Diadema, two Holothurije, and one or two sponges ; but
the trawl-net was torn by the weight of the manganese
nodules, so we had scarcely a fair sample of the fauna.
In the bottle with the tube you will find among the horse-
hair one or two pieces of Heliopora certdea from
Moseley. He sends at the same time a paper on it to the
Royal."

That the enormous depths from which this colossal
Hydroid has been brought up should favour the develop-
ment of gigantic representatives of the diminutive forms
of shallower zones, and that in the tenants of these sunless
regions of the sea we should find colour not less vivid than
that of their light-loving relatives, are facts full of sig-
nificance.

It is also worth noticing that the sexual zooids of the
great Hydroid are to all appearance simple sporosacs,
instead of the medusiform zooids which are so frequent
in the Gymnoblastic Hydroids of our littoral regions.
Indeed, among the many Hydroids which I have examined
from deep water, I have never found one which could be
referred with probability to a form characterised by the
production of medusiform zooids. It would seem that
these zooids — delicate and active organisms which are
among the most abundant captives of the towing-net in
the surface-zone of the sea — are unable to endure, either
before liberation from their parent Hydroid, or for a
period however short in their free state, the darkness and
pressure and other conditions to which the dwellers in
the deep sea are exposed. George J. Allman

NORDENSKJOLUS ARCTIC EXPEDITION

A LETTER from Prof. Nordenskjold to Mr. Oscar

"'"^ Dickson, of Gothenburg, appears in the Goieborgs

Handels Tidning of the 14th inst. It is dated " On

board the Proven, at anchor at the mouth of the Jenesej,'
i6th August, 1875." The following extracts may be of
interest to our readers : —

" We are now employed as busily as possible in equip-
ping the boat in which I, accompanied by Dr. Stuxberg,
docent Lundstrom and three men, intend to sail up the
Jenesej, with the view of returning to Europe across
Siberia, while the other part of the expedition returns to
Norway by sea, on board the Proven.

" After the Proven, on the 8th of June, was towed free
of cost out of Tromso by a little steamer of the same
name, we were compelled to lie at anchor in the sound
between Carlso and Reno for five days, on account of a
head wind. Finally, on the 14th, we could again weigh
anchor and get to sea through Fuglo Sound. We there-
upon set our course past North Cape, which we passed
on the 17th, to the southern part of Novaya Zemlya.

" During spring and the early part of summer the west
coast of this double island is, for some distance from
the land, surrounded by a compact ice girdle, impassable
at most places, which disappears later in the season, and
in which, according to the experience of the fishermen,
there are formed, generally at an early period, two sounds
which are covered only with thin passable drift-ice, and
by which the ice-free belt of water along the coast is con-
nected with the ice-free ocean westwards. One of these
open channels is usually situated off Matotschkin Scharr,
and its formation is caused by the strong currents which
prevail in that sound ; the other is to be found about the
latitude of Severo Gusinnoi Mys, or North Goose Cape.
The latter was chosen by me for the Proven, and was
passed without any special difficulty on the 22nd of June.
The expedition thus, in seven days from its departure
from Carlso, cast anchor for the first time at Novaya
Zemlya, in a little ill-protected bay immediately north of
North Goose Cape.

" During the voyage there were set on foot, when the
state of the weather permitted, frequent soundings and
dredgings, examinations of animal and diatom life in the
surface of the sea, determinations of the temperature at
different depths, &c. Our operations were generally very
successful, and showed that in this sea we may reckon on
reaping rich harvests in natural history. We also made
repeated trials at different depths of a new instrument
for bringing up specimens of the bottom, constructed for
the expedition by Dr. Wiberg, which showed itself very
well adapted for the purpose, and easily managed."

After visiting and examining various parts of the coast
for many days, the Proven was directed to the Sea of
Kara, and on the 26th July the anchor was let go off
Cape Grebeni, on Waigats Island. So violent a storm
was raging, however, that a boat could not be sent out
till the 30th July to land on Waigats Island. " A rich
collection was here made of Upper Silurian fossils,
strongly resembling those from Gotland, and therefore
of special interest for Swedish geologists. Here we for
the first time encountered Samoyedes, who when they
sighted the vessel drove down to the shore in peculiar
high sledges adapted for travelling in both summer and
winter, and drawn by three or four reindeer. They imme-
diately gave us to understand that they wished to come
on board, whither they also accompanied us in our boat,
and where they were soon afterwards well entertained
by us.

" During our stay on the west coast of Novaya Zemlya
we of course instituted numerous investigations regarding
the geology, animal and vegetable life, &c., of the regions
visited by us, and the number of the places on the coast
where we land^id rendered it possible for the scientific
staff of the expedition to collect materials for ascertaining
the natural relations of these regions, which are certainly
far more extensive than have been brought home by any
of our predecessors." At last on August 2 the sound was
successfully passed, and on the Proven reaching the Sea

Oct, 28, 1875]

NATURE

557

of Kara it was found completely free of ice ! " Our course
was set towards the middle of the peninsula which sepa-
rates the Sea of Kara from the Bay of Obi, and is named
Jalmal by the Samoyedes. The wind was very moderate,
so that we only advanced slowly — a circumstance by
which our patience was in truth sorely tried, but which
had this good result, that during our sailing forward in
these waters visited for the first time by a scientific
expedition, we were able daily to undertake dredg-
ings, hydrographic work, &c. The dredgings gave
an unexpectedly rich and various harvest of marine ani-
mals, among which I will specially mention here several
colossal species of Isopoda, {masses of Amphipoda and
Copepoda, a large and beautiful Alecto, uncommonly
large Ophiurids, beautifully marked Asterids, innumer-
able mollusca, &c. The peculiar circumstance here
occurs that the water at the surface of the sea, which in
consequence of the great rivers which debouch in these
regions is nearly free of salt, forms a deadly poison for
the animals which live in the salt water at the bottom.
Most of the animals brought up from the bottom accord-
ingly die if they are placed in water from the surface of
the sea.

" Here, as on the west coast of Novaya Zemlya,
were instituted, when opportunity offered, with the ther-
mometers by Negretti and Zambra and Casella procured
by you during your stay in London last spring, determina-
tions of the temperature of the sea, not only at the sur-
face, but also at different depths under it. These investi-
gations yielded a specially interesting result, and perhaps
may be regarded as conclusive of a number of questions
regarding which there has of late been much discussion
concerning the ocean currents in these regions, the direc-
tion of which, in the absence of other data, it has been
attempted to determine chiefly by the temperature of the
surface water. By means of numerous observations along
the west coast of Novaya Zemlya from Matotschkin
Scharr to Jugor Sound, and thence past Cape Grebeni to
75|° N. lat. and 82° E. long., and on to the mouth of
Jenisej, I have obtained indisputable proof that in this
sea the temperature of the sea-water at the surface is
exceedingly variable and dependent upon the temperature
of the air, upon the neighbourhood of ice, and upon the
influx of warm fresh water from Obi and Jenesej, but that
the temperature of the water at a depth of only ten
fathoms is nearly quite constant, between - 1° and 2° C.
If, in the northern part of the Sea of Kara, where the
water on the surface is almost completely /;v<? of salt, and
at this time of the year very warm, a flask filled with
water from the surface is sunk to a depth of ten fathoms,
the water fr«ezes to ice. There are thus no warm ocean
currents here at any considerable depth below the sur-
face. A large number of deep-water samples have been
taken by the apparatus constructed by Prof. Ekman,
which is exceedingly well adapted for the purpose,
and I am convinced that at the bottom the content of
salt is also constant, which can be ascertained with cer-
tainty after the return of the expedition by analyses of
the samples of water which have been taken.

" On the 8th August we landed for a few hours on the
north-western side of Jalmal, where an astronomical deter-
mination of the position of the place was made. A great
many astronomical determinations had previously been
made during the expedition along the west coast of
Novaya Zemlya and Jugor Sound. Traces of men, some
of whom had gone barefoot, and of Samoycde sledges,
were visible on the beach. Close to the shore was found
a sacrificial altar, consisting of about fifty skulls of the Ice
Bear, Walrus, and Reindeer bones, S:c., laid in a heap.
In the middle of the heap of bones there stood, raised
up, two idols, roughly hewn from drift-wood roots, newly
besmeared in the eyes and mouth with blood, also two
poles provided with hooks, from which hung bones of the
Reindeer and Bear. Close by was a fireplace and a heap

of Reindeer bones, the latter clearly a remnant of a sacri-
ficial meal. After a stay here of several hours, I sailed
further north, until further advance in this direction was
prevented by impassable masses of great even icefields at
75° 30' N. lat., and 79° 30' E. long. Afterwards I fol-
lowed the edge of the ice eastwards, and finally steered
our course towards the north side of the mouth of Jenisej,
where the Swedish flag was hoisted and the anchor was
let go on the 15th in the afternoon. We had now attained
the goal which great seafaring nations had in vain striven
for centuries to reach.

" The expedition will now, in accordance with the plan
agreed upon, separate, inasmuch as I, accompanied by
Lundstrdm and Stuxberg, and three men, intend, in a
Nordland boat brought with us for the special purpose, to
sail or row up the Jenisej, in order to return by Turu-
chansk and Jeneseisk to Europe, while the Proven returns
hence to Norway, if possible going north of the north
point of Novaya Zemlya."

SCIENCE IN GERMANY
{From a German Correspondent.)

SINCE we possess in the kinetic molecular theory, as
founded by Clausius, a mechanical theory based on
the atomic conception of gases, it is possible to employ
the results of the chemical investigation of these bodies
for physical deductions. It is only necessary to suppose
for this purpose that the same molecules, which are the
bearers of the thermal and mechanical properties of gases,
act reciprocally in chemical reactions. We must point out
as one of the most important confirmations of this view,
that Avogardo's hypothesis, based on general physical de-
ductions, and adopted in chemistry as the foundation-stone
of its whole recent development, has lately found its me-
chanical confirmation in the gaseous theory of Maxwell
and of Boltzmann.

Recently, however, difficulties have arisen in the further
investigation of this theory, with regard to the specific heat
of gases. The quantity of heat contained in a gas is defined
as the total energy of its molecules, and this energy consists
solely in progressive motion, if the molecule is looked
upon as a mere material point. On the other hand, the
pressure of the gas upon the surface-unit equals two-
thirds of the kinetic energy of progressive motion con-
tained in the volume-unit. If, therefore, we raise the
temperature of the gas by one degree, the volume re»
maining the same, we can find by calculation the adduced
quantity of heat according to the gaseous theory, from the
increase of pressure determined by Mariotte-Gay Lussac's
law. This quantity of heat in its relation to the mass-
unit, is, as is known, called the specific heat of the gas
at the constant volume (<"), and calculation now shows this
value to be o'6o of the observed one. In close connec-
tion with this it was found that the proportion of specific
heat at constant pressure {<f) to the specific heat at con-

stant volume {c), viz.

c'

/& is = I '67 according to the

theory mentioned, but= 1*405 according to observation.

Clausius has shown that the theoretical value of c is
certainly increased, if we take into account that according
to the results of chemical researches the molecules of the
gases hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are not material
points, but polyatomic, and that they are thus capable of
storing, as it were, a certain quantity of energy in the
shape of motion relative to a centre of gravity. But when
BoUzmann lately investigated the behaviour of polyatomic
gas molecules according to mechanical principles, he
found c for a diatomic gas (like hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen) to be i'22 times more than observation shows.
He found by calculation k =» 1-33, and this value is
smaller than the actual one (r40S). We must remark
here that the supposition of a number of atoms larger than

558

NATURE

\Oct. 28, 1875

2 would decrease k still further, and here exists for the
present an uasolved contradiction between experience and
the theory in its present form.

Looking at this state of things, Herren Kundt and
Warburg at Strasburg' thought it advisable to investigate
experimentally the simplest case which nature offers to
us, viz. the case of a gas which, according to its chemical
behaviour,'is a monatomic one. Herr Baeyer pointed out
to them that mercury gas was such a gas ; they there-
fore undertook to determine the specific heat of mercury
gas. Here a contradiction to the theory did not become
apparent ; the experiment has yielded exactly the value
demanded by theory for a monatomic gas, viz., K = x '67.
Thus it is proved that the molecule of mercury gas, with
regard to its thermal and mechanical properties, behaves
exactly like a material point. It is hardly necessary to
remark that, with regard to other properties, it is not at all
necessary that the same molecule should behave like a
material point. Thus, for instance, one glance at the spec-
trum emitted by incandescent mercury gas, which is
crossed by many bright lines, shows us at once that the
molecule of the same, with regard to the light it emits,
does certainly not behave like a material point.

With regard to the way in which the experiment was
conducted, we confine ourselves to the following remarks.

The k for mercury gas was determined from the velocity
of sound in this gas, and this was found by means of the
method of dust figures, formerly described by Herr
Kundt.* A glass tube A, closed at both ends, well dried
and pumped perfectly free from air, contained a certain
quantity of mercury, which had been carefully weighed,
and a little siUcic acid. Sealed to this tube was another
one, B (this a little narrower), in such a manner as to form
the prolongation of A. A was placed in a four-fold box
made of iron plates, which was heated by a series of
Bunsen burners. This box also contained the great
reservoir of an air thermometer, and, if observations were
made at a temperature under 354°, several mercury ther-
mometers besides. The end of B, projecting from the
box, was sealed up, and over this end a long wide glass
tube D was placed, which was closed at one end and con-
tained a little lycopodium.

If now, after the necessary regulation in the heating
arrangements, the thermometers in the box showed equal
and sufficiently elevated temperatures, the tube composed
of A and B was sounded by friction to its third longitu-
dinal tone ; at the same time a reading of the air thermo-
meter was taken, and the temperature of the air in D was
noted down. The powders introduced then showed in
tubes A and D the sound-waves in mercury gas and in air
respectively, so that afterwards the lengths of these waves
could be measured with the greatest accuracy.

Let us suppose
/ to be the length of the sound-wave in air,
/' ,, ,, ,, in mercury-gas,

/ the absolute temperature of air in D,
t ,. „ of mercury gas in A,

d = 6'9783 the density of mercury gas (air = i),

k — the proportion _ of the two specific heats for air.

for mercury gas.

Then we have

^■^.{^ru

li k for air was taken at = 1-405 according to Rontgen,
then by seven definite experiments, at different degrees of
saturation of the mercury vapour, and three different sets
of apparatus being employed, it was found on the average
that

k' == 1-67.
The results of the different experiments never deviated
more than one per cent, from this value.

* See Nature, vol. xii, p. 88.

If the specific heat c at constant volume for air is taken
as = I, then it follows that c for mercury

c = o'6o. W.

AMONG THE CYCLOMETERS AND SOME
OTHER PARADOXERS

NO notes have been handed down of the conversation
between Erskine and Boswell, whilst strolling in
Leicester Fields, on squaring the circle. There is on
record, however, Boswell's small joke, " Come, come, let
us circle the square, and that will do us good."

The subject is one that has occupied the thoughts of
some few from the earliest times of geometrical history,
and there are some now fascinated by it at this date,
when we have —

" on the lecture slate
The circle rounded under female hands
With flawless demonstration."

Old Burton advises him that is melancholy to calculate
spherical triangles, square the circle, or cast a nativity. A
popular novelist (" Aurora Floyd," chap, iv.), describing
one of her characters " who was an inscrutable personage
to his comrades of the nth Hussars," says he was,
" according to the popular belief of those harebrained
young men, employed in squaring the circle in the soli-
tude of his chamber."

To say of a man that he is a circle-squarer will make
an ordinary mathematician shrug up his shoulders and
indicate expressively that there is, in his opinion, a screw
loose somewhere. Having had some slight acquaintance
with the writings of a few of the race forced upon us, we
propose here to pass them under review, generally con-
tenting ourselves with letting them speak for themselves,
for thus shall we possibly most efitectually confute their
absurdities, at least in the judgment of our mathematical
readers.

De Morgan, the great exposer7of circle-squarers, tri-
sectors, et id genus onme, has, after Montucla, stated
(" Budget of Paradoxes," p. 96) that there still exist three
ideas in the heads of this race— (i) That there is a large
reward offered for success ; (2) that the longitude problem
depends on that success ; and (3) that the solution is the
great end and object of Geometry. Some eight years ago
we saw a letter from a Spanish Don of La Mancha, who
offered to send an infallible method of squaring the circle ;
and within the last four months an application came to
us from Sweden, in which the author stated that he had
heard that the London Mathematical Society had offered
a prize for the trisection of angles, and as he had after
long working at the problem obtained a solution, he was
ready to transmit the same, but his organ of caution led
him to fear lest his communication might get into im-
proper hands, and so he wished to know to whom to
send the aforesaid solution. We need hardly say that the
Society, in this matter imitating the example of the
French Academy of Sciences and of our own Royal
Society, has declined to receive any communication upon
either of the above-named subjects or upon that of the
allied problem, the Duplication of the Cube. This decision
was arrived at in consequence of a bulky mass of papers
on the circle problem having been laid before the Presi-
dent in the end of 187 1. The author had previously sub-
mitted his papers to our own examination, and after
some little perplexing we were able to indicate the point
at which the author had tripped. We have heard nothing
further of the solution, nor seen any of the elaborate
figures since. We think it fair to state that we believe
this cyclometer to have been an honest man and a good
geometer. He had worked at the problem, off and on,
some twenty years, and attacked it by the lunes of
Hippocrates of Chios.

We have consulted the " Introductorium Geometri-
cum" of Charles de Bovelles (Eovillus) in the 1503,

Oct. 28, 1 875 J

NATURE

559

1507 (?), and 1510-1517 editions; and also his " Gdo-
in^trie Practique " in the 1549 and 1555 editions ; and we
are disposed to think that Do Morgan (B. of P., pp. 31,
32) is in error, possibly in this case following Montucla
(for he says he has not seen the former work, and
he makes no mention of the second), though all the
copies of the " Introductorium " cited above contain the
De Quadratura which De Morgan states that he has
seen. Any how, all the constructions we have seen of
Bovilh's give v/io, and not 3 J. This will readily be seen
from the following : — Bovillus inscribes a square in a
circle, and then states that the quadrantal arc is equal to
the line drawn from an angle of the square to the middle
point of one of the opposite sides. In his "Gdomdtrie"
he says of Cusa (whose views De Morgan states him to
have adopted) : " II ha us^ de dimensions infinies, les-
quelles un gdomdtrien ne cognoist, et ne confesseroit
jamais estre possibles. Nonobstant, son invention est
bonne et approuvee, tant par raison que par experience."
Nor do we find any account of his quadrature agreeing
with that of a peasant labourer, but he states that he too
had attempted the problem by another method (than that
of Cusa), and not without success. Whilst standing on a
bridge at Paris he noticed the carriage-wheels passing
over the road ; the fact that when the wheel has per-
formed a revolution we have a straight line whose length
equals the circumference of the wheel, suggested his solu-
tion to him, and on his return home he easily got his
construction, which is this : Divide a radius of the circle
into four equal parts, produce this radius through a fourth
of its length ; join the extremity of this line with an ex-
tremity of the diameter at right angles to the radius, and
with the point as centre and this distance as radius
describe a circle ; the portion of the tangent at the ex-
tremity of the selected radius cut off by this circle, he
says, equals the semi-circumference. It will be seen that
this is the same value as that given above. Bovillus,
also, in a libellus de mathematicis supplementis (1509),
gives a third construction, which leads to the same value.

Before leaving this writer we ought to state that he
attributes the first construction we have given to his
friend M. Achaire Barbel, a man " ingenious at new
inventions of use in geometry." It is with considerable
diffidence that we have ventured to go thus into detail,
but it seems to us that De Morgan had fallen into error
in the case of this early writer.

We propose now to take up the subject at the point
where it is left in the '"' Budget," constantly regretting that
the hand which so vigorously lashed the offenders in this
line now lies cold. Here we must give place to that
arch circle- squarer, Mr. James Smith. We shall deal
tenderly, however, with his book, as we learn that he too
has gone over to the majority and joined his former
opponent. The book we have now before us is " Why
is Euclid unsuitable as a Text-book of Geometry ? This
question answered and the Propositions of Euclid 8 and
13, Book VI., proved to be erroneous by Heterodox
Geometry." (Motto — " Magna est Veritas et prasvalebit."
London : Simpkin, Marshall, and Co., 1871.) The editor,
whose name does not appear, in an address to the reader,
states that Geometricus, a principal correspondent in the
pamphlet, is " an intimate acquaintance and almost in
daily communication with Mr. James Smith, the well-
known author," &c. Geometricus became a convert to
Mr. Smith's views. He has no niche in the " Budget : "
were we not informed to the contrary, we should have
been disposed to say that Geometricus and Mr. James
Smith were one and the same person. The first fifteen
pages are mainly devoted to a correspondence between
Geometricus and' the Rev. Dr. Jones, if that can be called
a correspondence in which the writing on one side is
copious and on the other confined to simple acknowledg-
ments of receipts of letters.

The doctor was singled out for this honour in conse-

quence of his having written an able pamphlet " On the
unsuitableness of Euclid as a Text-book of Geometry."
Geometricus was delighted at the appearance of this
work, thinking now at last " here is a recognised mathe-
matician, who has got out of the groove and who can see
a geometrical truth by whomsoever propounded ; " but
alas ! he is soon disappointed, and finds that, as in Mr.
Smith's experience, directly a mathematician is driven
into a corner, he invariably gets out of it by pleading
pressing engagements, want of time, &c., " and so a great
and important scientific truth— it may be— is born to
blush unseen," &c. He then sends James Smith's works
(which we said above had converted himself), and now
the redoubtable champion of " tt = 3 J " himself descends
into the arena, and must have given the doctor a pretty
lively time of it, from the 13th of April to the loth of June,
1 87 1, as he assails him in six long letters, with diagrams,
occupying nearly thirty-three octavo pages of print.
Much of what had been written in the "Athenaeum
Budget of Paradoxes " is brought up and the Smithian
value maintained, for though this incontrovertible solu-
tion "may not be admitted by you or Clifford (alluding
to Prof. CHfford's paper ' On an unexplained contradiction
in Geometry,' read before the British Association), or any
such like mathematicians of the present age, I can afford
to bide my time and trust to posterity doing me justice."

This is the main portion of the pamphlet ; there is,
however, occasional sparring, both on the part of Geome-
tricus and of Mr. Smith, with the editor of (and some
writers in) the Mechanics' Magazine. In an appendix a
correspondent recommends J. S., "now poor De Morgan
(who made you look so rediculous [j/^]), has departed
from this life, there are still some great men left — Prof.
Sylvester. Try him. Smith ; if you convert that gentle-
man to your 3j, I will give in hmnbly." Similar advice
is given by the same writer in a second letter. The
whole book is provocative of much amusement, and is
quite of a piece with J. Smith's previous writings.

At the time of writing the previous remarks, we
were under the impression that the " Budget " had
exposed " Cyclometry and Circle Squaring in a Nut-
shell, by a member of the British Association for
the Advancement of Science." This we at once found
was not the case when the pamphlet was lent us by a
friend. As we have devoted sufficient attention to Mr.
Smith, we may shortly say that it is in octavo form, forty-
four pages, and contains letters written between 24th
October 1870 and January 1871 ; that is, immediately pre-
ceding the earliest dale in the work we have noticed
above. The correspondents are A. E. M. (is this the
E. M. of the " Budget " T) and S. B. J. This last is
another signature, we find, for the pertinacious Smith,
who has figured elsewhere as " Nauticus," and wherefore
not as " Geometricus " .? The " Budget," though it does
not discuss this brochure individually, has well demolished
it by anticipation.

The close of the work is of a prophetical cast. " It is
more than sixty years ago since an astronomer of recog-
nised authority — who repudiated the idea that I could
solve the problem of ' squaring the circle ' — said to me :
^ A bright day will have dawned on the astronomical
world if ever the exact ratio oj diameter to circumference
in a circle shall be discovered. The day will arrive when
it will be said : * In the nineteenth century of the Christian
era — that remarkable century of invention and discovery
— darkness still overshadowed the mathematical world.
Scientific truth is, and ever has been, a plant of slow
growth, but Magna est Veritas, &c.'" It is to be hoped
that the good man has not left his mantle behind, and
that " Geometricus " and he were really one and the same.

Mr. John Davey Hailes has a place in the " Budget"
(pp. 339, 340). He has not, so far as we know, touched
upon the squaring of the circle, but possibly he is ap-
proaching that as the termination of his labours. We

56o

iSTATURE

\Oct. 28, 1875

have before us five slips. The first addressed " To the
Scientific of University College, London, 1871. The
Curve a Progressing Wheel Curve. A wheel four feet dia-
meter with a nail in its rim : when traversing fo^-ward,
the nail will form a curve, and much longer than the
circumference 0/ the wheel. Query : How much longer?
and what must be the diameter of a circle-^^r a part
of the said circle to SHOW THE SAID CURVE 1 " And then
there follow two other geometrical questions, the one to
divide a trapezium into two equal
parts. On the back is pasted (all
in writing) : '" A Problem within a
Problem. History record {sic) Py-
thagoras discovered the demon-
stration of the three squares to sur-
round a Right Angle Triangle ;
the Two smallest when added to-
gether to equal the largest of twenty-
five square Feet. I ask to find
the Dimentions to demonstrate the
Three Triangles dotted out into proportionally ««equal
parts, that when added to each square they produce the
same result ; viz. Two to equal the largest Figure.
" N.B. — From the Figures 3, 4, and 5,
They can be wrought perfective."
Dated Oct. 2, 1871.

So far there is not much harm in J. D. H.
Another slip addressed, in ink, " To University College,
London," is a bit of Hailesian Astronomy, and is, " Astro-
nomy is Paradoxical." The N.B. is of interest in the
light of the recent Transit Expeditions. " Those Transit
of Venus measurers that try for the distance of the sun by
Paradox, are in error. Let them try to find the distan ce
by demonstration. I say it can be done." The back of
this page is devoted to " Astronomy and Longitude," and
opens with the following doggrel : —

Science the Lock of Bible Truth, all the Works Divine,
Magnetic Key, unlock the Truth, and give true Mean Time.
In the Time of Joshua the Sun stood over Gibeon, the Moon

over Azalon ;
It was at the Summer Solstice, 2548 frofu Adam, DISPROVE WHO

CAN?
The Sun began to go back on the Dial of Ahaz at 40/ past Noon.

This last line is in ink. We have then a rule to find
tiue longitude at sea by time, sun, and moon. The
speUing is a caution, and the calculation a fitting com-
panion. This is dated Oct. i6th, 1870 ; the former page
Oct. 6th, 1871. Our last document from Mr. Hailes was
sent to the British Association, 1868, and is entitled " My
Calculated Time of Christ's Crucifixion, A.D. 30," with a
number of dates : " And now I challenge all the astro-
nomers in the world justly to dispute my above-given
times for the above-given events." Verily, Mr. J. D. H.
believes wisdom will die with him. Stand down ! you
will not do much harm, Mr. Hailes.

Mr. W. Upton, B.A. (B. of P., pp. 256-258) brought out
in 1872 (E. and F. Spon), "The Circle Squared : Three
famous Problems of Antiquity geometrically solved — i.
The Quadrature or Circle Squared. 2. Diameter defi-
nitely expressed in terms of the circumference. 3. The
circumference equalised by a right line. The whole ren-
dered intelligible for arithmeticians as well as for geo-
meters, and ndapted for the higher classes in schools of
both sexes, \\ v ate students, collegians, &c." We think
the day is not very near at hand when this subject
will occupy the minds of schoolboys j the present genera-
tion have enough to do to secure time for the study of
the elements in the " Conflict of Studies " which is being
now waged. Mr. Upton, if now living, must be in his
83rd year, and can hardly be expected to write much
more on this subject. In his preface he acknowledges to
previous failure with respect to the trisection, " but has it
now complete." (De Morgan demolished his former
essays ; one we have seen appears to depend upon a

construction familiar to practical geometers. The neatest
of practical methods we believe to be that hit upon by
J. J. Sylvester, F.R.S., recently referred to in the columns
of Nature.) His aim (in the quadrature) has been at
practical utility, not rigidly subject to all the extreme
niceties of mathematical strictness. The more general
treatment he has not gone into on account of the expense
(he has not apparently the purse of a James Smith or a
"Kuklos") He pledges himself to the satisfactory fulfil-
ment of all that the following advertisement sets forth : —
" I. The full development of the Quadrature, analytically
and s) nthetically, in its threefold aspect — arithmetical,
geometrical, and trigonometrical ; containing— 2. The so
greatly coveted and despaired of desideratum of equalis-
ing a circular segment by a rectihneal figure, which deter-
mines at once the complete solution of the Quadrature.
3. An appendix, with diagrams, &c." All this to be pub-
hshed on or before Jan. i, 1873, or much sooner if a
sufficiency of early subscription warrants it. This work
we have not seen ; we infer, then, that there were not
found eighty subscribers of sufficient faith in Mr. Upton's
word and sufficiently interested in the question to come
down with the requisite 3^. 6d. each. What an oppor-
tunity for a liberal-minded man ! A trifle of 14/. in the
one scale, and in the other a vexed question set at rest.
Nor is this all ; he could, too, satisfactorily account for
the real origin and inspired nature of mythology, but for
the present he confines himself to the more immediate
subject. " Certain Hebrew letters and Greek mythology,
nay, even Scripture itself, seem to bear distinct allusions to
matters touching upon the origin of the square and circle."
He winds up with a singular excursus upon the Hebrew 7
" distinctly representing the square and circle ; the level
line answering for base of the one and diameter of the
other ; the perpendicular for the adjoining side of the
square ; and the curve for a quadrant of the circle : each
with an appearance of string at the extremity to intimate
its being carried on to completion^' There is a " Supple-
ment " (diagram and five pages, free of charge), from
which an estimate of the value of the work may be got
on the author's own showing : " The precise difference is
therefore not equivalent to the impression of a pin's
point ; so that the author considers himself fully justified
in looking upon the two areas as arithmetically equal.
Moreover, in a geometrical solution, which is the real
object of the problem, it is evident that so invisible a
difference can have no possible effect."

Again, if he should be enabled to publish his proposed
treatise, he can " show by three or four distinct but con-
current proofs that the circle itself not only admits of,
but — more surprising still — actually suggests the forma-
tion of a right-lined figure equal in area to the circular
segment belonging to each quadrant ! This is what may
indeed be esteemed as the true secret, the virtual key of
the Quadrature ; which the author will give to his readers
and apply for them in the annexed diagram. He would
have reserved the fact till he could have given it with the
several proofs complete. But, as the fact itself, and its
application to the diagram, ought to prove sufficient to
produce conviction as to the truth of his assertion, he will
proceed to apply it without further preface." We gather
from his remarks that they turn upon the lengthening of
a line by a point from a pencil which can make no per-
ceptible difference in the geometrical construction. It
seems only necessary to make this statement, and leave
our mathematical readers to draw their own conclusions
therefrom. {To be continued.)

INTERNATIONAL METEOROLOGY*
T T may be truly said that all the large questions which
■*■ fall within the province of meteorology can only be
adequately discussed by data collected in accordance

* Report of the Permanent Committee of the First International Congress
at Vienna, for the year 1874. Printed by authority of the Meteorological
Committee. (London : Stanford, 1875.)

Oct. 28, 1875]

NATURE

561

with some well-devised scheme of international observa-
tion. What is required is the means of giving an accu-
rate general representation of atmospheric pressure, tem-
perature, humidity and aqueous precipitation, together
with the movements of the air as indicated by the direc-
tion and force of the wind, and of the phenomena more
immediately connected with these movements. Of these
last, the more important are clouds, their species and
motions, and electrical and auroral manifestations.

These large inquiries naturally fall into two groups.
The first group is concerned almost exclusively with the
great movements of the atmosphere, and it is the adequate
investigation of these inquiries which is aimed at by the
United States Government in their great scheme of ob-
servations made at the same physical instant over the
whole globe. This scheme may be called cos?nopolitaii.

The second scheme may, in contradistinction to the
above, be called iiiternational. It includes those inquiries
which deal with the large and vitally important subject of
comparative climatology, or a comparison of the climates
of different countries and regions, and of their meteorology
generally, inclusive of the great movements of the atmo-
sphere over a restricted portion of the globe, such as the
United States, the North Atlantic, or Europe. It is alto-
gether essential to the discussion of those inquiries which
fall under this head that the observations be made at the
same local time and with instruments so constructed and
placed as totgive results strictly comparable with each
other. It is evident'that the exposure of the thermometers,
including their immediate surroundings and height above
the ground, must be uniform in all countries ; otherwise
the observations, being incomparable, cannot be used in
questions of international meteorology.

Of the recurring meteorological phenomena which
first and most imperatively require to be dealt with inter-
nationally, both from their importance in atmospheric
physics and from their intimate bearings on animal and
vegetable life, are the daily changes which take place in
the temperature, humidity, pressure, and movements of
the atmosphere from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m. With observations
at these hours, together with the daily maxima and
minima of temperatures from a network of stations well
spread over Europe, we should be put in a position of
being able to inquire, with some hope of success, into the
influence exerted on meteorological phenomena by differ-
ent latitudes and elevations ; by the^Baltic, Caspian, BJack,
Mediterranean, and Adriatic Seas, the English Channel,
and the Atlantic ; and by the Swiss Alps, the mountain
ranges of Great Britain and Norway, the scattered hills
of Ireland, the elevated plateaux of Spain, and the exten-
sive flats of Germany and Russia, We entirely concur
with Prof. Plantamour in thinking that during recent
years the study of the movements of the atmosphere has
been too exclusively directed with a view to the applica-
tion of the results to the prediction of storms on the
coasts and to the system of storm-warnings, and that
other points of view have been completely abandoned
(Report, p. 58). It is right, however, to add that this
neglect may be excused on the ground that, as there is an
entire want of uniformity in the hours and modes of ob-
serving in the systems of meteorology as pursued in the
different countries of Europe, the data for the investiga-
tions of nearly all the important questions of international
meteorology do not exist.

It was a widespread feeling of a requirement of uni-
formity of procedure in the prosecution of meteorological
researches in different countries which led many to look
to the Congresses of Leipsig and Vienna as likely to
secure this result ; and it is a matter of regret that at
these meetings nothing was done to bring about uni-
formity in the hours and modes of observing. Doubtless
the question of international observations was under dis-
cussion at Vienna, but the feeling of the delegates regard-
ing it, as indicated by the state of the vote and the large

number who abstained altogether from voting, was such
that the only resolution arrived at was this, viz. : " That
the best form of publication for the stations selected for
international objects should be determined by the Per-
manent Committee, after consultation \nach Anfrage\ with
the directors of the central institutes." *

The matter accordingly came before the Permanent
Committee at their meeting at Utrecht in September 1874,
and after numerous explanations and a long discussion
they unanimously resolved on a form for the publication
of observations made for international objects (p. 7).
This resolution is now being carried out by several of the
countries represented at the Vienna Congress.

With reference to this resolution, however, it is to be
remarked that (i) no provision was made by it for the
observations being made at the same hours of the day ;
and as a matter of fact, the observations in the British
Isles in connection with the scheme are 9 A.M. and 9 p.m. ;
in Russia, 7 a.m., i p.m., and 9 p.m. ; in Norway, 8 A.M.,
2 p.m., and 8 p.m. ; in Italy, 9 A.M., 3 p.m., and 9 P.M. ;
in Austria, variously, and so on.

(2) No provision was made for securing uniformity as
regards the vital question of the exposure and position of
the thermometers, without which comparability is im-
possible.

(3) The forms adopted, both for the daily observations
(p. 10) and for the monthly results (pp. 47-50) are in
several respects defective, inasmuch as they do not in-
clude some of the more important data required in inter-
national inquiries.

The result will only be the printing of various sets of
observations styled international, but which are not inter-
national—being, in truth, taken at their very best, merely
national. By observations so made, no international
question of meteorology can be satisfactorily discussed,
and many international questions of the first importance,
both practical and scientific, cannot even be attempted to
be discussed.

When the subject was before the Vienna Congress,
Plantamour urged the necessity of drawing a distinction
between observations referring to the special study of the
climate of each country, and those which are intended to
indicate the simultaneous condition of the atmosphere
over the whole surface of the earth (Report of Vienna
Congress, p. 35). Until this be done, or until some such
scheme as we have here indicated has been considered
and agreed upon, it would be a mistake in meteorologists
co-operating in carrying out a scheme which, while called
international, completely fails to furnish the data required
for international inquiries.

The only wise course the Permanent Committee can
take at their next meeting is to rescind this resolution, as
they have already virtually rescinded (p. 8) the resolution
regarding rain-gauges all but unanimously passed at
Vienna ; and after consideration of the whole question to
make provision that the instructions given them by the
Vienna Congress with regard to this matter be carried
out, viz., that no resolution be come to till after they have
consulted the directors of the central institutes of the dif-
ferent countries ; by which means they will furthermore
be put in a position to propose a scheme which has been
well matured, and therefore of such a character as will
enlist in its behalf the general co-operation of meteoro-
logists.

NOTES

We can only this week join in the universal expression of
regret at the death of Sir Charles Wheatstone, which took place
at Paris on the 19th inst., at the age of seventy-three years.
Indamniation of the chest was, we beUeve, the immediate cause
of the sad result. The Paris Academy showed the greates

* Protocol of the Ninth Meeting of the Congress.

562

NATURE

[Oct. 28, 1875

interest in Sir Charles during his illness, and previous to the
removal of his body to London a religious service was held at
the Anglican chapel in the Rue d'Agueneau, at which a deputa-
tion from the Academy was present. MM. Dumas and Tresca
delivered addresses, which will be published in the Comptes
Rendus. Sir Charles was buried yesterday in his family burial-
place at Kensal Green. We shall give a memoir in an early
number.

The following changes are proposed to be made for the
ensuing session in the Council of the London Mathematical
Society : — Profs. Cayley and Sylvester, having served their term
of office, become ordinary members, and the Council recommend
that their places be filled up by Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S.,and
Mr. W. Spottiswoode, F.R.S. Dr. Henrici, F.R.S., and Mr.
H. Martyn Taylor are put in nomination to fill up the vacancies
caused by the withdrawal of Mr. R. B. Hayward and Mr.W. D.
Niven.

The anniversary meeting of the foundation of the French In-
stitute by the executive directors of the first French Republic was
celebrated as usual on the 25th of October. The president v.^as
M. Lefuel, a member of the Academy of Fine Arts : he was
assisted by delegates of the other academies. M. Lefuel had to
perform the duty of awarding the great biennial prize (see vol.
xii. p. 526) for 1875 to M. Paul Bert, member of the "Versailles
Assembly and a Professor of Physiology at the Sorbonne, for his
discoveries relating to the part played by oxygen in the act
of respiration. Although the report was presented to the
Academy of Sciences at a secret sitting, it is expected that it
will be published shortly, as the noblest part of the award is not
the gift of a handsome sum of money, but the reasons why the
prize had been adjudged to the candidate. After this the report
for the prize established by the celebrated Volney was read at
full length, and three lectures were delivered. The last one was
by M. Mouchez, the new member of the Academy of Sciences,
on the Venus Transit Expedition to St. Paul. The brave captain
read it in plain sailor-like fashion and with much humour, and
met with a most favourable reception.

The Congress of Meteorologists, which was to have been held
at Poitiers at the end of October, has been postponed for a
month, and will be held on the 19th, 20th, and 21st Nov. next.
It is to be styled the " Meteorological Congress of Western
Oceanic France." All the departments situated within the
space bounded by the Dordogne, the Atlantic, the Loire, and
the central mountains of France, together with the Council of
the Observatory of Paris, will be represented on the occasion.
Among the representatives who will be present are MM.
Belgrand, Renou, de Touchimbert, de Tastes, de la Gournerie,
Lespiault, Raulin, and Leverrier, who will preside. Delegates
from the departments of the regions adjoining' are invited to be
present to assist in laying the basis of a common understanding
among the different regions in matters referring to meteorology.

A Reuter's telegram, dated Rome, October 23, states that
Mr. J. Norman Lockyer and Major Testing had arrived there,
deputed by the British Government to propose to the Italian
Government to send to the Exhibition at South Kensington in
1876 a collection of the instruments used by Italian professors in
recent important astronomical observations.

Prof. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., who left early in June for
Australia, has returned to England via the Rocky Mountains
Railroad and New York. The duties of the Geological chair
at Owens College have been taken during his absence by Mr.
C. E. De Ranee, F.G.S., of the Geological Survey of England
and Wales.

The Commission on Vivisection have been meeting con-
stantly during the past and present weeks, and have examined a
considerable number of witnesses. 1

It is announced that the preliminary works for the Channel
Tunnel are to be commenced this week near Calais. A shaft
will be sunk to a depth of 100 metres.

As zoologists are not likely to look in the Transactions of the
Society of Biblical Archaeology for anything concerning their own
studies, especially in a paper entitled " The Tablet of Antefaa
II.," it may be as well to mention that this paper, by the learned
president of the society. Dr. S. Birch, of the British Museum, in
the last issued number of the Transactions (vol. iv. part i.), con-
tains an interesting account, with numerous illustration?, of the
different breeds of domestic dogs kept by the ancient Egyptians.
It would appear from the drawings preserved on the walls of the
tombs, that the variations of this animal in those early days were
quite as well marked] as those that may be seen at a modern
dog- show.

The Geographical Society of Paris held its first semi-monthly
meeting of session 1875-1876 on the 20th of October; more
than 190 members were present. The chair was filled by M.
Delesse, the president of the central section. The coi-respondence
was unusually long and interesting, and it is evident that 'geo-
graphical studies are advancing in France.

An expedition under M. Largeau has been fitted out by the
French Chambers of Commerce and private subscriptions to
proceed to Rhadames from Algiers, and open communications
with Soudan and Timbuctoo. The expedition is already on
its way. A French paper, the Rappel, has sent a special corre-
spondent with M. Largeau ; this is perhaps the first time that
any French journal has taken such a step.

News has been received from the French Gaboon expedition
under MM. Marche and Brazzi. These two gentlemen had
arrived at St. Louis and selected a number of Laptots to accom-
pany them in their excursions. The expedition is to last several
years. A Government steamer was to conduct them from St.
Louis to Gaboon.

A French expedition is being fitted out to make a " Tour du
Monde " in ten months. The excursionists are to visit India,
Japan, the interior sea of Japan, Chinese ports, Au stralia, &c.
A special ^library, with instruments, will be placed on board.
The members of this expedition will be exclusively of the male sex.
The fare is to be 800/., everything included. The Geographical
Society will superintend the management of the enterprise,
although it will be supported by private funds and is altogether
a private speculation.

The Marquis de Compiegne, the African explorer, has ftle
for Cairo, where he has been appointed by the Khedive the
acting secretary of the newly- established Khedival Geographi-
cal Society.

The Ti7nes special correspondent at Suez, under date Oct. 26,
telegraphs as follows with regard to African exploring expedi-
tions : — "Despatches of the 14th and 20th of August, received
yesterday, report that Lieut. Gordon was in Appudo with the
steamer. The Kabba Regga people were intriguing. Linant
saw Stanley, who had traversed Lake Victoria from south to
north alone, at M'tesas. Cameron was at Tanganyika for eight
months, trying to go the .western route between Uganda and
Zanzibar, which was interrupted by the Karaque tribe two
degrees south. Subsequent despatches report the death of
Linant in a fight with the Kabba Regga people. Lake Victoria
is very large, and full of isles. "

We announced some time ago that the Italian Geographical
Society was organising an expedition for African exploration.
The Society has already raised 70,000 lire, which it expects its
honorary president, Prince Humbert, to raise to 100,000 lire
(4,000/.) The Times Milan correspondent sends additional

Oct. 28, 1875J

NATURE

563

details. The Italian expedition is to be divided into two sec-
tions ; one is to set out from the Gulf of Aden for Tajurra, or
Berbera, or some other port on the eastern coast of Africa, pro-
ceed to Shoa, and thence to Kaffa ; and from this great slave
market it would make its way through an unexplored region to
the central lakes, studying the hydrographic course of the eastern
Nile. The other party would take its start from Khartoum, and,
exploring the region lying between Monboottoo and the Victoria
Nyanza, push on, if it be practicable, as far as the great valley
of Lualaba, discovered by Livingstone. The first-mentioned
section of the expedition will be commanded by the Marquis
Antinori, one of the vice-presidents of the Geographical Society,
a distinguished ornithologist, who has spent several years in
Central Africa, and whose travels in that region have won him a
widespread reputation. He is now about seventy years old.
The other section will be under the guidance of Ademoli, also
familiar with the districts he proposes to explore, a young, brave,
and strong man, known for his enthusiasm in the work of disco-
very, to which he has devoted himself.

Further correspondence from members of the English Arctic
Expedition confirms the news brought home by the Pandora
that an unusually easy passage had been made to within 100
miles of the entrance to Smith Sound, and it is even expected
ikat if circumstances continue equally favourable the pole may
be reached this year. The expedition is not expected home,
however, till the end of 1877. On July 23, the Alert met with
the first accident ; she went on shore on a small island off
Kingitok, but was floated off without injury as the tide rose.

Last week we gave an abstract of Lieut. Weyprecht's paper
on the principles which ought to guide Arctic exploration.
Now it is stated that the Scientific Commission appointed by
the German Government has reported, we believe in conse-
quence of this paper, against the expediency of a fresh Polar
Expedition, but has recommended the establishment of stations
of observation in both hemispheres.

A PAPER of considerable interest, by Dr. Daniel Wilson,
has been reprinted from the Canadian Joiirnal. Its title
is " Hybridity and Absorption' in relation to the Red Indian
Race." Dr. "Wilson, while of course admitting the patent
fact that the American Indians, like most other barbarous
races, have largely melted away before the white races,
thinks that in accounting for this too much stress has
been laid on mere extermination. He adduces data to prove
that a very considerable proportion of red blood has been
absorbed into the whites of North America, and that especially
in the Canadian Dominion this shows itself in the physiognomy
of all classes. It would be difficult, he believes, to find either
in the United States or in Canada many Indians of pure breed.
In Canada half-breeds are the almost universal representatives of
the lormer Indian tribes, and many of them are settling down to
a steady civilised life. In short. Dr. Wilson has what appears
to us a well-founded belief that the aborigines of North America
are being gradually absorbed into the dominant race, and that in
course of time they will have become as integral a part of the
population as any one of the elements which may be traced in
the population of Europe, and that their physical and mental
characteristics will tell upon the American character — just as
Melanochroic attributes have left marked traces on the intrusive
Xanthochroic European peoples. Fortunately the evidence gives
good ground for believing that this influence is decidedly good,
physically and intellectually. The characteristic " Brother Jona-
than " face, which is generally attributed to influences of climate,
soil, food, &c., Dr. Wilson is inclined to attribute to a decided
admixture of Indian blood ; probably both causes have had to
do with it. Dr. Wilson rightly advocates the most judicious and

humane treatment of the Indians both by the U.S. and Canadian
Governments.

The opening lecture of this session's Manchester Science
Lectures for the People, the charge for admission to which is
only one penny, was given on Tuesday last by Capt. Davis on
" Arctic Discoveries." The other '.lectures are as follows :— Prof.
Rucker on "Soap Bubbles;" R. Bowdler Sharpe, F.L.S., on
"The Birds of the Globe ; " Prof. J. Martin Duncan, F.R.S., on
"The Great Extinct Quadrupeds ; " Prof. Thorpe, F.R.S.E,,
on " Cavendish and his Discoveries ;" Prof. Ferrier, F.R.S., on
"The Functions of the Brains;" Prof. Henry E. Armstrong,
on "Food ; " William Pengelly, F.R.S., on " The Age of the
Men of Kent's Cave." Part IL

A CIRCULAR, signed by Mr. W. Melton, who is judicial
assessor on the Gold Coast, was issued last month by order of
the Governor, " To the native kings, chiefs, captains, headmen,
and principal men of the Gold Coast Colony," pointing out that
"it is most desirable that the Gold Coast Colony should be well
represented at the forthcoming International Exhibition at Phila-
delphia," and asking them to give all assistance in their power in
sending contributions and collecting articles illustrative of the
countries and districts over which they preside. Mr. Melton
has issued a classified schedule of articles suitable for exhibi-
tion. Department I. Materials in their unwrought condition,
mineral, vegetable, and animal. II. Materials and manufac-
tures, the result of extractive or combining processes. HI.
Textile and felted fabrics, apparel, costumes, and ornaments for
the person. IV. Furniture and manufactures of general use in
construction and dwellings. V. Tools, implements, machines,
and processes. VI. Boats and sailing vessels. VII. Appa-
ratus and methods for the increase and diffusion of knowledge.
VHI. (Not represented). IX. Plaster and graphic arts. As
the arrangements are, we are told, in vigorous hands, and it is
announced to the "native kings, chiefs," &c., that they may be
reimbursed for any outlay they make, it is expected the collec-
tion from this colony will be extensive and interesting. In con-
nection with this, Schweinfurth's "Artes Africans," just pub-
lished, is of interest : we shall give an early notice of this
work.

In reference to a recent note, p. 461, we are glad to see that
at the Brighton meeting of the Social Science Association a reso-
lution was passed requesting the Council to communicate with
the authorities of the Science and Art Department of the Privy
Council, suggesting the desirableness of making "Foods, their
uses and preparation," the subject of examination.

It seems that a good deal of the tobacco used in the manu-
facture of the so-called Havana cigars in Germany comes from
Colombia, principally from Jiron, Ambalema, and Palmira, and
that its quality is not of the first mark. Tobacco is also
cultivated in the State of Bolivar, and is exported for a
similar use.

Mr. Amos Sawyer contributes a short though interesting
article to the Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis
on the cause of climatic change in Illinois. Daring the last
twenty years, he says, the climate has been slowly, but surely,
changing from wet to dry ; and although this change has been
beneficial from a sanitary point of view, agriculturally considered
it has been, and will hereafter prove to be, a great obstacle to the
successful cultivation of the soil. The most important agent, in
Mr. Sawyer's opinion, is what he calls the aqueous agent. The
chemical and mechanical effects of this agency are constantly at
work, and the result is plainly visible in the deepening of the
channel of all the small streams. At the present time all the
prairie land is in cultivation, or used as pasture ; the ponds and
small lakes have become so fiHed up that they contain less than

564

NATURE

\Oct. 28, 1875

half the former amount of water ; the stock now consumes the
reeds and marsh-grass, exposi'.ig the water to the direct rays of
the sun, thereby promoting evaporation, so that by midsummer
even the mud in their basins has dried to a hard crust, and a
change in the temperature during the heated term brings, as a
rule, a cool, dry atmosphere instead of rain, as in former years.
Mr. Sawyer goes on to describe the large increase in the con-
sumption of water by domestic animals. In this State at the
present time there are at least "three million horses, cattle, and
mules, and five million hogs and sheep, and they will consume
not less than seventy million gallons of water every twenty-four
hours— quite a lake of itself." This, surely, must be a misprint,
or American animals are very thirsty beings !

A CORRESPONDENT of . the Aberyshvith Obso-ver, the Rev.
James Lewis, of Llanilar Vicarage, writes as follows to that
journal : — " Whilst returning from service at the parish church of
Rhostie, about 8.15 p.m. on Friday, the 24th ult., in company
with two members of the congregation, my attention was called
to a remarkably strange phenomenon. In walking across a field
on the farm of Cwmclyd, it was noticed that our footsteps were
marked by a peculiar light, which could be traced back for
several yards, each footprint being as distinctly marked on the
ground as when one walks in snow. When we got into the
adjoining field the light disappeared until we came near to the
end of it, when it was observed that our footsteps were again
marked by the; same luminous appearance. In colour the light
was similar Jo that of phosphorus rubbed on a wall in a dark
room, or a mass of glow-worms, of which insect, however, there
was no trace on the surrounding ground."

In the Bulletin International of the Paris Observatory for the
2ist inst. appears an interesting note by M. de Lagrene on the
thunderstorms which have occurred in the department of Haute-
Marne during the seven years ending 1874. In this department
the average annual number of thunderstorms is 87, of which 25
occur in July, 20 in May, and 14 in June. During the six
months from October to March inclusive the mean.'annual aggre-
gate is only six. The geographical position of Haute-Marne is
an important one as regards these electrical phenomena, about
which so very little is yet known, and this Departmental Meteo-
rological Commission is doing good service in contributing its
share in the work of collecting data on the origination, intensity,
and rate of propagation of thunderstorms, and the manner in
which they are influenced by the winds prevailing at the time, by
the contour of the ground, and by forests.

We have received the first number of the Iowa Weather
Review, September 1875 (PP- 20), which has just been started
by Dr. Gustavus Hinrichs, from which we learn that the system
of rain ob:,ervations set on foot by him, as explained in a recent
notice in Nature, is only the beginning of a more complete
system by which it is hoped that the whole meteorology of this
important State will be adequately and systematically observed
and turned to practical account in the interests of the people.
There is an idea shadowed out in the prospectus by which, if
gone into and developed, the United States will be divided into
meteorological districts or regions similar to what is now being
done in France, and which is really the only means by which
many highly important questions can be properly investigated.
Dr. Hinrichs gives the monthly rainfall for the months of past
years' observations, as well as the monthly means, at six places
in the State, and sends a carefully compiled monthly report of
his own observations made at the laboratory of the Iowa State
University at Iowa City, the amounts and averages of each
month being compared with the results of previous years'
observations.

The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the
past week include a Binturong (Arctictis binturong) from Malacca,

presented by Captain A. R. Ord ; a Wood Owl {Syrnium aluco),
European, presented by Mr. F. Brannd ; a Missel Thrush
{Turdus viscivortts), European, presented by Mrs. Watson; a
Grey Wagtail {Motacilla boarula), seven Picked Dog Fish
{Acanthias vulgaris), European, purchased ; a Cape Buffalo
(Bubalus caffer) born in the Gardens.

ON THE VARIATIONS OF THE ELECTRO-
MOTIVE FORCE OF A NEW FORM OF
LECLANCHt'S CELL

A NEW form of Leclanche's cell has been constructed by Dr.
-'"*■ Muirhead, and is supplied by Messrs. Warden, Muirhead,
and Clark.

In this form the carbon and black oxide of mangane-e are
packed in the outer case around a glazed porcelain jar perforated
with holes about one-eighth of an inch in diameter, the jar con-
taining a zinc plate bent into the form of a cylinder.

The advantages gained are that a much larger surface of zinc
is exposed and the perforations of the jar are in no danger of
being choked up by deposition of chloride of zinc.

The following results may be of some interest as showing how
the electromotive force of this cell varies when it works for a
considerable time through circuits of various resistances.

A circuit of known resistance was formed, through which the
battery worked, and two points in this circuit were attached to
the poles of a sawdust Daniell's cell, so as to form a branch cir-
cuit in which a galvanometer was included ; one of these two
points was then moved along the circuit until the galvanometer
showed that there was no current through the Daniell ; when
this is the case the E.M.F. of the battery is to that of the Daniell
in the same ratio as the resibtance of the whole circuit to that of
the part between the points of attachment of the Daniell.

A set of coils was used by which the resistance could be
adjusted to '05 ohm, and by adding one of these coils to the
common part of the circuit (so that the resistance of the whole
circuit did not remain quite constant) a very small change in
E.M.F. could be measured.

The current through the Daniell was always very small, and
as it passed sometimes in one direction and sometimes in the
other, the difference between the potentials of its poles must have
remained very nearly constant.

In the circuits of small resistance it became necessary to take
account of the internal resistance of the cell. This was found
(for these circuits) to be generally between '45 and -46 , it was
subject to slight variations between these limits, but rarely
exceeded them when the battery was worked for only two cr
three hours, although on leaving the battery circuited through
30 ohms for 20 hours it rose as high as '525. The lowest
rcbistance observed was '420 when working through 10 ohms.

The following tables give the E.M.F. ot the battery in terms
of the Daniell :—

When the cell had been circuited through 10 ohms for

2 min., the E.M.F. was i'320 ; for 3| min., I*3I4 ; for 5^ min.,
I '304; for 13 min., i"292; for 23 min., I '283; for 34 min.,
1-277. For ih. im., 1-266; for ih. 31m., 1*256 ; for ih. 56m.,
1*254; for 2h. Iim., 1-253.

When circuited through 20 ohms lor 2^ min. the E.M.F. was
I -3465 ; for 4 min., I -3420 ; for 54 min., 1-3385 ; for 13 min.,
I "3315; for 18 min., 1-3270; for 30 min., 1-3215 ; for 46 min.,
1*3155. For ih. im., i'3095; for ih. 22m., 1*3045; for ih.
31m., 1-3035.

When circuited through 30 ohms for \ min. the E. M. F. was
I -3702; for 2 min., 1-3608; for 3 min., 1-3585; for 4 min.,
I -3562 ; for 10 min., 1-3500 ; for 20 min., i -3446 ; for 26 min.,
1-3404; for 28 min., I -3391. For the next four minutes the
E.M.F. was very unsteady. For 32 min., 1-3411 ; for 33 min.,
I "3398 ; for 39 min., i -3364. For ih. 3m., i -3318 ; for lii. 14m.,
1*3292; for Ih. 28m., 1*3211 ; for 23h. 30m., 1-2810.

When circuited through 100 ohms for 7 min. the E.M.F. was
I -4415 ; for 10 min., 1-4417 ; for 20 min., 1-4423.

No further change was observed at the expiration of one hour.

When the cell (after being insulated for 21 hours) was circuited
through 3,200 ohms, after i min. the E.M.F. was 1-448; after

3 min., 1-450 ; after 18 min., 1*454; after 38 min., 1-459.
When the cell was short circuited through itself for two

minutes tne E.M.F. fell from 1-407 to 1-235. (These measure-
ments were taken with the cell working througlr 3,500 ohms.)

Oct. 28, 1875]

NATURE

565

On being circuited through 3,500 ^ohms for 23 min., the'E.M.F.
rose to I "383.

More observations were made than those here recorded,
readings being taken in some cases every minute, but the only
irregularity observed was that noticed when working through
30 ohms.

In these experiments we may notice that when the battery was
short circuited through 10 ohms, the E.M.F. after the first two
minutes fell 4 j per cent, in i ^ hours ; through 20 ohms it fell
3 per cent. ; and through 30 ohms, 2f per cent., in the same time.
But when circuited through 100 ohms and upwards, the E.M. F. in-
creased with the time,* the percentage increment increasing with
the resistance. Hence it appears not unlikely that there may be
some resistance through which the E.M.F. will remain absolutely
constant ; should this be found to be the case, and should this
resistance always remain the same, the battery will be very
valuable when required to work through such a circuit.

It may be remarked that, in accordance with the usual rule,
the E.M.F. of the battery increases with the external resistance.

The cell was insulated for a considerable time previously to
commencing each set of experiments. S. A. Saunder

Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge

OUR BOTANICAL COLUMN

Exotic Timber-trees in Mauritius. — Amongst useful
plants that have been introduced into countries distant from their
native habitats, the timber-trees are of some interest, inasmuch
as beyond the proof of their establishment in foreign climates
and soils, some lime is needed to prove what effects the change
may have on the quality of the timber itself, for on this alone
depends the value of the experiment in a commercial point of
view. It is, however, satisfactory to learn that some well-
known timber-trees that have been introduced into Mauritius
through the instrumentality of the Royal Gardens, Kew, are in
a flourishing state. Thus, the mahogany {Swieienia mahagoni),
one of the oldest and most valued of furniture woods, has made
a very rapid growth, forming, in three or four years after the
sowing of the seeds, trees about twenty feet in height, with
stems from three to six inches in diameter. In India, likewise,
the mahogany thrives well, and as a proof that the wood is
valuable, it may be stated that a tree blown down in the Cal-
cutta Botanic Gardens during the great cyclone realised over
1,000 rupees. Logwood {ILematoxylon camptachianum) is re-
ported also to grow well in Mauritius, and it moreover makes
excellent hedges, far superior, it is said, to hawthorn. It has
been quite naturalised on the hills and waste lands in the vicinity
of Port Louis, and annually produces large quantities of seeds.

Bamboo as a. Paper Material.— A good deal of attention
has of late years been directed to new materials for paper
making. Esparto has been one of the most successful of modern
discoveries, and now we are told that the supplies of that useful
Eubstance are decreasing and must in course of time fail alto-
gether. Where then shall we look for our future supplies is a
question that has agitated many minds, and which has been
answered frequently by re'erences to the numerous fibre-producing
plants of both ihe East and West Indies, Australia, <S;c. We know
that in India the fibrous barks of many trees, and notably that of
Daphne papyTactH, are used (or paper making ; while in China and
Japan, where paper is used (or a much greater variety of purposes
than it is in England, the barks of Broussoneiia papyri/era z.nd B.
Kavipferi axe. made into paper of every conceivable and indeed
inconceivable form ; for some specimens are so much like leather
that it takes a critical eye to detect it, and others are such good
imitations of crape and muslin that the same care is needed to de-
termine their true nature. That the Chinese and Japanese excel
in paper-making cannot be doubted, when we consider all their
manufactures, and more especially that fine quality of paper known
as India proof paper, which they make from young bamboos.
The bamboo as a paper material in this country is a comparatively
modern introduction ; indeed, we can hardly say that it has
actually become a commercial article, but there seems no reason
why the stems of the bamboo, which in tropical countries is one
of the commonest and fastest growing plants, should not be con-

* As the coils were arranged in boxes, and so could not be kept at a
uniform temperature, it was thought that this might be due to unequal heating.
It was touud, however, that the alteration in the ratio of the resistances due
to tliis cause was such as to cause the K.M.F. to appear to increase less
than it really did by about '005 per cent, in one hour, which would not
affect the results in the tables.

verted into half stuff ^x\A sent to England in almost any quantity.
To make this material better known has been the aim of Mr.
Thos. Routledge, in a little pamphlet of forty pages, which he
has just issued. Mr. Routledge is no doubt able to speak with
authority on the details of manipulation of paper stock in a
practical, if not in a scientific sense ; but it is not our in-
tention to follow him through the subject, but simply to
refer to some facts quoted by him as an illustration of the
suitability of bamboo as a paper- making material, and to en-
dorse to a certain extent some of those facts and suggestions.
Thus, with regard to supply, it is well known that in most
tropical countries bamboos of various species flourish to a con-
siderable extent and are to the people of immense value, furnish-
ing them with numerous articles of daily necessity ; then again
their growth is so rapid as to form a constant supply. With
regard to the rate of growth, we read that at Gehzireh, the
gardens of the Khedive of Egypt at Cairo, it has been known to
grow nine inches in one night. At Sion House, the Duke of
Northumberland's, stems of Bambusa gigantea have attained the
height of 60 feet in twelve weeks ; while at Kew, Bambusa vul-
garis is recorded as growing in favourable seasons at the rate of
eighteen inches per day ; and at Chatsworth the same species
has attained the height of 40 feet in forty days. For the purpose
of paper-making the stems should be cut down in a comparatively
young state, before they become too woody, and reduced to pulp
or hjdf stuff before being sent to this country.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

American yournal of Science and Arts, October. — This num-
ber contains the following two papers read at the Detroit meet-
ing of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
— Address of Dr. John Le Conte, the retiring president. — A
comparison between the Ohio and West Virginia sides of the
Alleghany coal-field, by E. B. Andrews. — There is also a reprint
from the Philosophical Magazine of Mr. Mallet's paper on the
temperature attainable by rock-crushing. — In an obituary notice
of Sir Charles Lyell, there is introduced an extract of a letter
from Dr. Mantell to Prof. Silliman, in 1841, describing how-
Mantell and Lyell first met. — The original articles in this num-
ber are : On the arithmetical relations between the atomic
weights, by M. D. C. Hodges. — A note by L. F. Pourtales record-
ing the corals found at the Galapagos Islands. — On instinct (?)
in hermit crabs, by Alexander Agassiz. This records how
young crabs reared without shells during their growth, " made
a rush " for them as soon as they were placed in the tank where
they were living. — On Southern New England during the melt-
ing of the great glacier, Part ii. We reserve our notice of this
till the paper is completed.

Geological Magazine, October. — The original articles are :
The Geology of Central Sumatra, by R. D, M. Verbeek (super-
intendent of the Geological Survey of Sumatra). TJiis is stated
to be the commencement of a series of articles on the sub-
ject, published with the authority and assistance of the Dutch-
Indian Government The oldest rocks in this part of Sumatra
are granites, granite-syenites, and syenites. Then follow sedi-
mentary rocks classed as of Carboniferous or Permian age.
"This oldest sedimentary formation of Sumatra can be divided
into two parts. The lower portion consists of clay-slates with
auriferous quartz-veins, marl-slates and siliceous schists ; the
upper part consists only of limestone, with some small beds of
schists, ' There are quartz porphyries and greenstones, the age
of which is not known, but they are probably older than the
tertiaries. The tertiaries themselves are divisible into five groups.
The trachytic rocks are younger than the tertiaries. Three
clearly drawn sections illustrate the paper, and a list of principal
papers on the geology of Sumatra is given. — On the origin of
Coums, by J. G. Goodchild. That many of these cauldron-like
hollows are due to the eddying of ice is the argument of Mr.
Goodchild. — Dr. Walter Fhght contimies his "History of Meteo-
rites."— Dr. Thomas Wright records the occurrence of the genus
Cotylederma in the middle lias of Dorsetshire,

Poggendorff's Annalen, No. 8. — This number commences
with an investigation by Karl Miiller as to the pitch of the
transversal vibrations of bars of gypsum, when these are saturated
with different droppable liquids. It appears that the Uquid does
not act as a weighting of the bar, but enters into imion with the
molecules of the substance, diminishing the co-efficient of elas-
ticity J and this is manifested in a fall of pitch, the fell having

566

NATURE

\Oct. 28, 1875

been greatest (in the cases studied) on imbibition with water, less
with oil, and least with alcohol. It is greater the higher the
specific gravity of the liquid. The change of pitch with alcohol
and with oil was more regular than with water, and the regu-
larity was almost perfect, if the changes of tone of the saturated
bars were compared with one another, and not with the dry
state. — Herren Kundt and Warburg continue the account of their
researches on friction and conduction of heat in rarefied gases.
Having experimented with air, hydrogen, and carbonic acid,
they here show that the coefficients of friction are independent of
pressure within the limits 750 mm. and I mm. mercury. With
rarefaction under i mm. they could not sufficiently remove the
vapour. — Dr. Oberbeck describes a method of determining the
conductivity of liquids for electricity. The principle is briefly
this : — Connect the ends of an induction spiral with a spark micro-
meter. Then, with a certain strength of inducing current, a
separation of the balls may be found, at which sparks con-
tinuously pass ; but on slightly increasing the interval they cease
to pass. Next, connect the two ends of the spiral also with an
uninterrupted branch line ; it will depend on the resistance of
this and the intensity of the inducing current, whether sparks
will pass between the balls. If the line is short and of metallic
wire, the spark current disappears, however near together the
balls may be brought ; but if it consist of thin tubes of badly
conducting liquids,, a small approximation of the balls will
reproduce the sparks. Thus the conductivity of liquids may be
compared.' — An improved construction of lightning conductors
for telegraph-wires is described by M. Schaack. The line-wire
and that of the telegraph-apparatus are connected respectively
with two binding screws on pieces of wood which form opposite
rims of a rectangular tin case containing water, and a loose coil
of German silver wire, covered with caoutchouc, connects the
binding screws through the water. The wire of the telegraph-
apparatus, after passing through the apparatus, returns to the case,
which is connected to earth. — There is also an account of M. Le
Cour's valuable proposal for employment of tuning-forks in elec-
tric telegraphy. — M. Schneebeli continues his researches on the
attraction and separation-time of electro-magnets, and takes occa-
sion to describe Hipp's chronograph as recently improved.—
Among the remaining papers may be noted one by M. Sauer,
describing some interesting experiments on the visibility of ultra-
violet rays, and another by M. Holz, on transformation of
electric currents of low tension into disruptive discharges of
higher tension.

Der Naturforscher, September. — This number contains some
interesting observations made at hot springs in Italy, by M.
Hoppe Seyler, on the upper temperature-limit of life. At Ischia,
on Monte Tabor, he found green algas on the widening sides of
a fissure through which rose hot steam, and the thermometer
showed 64° 7 C. This was higher than in the case of algse
growing in water ; at Lipari, the limit of temperature for such
seemed to be about 53°, — In a lecture by M. Brefeld (given in
outline), on the biology of yeast cells, the author describes the
process of fructification, which is asexual, and tells how all his
attempts to produce it with cultivated yeast were in vain ; with
the natural yeast used in fermenting wine he always succeeded.
— The peculiar condition of vegetation on the sides of lakes, and
banks of rivers, owing to reflection of light and heat from the
water, and constancy of temperature of the latter, is illustrated
by Dr. Hoffmann from a number of phgenological phenomena on
Lake Maggiore, the lakes of Geneva, Zurich, and other locali-
ties.— M. Felix Plateau investigates the process of digestion in
insects ; and M. Bohm records the gases resulting from fermen-
tation of dead marsh and water plants ; finding that these gases
sometimes consist of carbonic acid, nitrogen, and hydrogen,
sometimes of marsh gas with the first two. There is, he thinks,
a sort ot conflict between the two fermenting processes. — From
accounts of the aurora of Feb. 4, 1872, Donati is led to the striking
result that it was observed in different regions of the earth not
in the same physical moment, but everywhere at the same local
hour ; as is the case with celestial phenomena which do not
share in the earth's rotation. The aurora appeared first in the
extreme east of the southern hemisphere, in Eden and Mel-
bourne, and shortly after in China, whence it travelled over
Asia, Europe, and America. Donati attributes the phenomenon
to electro-magnetic currents from the sun. — There is also a paper
on the movements of Encke's comet, by Dr. von Asten ; and
among other subjects treated are : insular giant reptiles, diather-
mancy of moist air, beats of musical tones, and the formation of
meteorites and vulcanism.

Zeitschrift der Oesterreichische Gesellschaft fur Meteorologies
Sept. 15. — The first paper in this number, by Herr Luedicke,
of Gotha, gives an account of observations made by him on the
tidal action of the moon in its several phases on the atmosphere,
during a period of 100 revolutions, from Jan. 1867 to Feb. 1875.
The differences between the mean heights of the barometer in
the four quarters are small; the greatest difference, viz., that
between the second and last quarter, amounting only to '57 mm.
The various tables given by Herr Luedicke agree, however, in
pointing to the following conclusion :— That pressure diminishes
with the waxing and increases with the waning moon. Com-
paring the means of readings nearest perigee with tliose nearest
apogee, he finds (i) that pressure is less at perigee than at
apogee ; and (2) that pressure in apogee is less about the time
of the equinoxes, greater about the time of the solstices, than in
perigee. Lastly, taking the mean variations from the monthly
mean of all observations taken in apogee and in perigee, that
in perigee the excesses happen at the quadratures, the deficiencies
at the syzygies ; and inversely, in apogee the excesses happen
at the syzygies and the deficiencies at the quadratures. These
variations are rather large : for instance, in apogee at the first
quarter the deficiency is 3 '83, at the last 5-16 mm. It appears
from all his results that the effect of the moon upon the atmo-
sphere is exactly ' contrary to that produced upon the ocean,
pressure being lower when the moon is near than when it is far
from the earth. Tables of the varieties of weather in the four
quarters are given at the end of the paper. — In the "Kleinere
Mittheilungen " two articles appear on Mr. Blanford's observa-
tions in India.

Bulletin de VAcademie Royale des Sciences de Bel^ique, torn. xl.
No. 7. — In the "Classe des Science" are the following articles : —
A brief note by M. Emm. Liais, on the parallax of the sun. —
A note on Drosera rotundifolia, by M. Ed. Morren, to which is
a plate showing the structure of the different kinds of glands
and hairs. M. Morren describes the capture of two insects, and
especially draws attention to the way in which the glands curve
in "prehension," like an animal's tongue. — M. G. Dewalque
contributes a short article on lightning strokes. — M. E. Quetelet
records the dip of the needle at Brussels in 1875, determined on
two dates —

April 14, between 10.30 a.m. and 12.30 = 66° 56' '6
May 22 ,, II ,, 12 =66° 58'-8

The diminution is at the rate of 2\ min. per annum. The decli-
nation has been determined on three days as follows : —
June 9, between 11 a.m. and 12.30 = 17° 24'*4
„ 23 „ 10.30 „ 11.30 = 17' 25'-i
» „ „ 2 » 3 = 17° 26'-3
The decrease is 8j min. per annum. This last observation was
by M. Hooreman. — M. L. Saltel contributes two mathematical
papers.

The yournal de Physique for September commences with a
paper by M. Marey on the movements of liquid waves in elastic
tubes, a phenomenon exemplified in the circulation of the blood.
He applies his graphic method : passing an indiarubber tube
through a series of boxes in such a way that when it expands at
successive points, through passage of a wave, it presses upwards
the membrane of one of the well-known monometric capsules.
These successive movements are indicated, as usual, on a rotating
blackened cylinder. He explains the various phenomena of
positive, negative, secondary, and reflected waves, harmonic
vibrations, &c. — M. Govi follows with an account of some experi-
ments meant to prove that induced electricity of the first kind has
tension. A new instrument for determining, more especially,
the density of solids of which only small fragments are had, is
described by M.'Paquet. It is like a Baume areometer, consisting
of a pear-shaped air-vessel, weighted at the lower, narrow end
with a bulb of mercury, while a thin tube rises from the upper
part, surmounted by a short wider tube closed below, into which
the solid fragment is put, with water. Both tubes are graduated.
The density is ascertained after immersion of the instrument in
water. — A valuable paper by M. de Romilly treats of the con-
veyance of air by a jet of air or steam, issuing from one ajutage,
and entering another ; several varieties of ajutage having been
experimented with, and in different positions. He finds, inter
alia, there is an integral conservation of the quantity of motion,
with a conical receiver of 5 to 7 degrees, small section towards
the jet-ajutage, which is placed at an exterior distance, given by
the form of the jet, making a cone of about 15 degrees, the jet-
orifice occupying the summit, and the receiver-orifice the base.

Oct. 28, 1 875 J

NATURE

567

— M. Righi contributes a paper on an electroscope with very
sensitive dry piles ; its use in some experiments on electricity of
contact, and on the electromotive force of heat. The journal con-
cludes with a number oi abstracts from other serials.

Bulletin de la Scciele d^ Anthropolog'ie de Paris, 1875. — I"
fascicule 4'^'"', tome ix. ii« stirie, M. G. de Rialle, in considering
the present state of our knowledge in regard to the races in-
habiting Central Asia, invites travellers to turn their attention
to the study of the Herazehs, who occupy the most easterly
spurs of the chain of the Paropamisus, and who still preserve
many traces of the habits and traditions of the northern steppes,
from which they have probably been driven by Mongol invaders.
Little is known of these people, who are dreaded by the
Afghans for their bravery and ferocity, and who regard them-
selves as allied to the Calmuks of Cabul. In the course of the
discussion on M. de Rialle's paper, Madame C. Royer drew atten-
tion to the important service which travellers might render to the
sciences of Comparative Ethnology and Anthropology, if they
would make young children, in whom distinctions of race are
most prominently exhibited, the special objects of their observa-
tions. M. Topinard, in conclusion, called upon the members of
the Central Asiatic Expedition to discover whether any survivors
could still be traced of the fair-skinned people described by the
Chinese as inhabiting the western portion of the central plain of
Asia two or three centuries before our era, and as having green
eyes and red hair. Tchihatcheff asserts that he has met with
red-haired individuals among the nomad Turkomans of Asia
Minor, and Desmoulins believes that they are typical represen-
tatives of the primitive Turks. — In the same number of the
Bulletin we have a summary of the views entertained by M. A.
de Bertrand and others in regard to the definition and classifi-
cation of prehistoric eras. M. de Bertrand, in considering the
age of the Reindeer of Thurigen, suggests that we may refer the
period of the introduction of polished stone into Gaul to about
3,400 years before the Christian era, and that we may possibly
assume 3,000 years as the maximum of the duration of this age.
His attempted determination of these periods was strongly
opposed by MM. Leguay, Roujon, and others. — Several inte-
resting reports have been laid before the Paris Society, of
the numerous caves and grottoes which have been examined
in the course of 1874, by M. Louis Lartet, Lagarde, and
other members. The finds at Cumieres, near Verdun, hava
been especially rich, while the explorations made at the cemetery
of Curanda (Aisne) are valuable from the great variety of objects
intermingled with the human remains, but owing to the succes-
sive occupation of the ground by Gallic, Romano-Gallic, and
later populations, the results yield no certain evidence of the
antiquity of the earlier races, whose remains are interspersed
among those of definite and determinable historical character.
An examination of the remains in situ has, however, led M.
Millescamps to the important conclusion that flint instruments
were cut and used as recently as the Merovingian age in France.
— M. P. Broca has proposed to adopt the word " Stercometrie "
for that branch of craniometric science which treats of the deter-
mination of cranial capacities. In his paper M. Broca explains
the various methods which he has found best adapted for the
purpose. He considers that, of all the substances tried, bullet-
lead, although not perfectly free from sources of error, is tha
most reliable, the results yielded by repeated experiments vary-
ing not more than five cubic centimetres for the same skull. No
absolutely correct method has as yet been devised, and hence
we must content ourselves for the present with approximate
results.

Sttzungsherithte der Kgl. hohtn. Ges. dfr Wissenschaften in
Frag. — The publication of this Society comprises the whole of
1874, during which period some thirty important papers were
read in the Natural Science Department of the Society. We
notice the following :— On the independent representation of the
«th derivative of broken functions of a variable, by Prof,
Dr. Studnicka. — On the chemical composition of microsommite,
by Prof. Safarik. — On harmonic systems of points on rational
curves of the third and fourth order, by K. Zahradnik. — On the
discovery of diluvial animal remains in the Elbe Loess, near
Aussig, by Dr. Laube. — On some minerals from Kuchelbad, near
Prague, by Dr. Safarik. — On the different forms and the signi-
fication of the changes in generation of plants, by Dr. L.
Celakovsky. — Researches on the hyetography of Bohemia, by
Dr. Studnicka.— On the inflorescences of Borragineae, by Dr.
L. Celakovsky. — The solution of the problem of seat and
essence of attraction, by Dr. Studnicka.— On the laws regulating

incandescence of wires by electric currents, by Prof. A. von
Waltenhofen. — Contradiction of Stieda's criticism on the author's
work " On Hair," by Dr. J. Schobl.— On ahyrena skull, by Dr.
A. Fric— On the Myriopoda hitherto observed in Bohemia, by
"Prof. F. V. Rosicky. — On a new universal microscope, by Prof.
Zenger. — On a new photographic process to enlarge photographs
correctly and to any size, by the same. — On curves of the fourth
order, by Prof. E. Weyr.— On the travels of M. Emil Holub in
Southern Africa, by Prof. C. Koristka.— On a new mineral
mixture, named Parankerite, by Dr. Boricky. — On the theory of
Cardioids, by Dr. K. Zahradnik. — On the discovery of an
Ichthyomorphous Ceratodus Barrandei in the gas coal of the
Rakonitz deposit, by Dr. A. Fric— On the elements of a
mechanical theory of ocean currents, by Prof. G. Blazek. — On
the Cladocera-fauna of Bohemia, by B. HeUich. Preliminary
researches on the Annelida of Bohemia hitherto observed, by
F. Vejdovsky.— On the integration of differential equations of
the first order, by Dr. E. Weyr.— On the pseudoscorpiones-
fauna of Bohemia, by Prof. A. Stecker.— On the coal deposit of
Pilsen, by Prof. J. Krejci.— Report on the chalk deposits of
Perutz, in Bohemia, and their fossil remains, by the same. — On a
new simple method of determining tautozonal planes of crystals,
by the same.

The August number of the Bulletin de la Sociiti d'' Acclimata-
Hon de Paris contains a very instructive paper, by Dr. Vidal, on
the fauna and flora of Japan. The useful indigenous animals of
that country are not so numerous as the geographical position of
the islands would seem to indicate ; the principal are a small
species of ox, goats, rabbits, and wild boars. Imported animalsj
such as sheep and pigs, are rare, the former, indeed, not appear-
ing to thrive in the climate, although they exist in considerable
quantities on the opposite coasts of Northern China. A species
of small black bear, and monkeys, are prized by the natives as
articles of diet. Horses are abundant, though the ass and the
mule are unknown in the country. Birds, both useful and orna-
mental, are very numerous, the principal being several varieties
of duck and common " barndoor fowls," pheasants, and quails ;
wild geese are abundant, but the domestic variety and the turkey
are almost unknown. Of fish there is a plentiful supply, and
the fisheries form one of the most important industries of the
country. Salmon are very common and highly prized. — M. L.
Faton gives a summary of experiments with several kinds of
vegetables and useful and ornamental plants, which is valuable
as indicating the species which best repay the trouble of scientific
cultivation. — At the July meeting of the Society a letter was
read from M. C. Naudin, enclosing seeds of Cytistis proliferus
from the Canary Islands, a plant which is cultivated there fbr the
sake of its leaves, which are used as food for cattle. M. Naudin
suggests that it might be usefully cultivated in France, or at any
rate at the Cape of Good Hope, and in Austraha. — Another
plant {Reana luxurians), called in Guatemala Teosinte, and cul-
tivated there for the same purposes as the one above named, is
recommended by M. J. Rossignon.

Reale Istituto Lombardo di Scienzc t Lettere. Rendiconti, vol.
viii. fasc. xvi. The first portion of this number contains the fol-
lowing among other papers : — On the hydrological map of the
department of Senna e Mama, by M. Curioni. — On two benzol-
bisulphuric acids and their relations to other compounds, by
MM. Koerner and Monselise. — The second portion of these
Rendiconti contains reports by M. Carcano and M. Hajech, on
the work of the Institute during the year ; accounts of prize
awards, with reports of committees on the competitive memoirs ;
and an announcement of prizes to be competed for within the
next three years. Among the subjects of the latter we note the
following : — Actual mean longevity of man in Italy, compared
with other peoples ; What are the best antifermentatives and
antiseptics, disinfectants and deodorizers ? Indicate a good method
of cremation ; Respective merits of animal and human vaccina-
tion ; Embryogeny of silkworm ; History of the progress of the
anatomy and physiology of the brain, in the present century.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES

Manchester
Scientific Students' Association, Oct. 20. — Mr. John
Plant, F.G.S., in the chair.— Mr. Wm. Gee lectured on Poly.
trichuDi commune (the common Hair-moss), as a type of moss-
structure, commenting on the points of differentiation between
true mosses and cryptogams erroneously associated with them,
tracing the life-cycle, the ifinute anatomy of the organs, andithe

568

NATURE

[Oct. 28, 1875

function of mosses in nature and art. — The Chairman exhibited a
collection of Ammonites from the Kimmeridge Clay and from the
Tertiary Sand near Alexandria. — Mr. C. Robinson showed local
drift-shells ; and Mr. Gee a mmer's lamp-glass, tempered by the
new process to withstand change of temperature, although of the
usual thickness (J inch).

California
Academy of Sciences, Aug. 2. — Mr. H. Edwards, vice-
president, in the chair, — Mr. Lackington presented a paper on
some new Crustaceans of the Pacific coast. — Dr. Blake made
some remarks on a mineral which he had presented to the
Academy a few months ago under the name of Colomite. He
stated that a superficial analysis of the mineral had then led him
to believe that it was a potash mica, containing a very large
quantity of chromium. Since that time the mineral had been
analysed by Prof. Genth, of Philadelphia, who had discovered
that it contained a large quantity of vanadium, more than 20 per
cent. Under these circumstances he proposed to name the
mineral Roscoelite, as Prof. Roscoe, of Manchester, had so suc-
cessfully investigated the properties of vanadium. The mineral
occurs in a gold mine in the lower hills of the western slope of
the Sierra. It is associated with a small vein of quartz, but it is
principally in the mica that the gold is found, a few pounds of
the mineral (a miner's panful) often yielding as much as $240 in
gold. The occurrence of so large a quantity of a pentivalent
metalloid in a mica offers another and perhaps the most striking
anomaly presented by this class of minerals as regards their
chemical composition. Dr. Blake then alluded to some physio-
logical experiments he had performed to determine the molecular
relations of beryllium. Neither the specific heat of the metal
nor the vapour density of its chloride had been determined, and
chemists were undecided as to whether it was a bivalent or
quadrivalent element. Its physiological reactions, when intro-
duced directly into the blood of living animals, so closely
resembled those of alumina that there can be no doubt but that
it belongs to the same isomorphous group, and that it is a quad-
rivalent element. There is also a close relation between the
intensity of physiological action of this substance and its atomic
weight. "When compared with aluminum, as in a series of
experiments conducted expressly to determine this point, the
quantities of 86263, under the form of sulphate, required to kill
2,270 grammes of rabbit, when injected into the veins in divided
doses (three injections), were '059, '061, -050 ; the quantities of
AI2O3, introduced into the veins under the same conditions were
•021, "023, -022 ; and the smallest quantity required to kill,
when introduced in one injection, was, of AlgO^, "016, and of
BcgOg, '038, showing a marked increase in the physiological
action of these substances, with an increase in the atomic weights,
the atomic weight of Al being 27-4 and of Be, 14. This, the author
believes, is the first occasion on which physiological reactions have
been used to determine the chemical properties of a substance.
Should, however, the carbon compounds follow the same laws in
their physiological reactions as the inorganic elements, living
matter must offer a valuable reagent in investigating their
molecular properties. The interesting experiments of Messrs.
McKendrick and Dewar, published in the 23rd vol. of the Pro-
ceedings of the Royal Society, would indicate that such may be
the case, as these gentlemen found in experimenting with the
compounds ot the Chinolin and Pyridin groups, that the phy-
siological actions became stronger in going from the lower to the
higher members of the series. They also observed that in the
Pyridin group, when the base became doubled by condensation,
not only was the physiological action more intense, but its cha-
racter was completely altered, agreeing in these respects with the
salts of iron with which analogous changes take place, both in
the character and intensity of their physiological action, when
the molecule is doubled in the change from ferrous to ferric salts,
as the author has shown in the Journal of Anatomy and Phy-
siology, vol, iii, p, 24.

Paris
Academy of Sciences, Oct. 18.— M. Freniy in the
chair.— Admiral Paris presented the volume of the "Connais-
sance des Temps" for 1877. This publication, prepared by
M. Loery, is now double in size what it was twenty years ago,
and much improved. The following papers were read :— ISlew
problems relative to the conditions of equality of size of recti-
Imear segments on the tangents of geometrical curves of any
order and class, by M, Chasles.— Third note on the electric
conductivity of bodies moderately conducting, by M. Du Moncel.
in the polarisation currents obtained with silex of Herouville.

he found that the electrodes do not simply play the part of con-
ductor, but acquire a peculiar electric state, which they may
retain for days, and even under intense heat ; this state cannot
alone produce a current of polarisation ; the dielectric must have
undergone electrification under influence of the electrodes. But
once this has occurred, they may be separated for some time
without losing the power of giving a current when brought
together again. The phenomena are analogous to those ot
phosphorescence.— On the trepanation and evacuation of long
bones in cases of osteitis of neuralgic form, by M. Gosselin. —
Fall of a meteorite on 12th May, 1874, at Sersukow, in Russia,
by M. Daubree. It weighs ninety-eight kilogrammes, and is
of the oligosidere type.— On the carpellary theory according to
the IrideK (second part), by M. Trecul.--On the rotatory
power of quartz in the ultra violet spectrum, by M. Croullebois.
—On the laws which govern reactions with direct addition, by
M. y. Markovnikoff. — On a case of oxidation in the cold state, of
acetic acid in neutral or weakly alkaline liquids, in presence of
nitrates and phosphates of soda and potash, by M. Mehay. —
Process for artificial cooling of considerable masses of air by
contact with a cold liquid, by MM. Mignon and Rouart. In a
candle manufactory at Amsterdam, they use a cooled solution of
chloride of calcium, which descends on the uppermost of a series
of plates rotated with the axis of a cylinder between discs pro-
jected from the cylinder -wall, thus giving a continuous finely-
divided cascade. Through this passes 26,000 kilogrammes of
air in an hour, and a building of 3,051 cubic metres' capacity has
thus been kept, in September, rt 12° or 13° C— On the sexual
generation of the Vorticellians, by M. Balbiani.— M. Petit and
M. Godet presented notes on treatment of Phylloxera. — M.
Hugo, one on a transformation of the law of Bode, regarding
the distances of the planets. — M. Brachet, on an improvement
of Gramme's machine, a modification in the microscope, and a
process for rendering ordinary glass fluorescent.— M. Varssin-
Chardanne submitted several memoirs on aerial navigation. —
M. Marchand described his process of aerial navigation.— The
Secretary quoted from a work of M. Mouchot's in 1869, where
he refers to the ancient Roman method of utilising solar heat. —
The Secretary also noticed a second edition of " Preliminary
notions for a treatise on the construcdon of ports in the Mediter-
ranean," by M. Cialdi. — Magnetic map of France for 1875, by
M. Marie Davy. This note gives tables of declination and
annual variation for different districts. — Observations of the
Perseides, made on Aug. 10, 1875, at Spoix (Cote d'Or), by M.
Gruey. — On a chloride of silver pile composed of 3,240 elements,
by MM. Warren de la Rue and H. W. Miiller.— On a successful
case of trepanation for an osteitis of neuralgic form, in a flat
bone— the frontal— by M. Pingaud.— On the frequency of earth-
quakes relatively to the age of the moon, by M. Perrez. He
finds evidence that during the last century and a quarter, earth-
quakes have been more frequent at syzygies than at quadratures.
— M. Rivet transmitted a note from Martinique on earthquake
shocks there and the electric phenomena which preceded them
in telegraph wires.— M. Montucci presented a note on the hypo-
thesis of a terrestrial central fire, and M. Noirit one on an auto-
matic dredger.

CONTENTS pagk
Sixth Report of the Science Commission. By Rev. W. Tuck-
well 5.

Drew's "J uMMoo AND Kashmir (^iV/4///«,r^ra^zV«j) ceo

OuK Book Shelf :— / • . ■ 55"

Blake's " Zoology for Students " cr.

Letters to the Editor :—

"Instinct and Acquisition."— George J. Romanes 553

Curious Australian and. N. American Implement.— O.^T. Mason

{With Illustrations) ", ^ _ ^^^

Our Astronomical Column :— ■ • • • o:>

Double Stars, (i)/ Eridani c?.

(2) o. 2 387 • ; • • ^^*

The Minor Planets i ........ siS

'^'^'^^ J«-^'^^ the "Challenger." By Dr. George J. Allman,

F-RS jH-

Nordenskjold's Arctic Expedition .' r^^

Science in Germany i ...'.! 557

Among the Cyclometers and some other Paradoxer's \lVit'h

Illustration) j-g

International Meteokologv !!!''.'.'' 560

Notes ! ..'...' 561

On the Variations of the Electromotive Force of a New

Form of Leclanche's Cell By S. A. Saunder . . . . 564
Our Botanical Column :—

Exotic Timber-trees in Mauritius 565

Bamboo as a Paper Material , . . 565

cikntific Serials 565

OCIETIES AND ACADEMIBS '...'... St

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